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THE

ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY

DVESIGNED TO AFFORD INFORMATION CONCERNING THE
PLANTING AND CARE OF FOREST TREES

FOR ORNAMENT OR PROFIT

AND GIVING SUGGESTIONS UPON

THE CREATION AND CARE OF WOODLANDS

WITH THE VIEW OF SECURING THE GREATEST BENEFIT FOR
THE LONGEST TIME, PARTICULARLY ADAPTED TO THE
WANTS AND CONDITIONS OF THE UNITED STATES

BY
FRANKLIN B. HOUGH, Pu.D

Chief of Forestry Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Member of the American Philosophical Society, etc.

q4

CINCINNATI
ROBERT CLARKE & CO.
1882

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By ROBERT CLARKE & CO,

PREP ACH.

In preparing this work, the author has endeavored to
present, in a concise form, a general outline of the subject
of Forestry in its most ample relations, without attempting
to be exhaustive in any thing. Technical details have been
avoided as far as was thought possible; but in mentioning
the names of trees and other organic objects, the scientific as
well as the common names have generally both been used,
chiefly because the latter are often quite uncertain in their
application, while the former can never be mistaken when
rightly applied, and are alike in the scientific literature of
alllanguages. In noticing the various subjects embraced,
care has been taken to mention the economical uses and
commercial values that pertain to them, and in describing
different methods, a preference has been stated whenever
it was thought to lead to best results.

The engravings in this work are chiefly derived from
the following sources: Those occupying full pages, and
showing details of structure of some of the principal
species of Timber-trees, and the laws of development and
growth, are from “ Der Wald,” by E. A. Rossmassler, an
approved German author. The engravings showing de-
tails of wood structure, are chiefly from “Les Bois,” by
M. M. Dupont and Bouquet de la Grye, and some of the
illustrations of botanical species are from the “Guide du
Forestiér,” by the latter. The figures of insects, and their
ravages, are from ‘“‘ Les Ravageurs des Foréts,” by I. de
la Blanchére. Those of Charcoal Kilns, are from the

“Journal of the U. 8. Asso. Charcoal Iron Workers,” and

those of Charcoal Meilers, from the American edition of
Svedelius’ “‘ Handbook for Charcoal Burners.” <A few of

(ii

iv Preface.

the smaller illustrations of Botanical species are from an
English work, entitled ““Woodland Gleanings,” and those
showing defects in timber, in part from Laslett’s ‘“ Timber-
Trees.” Three or four are from Dupuis’ “Arbres d’ Orne-
ment” and his “Coniféres de Pleine Terre,” and the
sketches of western conifers and other species, are from .
Prof. J. 8. Newberry’s Report, embraced in Vol. VI, of
the “ Pacific Railroad Surveys.” The remainder are from
‘the author’s first Report upon Forestry, presented in 1877,
and published by order of Congress, except some small
sketches drawn for the present work.

Wherever the language of an author has been quoted,
the citations given will generally lead to more extended
information, and in the absence of references, it is believed
that the facts and principles here presented will generally
be found such as are supported by approved experience
and well established observation.

Although many special works upon planting, arbori-
culture, botanical descriptions, and other subjects relating
to particular departments of Forestry have been issued, at
various times, this is, so far as we know, the first attempt
to present, in our language, and in one volume, the sub-
ject of Forestry in the comprehensive sense that we have
defined it. It would have been much easier to do this in
a larger volume, and it was often found a difficult task to
condense into the space that could be allowed to the several
divisions of the subject, all that it was desirable to present
concerning it. We have endeavored to adapt this work
to the want of students in Forestry, whether in the class-
rooms of an institution, or engaged in practical labors;
and it has been our special aim to present information that
is applicable to our own country, and to those regions
where tree-planting is most needed, and often most diffi-
cult. If it is found to meet this intention, our object will
be attained.

Wasuineron, July 1, 1882.

“™

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

DEFINITIONS.

Forestry—Sylviculture—Arboriculture—Sciences involved—-Trees—A
Species—A Genus—A Natural Order—Names used in scientific de-
SCFIPCIONS. ....202..000csersecees divcnaave GeebiaverMaresrceces cadescuae onenetsgedd 1-4

CHAPTER II,

OF SOILS AND THEIR PREPARATION, EFFECTS OF SLOPE AND ASPECT.

Composition of Soils—Humus—Loam—How they affect the Growths of
Trees—Silecious, Caleareous, Argillaceous, and Alkaline Soils—Color
of Soils—How affected by underlying Rocks—Preparation for plant-
ing—Effect of Slope and Aspect—Degrees of Inclination...... . 410

CHAPTER III.

OF CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGICAL INFLUENCES.

Definition of Climate—The Atmosphere and its Elements—Oxygen—
Nitrogen—Carbonic Acid Gas—Aqueous Vapor—Absolute and rela-
tive Humidity—Effect of Heat and of Cold—Dew—Fogs and Clouds
—Rains—Effect of Woodlands—Evaporation— Percolation— Tem-
perature of Soils—Winds—<Agency of Water in Vegetation—Effects
of Frost—Injuries from Snow—The Timber-line—Decline of Fruit-
production—Ruin from clearing off of Forests—Probable Effects in
Western Territories...........0.sccccovcescesecese Ses so sweasnoonersasesor aces 10-28

CHAPTER IV.

REPRODUCTION FROM SEED.

’ The Blossom—Fertilization —Distribution of Tree-seeds—Dispersion by
. Winds, by Animals, by Water—Early-ripening Seeds—Gathering
and keeping of Seeds, Nuts and Acorns—Germination—Time of
sowing or planting—Vitalitv of Seeds............s00-00006 Sidesnacieh 28-36

; . (v)

vi Contents.

CHAPTER V.

OF THE VARIOUS MODES OF PROPAGATION OF FOREST TREES.

Seeds planted where the Trees are to grow—Methods employed—
Planting of Walnut and other Nut-Trees—Soaking of Seeds—Plant-
ing in Seed-beds and Nurseries—Spring and Fall planting—Propaga- —
tion from Cuttings, Layers, and other Methods—Grafting...... 37-46

CHAPTER VI.

PLANIING CONTINUED.
Intervals between Trees—Planting in Rows, in Squares, in Quincunx

Order—in Triangles—Number of Trees on given Areas—Necessity
of close planting—Planting of young Trees from the Forests—Plant-
ing on the Sod—Planting without disturbance of Roots—Transplant-
ing of large Trees—Disadvantage of planting of too large Size—
Planting of Rocky Surfaces—Of mulching—Of thinning—Trimming
and Pruning—Pollards— Removal of outer Bark—Arbor-days. 47-62

CHAPTER VII.

OF THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OF GROWING
TREES.

The Buds—The Leaves—The Wood and Bark—The growth of the

Trunk and Branches—Eccentric Forms of Growth—The Roots—The

pressure of Sap and its Changes—Autumnal Colors...........+. .. 63-79

CHAPTER VIII.

GENERAL VIEWS IN REGARD TO FORESTRY.

On the investment of Labor and Capital—Questions of Profit—The
due Proportion of Woodlands and cultivated Fields—Forest Areas
in Europe—Resemblances and Contrasts in Timber-Growth—General
Glance at Forest Resources of United States and Canada—New Eng-
land, Middle, Southern and Western States—Rocky Mountain Re-
gion—Pacific Coast—Canada—Great Britain—Alternations of Forest
Growth......... veeng es sjeedshshandubaenstnpad inant wave sjustaaseradurekeoks sooe 19-91

CHAPTER IX.

ACTS OF CONGRESS RELATING TO TIMBER-RIGHTS. —
Timber-culture Acts—Homestead Entry Act—Use of Timber by Rail-
road Companies—Privileges in certain States and T erritories—Sale
of Timber-lands.........0sse00 a techints seas iss0scasnmebetess pee ween 91-96

Contents. vii

: CHAPTER X.

EUROPEAN PLANS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT,

Method of Selection—Coppice-growth— Woodlands grown to full Ma-
turity—European Forest Administrations—Schools of Forestry—
Planting of Dunes—Reboisement—Checking of Torrents—Covering
denuded Slopes—Plantations in Scotland.....ccccecceeeeee veer 96-113

CHAPTER XI.
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

Pleasures and Benefits—H ome-adornment—Village-Improvement and
the planting of Waysides—City Parks-—-Rural Cemeteries—Grounds
‘around Public Institutions....... Relavaap. FhatAnhoiiecke owhaksnv shen «» 113-127

CHAPTER XII.

HEDGES, SCREENS AND SHELTER-BELTS,

Hedges and Screens—Shelter-belts— Planting along Railroads—Plant-
ing on Russian Steppes........ pevasuiannssovussapbalpsncstetnnseasiees ees 127-137

CHAPTER XIII.

CUTTING AND SEASONING OF WOOD. DEFECTS IN TIMBER,

Proper Time for Cutting—Seasoning of Woods—Shrinkage—Strength
of Wood with respect to Lines of Growth—Defects of Various
7 MINGS:.:cccseveceedes Poe e Tee eee sete eee eenee FURR REE REET RETR H RHEE RHEE eee . 137-144

CHAPTER XIV,

FUEL, CHARCOAL, WOOD-GAS,

Qualities desirable in Wood for Fuel—Charcoal—Table of Heating
Qualities of Wood, by Mr. Bull—Modes of making Charcoal—Meilers
or Coal-pits—Kilns—Red Chareoal—Distilled Products—Illuminat-
ing Wood-gas...... soba antcdeah -oneateee, sbae> pladhehauesesanase e-escsesseene 144-154

CHAPTER XV.

FOREST FIRES.
Their Causes—Prevention—Control........... Datssussiadiscvinsctese, LOS kOO

CHAPTER XVI.

PROTECTION FROM OTHER INJURIES THAN FIRES.

Pasturage of Woodlands—Injuries to Seeds and Seedlings by Wild
SIN ic si bennatvtbbadekucstanWebiins ance suSéddedadeidd landline secedneen 159-161

Vili Contents.

CHAPTER XVII.

INSECT RAVAGES IN WOODLANDS.

General Statements—Effect upon Wood-growth—Coleoptera—Orthop-
tera—I/ emiptera—Neuroptera—Lepidoptera — Hymenoptera -— Dip-
tera—Insects that attack the Oaks—Elms—Hickories—Black Wal-
“nuts —Butternuts—Chestnut—Locust— Maples—Cottonwoods— Pop-
lars—Lindens—Birches— Beech— W illows—Pines—Spruces— Firs—
TROHOCIES. 05 cst sonye sonitesnsuauasadnses coesuntedp sss) ehcndts e385) ontee tn

CHAPTER XVIII.
PROCESSES FOR INCREASING THE DURABILITY OF TIMBER, OR FOR IMPROVING
ITS QUALITY.

General Statements—Causes of Decay—Charring—Immersion in Water
—Penetration of Liquids, and of Solids in Solution—Oils—Crude
Petroleum—Salt—Incombustible Wood—Alum — Borax — Lime —

- Processes of Bethell—Boucherie—Burnett—Carey—Hatsfield—Kyan
‘Margary — Payne — Prescott — Robbins — Tait — Thilmany — Re-
CIPO. .¢..0008 sip. cups bau dedow sWenswhan cata suengs evan edephieasne ieee ike peas 187-199

CHAPTER XIX.

RESINOUS AND OTHER PRODUCTS OF CONIFERS.

Naval Stores—Turpentine—Spirits ot Turpentine—Rosin—Methods of
Resinage—Economy and Waste—French Methods with the Maritime
Pine—Tar—Pitch—Lamp-black—Canada Balsam—Essential Oils—
Perfume from Pine-sap........ Vnink sie a canes patae saan civessececsesodunae) LO OmaumD

CHAPTER XX.

USE OF WOOD IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER.

Mechanical Processes of Vélter, Hartmann, Siekricht, etc.—Chemical
Processes—Cultivation of Poplars for Paper Pulbp........ sveeeee 209-206

CHAPTER XXI.

TANNING MATERIALS,

Supplies from the Oak—Hemlocks, etc.—Tanning Extracts—-Manage-
ment of Oak-Coppices—Peeling by the Aid of Heat—Sumac. 206-210.

Pe Gee eer ee

ts Cont: nts. ix

CHAPTER XXII.

DESCRIPTION OF PARTICULAR SPECIES.

Oaks—Chestnuts—Beeches—Birches— A lders—Hornbeam— Maples —
Box-Elders—Lindens—E]ms—Osage-Urange—Mulberry— Hackberry
—Tulip-tree—Sycamores—Buckeyes—Soap-berry— Locusts— Coffee-
tree—Red-bud—A cacias—Y ellow-wood— Pears and Apples— Crab-
trees— Plums and Cherries—Thorn-trees—Service-berry—Eucaly ptus
—Eugenias— Cornel Family—Sour-Gum— Elders— E!ms— Butter-
bush—Silver-bell— Ashes—Olive— Lilac—Hickories— Black Walnut
Butternut—Poplars— Cotton woods — Willows —Ailanthus —Arbutus

_ —Manzinita—Paw-paws—Catalpas —Mountain Mahogany— Persim-
mon—Burning-Bush— Holly Family— Laurels—Sweet-Gum— Mag-
nolias—Pride-of-I ndia— Iron-woods— Sorrel-tree— Mesquits— Buck-
thorns — Sumacs — Sassafras — Buffalo-berry — Mahogany —Arrow-
TUE Tig snc U6eicancccoteteetisndiaiiakbkeipuvannes a wenapaperknee Kadinhe 210-299 -

CHAPTER XXIII.

THE CONIFERS,

General Statement and Definitions—Classification—Cypress Family—
Yews—Families not represented in U. 8S.—Pine Family—The Cy-
presses and White Cedars—The J unipers—Ked-Cedars—Bald-Cypress
—Sequoias—Giant-trees—Red wood — Yews — Torreyas — Ginkyo —
Pines—Spruces—Hemlocks—Douglas Fir—Firs—Larches... 299-345

CHAPTER XXIV.

TREE-PLANTING IN KANSAS AND NEBRASKA,

List of Species approved in Kansas, by Counties—Propagation by Cut-
tings and Native Seedlings—Distances between Trees—Effect of
Shelter-belts—Locust-trees in Central Kansas—Gathering and Pre-
serving Seeds—Preparation of the Ground—Tree-culture on the
PSI: a Sveurichcakevsah sedate tsigcaguyibs iavivsroensyes ieilestoast es teindee se’ 346-353

Recent Decision under Timber-culture Act..........cccccceccceseees : 354

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1

ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY.

CHAPTER I.
DEFINITIONS.

1. Forestry, in its most comprehensive sense, is that branch of
knowledge that treats of woodlands—their formation, mainte-
nance, and renewal, the influences that may affect their welfare ;
the methods employed in their management, the removal, prepara-
tion, and use of their products, and the economies that may be
gained by skillful operation.

2. Sylviculture' is that part of Forestry which relates to the plant-

__ ing and cultivation of groves and collective bodies of forest trees.

3. Arboriculture’ treats of the cultivation of trees. It is some-

f _ times limited to the cultivation of fruit-trees, but the term may

properly be extended to include the planting and care of trees gen-
erally, whether for fruit, ornament, or other use.

4. Forestry involves the application of many branches of science :

(a.) From natural history it derives the description and classifica-
tion of trees, and of the animal and vegetable life that affect their
welfare.

(b.) From geology and mineralogy, it learns the origin and com-
position of soils and sub-soils, and of the rock formations from
which they are derived, their constituent parts, their permeability,
and their fitness for the successful growth of particular kinds of
trees.

(c.) By the aid of chemistry it determines the elements of the
soil, the composition and changes that take place in the growth and
decay of wood, the methods that may be used for increasing its du-
rability or improving its quality, and the various operations con-
cerned in the production and use of its chemical products.

(d.) From mathematics it derives aid in all processes of measure-

(1) From sylva, “a grove.” (2) From arbor, “a tree,”
(1)

2 Definitions.

ment and calculation concerned in forest lands, materials, manage-
ment, working, or revenues.

(e.) From mechanics, it applies the various agencies employed in
cutting, transporting, and manufacture of wood and timber in every
form.

(f.). From physics and meteorology, it determines the various
questions of atmospheric influence and of climate that may arise,
whether as cause or effect, and seeks to learn how these may be im-
proved to best advantage, and, in some cases, controlled.

(g.) From political economy, it applies the principles that deter-
mine questions of supply and demand, of public policy, and of
financial profits, the interests that are involved, and their mutual
dependence, the laws of trade, as they concern forest products or
properties, and whatever principles may relate to their creation,
production, or management.

5. An intelligent system of Forestry aims to impart knowledge as
to the conditions best adapted to cultivation, the best methods of
securing a growth of trees by seeding or planting, the use of meas-
ures that shall secure their thrifty growths, protection from injuries,
natural renewal at period of full maturity or time for use, and a
constant tendency toward improvement of. the products.

6. A Tree, isa plant having a woody root, trunk, and branches.
We generally apply the term shrub to trees that are less than fifteen
feet in height at maturity, and the term bush to those that grow to
six feet in height or less. These terms are however arbitrary, in
their use, and can not be with certainty applied to any species.

7. Trees may increase from within, as in the case of palms, or by
the deposit of wood in annual layers under the bark. The former
have no bark proper, and are called Endogenous, a term signifying
‘‘erowing from within.” They are represented in the Southern
States by the palmetto (Sabal palmetto), and a few other species, but
on account of their slight relative importance as forest trees, they
will be no further noticed in this work. The latter are termed Ex-
ogenous, a term signifying ‘‘ growing from without,” and increase by
the deposit of new layers of wood on the outside, under the bark.
This great division includes, with the above exception, all of the na-
tive and naturalized trees of the United States.

8. A Species, when used in Forestry, is understood to mean a group
of trees or other plants, resembling in the details of their structure,

Definitions. 3

and producing the like forms of growth from their seeds. They are
subject to many variations, due to differences of soil, climate, and
other causes, and occasionally produce unusual forms in their leaves,
size and color of flowers, quality of fruit, or habits of growth, which
are called ‘‘ sports.” In other cases, hybrids will form by cross-fer-
tilization, the result being a tree that partakes of some of the char-
acteristics of both species. This is occasionally seen in the oaks and
the willows, but asa rule the species remain distinct. These devi-
ations from the normal type may be perpetuated by budding, graft-
ing, or layers, but when they bear fertile seeds, they do not produce
plants having like peculiarities, and tend to return to their original
forms.

9. A Genus, is usually a group of species having common resem-
blances in the structure of the flowers and fruit, and generally, in
their leaves and in the habit of growth, such as the pines, maples,
birches, ete. In some cases, however, a genus may include but one
species. They are sometimes divided into groups or sub-genera,
having some common resemblance, and occasionally these may be
further arranged into other groups, having common forms or prop-
erties. Where there are several species in a genus, they may be
generally grafted upon one another, but in other cases this can only
be done successfully within the group or sub-genus to which the
species belong.

10. A Natural Order, in botany, is a class of trees or plants that
usually embraces several genera, having a common resemblance ‘in
the structure of the seed and fruit and in manner of growth, differ-
ing from all others and constant within itself. These are again
sometimes divided into sub-orders, families, or groups, depending
upon a common resemblance, and instances occur in which a natural
order includes but a single genus. :

11. We have examples of natural orders in the Oonifere, embrac-
ing the pines, firs, spruces, cedars, junipers, etce., and in the Legum-
inose, or bean-like fruited plants, which include, among trees, the
locusts, honey-locusts, acacias, Kentucky coffee-tree, and many
others.

12. The description and classification of orders, genera, and
species among trees form a part of the province of botany, and will
not be attempted in this work. In mentioning the common names

+ Of Soils, ete—Humus.— Muck.

of trees, we shall generally give with them their scientific or botani-
cal names, as a means for more exact designation.

13. The common names are very uncertain, and may in one re-
gion be applied to species very unlike those where they are used in
unother. But the scientific names, rightly applied, are exactly un-
derstood in every language in which the sciences are taught, and —
can not be mistaken for any others. They are very generally de-
rived from Greek or Latin words, expressing some quality or char-
acter in the genus or species to which they are applied. The generic
name is more commonly derived from the Greek, and the specific
name from the Latin. The former always begins with a capital let-
ter—the latter only when it is derived from a proper noun. Where’
a number of species are mentioned in succession, the initial letter
only of the genus will be used after the first one, as Pinus strobus,
P. mitis, P. rigida, ete.

CHAPTER IL.

OF SOILS AND THEIR PREPARATION—EFFECTS OF SLOPE AND ASPECT.

14. The soil or loose material that generally covers the surface of
the earth to a greater or less depth, partakes in a large degree of
the chemical character of the rock formations from which it has_
been derived. These may be the subjacent rocks, or the material
may have been transported by former geological agencies, as in
‘« drift,” or deposited by those now inaction, as in alluvial mud,
or littoral sands,

15. Besides these mineral components, the soil generally contains
more or less organic material, derived from vegetation, or, to slight
extent, from animal life. In the native forests, this ‘‘ vegetable soil”
has been mostly created by the trees and herbage, from materials
taken up in solution by the roots from the soil, and absorbed by the
leaves from the air, and has gradually accumulated from the decay
of the leaves, or of the trees and plants. themselves.

16. This organic material is called humus, and its quality and
amount depends upon the kind and quantity that has been allowed
to decompose. It is sometimes known as ‘‘ vegetable mold,” and
has no definite chemical composition, but contains Humic acid
(C,,H,,0,), and various other organic compounds. When vege-
tation decays in moist places, as in swamps, it forms muck, and

or

Peat.—Loam.—Functions of the Roots.

in some situations peat. These vary considerably in composition,
and the latter contains so large an amount of carbon that it is used
profitably as a fuel. The former, when mixed with animal manures,
and the latter, when its acidity has been neutralized by lime or al-
kalies, become valuable as fertilizers. Both humus and peat ab-
sorb water with avidity, and retain it with tenacity. It is partly
on this account that vegetable mold, when mixed with other soils,
tends to impart fertility by retaining moisture within the reach of
vegetation. —

17. The term Loam is attached to a class of soils composed of
different earthy materials of dissimilar particles, not easily ductile,
readily diffused when thrown into water, and easily penetrated by
the roots of trees and other plants. A mixture of humus renders it
porous and fertile, and in a forest, this fertility tends constantly to
increase, and hence the growth of trees is one of the best means for
restoring exhausted soils.

18. The soil has an influence upon the growth of trees in two
ways: it gives them support, and it furnishes them with nourishment.
In order to give support, the soil should be permeable by the roots,
without being too tenacious to resist their extension, nor too light to
hold them. In nursery plantations, the proper qualities may be se-
cured by artificial mixture of materials, but except in a very small
degree, we can not modify them, and must seek to improve by the
choice of species, the conditions as we find them.

19. As the roots of trees penetrate much deeper into the soil than
those of agricultural plants, the welfare of woodlands often depends
much upon the depth. and character of the sub-soil, as is observed
in the ‘‘ Landes” of south-western France, where a vigorous and
profitable growth of trees is obtained upon lands that are almost
utterly barren for cultivation in farm crops. In other cases, as in
flat limestone districts, the surface soil may be too thin for cultiva-
tion, while in the fissures there is sufficient soil for supplying the roots
of trees. These roots, when they decay, besides leaving the organic
material of which they were composed, also leave open passages
penetrating deeply into the soil, and affording opportunities for

‘drainage. These may become filled in with mold from the surface,
and thus they in some degree assist in rendering the soil fertile to a
greater depth than would be possible from the simple deposit of or-
ganic materials upon the surface.

6 Classification of Soils.

20. ‘The state of division of the soil, as to whether coarse or fine,
has also an important influence, especially with reference to its per-
meability by water, its drainage, and the like. Upon these proper-
ties, and the organic materials, in connection with the local climate,
the fertility of a given soil may be said to depend.

21. It matters not what the chemical or physical properties of the
soil may be, it will remain unproductive unless there be seasonable
and sufficient rains, or their equivalent supplied by irrigation, and
unless the conditions of temperature be consistent with yegetable
growth. .

22. Although soils present infinite variety in their constituent
parts, they may be classed under four principal divisions, viz.: si-
liceous, calcareous, argillaceous, and alkaline.

23. In siliceous soils, the principal constituent is gravel or sand,
composed of silex or quartz, more or less finely divided, and nearly
or quite destitute of the power of absorbing of retaining water, un-
less underlaid by a retentive sub-soil, or unless it is but moderately
above the level of a standing water, from which, by capillary attrac:
tion, its moisture may be drawn.

24. In calcareous soils, the carbonate of lime is found, either from
the decomposition of limestones, or from marls of more recent or-
ganic origin. Such soils have the property of absorbing and retain-
ing moisture in a high degree, but, although saturated they do not
become impenetrable to the air, and when turned up and exposed
to its action they fall to dust, and this the more readily when as-
sisted by frost. They will effervesce when thrown into acids, and
this affords a convenient, but not absolute test.

25. In argillaceous soils, the silicate of alumina, in the form of clay,
forms the principal ingredient. These soils have a strong affinity
for water, and hold it with great tenacity; yet, when exposed to
solar heat, they crack into deep fissures in times of drouth. The
water that falls upon clay soils does not penetrate, and they often af-
ford much resistance to the roots of plants.

26. In alkaline soils, the soluble salts of soda are in excess. Where
these soils occur, there is a noted deficiency in the rain fall, and a
marked sterility from this cause, for the excess of alkali appears
principally due to the want of moisture for dissolving it out and car-
rying it away. When such soils are irrigated, they become fertile,
and improve as the excess of alkali is reduced. A lime-like deposit

Characteristics of Soils. 7

is found in hollow places where this soil prevails, and the sage-bush
(Artemisia tridentata) and grease-wood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) form:
the principal vegetation.

27. Although none of these soils can alone be called fertile, their
proper mixture, and especially of the first three, with humus, af-
fords conditions highly favorable to success.

28. Besides the qualities resulting from their chemical composi-
tion, and their relations to moisture, soils differ greatly in their ca-
pacity for absorbing, retaining, and radiating heat. A soil covered
with siliceous pebbles retains the heat better than fine sand, and
hence it is one of the circumstances that favor the growth of the
vine. In the wine districts of France, differences in the time of
maturing the fruit have been traced directly to this cause. A sandy
soil radiates heat very readily in clear summer nights, and frosts in-
jurious to vegetation are more apt to occur upon these soils, where
exposed.

29. The color of a soil has much effect in determining absorption
of solar heat. If dark colored, it becomes warm sooner and to a
greater depth and degree than if light.

30. The character of the underlying rock itself has also its influ-
ence upon the growth of plants and trees. If siliceous and solid,
their roots get no nourishment and no hold. If friable and com-
posed of mineral elements that may be taken up in solution by the
roots, their fibers will insinuate themselves into the fissures and as-
sist the disintegration, especially where moisture is present, and
where the frost can act. This operation takes place more readily
where the rock is stratified in thin layers that are highly inclined.

31. It is a fact familiar to geologists that certain forms of vege-
tation, and especially of trees, are characteristic of the rock. forma-
tion that underlies them. We have examples of this in shales rich
with potash, that are congenial to the elms. A limestone soil is
favorable to the maples but not to the pines, while the latter flour- —

ish best on siliceous soils, if suitably mixed with other ingredients.
A line of outcrop of some rock formation upon a hillside may be
made known in some cases conspicuously by the color of the foliage
of the trees that grow upon it, especially when they are colored in
autumn or remain green in winter.
32. The soil upon a sloping surface is generally deeper, more hu-
mid, and richer near the foot, and tends gradually to become thin,

8 Of. the preparation of Soils.

dry, and sterile toward the top. These differences become greater

as the inclination is more steep. Upon such slopes, it becomes

highly important that the surface should be covered with vegetation

and consolidated by its roots. There is no growth so favorable for

this purpose as that of trees, and elsewhere we will notice the disas-

trous results that have followed from their clearing off upon steep
mountain sides. In some cases, the damage is beyond remedy,

while in others it may be arrested and utility restored.

Of the preparation of the Soil for sowing or planting Forest Trees.

33. In preparing land for a grove or woodland, the soil should be
thoroughly mellowed by previous working or cultivation. Upon
new prairie land there is but little chance of success in starting a
successful growth of trees until the sod has been turned over and
thoroughly rotted. This can best be done by cultivating at least
one or two years previously with some farm crop.

34. The first breaking up of the sod can only be done to advan-
tage in the season when vegetation is most active, and it varies
somewhat in different years and in different localities. It may be
generally said to last through the month of June, and it sometimes
may continue longer. Toward the latter part of summer and in
autumn, the soil is too dry and hard for breaking up, and the herb-
age does not so readily decompose. The first furrows must be broad
and thin. The subsequent plowing should be deeper, and the soil
should be rendered perfectly mellow by harrowing.

35. For windbreaks and hedges, this preliminary work may be in
the line of proposed planting, and at least four feet wider than the
intended borders.

36. In the planting of trees for avenues, the soil near the surface,
-which is generally more fertile, should be placed by itself, and this
should be the first that is used in covering the roots. In hard clay
soils, there is an advantage in preparing the holes in autumn, and
leaving them to the action of the air and the frost through the win-
ter, in readiness for the next spring.

37. It is sometimes necessary, and often advantageous, to fertilize
at the time of planting, and the best material that can be used is
well-rotted leaf-mold from the woods. It may be first mixed with
the soil that is spread next to the roots. Where stable manure is -
used, it should be placed near, but not in contact with the roots, or it

Slope and Aspect.—Northern and Eastern Aspects. 9

should be used as a top-dressing. In the common practice of for-
-estry, and at present prices of labor and of timber, we can not usu-
ally do more than to sow or plant the species that appear to be best
suited to the conditions, and we can only fertilize in nurseries and
special plantations. It is not improbable that methods of fertiliza-
tion upon an extensive scale may hereafter be employed in forest
planting, and with profitable results.

Of the Slope and Aspect of Surface, and their Effect upon Tree Growth.

38. The slopé of a surface is sometimes mentioned in degrees of
the angle that it rises above the level. It may be called a gentle slope,
if under 10°; somewhat steep, if from 10° to 20°; steep, if from 20°
to 34°; and very steep, if from 35° to 45°.

39. The aspect or direction of a slope is found to have a pereep-
tible, and often a notable influence upon tree growth, and this effect
is greater in proportion to the extent of surface. Upon isolated
swells of land and small hills, it might be scarcely noticed, but on
the opposite sides of mountain ranges, or in mountain valleys, it
may be very great.

40. A northern aspect receives no full sunlight, or its rays fall
obliquely in the morning or toward evening, according to the angle
~ of elevation. The winds are colder and dryer, but in the growing
season generally not strong. The soil retains moisture, and the
growth is often rapid. The trees retain their regular shape, and the
wood is softer, not as strong, but generally well adapted to manu-
facture. As vegetation is a little delayed, the spring frosts are not
so apt to do harm, but from the late and imperfect hardening of the
new wood, the frosts. of winter may doinjury. As the snows lie longer
on these slopes, the forests are benefited by their delaying the
growth in the first uncertain warm days of spring, and by the moist-
ure that they retain. The starting of forests by seeding is more
‘easily secured on a north slope than any other, and it is only upon this
slope that forest-tree seeds are sown upon the damp snows in start-
ing mountain forests.

41. An eastern aspect receives the sun in the cool morning hours,
when the temperature and light are moderate. The winds in our
Atlantic States are often damp, especially in winter. The soil re-
tains its moisture fairly. Timber grows well, and acquires medium
qualities that adapt it to the greatest variety of uses.

10 Southern and Western. Aspects.

42. A southern aspect receives both the heat and light with great-
est intensity, and is more liable-to winds and storms, and the soil to.
erosion from rains, than any other. The trees, on the whole, are of
slower growth, owing to deficient moisture, and are less regular in
form, but the wood is firm, heavy, and strong, well adapted to all
uses where these qualities are required. Seeding can seldom be se-
cured on a steep southern aspect in a warm, dry climate, and trees”
must be set from nurseries and attended with greater care. The —
south side of a mountain is much more likely to be bare than any
other, every thing else being equal.

43. A western aspect receives the sun obliquely, but in the warm-
est part of the day, and in our Western States, vegetation is most —
exposed on these slopes to drying winds. The soil is apt to become
dry, and timber is therefore of slower growth and less regular in
form, but in the main good. .

44, These differences from aspect are more noticeable in eleyated
regions than in low grounds, and they depend in degree more or less
upon the nature of the soil, and local climatic influences that may,
determine the direction of the surface winds, or otherwise affect the
location.

45. The degree of inclination has also a notable influence upon
vegetation, and on the action of rains upon the surface. If less
than one in six, the conditions are generally good. From this to.
one in three, agricultural cultivation becomes difficult, and the sur-
face is liable to wash; still, the roots of trees can find a hold, and,
if they can get deep into the soil, forests will prosper. At still
greater angles, cultivation becomes difficult without terracing, and
the dangers from erosion become greater. Upon such extreme
slopes, pasturage is apt to cause great injuries by destroying the
herbage and allowing the soil to wash into the valleys. The true
policy should be to keep them covered with woodlands, if possible,
and to clear by selection. never exposing the whole surface at once.

CHAPTER III.
OF CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGICAL INFLUENCES.

46. We understand by climate, the atmospheric conditions of a
given region, resulting from its latitude, elevation, temperature,

The Atmosphere and its Elements. 11

humidity, amount and distribution of its rains, character and force
of the winds, intensity of light, and other general or local causes.

The Atmosphere and its Elements.

47. The atmosphere from which the trees, through their foliage,
derive a part of their aliment, and to which they return certain
gaseous elements in the process of growth, consists of about one
part of oxygen to four parts of nitrogen by volume. It always
contains, besides these, a nearly constant proportion of carbonic
acid gas, and a variable amount of aqueous vapor.

48. Oxygen. This gas is necessary to the existence of all animal
and vegetable life, and to combustion, respiration, fermentation, and
_many other processes of nature. It has a wide range of affinities,
and forms a part of all organic and most mineral compounds. It
is absorbed or disengaged in various operations of tree-growth, and,
under certain conditions, it hastens decay.

49. Nitrogen. This gas has a comparatively small range of affini-
ties, and in the air appears to -dilute and moderate the action of
oxygen. Of itself, it does not sustain life. It forms a part of
some vegetables and of all animals, and, combined with hydrogen in
the proportion of 1 to 3 (NH,), it forms ammonia, which acts an
important part in the vegetation of trees, as well as of the culti-
vated grains.

50. Carbonic Acid Gas. This is a compound made up of 2 atoms
of oxygen to 1 of carbon (CO,, or 72.73 of oxygen to 27.27 of
carbon by weight). It has been estimated that this gas forms one
thousandth part of the atmosphere, but recent experiments show that
the proportion is less, ranging from two and a half to four ten-
thousandths, or even less. It is very uniform, yet is slightly varied
by local influences, being increased by combustion, respiration, and
other causes.

51. It is from carbonic acid gas, either in the air or in the water
taken up by the roots, that trees obtain the carbon that makes their
principal bulk. This gas was probably more abundant in former
times, as in the carboniferous period, since mineral coals are largely
made up of carbon. It also forms a part of all limestones and
marls, and of many minerals and ores. There is no evidence that
the proportion in the air has changed within the period of human
history.

12 Aqueous Vapor.—Dew Point.—Absolute Humidity.

52. Aqueous Vapor. The proportion of watery vapor in the air
has a most important influence upon tree growth, and where the
amount is small, their cultivation becomes difficult or impossible. —

53. Water, when exposed, will slowly evaporate, the rate being
greater at a high temperature and in a dry air. It is still greater
when there is a wind passing over the surface, carrying off the va-
por and bringing dry air in its place.

54. Aqueous vapor is always present in the air, although it may —
be imperceptible to our senses. There is, however, a limit, above 4
which the excess becomes visible as fog or cloud, and falls as dew or
rain. Ifthe temperature falls below the freezing point, the dew be-
comes hoar frost, and the rain becomes snow.

55. The degree of temperature at which condensation begins is
called the dew point. It may be ascertained. by cooling down water
in a bright and thin metallic cup until dew begins to form on the
outside.

56. The humidity of the atmosphere is usually ascertained by the
psychrometer, which consists of two similar thermometers set a few
inches apart, one of them having the bulb covered with white mus-
lin cloth, which is wet before an observation is taken. The wet —

bulb is gently fanned till the temperature goes down to a stationary "

point, and then both thermometers are read. By the aid of tables
that have been computed for this purpose, we may very easily ob-
tain from the temperature of the dry bulb instrument, and the dif-
ference between that and the wet bulb, two separate statements con-
cerning the moisture present in the air, viz.: the absolute and the
relative humidity.

57. The Absolute Humidity is the elastie force or tension of the
vapor, as would be shown in its raising a column of mereury in a
guage, and is usually given-in decimal parts of an English inch.
With a given difference between wet and dry bulb thermometers,
it increases with the temperature, being greatest when the weather
is warmest, as shown by Diagram 1. We see, for example, that at
90° it is 1.3 inches, the difference between thermometers being 10°,
while it is but 0.3 at 55°, and but a little over 0.1 at 40°. The
rate gains rapidly at high temperatures, and above the boiling point
it becomes the power of steam. ein

58. As observed in a very warm atmosphere, there may be an
abundance of moisture present in the air and no rain. Ata fixed

. Absolute and Relative Humidity. 13

: temperature, the amount is-least when the difference between wet
and dry bulbs is greatest,

and it increases as these dif |. Degrees of Lémperaacre, (L:)
ferences become less, as we [> so Sans a (oe ee oe eed ees eo cnc
see by Diagram 2, where | 7,
_ the lines descend from left | 27 i;
‘to right. The rate of de- ee
scent is similar at different | 2
temperatures, as we see the ~
descending lines are parallel, | 7
but they become nearer to- a if
gether as the temperature is | |g 7;
less. In this diagram, the | .7 /
degrees on the oblique lines ‘< 7hT
are those of temperature in | -# Ets
the open air. If we meas- | *2 ya
ure the vertical distances be- | .2z €
tween these oblique lines, we —

would have a series of num-_. 1. Absolute Humidity at different Tempera-
. . .. tures, the Difference between wet and dry Bulbs
bers increasing at a gaining being constant,
rate, which might be shown
by a curve something like [“s" | Diterences tetneer Wet & Dry Bulbs.
those of the preceding figure. FPR ape 4
59. The Relative Humid-| 7? F75=55
ity. This is the percentage | 77 =
of saturation, 100 being com- | 2-4 ---
plete saturation, as in a fog | 74
(when the air can hold no} 2 -
more moisture in invisible | ~ =a
form), and 0 being com-| z0
plete dryness. In our cli- =
mate, we never find the air
absolutely dry without arti-
ficialmeans. The degree of
relative humidity also de- = : ea
pends on the temperature, im ES SEEN
and with a given distance = —>
between wet and dry bulbs, 2. Absolute Humidity at fixed Temperatures,

BRS es the Difference between wet and dry Bulbs being
it is greatest ag high temper- variable. ; “ig

ae : Bem

| ——

vAvaei

We &BREHRNS

14 Relative Humidity.

atures. ~ The rate of increase forms a curve, as’shown in the diagram
. annexed, but increasing in-

ter. | Degrees of Temperature,(F) } percentage more slowly as
Po a0" soe so 40" fe's2"92") the temperature is high,
IS. = icf These curves are higher
i Yn it stes1—| when the wet and dry bulb
80 Pi rss thermometers. are nearer
be Y. AE 2+] alike, and grow smaller at a
65. 7 f AA VIS a 2A regularly decreasing rate as
a / VAAZGE the differences between in-
oe ARE ONMULOLL? struments increase. Ls
wae A LV MMM ;
oS ] LIVIA 60. At all temperatures,
36. NLM LLG the relative humidity dimin-
5e i + } y 1 ey ishes in percentage as the
oh ] LIN. difference between the’ ins
bz He i Uy Vie struments increases, as we
a5 {I see by the descending curves
; in Figure 4, but not at uni-

3. Relative Humidity at different Tempera- form rates, as we see that
tures the difference between wet and dry Bulbs :
being constant. these lines are curves. The

degrees marked on these

Per. | Ditttrence between Wee &-Dry Bult, (EF) \ curves from 0° to 100° are
S 71 2°348 67°89" 1077213" e787") those of tem ture in th
perature in the
96. open air.’
2A.
oh NS (1) The numerical statements
V6. JANOS from which this and the preced-
70. ‘ NQNSNS ing figures are constructed will
6S. VN N ee oe eh be found in a volume of meteor-
ae , NY PS = Re ological tables prepared by Pro-
£6. \ N >) IN in + °)
es Th KIXEXSNONCSAT] fessor Guyot, and published by
48. N ANA K PSN the Smithsonian Institution for
40. f be L NLP | the use of its obseryers, at the
= UNS - wah SS time when the former system
26. 8. BY XLITN NU} of voluntary meteorological ob-
20. \ NEAN aN servation was in operation. The
2S. Vi N + limits of this volume do not ad-
\ E ; co ee ae ;
20. y “ mit of their insertion in detail,
i ik | i nor of a statement of the

rinciples upon which they are
4. Relative Humidity at fixed Temperatures, P P P y

the difference between wet and dry Bulbs being based,
variable. €

Humidity: Effect of Heat upon Volume of Air. 15

- 61. The absolute humidity-of the atmosphere is much greatest in

summer, reaching its maxi- . -
i : SS 2 2 . 8 a

mum in July or August (0.5 | is N ays 32 §-8 g &

to 0.6 inches), and its mini-
mum in December (0.1 or a | ass
little higher). The relative | 50 A 1LeKEN
humidity follows a different | ,,,|_ |. \
law, and through a much
less range. It ranges from
75 to 80 per cent in winter
in the Atlantic States, de- |:222 pHfe \
_ scends to the lowest (about | a2s Fy
. -65 per cent, on the general | a20 WZ h9) \
average) in May, rises to | .,25
about 70 to 75 in the sum-
mer months, and a little
higher in winter. These
ranges of absolute and rela-
5. Absolute Humidity at three American Sta-

tive humidity, taken from tions through the several Months, for a Series of
the mean of many years’ ob- ¥°*"*

servation at the Magnetic = 3
and Meteorological Observa- [2% Kos § RPE PL s 3
tory at Toronto, in Canada, — & x < : ; : . :
and at the State Agricult-| ae
ural Colleges at Orono, in 3%.
Maine, and at Lansing, in
Michigan, are shown by the

accompanying engravings.

Effects of Heat and of Cold
upon the Volume of Air.
62. It isarule that heat

tends to expand all bodies,

whether solid, liquid, or gas-
eous, and that cooling tends
to reduce their volume.

63. When any substance
expands, it absorbs ‘‘latent 6. Relative Humidity at three American Sta-

tions through the several Months, for a Series of
heat,” and becomes colder. Years.

By

eens —
G10 >

asa

aSSSRSESHRHLRTAE

16 : Dew Point : Fogs and Clouds.

Condensation has the opposité ‘effect, and the substance condensed —

becomes warm. It is by many astronomers believed that the sun’s
heat is caused by the condensation of gases going on upon or within
its surface. Evaporation, or the passing of a liquid into gaseous:
form, is notably an expanding, and consequently a cooling process. ©
The leaves of trees in the growing season evaporate abundantly,
and hence the coolness of groves in summer. The condensation of
vapors in the form of dew or rain, is always the effect of a i
down of the atmosphere to below the Dew Point [§ 55], and is al
ways attended with a diminution in the previous volume of the air
from which it forms.

64. Dew, is the moisture deposited from the air when cooled at

~

night by the radiation of heat from the earth’s surface. It can only —

occur when the temperature is reduced to the ‘‘dew point,” and is
greatest in still clear nights. When covered with clouds, the radi-
ations of heat are returned to the earth. The same effect is often

seen immediately under a tree, which will remain dry, while all —

around it the dew on the grass may be heavy. This shows that the
air under the tree has been a little warmer than in the open space
around it, and that the general percentage of moisture in the air is
relatively high.

65. On the contrary, we sometimes see the grass, boards, ete.,
under a tree wet with the dew, when the ground around it is dry.
This occurs from the greater humidity of the air under the tree, in
consequence of the evaporation of its foliage, and is seen only in
a calm night, when the general humidity of the air is less. These
effects are sometimes seen where a plank walk extends along under
an avenue of large trees standing widely apart. The open portions
may be white with hoar-frost (frozen dew), while the parts covered
by the trees are bare, or the sheltered portions may be wet, as if
rained upon, while the open spaces are dry.

66. Fogs and Clouds, are formed only when the air is at or below —

the dew point, showing that it can hold the moisture no longer,
and the excess becomes visible, and may, in certain cases, descend

asrain. They show a reduced temperature, and common summer —

clouds are often formed by the unequal heating of a portion of the
earth’s surface by the sun.

67. The air in contact with these heated portions expands, and,
becoming lighter, rises—the air from surrounding spaces coming in

ie

Rains: Effect of Woodlands Stated. 17

to supply its place. An upward current is thus formed, and the air
rising and cooling finally comes to the dew point, and the moisture

‘becomes visible as cloud. A column of smoke from a burning

clearing will sometimes thus form a cloud, and may cause rain.

68. A country interspersed with groves of trees, presents contrasts
in heating tendencies favorable to the formation of these upward
currents of the air. Broad areas of cloud passing over a great ex-
tent of country;.and usually accompanied by a low barometer, are
due to more general causes, but always show a reduction of temper-
ature in the region where they form.

69. Rains, are caused by a condensation of moisture from cooling
below the dew point. The success of forest growth depends largely
upon their amount and their seasonable distribution throughout the
year, and especially their occurrence when vegetation is most active,
and when the new layer of wood for the season is forming.

70. A rain guage on the ground will collect in a year more rain
than one on the roof of a house, and the latter more than one on a
high tower. Currents of air may tend to cause this difference in
part, but it seems to show that the rain-drops gather in size as they
descend.

71. On the contrary, in a dry time, we sometimes see filaments
of rain descending from a cloud, which dry up and disappear in the
warm air below without reaching the ground. When such clouds
pass over large bodies of woodland, where the temperature is cooler

’ and the air more moist, these filaments extend down and afford a

shower of rain, but dry up again as they come to the warm air of
the fields beyond. Applying these principles of humidity and tem-
perature to Forestry, let us consider what effect a woodland can have
upon them :

72. In the growing season, there is a vast amount of evaporation
going on from the foliage of trees, the moisture being derived from
the soil. This evaporation is a cooling process, and as it both in-
ereases the amount of moisture, while it reduces the temperature,
it tends to bring the air to the dew point; in other words, to the
condition favoring the formation of dews and rain. In the nicely
balanced state of the atmosphere that we often find in summer, this
change may sometimes be the turning point that decides between
rain and drouth.

18 Effect of Woodlands: Watcr Supply.

73. It has been found, many times, that where the trees and é
bushes are cleared away from large areas of rocky surface, the re- —

gion begins to suffer from drouth. The rocks being heated by the
sun, remain warm in the night, and the rain-clouds, which, in pass-—

ing over the wooded surface, formerly condensed in gentle showers,

now dry up, upon coming to the heated air, and perhaps yield a co-_
pious rainfall, over a better-wooded district beyond. These effects —
are more apparent where the clearings have been extended over —
considerable areas, and they could with certainty be overeome by
allowing the rocks to be again clothed with a growth of trees.

74. The effect of Woodlands upon the Rain that falls upon thei may
next be considered. Admitting that the amount of rain that falls_
upon the woods is the same as that in adjacent fields, it is evident
that a part would be intercepted by the foliage, and in transient
showers be evaporated from it, without reaching the ground. But
the air within the woods is always more humid in the growing
season, and the surface is always shaded from the sun and sheltered —
from the winds. It is also generally covered with a layer of dead
leaves and litter, so that the rain that does actually reach the earth,
although it may be rather less in amount, is more in effect, because
it is not readily evaporated. It sinks into the ground, instead of
running off on the surface. It can not wear away the soil upon
steep slopes, nor form sudden and destructive floods, as in a naked
and treeless region. The streams rising in woodlands may swell
after a rain, but more gradually, and they will subside again more
slowly. If they rise in woodland swamps, they are scarcely liable
to floods at any season, and tend to an even flow throughout the ~
year.

75. Springs and wells in a wooded region have a much more ~
uniform supply of water than in the same region when cleared.
Instances have often been observed where these become dry upon
clearing, and again well supplied with water as before when a forest
growth was restored.

76. These principles become important when apelat to the supply
of water for cities and towns, and for the maintenance of water in
canals, or for hydraulic power. The basins of supply should, if pos-
sible, be kept wooded, and the rivulets kept shaded, if we would
avoid failure.

77. In Illinois, and some other prairie states, there has been ob-

Causes of dryer Climate: Atmometers. 19

served a noticeable increase in the dryness of the climate since set-
tlement first began. This may in part be attributed to the clearing
away of the belts cf native timber along the streams. The roots
of these trees formerly kept the channel at a higher level, and in

some cases formed extensive swamps. The beds of: these streams

are now lower, and they drain off the water to a greater depth.
‘The effect is shown in the failure of water in the wells,-and in the
more frequent occurrence of drouth, to the injury of agriculture.

78. There is nothing that would more effectually check this tend-
ency to deepening of channels than the planting of willows along
_ the sides, and it might eventually in some degree restore what has
been lost by raising them to a higher level.

79. The rate of evaporation from the surface of water and from
soils is found to be much more in the open fields than in woodlands,
and the difference is greater in summer than in winter.

80. Instruments for measuring the evaporation are sometimes
called ‘‘atmometers,” and they are of various forms. We here pre-
sent a section of one in-
vented by Professor La- all
mont, of the Munich Ob- f
servatory. It consists of a
basin of water, f, g, with a
narrow opening at A, com-
municating with a reservoir
in an adjacent cylinder.
Into the latter a plunger
may be pressed down or
raised by the screw, S. It
works through an air-tight
collar, a, d, and by this
means the water, by press-
ure or suction, may be ad-
justed in the open basin.
When left for observation,
the water is drawn down
till it is just visible at A,
and the scale, s, s, is ad-
justed to a zero point at h.
It is then forced up till 7. Lamont’s Atmometer.

20 Measurement of Evaporation and Percolation.

level with a line, N, M, and left. When next observed, the water
is drawn down to A, and the scale will show how much has been
wasted by evaporation. More water is added, and the scale is
again set. A .

81. By a simpler plan, known as Piche’s evaporator, a plain grad-
uated glass tube, with its lower end open and ground flat, is filled
with water. A disc of paper, first wet, is applied. It is then turned,
with the closed end up, and the paper is found to adhere by atmos- _
pheric pressure. It continues wet, and by evaporation the water
wastes away, the amount of loss being shown on the scale. .

82. An open cylindrical dish of water may be used, the depth —
being measured at the beginning and end of the observation, and
the loss ‘supplied from time to time. The measurement may be
made vertically by a scale, or by volume in a graduated meas-
uring cup, or by weighing. It is necessary to cover with a wire
screen, to prevent birds from bathing in it.

83. By an instrument shown in the annexed cut, the evapora-

“ tion from soils, either
> . naked or covered with
grass, litter, or herb-
age, or by small grow-
Tele ing trees, may be meas-
ured. The zine-lined
box, A, is connected
with a reservoir of
E water, C, through a
valve, E, so as to keep
wet up to a certain
8. Instrument for Measuring the Evaporation from level. The water may
eats. _ be drawn off from the
faucet. The amount supplied from time to time shows the rate of
evaporation.

84. The percolation of water through soils is measured by a
Tysimeter. It consists of a vessel of known area at the surface, A,
set in the ground, and the surface either clear or covered with litter,
herbage, etc. The rains that fall on the surface filter down to the
tube, C, and are measured in the receiver, D.

Effect of Forests upon Rainfall and Temperature. 21

Relation between the Rainfall and the Native Forests.
85. As a general rule, we find our native forests more dense in
proportion as the rainfall is greatest, as
we see proved upon the Pacific Coast,
and in the region south of Lake Supe- %
rior. They become less az the rains
diminish, and as We approach the great
plains, the native timber is found only
along the borders of the rivers and
smaller streams, and finally it disap-
pears altogether. As a rule, where the
amount of rain is less than twenty
inches in a year, and this chiefly in
winter, the growth of trees becomes
difficult, and with many species impos-
sible.

- 86. There is some reason to believe
that the capacity for cultivation in a dry region may be increased
by tree-planting, and gradually extended to a degree that would not
be possible to secure at first. fe)

9. Lysimeter.

Effect of Woodlands upon the Temperature of the Air and the
Earth.

87. It is evident to the senses that the air in woodlands
is cooler than in the open fields in summer and warmer
in winter, although the actual difference in the latter is
slight. When we measure the temperature of the soil, we
find the effect of woodlands much greater, the difference
between winter and summer being less in the woods than
in the fields, and less at greater depths than at the surface.
This difference is greatest in summer, when vegetation is
most active. Various means are employed to measure
this temperature. In one, a thermometer with a thick
glass bulb (invented by Lamont, of Munich), is left to
various depths, and when drawn up for observation it does

not quickly change before reading. In other cases, long- 10.
stemmed instruments are permanently buried at different latent

Thermom.-

depths, with the scales above the surface. ani

22 The Winds: Agency of Water in Vegetation.

88. The Winds. In considering atmospheric agencies, the drying
effects of the winds should be noticed, as liable to be greatly in- —

creased by the clearing of lands, and to be lessened by planting. — |

These plantations, in order to serve most effectually as wind-breaks,
should extend across the direction from whence the prevailing winds*
blow. In the states west of the Mississippi, the dry and warm
winds, most injurious to vegetation, come from the south-west, and
it is against these that we should chiefly guard.

89. The winter storms of greatest violence, known in the North-
western States as ‘‘ blizzards,” come from the north-west. There can
be no doubt but that their local effects may be reduced, and to some
extent their occurrence diminished by the plantations of groves of
trees.

90. In some countries exposed to prevailing ocean winds, there
will be ample rainfall under any condition, and woodlands ean have
but little effect; for, whether present or absent, the humid air from
the ocean will precipitate its moisture when it’ comes over the land.
In Norway, the amount of rain on the western coast is over 80 inches
a year. In Great Britain and Ireland, and on the western coast of
France, the rains will be abundant from these causes, as they will
always be along our Pacific coast. But these ocean winds in passing
over mountain ranges must necessarily be cooled down to a degree —
much below the dew point, and become dry by being thus depleted —
of their moisture as they pass inland.

The Agency of Water in Vegetation.

91. Whether in solid form, as snow or ice, or as a liquid, supplied
by rains, dews, or irrigation, or as a vapor, water acts an essen-
tial part in vegetation, and is necessary for the existence of all vege-
table life. or best effect it should be seasonable and sufficient, but
not in excess.

92. Asa general rule, seeds will not germinate under water, but
in some trees the roots will bear submergence for a considerable time.
The wood of trees thus exposed is often softer and more spongy than
it would have been if grown on dryer ground. Generally, however,
a sustained overflow of the surface causes the death of the trees
whose roots are thus covered, and ‘ beaver meadows” are thus
caused.

93. The Snow is-a slow conductor of radiant heat, while it allows

Effects of Snows and of Frosts. 23

the sun’s heat to pass through it with facility. The earth is thus
covered and protected from the intense cold of winter, the snow al-
lowing it to be warmed by the sun’s heat, while at the same time it
does not allow the warmth of the earth to escape. ‘The melting of
snows takes place largely from the under side, as we see evidence in
the vacant spaces around every object in the snow as the spring ap-
proaches,

94. In forest shade the snow melts but slowly, and the water is
thus allowed to sink into the earth, or run off gradually, instead of
suddenly, as in the rains in an open country. By this delay in
_ melting, the vegetation is kept back until warm weather is con-
_ firmed and injuries from spring frosts are less liable to happen.
95. In woodlands the snow does not drift, and this effect extends
somewhat into the adjacent fields, which are thus kept from ex-
posure to injurious frosts in winter.

96. In liouid form the water is taken up by the roots, and with
it carbonic acid gas and various mineral substances in solution, the
latter supplying the inorganic portions remaining as ashes when the
plants are burned. In its chemical composition water consists of
two atoms of hydrogen united to one of oxygen (H, QO), and it is
produced when these elements are united by being burned together.
The agency of water will be further noticed in connection with the
functions of the leaves.

Of the Effects of Frost.

97. Many species of trees will not endure a freezing temperature ;
others are injured but not killed by it, and others appear fitted to
endure the greatest rigors of winter without injury, yet in excep-
tional cases even these may suffer from intense and prolonged cold.
The winters of 1683-4 and 1708-9 were memorable from the in-
juries they did in Europe to the forest trees, and in December,
1879, a severe frost in France did immense damage to young tim-
ber. It was found on this last occasion that the injury was greater
where the sun struck the trees not protected by snow; the effect
was greater in valleys than on high grounds, and varied much with
the soil, the exposure, and the humidity of the air.

98. In these exceptional and fortunately rare cases, the condition
of the wood as to maturity had doubtless much influence, as the
winter appears to have found them unprepared for its rigors. It
was afterwards found, that many trees, supposed to be dead, still put

24 Effects of Frost: Injuries from Snows,

forth new buds from the older wood, and thus were able to show
hopeful signs of recovery.

99. The injury from frosts depends more on the season than on
its intensity. A late spring frost will kill down the young shoots —
of conifers that would endure a severe winter.

100. Many trees, and especially oaks, pines, and firs, are found
cracked into deep fissures from the unequal action of the frost upon
their woody tissues. Such cracks do not heal up or grow over, but

remain as a furrow always visible upon the outside, and greatly im- ie

pairing its value for lumber. ee
101. A freezing rain may load down the branches of trees so as

to break them. The roots of young seedling trees may be thrown _

out of the ground by frost, and the fruit-season may be cheeked by —

a frost that kills the buds or blossoms but that is not severe enough
to injure the foliage; or its maturity may be prevented by an early —

autumnal frost.

102. Trees accustomed to alternately wet and dry seasons, such
as conifers from the Pacific coast, become exceedingly liable to win-
ter-kill, especially aftera mild anddamp autumn. <A long-continued
period of very cold weather in winter has been noticed as more —
likely to injure the growth of trees than more intense frost for a shorter
period.

103. The effects of frost are always to be feared in high moun-
tainous regions and in deep humid valleys, forthe atmosphere is there
always loaded with vapors that condense in fogs as soon as the
sun is hid. Young trees bear these exposures with much peril until
they get to a height of fifteen or twenty feet; that is to say, above
the ground fogs, or at least above the level at which these injuries
are most likely to happen.

Of the Injuries from Snows.

104. When damp snow falls upon the branches of forest trees,
and especially the evergreens, it may break them down ~by its
weight, especially when this is increased by rain, or, when frozen
on, it is exposed to a strong wind. An instance occurred in Scot:
land, in the early part of 1879, when great damage was done to
evergreen forests, and to less extent to the oak, birch, and larch
trees, from the weight of snows. f

105. In the Rocky Mountain region snow-slides often do great

Timber-Line.—Decline in Fruit Production, ete. 25

injury to young timber, and these become more liable to occurrence
as the wood near the summit is destroyed. The snow then drifts
over and forms great overhanging masses on,the leeward side, which
are liable to become detached and to slide down into the valleys, car-
rying every thing before them.

106. Young seedlings when covered with the snow are sometimes
broken down by its weight, as it settles from melting on the under

107. The Timber-Line is the upper limit of tree growth upon
mountains. Its height is greatest within the tropics, and it descends
as we go north or south, until it reaches the surface in the Arctic
zone. It also decreases as we approach the sea-coast, and it is often,
from local causes, higher on one side of a mountaim than on the
other. In the Himalayas, this line is about 11,800 feet high. On
the Alps it averages 6,400 feet, and in the Rocky Mountains it
varies from 9,000 to 12,000 feet."

108. In ascending to the timber-line, no great difference in the
size of the timber is observed until within a few hundred feet of the
limit, when the trees begin to appear short and wide-spreading, and
at last almost flat, and leaning from the prevailing winds. Above
the line, no trees whatever are found, and but little vegetation of
any kind, the mountain rising bleak and barren to its summit, or
until it reaches the eternal snows. This snow line varies with the
seasons, and is in some years higher or lower than in others, accord-
ing as the prevailing conditions of the weather may have varied.

Decline of Fruit Production and its Cause.

109. It is not unusual to hear old people recall the memories of
their youth, when peaches and other fruits grew luxuriantly and
without special care, in regions where they are now unknown, or
are raised only in favorable seasons and with extraordinary care.

(1) Prof. C. C. Parry, in Prof. Hayden’s Report of 1872, gives the heigh’
of the timber line in some twenty places, some of them being as follows:

FEET. FEET.

Mount Shasta, Cal............0-...08. 8,000 Gilbert’ Peak, Uintas................ 11,100
Cascade Range, Or.............:-:++: 7,000 Audobon’s Peak, Colo...... ........ 11,825
Ward's Poak, Monta;..... ........0%. 8,784 Mt. Engelmann, Colo............. . 11,518
IR ORI Oy ods «oc ows ann emscneo’ 9,002 (Gray's Peak, Colo.........052.sec0cc- 11,643

. Near Henry’s Lake, Idaho.,........... MO BSR 5 aos ony Sasi vhesdeas ese -12,040
SEE TOAWET BACB. coos cis ice seenssedas 10,160 Colorado generally......... 11,600 to 12,000.

SC DEIR RAMs cos naka sxe 54s es 09/9 10,800

26

They will speak of winters of uniform but not extreme cold, and
steady and long-continued seasons for making maple sugar, and
other incidents of farm life, denoting a regularity in the return of .
seasons, and a similarity in their character that does not now exist,
110. In respect to loss of fertility, something may be ascribed to
the exhaustion of the soil by careless cultivation, and something to
the drainage of swamps and the deepening of water-courses. But
the most conspicuous difference in the general condition of the coun-
try, and the most obvious cause of this decline, is to be found in
the excessive clearing off of woodlands, and the loss of the equaliz-
ing tendencies which their presence occasioned. |

Injuries resulting from excessive Clearings.

The Ruin that is brought upon Countries by the Clearing off of Woodlands.

111. It is a familiar fact there are many regions in Asia and
Southern Europe, once exceedingly fertile and densely populated,
that are now utterly sterile and desolate. The country bordering
upon the Euphrates, and portions of Turkey, Greece, Egypt, Italy,
and Spain, are now incapable of cultivation from this cause. The Hon,
Geo. P. Marsh, in a work entitled ‘‘ Man and Nature,” and a later
edition entitled ‘‘The Earth as Modified by Human Action,” has
devoted a large space to the discussion of this question. A more
recent illustration of these effects is published in the principal
French Journal of Forestry,’ and, for comparison, we place by its
side a description of the same region only about fifty years before:

(About 1876.)
“The Khanate of Bucharia_pre- (3

(About 1826.)
The finest provinces of

sents 2 striking example of the con-
sequences brought upon acountry by
clearings. ‘Within a period of thirty
years, this was one of the most fertile
regions of central Asia, a country
which, when well wooded and wat-
ered, was a terrestrial paradise. But
within the last twenty-five years, a
mania of cleuring has seized upon
the inhabitants, and all the great
forests have been cut away, and the
little that remained was ravaged by

Tartary remain to be described, be-
ing generally known under the name
of Great Bucharia, The
most noted and fertile of all the
provinces is that of Sogd, so named
from the river that flows through it.
‘For eight days,’ says Iban Hankel,
‘We may travel in the country of
Sogd and not be out of one delicious
garden. On every side, villages, r

corn-fields, fruitful orchards. Goun-
try houses, gardens, meadows inter-

(1) Revue des Eaux et Foréts, March, 1876, p, 93.

_ ing canals empty.

~ Injuries resulting from excessive Clearings.

fire during a civil war. The conse-
~ quences | were not long in following,

and has transformed this country into
a kind of arid desert. The water-
courses are dried up, and the irrigat-
The moving
sands of the desert, being no longer
restrained by barriers of forests, are
every day gaining upon the land,

27

spersed by rivulets, reservoirs .and
canals, present a most lively picture
of industry and happiness, The rich
valley of Sogd produces so great an
abundance of grapes, melons, pears,
and apples, that they are exported to
Persia, and even to Hindostan.’”
The same writer (Malte-Brun),
again citing from the same author,

_ tudes that separate it from Khiva.”

and will finish by transforming it
into a desert as desolate as the soli-

says: “‘T have often been at Kohen-

dis, the ancient capital of Bucharia.

I have cast my eyes all around, and

never huve I seen a verdure more

“ fresh or nbundant, or of wider ex-

tent. This green carpeting mingled

in the horizon in the azure of the

skies. The simple verdure served as

a sort of ornamental offset to the

; towns contained in it. Numerous

country seuts decorated the simplic-

ity of the fields, Hence I am not

surprised that, of all the inhabitants

of Korasan and Maweralnahr, none

attain a more advanced age than

thuse of Bucharia,’”—Malte-Brun’s
Univ. Geography, i, 470.

112. We need not go out of our own country to witness equal
examples of irreparable injuries done by improvident clearings—
perhaps on a smaller scale, but not less disastrous in result. In the
older settled portions of New England, in the Middle States, and
in the South, there are arid hills and worn-out fields, no longer
worth any thing for cultivation or pasturage, and that offer, as
the only chance of restoration to a useful purpose, the possibility of
growing trees.

113. The abundance of cliff-dwellings and other ruins, in western
Colorado and New Mexico, appears to show that that region was
once capable of sustaining a larger population than would be now
possible from existing means of cultivation. It is of course not
known as to what has caused this difference, but the destruction of
forests appears to afford the most probable reason.

114. Mr. B. H. Baden-Powell, in a report on the Administration
of the Forest Department of India (1877, vol. i, p. 51), in speak-

28 Injuries from Clearings.—The Blossom and its Parts.

ing of the central, high, arid lands of certain districts, says that in
the worst of these there are found traces of ancient cultivation,
river beds now dry, and remains of villages. In the parts outside
of the arid region, the streams, once perennial and used for irriga-
tion, are now without water, excepting when swollen to torrents in the
rains. He adds: ‘‘ This phenomenon, so commonly observed in all
the Punjaub streams coming from the now denuded lower hills,
points inevitably to the conclusion that forest denudation has de
prived these rivers of their steady water-supply, and hence ruined
the rainless countries that were dependent upon them.”

115. We quote these facts in this connection, not because they _

are rare or unusual, for they are not. - We present them as closely
describing the condition of the now irrigated and fertile regions of
Colorado, California, and the Territories, whose fertility is wholly
dependent upon the streams that may be withdrawn from their
natural beds and distributed over the surface in the growing season.

As an inevitable consequence of denudation, these streams will —

swell to torrents in the winter rains and from the rapid melting of
snows in spring, and become dry in summer, when most needed for
irrigation. The mining interest, depending upon a uniform water
supply, will share in this misfortune, which will also be felt in the
loss of water-power, and in the failure of water for the supply of
towns and cities.

CHAPTER IV.
REPRODUCTION FROM SEED.

The essential parts of the Blossom.
116. Flowers include the parts essential to germination, analogous

in effect to.sex. They consist of at least two distinct portions— ~

stamens and pistils. The first of these bears an anther, containing at
full maturity a yellow dust called pollen. The stamens, when few,

are generally of some determinate number, and in perfect flowers —

are arranged around one or more pistils in the center. These have
at their base the germ of the future seeds, enveloped in some coyver-
ing, which is collectively termed the fruit. The anthers are gen-
erally supported or suspended by stalks or fibers called filaments.
The pistil usually consists of the stipe, or supporting stem, and the
stigma or terminal part that receives the pollen. The fertilization

The Flower and its Parts: Process of Fertilization. 29

of the blossom is secured whenever the pollen, at maturity, is con-
veyed to the stigma of the pistil.

_ 117.*The blossoms of trees are often unsymmetri-
cal, and the parts essential to fertilization may be
either in the same blossom, as shown on a subsequent
page in the linden, or on different parts of the same
tree, as shown in the hornbeam and the alder, in the
accompanying etigravings. In the latter, the germs
for the early spring blossoms are formed the fall be-
fore. Such pendant blossoms in trees are called
aments, or catkins. Their form and structure afford
characters, upon which botanical classification in part
depends.

118. Where both the staminate and pistillate blos- 4, staminate.
soms grow upon the same plant, it is said to be "{jpyer ot Me
monecious, but when formed upon different trees or
plants, as in case of the poplars and willows, it is said to be diccious.
In the latter case, the seeds can not be fertile, unless trees bearing
both kinds of blossoms grow
in the same neighborhood,

119. The winds have an
important influence in dis-
seminating the pollen from
one tree to another, and the
blossoms of such trees gen-
erally open in the windy sea-
son of the year, and before
the leaves appear. The bees,
in pursuit of honey, perform
an important office in con- 7
veying pollen from one blos-
som to another, and there
are many specisl arrange-

: . 12, Two Male Blossoms of the Hornbeam, and
ments in nature for securing the Terminal Pistilate Blossom.

fertilization.

120. When the pollen of one species is conveyed to the pistillate
flowers of another species, within the same genus, eross-fertilization
sometimes occurs. This may occur naturally, or by artificial means,

30 Process of Fertilization: Distribution of Tree Seeds.

and the hybrids thus obtained may, in the case of trees, be peer:
uated by layers, cuttings or sds Saag

121. When fer-
tilization is se
cured, the stami-
nate blossoms fall
off or dry up, and
the germs at the
base of the pistils
expand, and ripen
into the fruit.
This usually hap-
pens the same
year that the bles-
soms appear, but
in some of the
oaks and the con-
ifers, the ripening
process is not com-
pleted till the au-
tumn of the sec-
ond year after fer-
tilization takes
place. Many trees
have their fertile
and their sterile
years; indeed, but
few trees bear
steadily and alike from year to year. In the ease of trees intro-
duced into regions where they are not native, they may thrive and
grow to large size, but without ever bearing fertile seeds, or even
without blossoming. A dense shade is unfavorable for the forma-
tion of seeds, and trees, after being exposed to the air and light by
the clearing away of trees around them, will usually bear fruit more
abundantly in first or second year after.

18. Alnus glutinosa—Alder.

Of the Natural Distribution of Forest Tree Seeds.

122. While the seeds of all trees may fall and take root under or
near the parent tree, and there thrive, when properly supplied with

The Natural Distribution of Forest- Tree Seeds. 31

moisture and light, nature has provided many kinds with the means
_ for being carried to a greater or less distance.
This natural dispersion of the seed may occur in
various Ways:
123. Dispersion by the Winds. Most of the pines
and firs have their seeds furnished with a thin
membranous wing at one end, that enables them
to be borne toa considerable distance by the winds.
The elms have a thin dise entirely around the
seed, and the maples have their seeds in pairs, each
side being furnished with a membranous wing. In
the ash the seeds have closely adherent leaves,
which enable it to be carried by the winds, and in
the hornbeam there is a leaf-like appendage, that
aids in its dispersion. In the maples, the pairs .‘t.of tne Willow.
of seeds, with symmetrical wings, takes a_ro-
tary, spinning motion as they fall. The poplars
and willows have a downy tuft, which enables
them to be carried by the winds, sometimes many
miles from the tree where they grew.

124. The cottonwood, which belongs to the
poplar family, derives its name from this downy
appendage, which lies abundantly scattered over
the ground at the season when it ripens. The
basswood has a heavier seed, suspended on the
under side of a leaf-like wing, which causes it to
shoot off obliquely as it falls. In some instances,
the seeds falling in winter upon a crust of snow, or
upon the ice, may glide along before the wind a
great distance, and in this way the pods of the lo-
cust, and other heavier seeds, in their capsules, or
without them, may occasionally be scattered.

Of the Agency of Animals in the Planting of Tree his
Seeds. 17. ots af the
125. We often find trees, especially such as bear .
edible nuts, or stone fruits surrounded by a pulp, growing in situa-
tions where the seeds have been dropped by birds or animals. In fact,
the squirrels may be called the most industrious and successful

32 The Natural Distribution of Forest- Tree Seeds.

planters in the world, as during the nut season they are continually
burying these seeds, just below the surface, un-
der the leaves and in the rich soil, in conditions
eminently favorable for vegetation. This is
done at a season when the vitality of these
seeds is greatest; and although some of them
may be afterwards eaten, vast numbers germi-
nate and grow to trees. gre
126. This will sufficiently account for most
instances in which the trees bearing heavy
seeds, such as the oaks and the nut-trees, are
found scattered through a forest of other kinds,
where none were noticed before. Upon careful
18, Seed of the European €X@mination in a pine woodland, we may often
beatae SOwrvinus find multitudes of young oaks, that spring up
from the planting of squirrels, and that soon

perish, unless the
pines happen to be —
cut away,when they
may take a vigorous
growth, and thus be-
come the principal
19. Seeds of the English Maple (Acer campesire). kind. The seeds
eaten by birds, and
dropped undigested, may take root at greater distances from the

parent tree.’

Distribution of Seeds by Currents of Water.

127. Many seeds float readily upon the water while still in their
capsules, and some of them without, and in this way they are car-
ried long distances by rivers, and thrown up along the shores of
Jakes. It is thus that the sand-bars and shores of our western riv-
ers are continually supplying an inexhaustible and ever-renewing
supply of cottonwood and other seedling trees, that may be easily |
plowed up and planted at a small cost, upon the prairies of that re-
gion, and with much better chances of success than where cuttings

? A most interesting article upon this subject, by Henry D. Thoreau, will

be found in the Report of the Board of Agriculture of Massachusetts, 1860,
p. 11. ’

Seeds that ripen early: Gathering and keeping of Seeds. 33

from these trees are set in the soil without roots. The success of
cuttings depends much on the sea-
_ son; if very dry and hot, they may
fail, and if moist and cool, they
will grow. But a plant with suffi-
cient root in the beginning has far
better chances of getting well

- started, and when properly set, in
~ asoil where it can get moisture, it

is almost sure to succeed.
Seed that Ripen in Spring or Early
Summer.
128. The elms, willows, poplars, :
and soft maples mature their seeds 3. Seeds ee aiericien re Maple (Acer

in the spring or early summer, and

if not allowed to become too dry, may be carried
to a considerable distance, but should be planted
as soon as may be in the same season. They should
be lightly covered, and the ground should be kept
moist and partly shaded, until they take root and
get well sprouted. Many of these seeds may be
gathered from the surface of still water, as they
have fallen from trees along the banks. When
planted, they should be but thinly covered with
soil, and shaded from the sun. They will gen-
erally get well rooted the first year, and ready for
an early start in the next season.

_ The Gathering and Keeping of Seeds. 2%. Ripe Seeds of
| 129. Tree seeds should generally be gathered as they ull” '°"°"*
soon as they are ripe, and if not before, soon after
they have fallen from the tree. They do not re-
tain their vitality long; but if not planted the
same fall, may generally be kept till the next
spring. Asa general rule, they loose their germ-
inating power within a year. The mode of keep- ae Neen San Tale oe
ing them over is elsewhere described in different

- kinds of trees, and can not be generally stated, except that they

‘
j
:
,

2 tes Te eS eer re

—

~

34 Modes of keeping Nuts and Acorns.

should not be allowed to heat, or mold, or become too dry, and in
some cases they should not be allowed to freeze. Where large
quantities of pine and other coniferous seeds are required for plant-
ing in Europe, drying-houses are constructed, using either solar or
artificial heat for drying the cones, so that the seeds may be shaken

out. Nuts and hard-shelled seeds may be kept fresh by packing in —

slightly damp sand, and keeping in a cool, but not too dry a place.
Seeds having a pulpy covering should be washed out and dried in

the shade before putting away. Small seeds may be kept in sacks: ~

or papers.

A Cheap Method of Keeping Nuts and Acorns for Planting..

130. As these may be spoiled by too much drying, or may heat
and mold if in large heaps, or may sprout prematurely if too wet,
the following method is sometimes practiced: A dry and sandy
place is selected in a forest, where it is level, or a little sloping to the

south, and where the -shelter of large trees is low and abundant.
The place must be fenced in, and should not be liable to standing -
water. A small ditch may be dug around it for drainage. The: —

acorns or nuts are spread on the ground as gathered, four or five
inches deep, the leaves and litter being first removed. From the
beginning they should be thoroughly raked daily, for the first’

month, and afterwards once in two or three days. By the end of ©

December, the tendency to heat and mold will be over, and in very’

cold weather they should be lightly covered with straw or leaves ;” .

but this should be rémoved early, to prevent sprouting. In tem=
perate climates no covering is needed, and in very rainy weather the”
raking should be repeated till time of planting. .
131. Thin-shelled nuts, such as acorns and the chestnut, sooner
loose their vitality in the sun and dry air, and are more liable to
heat than those haying a hard shell, like the black walnut, the but-
ternut, and the hickories. They will not be injured by freezing, if”
protected by a thin covering of muleh—for nature provides such a
cover in the herbage and fallen leaves. They will need protection
from standing water, and from vermin and other animals. When
kept under shelter, they should be spread evenly, and should be

stirred from time to time, till the moisture has partly dried out, so

that they will not mold.

if

- made up of a multitude of small cells, filled

and having access to the air and carbonic acid

Essential parts of the Young Plant. 35

Process of Germination of the Seed.

139. The seed contains the germs of the first growth of the future
in an embryo, and the cotyledons or seed-leaves that will first ap-

ta In the conifers, such as the pines, spruces, and cedars, there
_ are several of thése cotyledons, but in most other trees that we shall

have occasion to notice there are two.

133. When living seeds are properly exposed to darkness, moist-
ure, air, and warmth, they will sprout and grow. In this process,

there comes out from the embryo a root, or radicle, which descends
into the soil in whatever position the seed may chance to lie, while

_ the cotyledons or germinal leaves seek the air and the light, forming

the plumule or stem of the plant.

134, The time required for sprouting varies from a few hours to
a few days, and in some cases it does not occur until the next
season. The process may sometimes be hastened and assured by
previously soaking the seeds, and in those hav-
ing hard shells by scalding, as elsewhere more
fully described.

135. The cotyledons of the acorn (a) are

with a kind of starch, which performs an office
quite analagous to the albumen of an egg, and
is sometimes so called. It differs, however,
from albumen as found in the egg, and in the
serum of the blood, and is a form of protein@
not forming a part of the tissues, but contained
in cells; as a thin jelly mingled with the juices.
In other forms it is called gluten, and, with
starch, it forms the principal bulk in grains
and seeds.

136. This, absorbing moisture from the soil,

gas in the soil, is changed into sugar, which is 93. an Acorn giving out

soluble in the juices of the young plant, and by {jd "mule "a Bat:

the time that this supply is spent, the roots

have got well started, and the young tree has all the elements of

life that it requires for future growth.

86 Germination of Seeds.— Tests of Vitality.

137. There is often a little delay, after the germ has started, before
the roots get a sufficient hold
upon the soil to draw from it
the nourishment necessary for —
a more rapid growth. :
138. In natural planting, the
seed falls to the earth when
ripe, and scarcely gets covered,
excepting by the dead leaves. —
It sometimes will sprout the
‘first season; but in other cases,
as in nuts and stone-fruits, the
germination takes place in the —
spring following, and after ex-
posure to winter rains and in
cold climates to the frost. It crs
is a safe rule to follow this eX- *
ample, by planting or sowing — >
the seeds while they are still
fresh, and especially those that
ripen early the same season,
139. As seeds of trees are
liable to lose their vitality by —
keeping, they should be tested _

24. Modes of Germination of different kinds | s
of Seeds. in doubtful cases. If dry and —
i, A, the seed, with gefffm ate, and cotyle- shriveled, they are probal YI y
dons, a, and c. B, a first leaf. C, the first dead. The best t x a
pair. 7i, first leaves of the ash. iii, leaves Ca € best way tO ase

that come out, the external covering of the tain whether they are alive or oe

seed being leftin the grcund. The cross in pon
each figure shows the place of the earth’s not is to spread them x

* surface. flannel, cover them with an-

other piece of flannel, and,
after moistening them, place them in a dark and warm place. The
proportion that sprout shows the relative quantity that are alive, ”

and sometimes the price paid for tree seeds is governed by the re-
sults of this test.

¥

=

2 RE oo BF ee eer

\\r

Sowing of Seeds Broad-cast, ete. 37

_ CHAPTER V.

OF THE VARIOUS MODES OF PROPAGATION OF FOREST TREES.

_ 140. In securing the growth of trees in a new grove or woodland,

_ we may obtain plants by either of the following methods:

(1.) From the seeds sown broad-cast or planted where the trees

- are to grow.

(2.) From seeds first sown in seed-beds or nurseries, or that spring
up from ratural sowing, and that are transplanted for permanence.

(3.) From cuttings, layers, and other methods of propagation
from parts of living trees, and that perpetuate the varieties peculiar
to each. These may be separately considered :

1. Seeds sown Broad-cast or Planted where the Trees are to Grow.

141. In some species, this is done by nature in a general way, by
self-seeding, as in case of the cottonwood, the chief requirement
being in the way of preparation, a fresh mellow surface, in the
season when the seeds are being scattered by the winds. Upon very
steep surfaces, that would be liable to erosion from rains if broken
up, the seed may be sown broad-cast, without previously disturbing
the soil, and upon northerly slopes this is often done with adyan-
tage upon the snow.

142. In establishing a growth of trees upon loose sands, it is also
necessary to sow the seeds broad-cast, usually with those of other
plants that give them some protection whem@young; for, in this
case, the first fibers of the roots strike deep into the soil, and they
can not afterwards be removed without injury.

145. It is generally preferable to plant the seeds in rows, so as to
admit of cultivation between the trees while they are small. This

' may be done by seed-planters, or by hand, as will be more particu-

larly described concerning the several kinds of trees elsewhere de-
scribed. In planting seeds directly, allowance should be made for
loss from deep covering, depredations of birds and insects, and other
waste, as well as from defective seeds, and from the various acci-
dents to which the young plants may be exposed. In such cases
they should be thinned out from time to time, and often the plants
thus taken out may be used in filling up the blank spaces in the
rows. In doing this, the hole should be first made, and the plant

Ba) els
38 Sowing of Seeds: Planting of Walnuts, cte.

with the soil around its roots should be taken up with a hoe or
spade, and set in the new place. The ‘bore-spade,” elsewhere
described, may be used to adyantage for this purpose. [§ 198.] bet:

144. Seeds may be lightly covered with a hoe, or, better still, a
with an iron rake, which is made for this purpose. This is made }

25. Strong Iron Rake for mellowing the Surface and covering Seeds,

of sufficient strength for working among the roots of trees, and is
of -great use in exposing a fresh surface when we would wish to sow
seeds in vacant places in the woods, as well as for surface work gen-_
erally, where we would wish to freshen the soil without moving it
from its place. Another instrument is used to some extent by 4
planters that may perhaps be understood without a figure. It con-
sists of a heavy iron disc, some eight or ten inches across, with a
long handle coming up from the center, and a series of long iron
spikes on the under side. When this is struck into the ground, and
turned around by the aid of a cross-bar in the handle, it mellows
the soil on a circular spot as large as the disc, and as deep as the
spikes are long. A dibble or pointed stick should never be used in
planting seeds, or attheast not unless it makes a hole much larger
than the seeds and has a guard to regulate the depth. Ifsmall,and _
used carelessly, the seeds may be covered too deep, or they may
lodge part way down the hole, leaving a void space under them.

The Planting of Walnut and other Nut-Trees.

145. In a dry climate, and in the fine prairie soil, it is difficult to 7
transplant any of the oaks or nut-trees without great risk of losing
them, and it will be generally found better to plant them where
they are to remain. In doing so, it is an excellent plan, and some-
times very necessary, to give them in the first years some protection,
by the aid of the fast-growing kinds, such as the white willow or
the cottonwood, set in alternate places in the rows, and to provide a
belt of the latter alone around the outside of the grove.

er

Planting in Seed-beds and Nurseries. 39

—
= >;

Soaking of Seeds before Planting.
“146. Hard-shelled seeds, such as th8 common and honey locust,

and the Kentucky coffee-tree, etc., will not grow until they have
been soaked for some time, and sometimes not till the secontl or even

third year after planting. Their germinating power is hastened by

_ sealding fora short time, and by allowing them to macerate in warm

water. The process may be repeated several times, the seeds that

show signs of sprouting being first picked out, at each time, before
- exposing the rest to this treatment. They should be planted with-

out delay; for, if allowed to dry after being once softened, their vi-
tality is soon lost.

2. Seeds Planted in Seed-Beds and Nurseries.

147. In selecting grounds for a nursery, we should avoid those
that are exceptionally rich, or that are too damp, because the young
plants thus started will, when placed in less fertile and dryer
grounds, either perish or lose their vigor, and be slow in recovering
strength. A hard and barren soil is still more unfavorable, for the
plants that start are feeble, and will not endure the hardship of
transplanting. The grounds should be of good fertility, moderately
compact, and well drained, sheltered from hot and from cold winds,
and not exposed to drouth.

148. The soil should be prepared by deep cultivation, and be kept
free from weeds. Sometimes this may be done by the cultivation
of some hoed crop between the rows of young.trees, when they are
not liable to be shaded or injured by this praciice. The presence of
an adjacent woodland will often afford protection, and a stream of
water near by will be found very convenient for watering the young
plants or for irrigation in a dry time.

149. It is generally best to sow the seeds in beds, laid out in bands
about four feet wide, and of indefinite length, with paths between.
The seeds are sowed in rows, from six inches to a foot apart, and

_ very close together in the rows. The covering should be light, and

only just sufficient to prevent the seeds from being washed out by
the rains. They may, with great advantage, be planted in and cov-
ered by a soil prepared from dead leaves and decomposed sod.’

1 For preparing this soil, the following directions are given by Lorentz
and Parade; “Select a shady place, not exposed to the south, but open to

Wins le»

40 Planting in Seed-Beds and Nurseries.

150. The young seedlings of trees generally require. shading a

part of the time, and this is especially true of the conifers. This
may be done by placing screens made of lath, with spaces between
as wide as the pieces, and supported a few inches above the surface ;
or a kind of arbor may be made of poles, over the beds, high enough |

for a man to stand upright under them, and loosely covered i

brush.

shelter that the young plants receive under the parent trees in the
forest, where the sunlight and shadow alternately passes over them,
at different hours of the day.

152. In a dry time the seed-beds should be watered, and upon

first sowing they may need the protection of a light covering of
brush or grass to keep them from being disturbed by the birds. -
153. In watering a seed-bed and nursery rows, in a dry time, the

151. The object of these screens is to afford the same kind of —

1

earth should be dampened to a considerable depth, and when begun

in dry weather, it must be continued till the rains come; for, other-
wise, a crust will form on the surface, which prevents access of the

air to the roots. No other mode of watering is so good in a nursery
as that of irrigation, especially in preparing young trees for trans-

planting in cities, and there we wish to secure an abundant mass of

fibrous roots.

154. The seed-beds and rows should be kept free of weeds, the
former by hand-weeding and the latter by hoeing; but in the part —
occupied by larger trees it is of less importance, but still necessary. —

the sky, so that the air shall have free access; make one or more piles of

dead leaves, ferns, and other succulent vegetation gathered before their seeds
are ripe, and make other like piles of sods and the weeds pulled up in clean-
ing out the sced-rows and the alleys between them. These piles may be a
yard or a yard anda half high. In spring and fall they should be turned,
and in a dry time they should be watered. The sods will generally decay
the first year, but it may require three or four years to decompose thie leaves.
A mixture of beech leaves with the leaves of conifers makes the best possi-
ble quality, and the process may be hastened by mixing in the foliage of the
ash, maple, elm, willow, poplar, alder, locust, etc., that decay more rapidly.
When the seed-beds have been prepared with a mixture of these soils, they

will afterwards need but a thin covering every year to maintain the soil in
the best state of fertility, and there will be no need of moving to a new
place on account of the exhaustion of the soil.’—Culture des Bois, 5th ed.,
p- 595,

Planting in Seed-Beds and Nurseries. 4)

In soils liable to heave with the frost, the young plants, when thrown
out, should be carefully replaced in the spring, and the soil pressed
_ down against the roots by hand.

155. The proper time of sowing in seed-beds is generally in the
‘spring, but the seeds that ripen in the early part of summer, such
ae and soft maples, should be sown the same season, and
‘as soon as may be after ripening. We give elsewhere directions for
the collection and preservation of seeds.
156. Experience has shown that this dense sowing in the seed-
rows yields the best results, for the plants are not so liable to be
erowded out by the weeds; and although the roots may interlock a
little, they easily separate when taken out. The larger plants may
be first taken out, leaving the feebler ones until they get stronger.
157. It is remarked by Carritre’ that the seeds of some conifers
_ very éasily loose their germinating power,’ so that it is desirable that
| they should be sown as soon as may be after they are ripe ;_ but gen-
| erally, as they ripen in the fall, they may be kept till spring. With
such as have the seed imbedded in a fleshy or pulpy envelope,’ it
requires the greatest carc to keep them alive tiil the next year. In
all species the germinating power deteriorates more or less rapidly
the longer the seeds are kept. There are great advantages in spring
sowing, as is the common practice, and this may be done at any
time from March to May. In damp mild seasons, success is certain ;
but.in case of drouth, the young plants are sure to suffer, and in the
large way it is impossible to water them. He therefore inquires in —
a way that half implies advice, as to whether it would not sometimes
__ be best to sow late in autumn, there still being some chance of in-
' jury from the cold. This might in many cases still be prevented
by a covering of leaves, or, perhaps still better, by sowing oats,
barley, or some other grain with the coniferous seeds. These,
springing up in the fall, would afford a covering to the young plants
sufficient to protect them through the first winter. This sowing of

_ Praité général des Coniferes, p. 574.
2Such as those belonging to the genera Abies, Araucaria, Arthrotazis,
» Callitris, Cryptomeria, Cunninghamia, Frenela, Libocedrus, Sequoia, Taxo-
dium, Thuja, Tsuga, ete.
*Such as the Cephalotavis, Dacrydium, Gnetum, Podocarpus, Salisburia,
Taxus, Torrega, etc.

42 Planting in Seed- Beds and Nurseries.

grain should be thin, so as not to smother the seedlings that they i:
were intended to protect.
158. Other writers prefer the first heat of spring, for the cow :
of conifers, excepting the silver-fir (Abies pectinata), whieh should not
be kept over winter, as it quickly looses its life, and can hardly bear
transportation for a great distance. In great operations they gener-
ally divide the sowing between the fall and spring, and take the
chances for and against in each season. 4
159. In the fall of the same year, or in the: spring following, the
plants should be taken up carefully from the seed-beds and set in — 4
nursery rows. The roots should not be exposed to the air longer
than is necessary, and those of conifers suffer much sooner than
those of the deciduous kinds. They will always bear longer exposure
in autumn than in spring, because the evaporation is then less, and _
the circulation is suspended. or this reason fall-setting is advised
as preferable; but local climate and circumstances may determine
one or the other time as the proper one, and in this, experience only
ean decide.
160. Young trees do best when eee are transplanted once or
twice in the nursery rows, or when they have been simply loosened
and drawn up, to be at once replaced. This should be done only in
damp weather.
161. Finally, when of convenient size, and from two to five years
of age, the trees should be loosened with a spade-fork, drawn.up,
and carefully transplanted where they are to remain. If they are
to be carried a considerable distance, they must be carefully packed
so as to prevent the roots from drying up, yet not so-as to entirely:
exclude the air.
162. It will be seen from the foregoing that the management of
a nursery requires practical skill, and unless the proposed plantations
are extensive, it will generally be found best to procure the young
plants from nurserymen, rather than attempt to raise them from
the seed. This is more particularly true of the conifers, that are as —
a rule more difficult to get started than the deciduous kinds. In ex-
tensive plantations, it is always preferable to establish nurseries near
the grounds to be planted, as well to avoid the expense of tr ansporta-
tion and exposure of roots by remoyal, as to secure conditions of
soil that shall be as nearly as possible alike, so that the young

Planting in Seed-Beds and Nurseries. 43

_ trees will suffer less from the change, and be in better condition to
_ take a vigorous start.

163. Trees from nurseries should have their roots exposed as lit-
tle as possible to the air, and they should be planted immediately
after they are unpacked. It sometimes happens that lots intended
_ for different persons are sent in one box, to one address. If the own-
ers are not present to receive them, they may lie hours or days in
_ the dry air, and when planted the chances are that none will be
found alive. A little common sense and thoughtful care would
prevent this disappointment. If the trees can not be at once planted,
they should be at least ‘ heeled in,” by covering the roots with soil,
and dampening it a little if dry. They may be sometimes thus
kept through the winter, in cases where from overflow or mirey soil
they can not be taken up from the soil where they have been started,
in time for early planting.

164. The age at which trees should be set for permanence depends
upon soil, exposure, and other circumstances that render it difficult
to fix a general rule. For ordinary planting, however, one year in
the seed-bed and two years in nursery rows, may be stated as the
general rule. But for exposed hillsides, they do better oftentimes
when the seedlings one year in the beds, and one year in the rows,
or two years in the beds and one in the rows, are taken.

165. In the oak, it has been recommended to cut off the tap-roots
with a sharp spade, when the plants are young, and before taking
them from the seed-bed. They are allowed to stand the first win-
ter, and when re-set the next spring, in nursery rows, the lateral
roots appear abundantly. In time another tap-root will form, which
is again cut off before final planting.

166. Another plan recommended by Duhamel consists in paving
____ the seed-bed with flat stones, along the line of the rows, and at a
' proper depth below the surface, so as to stop the descent of the tap-
roots, and compel the formation of laterals.

k 167. More recently a method has been proposed in France, for
e securing adense growth of lateral roots in the seedling oaks, that has

i been found quite successful.!| The acorns are thickly spread over a
: 1M. H. Levret, in a publication by the French Forest Administration,
issued in 1878.

. The same author suggests another method, whic’ consists in pinching off
-_

the plumule within five or six days after it appears, by which the first im-

44 Transplanting: Propagation from Cuttings,

layer of broken stone, and are-covered with as rich as
ble and watered. This arrangement secures free ace
and the plants send out an abundance of laterals, w
into the soil above them, and to but a. limited exter
By covering a very hard stony surface with a very _
the same result is obtained.’ |

o

Spring or Fall Transplanting.

168. As to the time of transplanting no general rule
In some countries, as in France, fall planting after
rains, does best for the deciduous kinds, and spring, a
when vegetation is just beginning to start, fee the conife
ous kinds.
169. When young plants are taken up in nia deoridiaes <¢
vegetation, their roots suffer less from exposure to the air th
the season of active growth is just beginning, and they
doubtless bear transportation better. There are, in shor
vantages and disadvantages attending both fall and spring p
and a safe rule would be to experiment upon both in new |
before definitely adopting cither to the exclusion of the otk
It would be unsafe to accept these results as final, until
been tested for a series of years, because one winter mig’
usually open, or a spring or summer exceptionally dry
other cause not of ordinary occurrence, may affect a
would not occur again for many years.

8. Propagation from Cuttings, Layers, and other Metho
Culling

lars aa willows, and thrust thorn into the ground, they
favorable conditions put forth roots from the lower end and

pulse of growth is thrown with greater force into the root, He
shade the seed-beds with thin cloth, which admit sufficient light, a
rain, and prevent damages from rvst: Upon waste stone seed. beds bi

yard,
1 See preceding note,

Propagation by Cuttings, Layers and Grafting. 45

| - that are covered, and become separate trees. They should only be

taken when the leaves are off, and should be set early in spring.

- The lower end should be cut off smoothly and obliquely, and care

4

| should be taken not to injure the bark in setting.
- 171. If the shoots are cut late in fall and are put away in a damp

cellar, or if they are buried below the reach of frost, a callus will

_ form at the lower end, from which the roots will readily spring. In

the finely divided soul of the prairies, they should be set deep, and

ina dry climate but one or two buds above the surface will be suf-

ficient. ‘Lhe soil should be pressed down firmly around the shoots,

at the time of setting, and they should be kept free from weeds till

_ they shade the ground. Cuttings may be set in the fall, if covered

with a mulch in winter. This is done with gooseberries, currents,

- and the grape, but is not so certain as in early spring.

/ Layers.

172. This method, in common use among nurserymen, is some-
times employed to get an independent root to a branch before sepa-
rating it from the parent tree. The branch is bent down into a
hollow place made in the soil, confined by a peg or a stone and the
end turned up, so that the leaves are exposed to the air. It is
generally well to partly cut off the branch at the lowest part, leaving
the upper half entire. The ground should be kept clear of weeds,
and should be watered in a dry time, while the new roots are form-
ing. After they have become well rooted, such plants may be care-
fully cut apart from the stock, and transplanted like seedling
sprouts. This isa very sure and convenient way to perpetuate va-
rieties of fruit and ornamental trees, and is usually done in autumn.
It does not apply to coniferous kinds.

Grafting.

“173. This is one of the most common and certain ways of perpet-
uating varieties in fruit and ornamental trees. It is done chiefly in,
spring, and before the leaves appear, and is most likely to succeed in
mild moist weather. The stock should generally be a little more
advanced than the scion, and to secure this the latter should be cut
in winter, or eyen in autumn, and kept in a cool moist place, as in
a cellar, with the ends set in damp moss or fine soil. They should
be taken from thrifty shoots of the last year’s growth. If cut from

46 Propagation by Grafting aud Budding.

lower branches, they will fruit sooner, but do not grow to so hand- ~
some a shape as those from the center or top of the tree. They are
often taken from young trees in nursery rows.

174. There are various modes of grafting, which need not here
be described in detail. They agree in bringing the newly cut surfaces
of the scion and the stock together, so that the fresh bark and —
young wood of each are in close contact, the wound covered from
the air by some plastic substance, and the parts held together till
they unite. This is done by splicing, inserting in a clef, by binding ~
two branches or trunks together, after cutting away the bark and
wood of each so that they may be closely united, and in various
other ways. Where two living trees are thus united, the connection
is cut away from one of them, after the union is complete.

175. Budding, is the insertion of the bud of one tree under the
bark of another, and covering and securing it till a union forms.
It is done in midsummer and early autumn, from the Ist of July
till the middle of September, and only when the bark of the stock
will separate from the wood. Annular budding consists in taking
a ring of bark from one tree, containing a bud, and placing it
around a branch of the same size, from which a similar piece of bark
has been taken in another tree. Sometimes a piece less than the
entire size is inserted. By this means the injuries to bark by mice, ,
etc., may sometimes be repaired. y

176. By the aid of cuttings, grafts, and layers, we are able to se-
cure the growth of some kinds of trees that never bear seed in the
climate where they may be grown by transplanting, and especially
we may perpetuate varieties to indefinite extent by these methods.

177. As examples of this, we find the Lombardy poplar, the
weeping willow, and cut-leaved varieties of the birch, alder, beech,
maple, etc., under cultivation, that would be lost in a single gener-
ation of tree-life, if they depended upon growth from the seeds.
The sumac, so successfully grown in Southern Europe, does not
ripen its seeds, even in Sicily, where it grows to the greatest per-
fection; and the English elm (Ulmus campestris) is almost always
grown from layers, or suckers, taken from old trees, or by grafting
upon other stocks. It may even be grown in moist rich soils, by -
burying the chips having bark with buds upon them, if these are
cut in early spring, and planted at once before drying. .

Modes of Planting Trees. 47

CHAPTER VI.

PLANTING.—( Continued.)

The Interval between Trees in Planting.

178. Upon a rocky and broken surface, no attention need be
given to the regularity of spaces, the most convenient spots being
taken wherever found, and often different species, as places best
suited for their growth occur. But in a level, or moderately un-
even country, there are great advantages to be gained from planting

at fixed intervals. We will notice
_ some of the methods that may be
followed:

Planting in Rows.

179. In this, the intervals may be
wider apart in one direction than
in the other. The rows may be
from 4 to 8 feet or more apart at eee eee Rowe, cn) tape
first, and the trees in the rows from
3 to 6 feet. The advantages of this are, that the spaces between
can be cultivated more easily for the first years, and by taking out
alternate rows, as the trees become
_ erowded, we can pass in between
the trees in remoying the products.

Planting in Squares.

180. In this, the spaces are at
equal distances in both directions ;
and in this, as in the preceding,
regularity may be secured by mark- 3S cop as Piiiod Fianted
ing the ground after it is prepared,
aud by planting at all the intersections of the right-angled lines,
omitting none.

Quineunx Order.
181. Here the trees are set at the corners of squares and in the
* eentral point within. The trees range in rows horizontally, ver-
tically, and diagonally, and if the trees in the former are 10 meas-

48 Modes of Planting Trees,

ures apart, the diagonals will be slightly more than 14,

Roce

VaVAVaas

28. Mode of Planting in Quincunx
Order.

tIt ie

9

29. Mode of Mesking for Quincunx
Planting.

31. Mode of Parallel Marking to
secure the Triangular Order.

? marking off a field

ularity is best secured by 1
the ground off into s
and planting in alter

The Triangular Or

ners of equilateral trian
combining six of these 1
we find that each tree
of a hexagon, with six tr
equal distances around it. We

a series of circles ha

» radii, and so that the cireumf
-of each passes through t:

of all of those around it. We
secure this in a Practical

lines, crossing at right
at twice the distance a
direction more than in
If we plant at the alte
of intersection, we shall
triangular order. By
the three directions }
rows, such plantations m
tivated in the same way
but the rows must be wider
in order to do this to advantag

Tables showing Number of Trees. 49

alt i . in Right-angled ae arene oad
ae wn

Yards between Rows.

10 15 2.0 25 3.0 3.5 4.0 45 5.0 | 5.5

0.5 | 20,000 | 15.333 | 10.000 | 8,000 | 6,667] 5,714] 5,000] 4.441] 4.000 | 3,636
1.0 | 10,000 | 6,667] 5, 4.000 | 3,333] 2.857] 2.500] 2,222] 2,000 | 1,818
1.5 | 6.667 |. 4,444 | 3,333] 2.667] 2.222] 1,905 1,667] 1,481 | 1,333 | 1,212
20} 5,090 | 3.333} 2,500) 2,000} 1,667] 1,429] 1,250} 1,111} 1,000} 909

~ 25 | 4,000} 2.667 | 2,000} 1,600] 1,333] 1,143] 1,000 800 | ° 727
¢ 24 $,333 | 2,222] 1,667] 1,388] 1,111 952 833 741 667 | 606
3.5 | 2.857 | 1,905] 1,429] 1,143 952 816 714 635 571 | 519
4.0 | 2,500} 1,667] 1,250] 1,000 833 714 625 556 500 | 455
45] 2,222] 1,481] 1,111 889 741 635 556 494 444 | 404
ae 2,009 | 1,333 | - 1,000 800 667 571 500 444 400 | 364
5. 1,818 | 1,212 909 727 606 519 455 404 364 | 333

~ 6.0} 1,667} 1,111 833 667 556 476 417 870 333} 303
6.5 | 1,538 | 1,026 769 615 513 440 885 342 308 | 280
7.0} 1,429 952 714 671 476 408 357 317 236 | 260
7.5 | 1,333 889 |* 667 4 381 333 267 |, 242
8.0} 1.2% 833 625 500 417 357 313 278 250 |° 227
85] 1,176 784 588 471 836 204 261 235 | 219
9.0} 1,111 TAL 556 494 370 817 278 247 222 | 202
10.0 | 1,000 667 500 400 333 286 250 222 200' 100

In this table we may substitute any other denomination of linear
measure in place of yards.

184. Comparison between the Numbers set in Squares and in Quincuns

Order.
-—
phe a ere 5 - Fy 5 s = 3
> = &,
, Z se3 || 3a | 28, | 823 2| 25 | 823
GeP |) “F ao | ReP = a | Rep | FS
* a , ef & a5 . Be ae : a]
rY 2 : tg 2B 7g ae a 2p. 3 Sy
2 ; (BS i} iS |] . 83] i 88 4 ee ifs
rf iE. 7 "3 ae : Ra : *e : 3 bok S
: ; ° : ere . or) ro)
:§ Sha | 2 FR : 8 eet LR 8 Bs 42
05 4,0000 | 46,188 3.5 816 943 65 237 273
ams 1] 1,0000 11,547 40 625 722 7.0 204 236
15 4.444 5,132 45 494 579 7.5 178 205
20 2,500 2,887 5.0 400 462 8.0 156 180
2.5 1,600 1,848 5.5 333 882 9.0 123 143
3.0 1,011 1,283 6.0 278 321 10.0 100 115

_ *We may substitute any other unit of linear measure, as in preceding table. It
_ will be seen that a little over 15 per cent is gained in number by the quincunx ar-
- rangement,

50

185. Number of Trees ae to Plant an ae of J
or i Rows at Right Angles, and at equal Distances a

Feet .| Number _ Feet Number Feet | Number)
between of between of between. of. jf

Rows. Trees. Rows. Trees. Rows. Trees.
1.0 43,560 7.0 13.0 257
1.5 19,360 7.5 G7 13.5
2.0 10,890 8.0 680 14.0 222
2.5 6,970 8.5 603 14.5 207
3.0 4,840 9.0 7 15.0 193
3.5 8,556 9.5 482 15.5 181
4.0 2,722 10.0 435 16 0 170
4.5 2.151 10.5 895 16.5 164 —
5.0 1,742 11.0 360 17.0 150
6.5 1,440 11.5 339 17.5 142
6.0 1,210 12.0 802 18.0 134
6.5 1,031 12.5 270 18.5 127

The Necessity of Close Planting.

186. As a general rule, all trees growing in an open
tendency to spread out laterally, and not to grow as
they are surrounded by other trees. This tendency to
near the ground is greater in a dry climate and in places
strong winds. It is therefore a common practice among
esiers to plant the trees much nearer together than they
when mature, and thin them out as they become larger

187. We see this thinning-out process going on nat
native woods, where the stronger shade out and kill off the fee
that but a few of the many that started as seedlings come t
ity. It is best to do this at proper times, without w
dying, and, as a general rule, it should be done at stated
throughout a given piece of woodland at about the same
delayed too long, the stems of the trees will be slender ¢
If done too soon, the effect of shade in carrying up the tree
No fixed rules can be given for thinning, and the judgment
forester with the conditions before him should be the pr
As a general fact, the conifers require less space them
trees.

188. It is an excellent practice in the planting of va
that we wish to have grow straight and high, to place:
ternate rows, and in alternate places in the rows, wit
of more rapid growth, but it may be of less value. TI
be taken out when their shelter and protection are no lo

Seedling Plants from the Forest. 51

and when the kinds we wish to preserve have grown s0 as to soon
shade the whole of the ground.

189. The oak is found to thrive exceedingly well while young |
| when thus surrounded by pines. The willow and the cottonwood
| are excellent nurses for other trees, such as the walnut and the ash.
_ In alternate rows.of willows and walnuts, the latter were found at
four years’ growth at Lincoln, Nebraska, to be from three to five
| feet high and very thrifty, while in a full exposure to the sun they
|. were but eighteen inches high and very scrubby.

The Planting of Young Trees from the Forest.

190. In transplanting native seedlings from the woods, we should
| select those that are somewhat separate from the rest, and best
exposed to the air and light. If taken from a dense shade into the
full light of day, the change may be too severe, even where the ut-
most care is taken to prevent exposure of the roots to the air—a pre-
caution in which we can not be too careful.

191. The roots should be at once dipped in a puddle of rich soil,
and packed in a box, standing upright, but not too close, and only
one course in a box. They should not be too closely covered from
the air, and should be set with as little delay as possible in nursery
rows, or for permanence, the place being previously well prepared.
Wild conifers should be cultivated two or three years before final set-
ting. Theprocess of taking them from their native place is much
more likely to succeed when the air is humid, as in foggy and low-
ering weather, and is greatly jeopardized by a cold dry wind.

. 192. The trees taken small, and with an abundance of fibrous
_ roots, are much more likely to succeed than those of a large size.
| They will get a better start, and in a few years equal and surpass
_ those that were transplanted at a more advanced age. In most
_ kinds, it is necessary to shorten the branches so that they may bear’
some proportion to the root. It is a good plan to cover the wounds
_ with coal-tar or paint, but quite often the buds start out and
branches form at some distance from the ends, which dry up and
- finally break off. It is a very common thing to see maple and other
trees set from the woods with a dead stick coming out among the
lower branches, it being the top of the original tree. These should
be broken or cut off close to the trunk, so as to allow the wood on
the side to grow over them. If too large, and left too long, they

52 Planting in the Soil :- Transplanting.

may cause a rotten cavity to form, tending to make the tree hollow

and short-lived.

193. In transplanting the oaks and some other hard woods, where
the growth is languishing and the shoot is small, it is an excellent —
plan to cut off the stem near the ground, after the root has got

started. This is best done when the leaves are off, in fall or winter.

The shoot that comes up in such cases from the root will grow vig-

orously and much more rapidly than if left as before.

194. In ‘“grub-prairies,” in the Northwestern States, the soil is —

full of the roots of trees and bushes, often of the jack-oak, hazel,

ete., that have been killed back to the roots by annual fires. They 4
will sprout and grow if protected from cattle and from fires, and —
gradually other kinds will come in, displacirg the first inferior kinds —
and forming a forest of more valuable trees. The change thus pro- —

duced in twenty years in Wisconsin and Minnesota, where these
grub-prairies are chiefly found, is sometimes remarkable.

Planting on the Sod.

195. In loose and very damp soils, it is sometimes found advan-

tageous to plant wholly upon the surface, by simply spreading out

the roots and turning the surrounding soil over them, so as to form

a little conical mound. The soil thus heaped up around the trees is
then covered, if convenient, with mosses or other non-condag
substances, and on the outside some inverted sod.

196. The trees thus set should have no tap root. An abundaee .

of fine fibrous roots may be secured to help the first growth by sift-
ing well-rotted leaf-mold over the roots as they are placed. - From
careful observation it is found that these mounds retain the heat of
the day and cool slower in the night—that the evaporation from
them is less than-from flat surfaces, and that there is a perceptible

‘disengagement of carbonic acid gas in the interior from the decom-
position going on.in-the grass and other herbage that is covered.
This method enables us to plant in places with less drainage, by rais-
ing the roots.a little higher.

The Transplanting of young Trees without Disturbing the Fibers of the
Roots, .

197. The exposure of the roots of seedlings to the air, and es-

pecially to the sun and to dry winds, is generally to be avoided as

_

Transplanting without Disturbing the Soil. 83

much as possible, and conifers are particularly sensitive in this re-
_ spect. If the fibers of their roots are once dry, they are generally
_ injured beyond remedy. In handling young evergreen seedlings,
if there is an interruption of the work but fora short time, the roots
should be covered with earth, or some other protection should be
given them for retaining their moisture and preventing evap-
oration.

_ 198. This sensitiveness of roots to the air has led to various de-
vices for removing young trees and small seedlings without disturb-
ing the roots. A ‘‘ bore-spade” was invented many years ago by
_ Dr. Heyer, of Giessen, for the purpose of transplanting young pines,
and is often used in Europe for this purpose. It consists simply of
a spade, with the blade bent almost into a cylindrical form, and from
four to six inches across on the inside. The side opposite the handle
is open, so as pass it around the young tree. It is then pressed
down with the foot and turned around, loosening and including the
roots and all the soil around them, which may then be set in its new
place, if not distant, without the least disturbance of the soil within.
Several thousand plants may be set from a seed-bed to nursery rows
in a day with this simple instrument.

199. The patent office records in Washington contain various
other devices for this object, in some of which two concave blades
are connected, so as to act as pincers, to embrace a cylindrical ball
of earth around the roots, and compress it as it is raised.

200. A simple contrivance consisting of four spades is sometimes
used, in which the blades are pressed down inside of a frame serv-
ing as a fulcrum, and the handles are
spread apart and fastened by pins in
cross-pieces passing through their
_ handles, as shown in‘the engraving
in the margin. All of these methods
are limited in their application to
_ young trees, and to those that are to
_ be carried but short distances. In
the one last described, two sides of
_ the frame that form the fulcrum are “icrremoving the Soil wnirthe ane
> extended out into handles, so that in transplanting small Trees.

_ the whole may be carried by two men, like a burden on a hand-bar-
row. In light and dry sandy soil, none of them would prevent the

54 Transplanting without Disturbance of Soil.
sand’ from escaping, and only the methods described aoe ;
203 could be employed. inne

201. For larger trees, an excavation may be made, leaving a mass
of earth, nearly cylindrical, but rather smaller below, still in place
and undisturbed around the roots, and this may be bound with
hoops, or with coarse cloths, so as to keep the soil in place until the
removal is finished. We notice, in §§ 205 and 206, other mes
in speaking of the removal of large trees.

202. For young seedlings of cinchonas and other trees difficult to
transplant, it is the custom in India to start the seeds in pieces of :
bamboo filled with rich soil, and at first set as close together as they ¥

:

can stand, for better management in sprouting. In this way they *
may be watered, shaded, and otherwise attended, as found necessary, _
and until they have grown to a size that will enable them to stand
6pen exposure in the free air. They are then taken up, with the
bamboo shell still upon them, and set for permanence, the roots soon
finding their way through, as the shell decays. These shells are _
three or four inches in diameter, and prove amply sufficient when
eut in lengths of five or six inches. The coffee-trees in Brazil are
started in earthern jars, so constructed that they can be carried to —
the place of planting in the field, and the contents then caer
entire to the ground where the trees are to grow. .

203. Slightly-made baskets of strong paper, reeds, hte ina
or thick wood-shavings, would answer the same purpose, if made
of perishable material, sufficiently strong to last till the removal.
By this means, with careful packing and handling, seedling plants
can be transported safely to considerable distances. The expense
would, however, limit its application to experimental plantations in
the way of acclimatization, or to the propagation of trees for orna-
mental or special purposes.

204, Seeds started in wooden boxes, large enough to hold a dozen
or two of seedlings, may be kept together for watering and attend-
ance, occupying no more space than so many plants in a seed-bed,
and then may be carried to the place where the plants are to be set.
With proper care, they may be taken out with a curved trowel, and
set without disturbing the soil. Slight shaving or pasteboard parti-
tions, dividing the box into compartments, would facilitate the sep-
aration, and prevent the fibers from interlocking. This method is
employed in planting the eucalyptus tree§ in the unhealthy district.

Transplanting of Large Trees. 5d

near the city of Rome. By any of these methods of carrymg the
plants with the soil still around the roots, the operation of planting
‘may be carried oni all summer, and where the climate permits, at all

seasons of the year.

The Transplanting of Large Trees.

205. This is always an expensive and uncertain operation, partic-
ularly with the evergreens. It is sometimes done with much success,

where the tree is well supplied with fibrous roots near the trunk, by
digging a trench around the tree at some distance, in the fall, and

allowing the svil to freeze into a solid mass, which may be moved
_ without separating it from the roots. In such cases, it is sometimes
_ practiced to take off the surface soil, if not already rich, and to
spread in its place other soil of great fertility, and to dig and fill
the trench, as above described, with rich soil, a year or two before the
- time of removal. An abundance of fine fibrous roots will form in

such eases in the fertile soil, which will tend to render the removal

- more certain of success.

- 206. In removing large evergreens, it is best done just as the veg-

etation is starting, by carefully following out and taking up the

roots as far as possible, and wrapping them up in wet moss or hay
as fast as they are taken out. When they have been thus taken
from the soil, and protected from the air, the tree may be drawn to
its’ new place, set upright, and well stayed; the covering should
then be removed from the roots, which should be carefully spread
out and immediately covered with fine rich damp soil. The whole
should be well watered as soon as the planting is finished, and from
time to time in dry weather, until the roots have got well started.
207. It is generally u good rule, and in light prairie soil absolutely
necessary, to press down the earth firmly, not only in the hole be-
fore the tree is placed, but also upon the roots after planting; but
in heavy clay soils this would do more harm than good. As a rule,

_ the tree should be set deeper than before. The roots should not be

cramped or doubled back, but as wide a space should be allowed as
they may need, and they should be carefully spread before being
covered. .

208. In bracing trees, strong wire is better than cords, which are
apt to shrink when wet, and blocks of wood should be placed where
they are fastened to the tree, to prevent them from galling the bark.

56 Transplanting of Large Trees and Cuttings.

Heavy stones placed over the roots will sometimes serve to keep
them steady, as well as to keep the soil from drying. A mulching
of straw or litter from the woods is always useful, and sometimes

necessary, to keep the ground moist, and to screen it from the sun. —
Decaying wood-chips afford a most excellent top-dressing around

trees of every kind.

209. Trees should be kept free from weeds and grass. A firm
sod prevents the air and rains from penetrating the soil. A thin
covering of stable manure over the roots of trees in winter will have
an excellent effect upon the next year’s growth. Various mineral

salts, suclyas the nitrate of soda, and the phosphate of lime, as well

as guano and other fertilizers, may sometimes be used to great advan-

~-)

tage in nurseries and orchards, and in ornamental plantations gen-

erally, but are usually too expensive for profitable forest-culture.

The Disadvantages of Planting Cottonwood, and other Trees, from Ou.
tings of too great Size.

210. Inthe Western States, in Colorado and elsewhere, it has hae

the custom to set out poles of cottonwood, and of some of the other
poplars and the willows, of considerable size, and without root or
branch. In some cases, telegraph poles of cottonwood have thus
taken root and become trees, where the soil was damp and all the
conditions of growth were favorable.

211. But it has been found that such trees generally become a ae

low in a few years, and are short lived. The reason is obvious.
The end in the ground readily absorbs moisture and decays, for it
can never grow over like the wound formed on the trunk, after the
amputation of a branch, and will remain exposed to all the agencies

that cause decay, however vigorous the new growth may be around

it. The top of such a pole will become dry, and the buds that start
from the sides will come out at some distance beléw the end. This
dead part finally become quite rotten, leaving a cavity that grad-
ually extends down the trunk till it meets the one that is com-
ing up from below. The success that such trees promise for the first
few years is generally illusory, and it would be much more satisfae-
tory to take smaller cuttings, which would, when well supplied with
moisture, make a very rapid growth, and remain sound throughout.
They might even overtake and surpass those that were planted of

+

Planting of Slopes and Banks. 57

- large size, and they will certainly outlive them in almost every
A Planting of Rocky Surfaces.
212. It is one of the peculiar merits of Forest-culture, that it may
be practiced upon broken and rocky surfaces that could not be plowed,
or scarcely pastured, provided always that there is depth and quan-
_ tity of soil among the stones, and in the crevices, to give a hold to
_ the roots of the trees, and moisture enough in the soil to afford them
adequate support.
213. No general rule can be given for the starting of woodlands
upon such surfaces, where so much depends upon the circumstances.
In doing this, it is well to study the indications afforded by nature,
in the casual growth of trees in the region around, or the experi-
ence gained by artificial planting. The yield in growth of wood
_ upon such stony surfaces may sometimes be equal to that upon
smooth level land, and return a fair profit, where nothing else could
be raised.
214, In planting upon a hill-side of moderate declivity, it is gen-
- erally preferable to plow the land and to set the rows of trees in
lines parallel with the base, or at right angles with the slope. The

| reason of this is, that the soil becomes less exposed to the wash of

the rains, when so cultivated. The water from rains and melting
snows is held in place, and tends to sink into the earth, instead of
running off on the surface.

215. Upon very steep declivities of friable and decomposing rock,
it is sometimes practicable to secure sufficient soil for the roots of
_ trees, by digging horizontal terraces or notches at convenient inter-

_ vals, securing their outer edge with brush held in place with pegs

Ina year or two these notches will have probably become filled up
_ by the crumbling away of the rock above, and in the soil thus
formed trees may be planted with a prospect of success.

_ 216. This form of planting becomes necessary in restoring a
wooded covering to eroded mountain sides. Besides its use in re-
boisement, as described on a subsequent page, it might sometimes
be used with advantage to secure the soil upon crumbling banks that

| overhang highways and railroads, and in other situations where

danger may be expected from the sliding or washing of the soil.

58 Management after Planting.

Mulching.

217. In transplanting trees in a dry season, and especial ina
dry climate, it is often necessary to place on the surface a covering
of straw, litter, or other porous material, to protect the ground from
the heating and drying influences of the sun and the winds. It —
also has an effect in preventing the growth of grass and other herb-
age, and to retain the moisture of rains. In a very dry climate, it
may be found the only means by which trees may be made to sure
vive the trial of the first one or two seasons, and it may need to be _
continued until the ground is well shaded. ee

It was found on the college farm at Lincoln, Nebraska, that ‘iiea x
soft maple grew in much more regular shape, and more thriftily, —
when planted singly and for shade trees, where the ground around _
them was well covered with mulching, and the stems protected by —
wild grass or other substances tied around them to keep off the sun. —
When not so treated, the tops grew one-sided, and the trees soon _
died. Examples might be multiplied indefinitely to prove the ben-
efits to be derived from this practice, both in regard to fruit and
forest trees. Of course, when this becomes an absolute requirement —
of the climate, the cultivation of forests for profit is wholly unprof-
itable, and it must be limited to orchards and ornamental planting.

Of Thinning.

218, As elsewhere repeatedly stated, trees should be made to
form a straight and tall body while young, by being somewhat —
closely planted, but should not be allowed to crowd too closely. A
part must be taken out from time to time, to give the remainder a a4
chance at the air and light. It should begin when we see it is
needed, and is best done at one time for a given piece of woodland,
rather than irregularly. The intervals of time must be regulated
by circumstances, and should be greater as the trees become large.
The only general rule to be followed is, that the trees should not be
allowed to interlock their branches, and that the ground should be
at all times well shaded. The effect is realized within a year or —
two in.the vigorous growth of the branches that hasten to fill up
the void spaces thus formed, and in the inereased yolume of the
wood that is formed.

Management after Planting. 59

Trimming and Pruning.

219. Where forests are cultivated on a large scale, and for profit,
nothing can be done in the way of pruning. This must be left to
natural agencies, and if a proper density of growth is maintained,
it will take care of itself. But in small groves, and especially in
avenues of trees by the roadside, or plantations around dwellings,
_ or in village streets and city parks, the growth and appearance of
_ the trees may be greatly improved by judicious attention.

220. It is preferable to cut off a branch close to the tree, rather
than to leayeastub. The incision should be left as smooth as pos-
sible, and it is of great advantage to cover the ;
wound with coal tar. If left to rot off, the
branch may form a wound like the one shown
on the left-hand side of the annexed cut; but if
smoothly cut off, it may close up completely in
a few years. These cavities may extend down
to the root, and they not only shorten the life of
a tree, but tend to render its timber worthless. 95 4 wound well
Where large cavities are thus formed in a favor- 6a)" ,anit one
ite tree, the injury may be somewhat delayed by = Ter.
covering the opening with heavily painted canvas
or other material that will conceal somewhat the
deformity, and keep out the rain.

221. In cutting off large branches, it is nee-
essary to first make an incision on the under side,
so as to prevent it from tearing down the side of
the tree as it falls. The annexed cut, at A and
B, shows the way this can be done. After the of aioe of Lares
branch is off, the stump can be smoothed =?"
off, so.as to leave a clean incision. It is found
very advantageous tov apply coal tar to such
wounds.

222. The season of the year has slak to do
with the success of pruning. It should generally
be done after the growth of the season has been
formed, and elose to the trunk. If left in pegs,
they will disfigure the tree, and heal over with 5. Tree that has been

pruned late in Sum-

- difficulty. The unsightly growth shown in the jner,

60 - Trimming and Pruning.

annexed engraving is very common in the button-wood, when care-
lessly pruned, or otherwise injured.

see on the lower part of the trunks of coniferous

sooner the better, if we would improve the qual-
ity of their wood. It becomes, however, in ex-
tensive woodlands an expensive process, and
: practically it must be left to nature, excepting
$6. A Pree that bas in a favorite grove, or in avenues or upon lawns.
qtance from the 924. In all forest operations, it is needless to
remark, that the use of climbing spurs, like
those employed in repairing telegraphs, must be wholly forbidden,
as they do irreparable injuries to the bark and the wood, and the
laws should protect owners from their unauthorized use by any one,
upon any occasion.

225. The tools most used in pruning are the saw, with a wide set, —

hand-shears, pruning-
shears, pruning-chisels,
attached to long han-
dles, with an edge that
cuts in drawing as well
as in pushing, the com-
mon ax, and various
other implements. A

; 38. Pruning-Shears, for at-
tool much used in taching to a long Handle,

aa =

37. Hand-Shears, for
Pruning.

39, The Serpe.

France is the serpe,

which consists of a heavy blade, with both

edges sharp, and attached to a short handle.

‘It is carried in a leather case, slung over the

shoulder, and is used very skillfully. For

small branches, they cut by an upward stroke.
226. In trimming poplars and willows, the

40. Pruning Chisels.

Such trees are called ‘‘Pollards.” They should
be cut off just above where the lower branches separate, and not as
shown in the middle figure by the line at A. Such trees will restore
themselves without showing the effect of the injury, as shown in the
right-hand figure, if properly cut. The practice tends to render

223. As for dead branches, such as we often

trees, they may be cut at all seasons, and the

whole top of the tree is sometimes cut off.

ah

Pollards: Control of Shapes in the Growth. 61

trees hollow and unsightly objects, but in some cases it is not with-
- out advantages. Along the Rio Grande Valley, in New Mexico, it

41. Improper Mode of
Cutting Pollards.

has long been the practice to thus cut back the tops of cottonwoods
in order to obtain fuel.

227. A great advantage is gained in some cases by fore-shortening
the branches by trimming off their ends, so as to give the top a more
symmetrical form, and a denser growth. This practice has been
very fully described, and its advantages shown by the Count Des
Cars, in France, and previously by the Viscount de Courval. “When
applied to the oak, it has sometimes led to remarkable success in
growth, and in ornamental planting it may be sometimes applied to
great advantage.’

228. In Italy the olive is thus cut back to secure a more vigorous
growth of the young wood, and the trunk often becomes hollow, but
it will survive the injuries for a long time. The marbled and
gnarled appearance of the grain of this wood, as often seen in orna-
mental work, is chiefly from this cause. The knotted heads of pol-
lard poplar trunks are sometimes cut into .)
thin plates for fancy work, and produce a {
beautiful effect:

229. An upright growth may be secured
by lopping off the side branches, and bend-
ing the more promising ones upright, secur-
ing by a pole lashed to the tree, or driven
into the ground, and sometimes by binding =
one branch around another, as. shown in the + Miocene eente “
adjacent cuts.

1Ful¥ accounts of this method and its results may be found in our first Re-
port upon Forestry (1877), pp. 92, 93, 98.

62 Removal of Outer Bark: Arbor Days.

Stimulation of the Growth of Trees by removal of outer Bark. ‘: 7

230. Sometimes the peeling off of the outer bark of fruit trees 2%
will stimulate their growth. The operation should be performed :

just as the cambium layer is forming, which is generally in the

latter part of June, in the Northern States. The cork tree is found —
in Southern Europe to thrive under peeling, and where elms in Paris —

and elsewhere have been shaved down to the live bark, in the Robert

process, for destroying the larve of insects, they have taken | a new |

start afterwards.

Arbor Days.

231. A pleasant custom was introduced in Nebraska, about 1874,
at the instance of the State Horticultural Society, of devoting one
day in spring to the planting of trees. The 2d Wednesday of April

was designated, and it is claimed that 12 millions of trees were set

Saree 5

on that day in that state. In Minnesota, the State F orestry Asso-
ciation designated the 18th Tuesday of May for this purpose, and

1876, 1,342,886 trees were reported as planted on thatday. Inthe

Year following, the number was 442,558. The Governor of Mich-

igan, by proclamation dated February 22, 1876, recommended that
the 15th of April be devoted to planting trees, but we have no

data as to the result. The Governor of Ohio appointed an Arbor:

Day to be observed on the 27th of April, 1882.

2314. The custom is admirable as far as it goes, but it is liable to
interruption from stormy weather, or seasons unusually early 1 or
backward, and in the granting of premiums for greatest number, or
best success, it would be much better to have them apply ® the
whole season, leaving the day to be fixed by the planter as suited his
convenience, and as weather favored.

Formation and Functions of the Buds. 63

CHAPTER VII.

OF THE sTRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OF
GROWING TREES.

: The Formation and Functions of the Buds.
: 232. In common deciduous trees, there begins to form, in mid-
- summer, in the axils of the leaves, a little cellular mass,
- communicating with a medullary ray, partly covered by
_ the bark, and usually protected by imbricating scales.
_ From these buds or germs, the leaves and blossoms of the
next season are to grow. The leaf-buds are usually more
_ sharp and slender than the flower-buds, a circumstance
+ quite noticeable upon the elm, and upon many fruit trees.

233. The end of a twig is always terminated by a bud,
which advances as the twig extends in length, by the
furmation of new cells within. Trees and their branches
increase in length and height by the formation of these
new cells under the terminal bud, and elongate only
during the season of active vegetation, in spring and
early summer. The annexed engravings, from Rossmass-
ler, represent sections of four kinds of buds. The first is
a double one of leaf and flower, and the fourth is a flower- 45. Buds of
bud only. It will be seen that the rudiments of the future i

: 2. - 3. 4.
46. Sections of Buds: 1. The Pine; the Bird Cherry; 3. The Oak; and, 4, The
; - spen.

64 Classification of Leaves: Chlorophyll.

growth are obscurely foreshadowed in these embryo forms, to be |
display ed in full maturity, when the conditions favor—usually in —

spring, but exceptionally in autumn. The latter cases are rare,

and occur only when a very dry summer is followed by a very mild,
humid autumn.
Structure and Function of the Leaves.

934. Leaves are the respiratory organs of plants. The juices are

there brought in contact with the air, when certain chemical changes

occur that fit them for the processes of assimilation that transform
them into every part of the growing tree or plant.

235. Trees present an infinite variety of forms in their leaves,
but may be divided into two great classes: the linear,
or acicular form (sometimes shortened into imbricat-,
ing scales), that distinguish
the coniferous order, and, with
a few exceptions, remain green
during the winter; and. the
broad-leaved form, supported
by a network of ribs, and, in
temperate and cold climates,
generally falling from the iS
trees upon the approach of eS
winter. The latter are termed
deciduous, when they fall from
47. Leaves of the the trees in autumn, but this term also applies to a

Pine. small number of the linear-leaved class, such as the
larch and the bald cypress. A leaf-stem is called a DOO and
when there is no stem the leaf is said to be sessile.

236. The framework of a leaf is filled in with a cellular eo,
and these cells are filled with a green matter, in the form of small
grains, called chlorophyll, and which, appearing through the trans-
parent walls of the cells, give the leaves their green color. In
most leaves, the upper side is more charged with chlorophyll than
the lower, and is therefore of a deeper green. The form of these
cells in the beech leaf are shown in the annexed engraving,’ in
which 00 is the upper side, and uu the under side; 0, the principal

OS

S

je

48. Leaf of the Mulberry.

1 From Rossmassler.

ene ee

Structure and Functions of the Leaves. 65

_ cells of chlorophyll; / are air spaces; u, minute masses of chloro-
phyll, thus brought in near contact; and sp, ‘‘ stomata,” or breathing
pores, through which the air enters. These pores are chiefly

49. Vertical Section of a Beech Leaf, very greatly enlarged.

on the under side of the leaf, and vary in number from 1,000 to
170,000 to a square inch. In coniferous leaves there is no network
of ribs, but a longitudinal and sometimes a diverging system of
fibers. A cross-section shows a symmetrical arrangement of cells,
some filled with grains of chlorophy]], others with air, and others
with resinous matter. The arrangement of these cells is constant
within genera, and to some extent in species, affurding character-
istics upon which classifications haye been formed. The stomata
upon coniferous leaves are more abundant upon the under and lighter
colored side of the leaves, but in some cases where both sides are
colored alike, they are found equally on both sides. The ginkgo
(Salisbaria adiantifolia)), one of the Japanese species that is found
to thrive in the Middle and Southern States, is a conifer with very
exceptional form of leaf. It spreads out flat like a fan, and is de-
ciduous.

237. The moisture of the soil, is brought up in the form of sap
from the roots to the leaves, bearing in solution certain mineral and
organic materials. These are then exposed to the air, and to the
carbonic acid in the air, and under the action of the light the latter
is decomposed. Its carbon is retained and oxygen given out. A
- vast amount of evaporation also takes place from the leaves, so that

66 Structure of Leaves and of Wood. ee |
as the sap descends under the bark it is much less watery, and is
charged with the-materials that by assimilation may form the new —
layer of wood, and every growing part of the whole structure. “natty.

238. The materials thus won from the earth and the air, areadded
to the tree, as it gains in size, or dropped to the earth with the fall-
ing leaves and the fruit—the leaves to add fertility to the soil, and
the seeds of the fruit to furnish germs for new creations of the —
parent type. . Br bs

239. The form and size of leaves may vary at different ages of the —
tree and upon different parts of the same tree at the same time. Upon
thrifty young sprouts they are generally larger than upon the old
branches. As a'rule they become smaller at great elevations. In the —
eucalyptus, the young trees bear heart-shaped and horizontal leaves, —
and the old trees sickle-formed leaves that stand in a vertical plane, ex-
posing both sides to the light, and shading the ground but little. The ~
upper leaves.upon the holly are less notched and less spiny, When the
tree becomes old. In certain of the cedars, cypresses, and other con- :
ifers with imbricating leaves, the scales may at certain stages of growth ‘3
elongate into linear leaves, very different from the more usual form,
The same tree may present both forms at the same time, but the linear
leaves are more common upon young trees than upon old ones. In
certain forms of disease, the linear form is sometimes assumed by
these imbricating leaves.

Structure of the Wood and Bark.

240. The trunk of an exogenous tree shows three distinct kinds”
of structure. In the twig of oak of one year’s growth, we find the
inner part is filled with the pith, m,
m an extremely light cellular body
which appears essential to new
hk growth, and is always present in a
¢ twig covered with leaves; but in
, the trunk of the tree it becomes
nearly or quite obliterated, and in —
, fact may perish altogether without
apparently affecting the growth of
o the tree. The pith or medulla is — ,
60. Cross-section of an Oak Twig of one SUrrounded by a sheath of hard
ween Gro wth.(1) cellular tissue, and outside of this

This and the two following figures are from Rossmassler’s work—"“Der
Wald,” pp. 85, 88.

+

a ee ee, ee

.
s Structure of Wood. 67

I ture—the beginning of the ‘‘ medullary rays.” Outside of the wood,
there is formed the cambium layer, c, which is to become a new
layer of wood. Next a ‘‘bast” layer, or inner bark, 6, beyond which
is the bark, r, of coarse cellular structure, and over all an epider-
mis, 0, covering every part.

241. When the wood has made two years of growth, the cross-
section shows the structure represented in the annexed engraving,
— in which m (upper side)
includes the pith—~m’,
the spongy portion, and |
m (lower side) the ‘‘ me-
dullary sheath.” The
wood, h, is the growth
of two years, and is sep-
arated by the line, jj.
The cambium layer is
shown at ¢, and outside
of this is the bark. Fig-
ures 1 to 7 show the 51. Structure of Oak at two Years of Age.
medullary rays, which are continued outward through the wood and
into the bark. The cross-section, Q, the radial section, Sp, and tan-
gential section, Se, show the relation which these rays (called by car-
penters the “silver grain”) bear to the other parts. In the oak
these rays are very conspicuous. They are also very apparent but
of much smaller size in the beech, plane tree, maple, etc., while in
other trees they are scarcely to be seen.

242. The medullary sheath and rays are composed of condensed
cellular tissue, and although generally the latter extend through in
a radial line from the sheath to the bark, and intoit, there are many
secondary rays that form in the wood, and have no connection with
_ the pith, or with the other rays. In the conifers, these rays become
reduced to lines in parallel bands, too minute to be seen without a
microscope of high magnifying powers. .

243. As wood is seen under the microscope, it is made up of
elongated cells overlapping each other, and adhering by their sides.
They present a great variety of forms, which are often peculiar to
the families or orders to which they belong. -Among these fibers,
thereare numerous ductsand passages. Some contain only air, others

68 Structure of Wood. - “pa Ne

in their season sap, and others the resinous or other secretions of — :

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52. Vertical Section of Beech Wood, in a Plane tan-
gent to Rings of Annual Growth.

cells appearing in the sections like rows of spots. Le

the tree. Upon the
length and adherence —
of these various vessels,

thesolidity and stre

of wood depends. —

accompanying figure if

pr 2epresents a

** nal sections beech,

magnified 200 diame ‘
ters. In this g repre- —
sents dotted vessels;
p, short cells with very —

abrupt ends; pr, elon-

gated cells with oblique _
ends; m, sections —

through the medullary
rays, and q, examples —

of the long annulated—

244. Different kinds of wood exhibit the radiating structures doe:

to the medullary rays in different degrees.

spicuous in the cross-section, while, in others, it can scarcely be

In some, it is very con-

-
we)
ra

-)

™ ¢ ‘aga 43

traced by the eye, except in thin cross-sections, although always to

be seen under the microscope.

53. Different appearances of the Medullary Rays.

Structure of Wood. 69

245. In many kinds of the “ hard-woods,” and especially in the
_ oak, ash, elm, ete., each annual layer is more spongy and porous on
the inner side, and harder on the outer side. The former is some-
times called the spring and the latter the autumnal growth. This
autumnal growth is, however, formed in the summer, and its dens-
ity and relative thickness appears to depend upon the character of
the season that follows after it has been deposited. If it remains
humid and cold, it will be,less dense than if it be dry and warm.
The amount of growth for the year is usually determined by the
weather in the spring and early summer.
__ 246. In exceptional cases, such as an early and protracted drouth,
_ followed by heavy rains and a warm autumn, a second growth may
start; the buds may expand into leaves, and blossoms may appear.
_ In such cases, it is possible for a double ring of growth to form, but
it will not be entirely distinct in every part. Such an autumn, if
it is followed by a cold winter, is very apt to prove fatal to trees, or
at least to check their growth for a time, if it does not destroy them.
247. In tropical woods, the |

ascertained from them. ,

248. In the soft-woods, there =
is scarcely any difference be- ~~~
tween the layers, and the sepa-®F Section of Mahogany, dhowing {ndstne
ration between the growth of
different years is sometimes difficult to find.

249. Deciduous trees, when stripped of their leaves, as sometimes
occurs from insect ravages, will put forth a new crop, from the buds
intended for the next season. The formation of wood is thereby
greatly checked, and the foliation of the next season weakened.
The chance of blossoms for the coming year may also be ruined.

250. In cross-sections made years :
afterwards, the record of the sea-
sons for a long period may be de-
termined, at least in effect, by the
width of the rings of annual
: growth. We sometimes find, at 55. Effect opi te el one Te upon the
recurring intervals, a narrow ring,
perhaps in every third year, that may have been caused by the loss

70. Structure of Wood.

of leaves from worms that appear at that interval, a that ene
thus left their record when every other proof of their presence has |
perished. We have seen sections of trees in the museums of Schools.
of Forestry, in which these proofs were recorded through a century
or more of time, and the years could be definitely fixed by cone ry
inward from the year when the tree was felled.

251. Asa rule, the most favorable seasons for the growth of wie
are those that are warm, cloudy, and humid in the early part of -
summer, followed by very warm and dry weather. The maturing
process in the newly-formed wood appears to be due to the excess
of evaporation from the leaves, as compared with the absorption
from the roots, resulting in a hardening of the tissues, and an im-
provement in the quality of the new wood. - Where the season.
continues wet, this hardening does not take place, and when fol-
lowed by a severely cold winter, the growth may he checked for
the season following, or the trees may be killed altogether, or at.
least the branches of younger growth. “5

In fact, so many causes affect the amount of growth in different
years that there may be as much difference as is shown in the fol-_
lowing engravings : eee:

56. Differences in the Amount-of Annual Growth of Wood,

Upon irrigated land, in Colorado, the cottonwood has been known
to grow to a diameter of fourteen inches in eight years. If grown
in rich, humid soil, but in a confined location, the growth may be
rapid, but the texture light and spongy, a the wood of poor |
quality, although of ample volume. Even the teak, one of the

Structure of Wood. 71

‘strongest of woods, and present- °
ing in its best conditions the Ss
texture shown inthe annexed [Ss
engraving, becomes brittle and
soft, when rapidly grown, and.
does not harden into heavy, $$)°*
strong, and durable wood, until #*=
it has ripened with age. =
253. Trees grown as reserves, —
ina coppice, and exposed alter-57. Wood of Rapid Rrens but Spongy Text-
nately “to the open air and to
_ the shade of other trees at dif-
ferent periods of their growth,
have a harder wood than those
grown in masses, but it is apt
to be knotty from lateral
_ branches—and such trees being
- more exposed to the winds and
to other accidents, do not have
so straight and regular a body, nor do they grow as high as when
many are grown together. Such wood does not readily split into
staves. A difference in the width of wood layers may be caused by
the greater or less shade in which it has grown, so that the character
of the seasons can never be learned detinitely in the cross Section of
a tree, unless it has grown in an isolated position. Still, from the
- comparison of a great number of facts it might perhaps be possible
to determine with some certainty the general character of the cli-
_ mate by this method.
_ 254. The wood of conifers, as a rule, is heavier, more elastic, and
more durable, according as its growth has been slower, and the an-
nual rings are narrower. We see this shown in the timber from the
Baltic, and in the Siberian larch. These qualities are found greatest
in the timber grown in cold climates, and differences may sometimes
be detected in the north and south sides of the same tree. As a
general rule, trees growing in swampy land have a more open and
__ spongy texture than the same species grown on dryer land.

255. Cellulose, which-constitutes the principal body. of wood-fiber,
is alike in all kinds of wood, when separated from other substances,

58. Teak Wood.

72 Structure of Wood,

drogen, rai 3 per oe of oxygen.
256. However plants may differ in form and strue
all the esl of cell-growth. These cells form in th
pre-existing cells by subdivision, and,
upon one another, they elongate into fik
as already shown on page 68. ies 2
these fibers may be separated, and som
afford differences that enable us to ai ti
class or group to which the woods belong.
conifers, there are thin places along the
the cells, which can be readily seen ut
59. Structure of Co- Croscope, and can be found even in the
niferous Woods. paper made from wood. ge te
257. In some woods, as, for example, the. oak, asks
the cells grow to a larger size, so as to be visible to the
These form ducts, which are not continuous for great | 2
are intermingled in various forms, presenting in eross-
appearance of pores. ‘They usually contain air, and a
sons sap. In ascending among these fibers, the sap pas
tween and among the fibers, and through their partitions.
of the larger ducts, they have a spi
of fiber, or the sides are made up
and they are sometimes marked wi
_258. In resinous woods, the tu
contained in larger cavities, sur
smaller cells. The abundance of
depends in a great degree upon
of growth, and exposure to the air:
259. The annexed cut shows a section
linden six years old, enlarged about
ameters, in which the concentrie lay
distinguished by a somewhat denser
slightly colored line along their outer:
gin, and their relation to the bark is sl
In this figure, a is the medullary sl
the liber or inner bark, d the —
of the bark, e the pith, and f ae
60. Section of a Linden Tree
of Six Years’ Growth, OF outer bark,

Structure of Bark. 73

260. In the bark itself, an annular layer of growth is also formed
next to the wood, and in some cases we may count the distinct lay-
ers of growth of recent years; but in other cases they become a
hemogeneous mass, as seen by the naked eye, and the outer layers
are gradually cast off. In some trees, like the birch and the cherry,
the outer layers consist of strong fibers, running horizontally around
the trunk and branches. These may exfoliate in loose shreds. This
tendency to exfoliation is shown in the plane tree, where the outer
bark falls off in hard masses, leaving a fresh surface, at first white,

- but becoming greenish, and in the Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), in
which the outer bark peels off in thin flakes from the upper part of

h

g

b

gr
—- + i .
a) ae)

61. Longitudinal Section of the Bark 62, Transverse Section of the Bark of the
of the Linden: showing the minute Tindea: showing the outer bark, A;
interlocking fibers of the bast-bun- the green cellular layer, g; the bast-
dies. crossing the longitudinal layer, 6; and the edge of contact with
fibers.(1) the wood, gr; with the medullary rays

- of the bark, m, m, m. m, m, extend-
ing into the green cellular layer.(1)

the trunk, and from the branches, leaving a smooth and fresh green
surface.

261. When the bark and wood of a tree are cut or wounded by
accident, as by the marking-hammer of the forester, or the ax of a

1From Rossmassler.

74 Structure and Growth of _ Wood.

surveyor, the growth from the side will gradually close over the in-

jury, and fill in the inequalities, so that, when afterwards split off,
it will often show in relief any depressions or cuts on the original

1. trunk. Many Forest Academies —
in Europe have in their museums —
specimens of timber-marks thus

cut or stamped into wood, with the

have thus been found more than a

since the former survey, the marks
of the ax would be found.

Growth of the Trunk and Branches.
262. The successive layers of

extend over their whole surface,
more or less uniformly, as is shown
in the accompanying sketch. The
inequalities in thickness, often seen,
are caused by differences of nutri-
4, tion from particular roots and
/ pranches. They will fill up the
slight irregularities of early years,
so that a sapling may be somewhat

d \ MA 2
\ Se
} C a : +3 1.
NS Ta ee T
a ———

1; is perfectly straight and symmetri-
63. Section showing the Growth of the eal,

roe Sed Spanches.() 263. The actual size and form of
the tree, at every stage of its former life (excepting as modified by
the loss of branches), is preserved within, and might be shown by

1From Rossmassler’s work—“ Der Wald.”

cast taken by nature from the —
mold. The land-marks of surveyors

hundred ycars afterwards. Some —
scar, or, in coniferous trees, per- —
haps a gum-spot, would be noticed —
upon the outside, and by cutting
down through as many rings of —
growth as there had been years —

wood in the trunk and branches

crooked, and yet form a tree that

Structure and Growth of Wood. 75

removing the layers of growth that have formed since any given
period.

264. A leaning tree has the center of growth on the upper side,
and the same is generally observed in branches near the place where

64. Excentric Forms of Growth.

they come out of the tree. This excentric growth 1s very common
~ in tropical woods, and in some species there are sec-

ondary centers of growth within the principal ones.
265. In some of the conifers, especially in the firs
and spruces, there is a remarkable symmetry in the

branches, several (often five) springing from a single
point, and dividing the angular space equally between
them. The vertical distance between these branches
generally represents a year’s growth in length, and a
cross-section above a set of branches has, of course,
one less number of rings than would be found below
them.

266. The rate of growth in wood differs very ,~
greatly, according to the soil, elevation, aspect, cli- —
mate, humidity, temperature, prevailing winds, and ))4 /
other causes. It has been estimated that, on a gen-
eral average, a forest will, if not specially cared for,
grow about a cord of wood on an acre per year. It
may often be much less than this, or much more, and
may be largely increased by clearing out the under- 4
growth, and thinning out the trees that crowd too <>)
closely. It may be stimulated by fertilizers, applied

65. Section of a

as a top-dressing, and may be retarded by taking “spruce, show-

away the litter that accumulates from the fall of leaves. 4}%,5¥m77eY

7% Roots: their Structure and Uses. ;

Form, Functions, and Manner of Growth of the Root
267. Roots may be divided into two classes: Tup-

face. The latter will sometimes run to a great distance. —
268. It is sometimes found that a mixture of different spe
timber trees makes a better growth upon the whole, in
than one kind alone. In these cases one has often a
the other a tracing-root, thus drawing their support fr
depths of the soil. The oak and the beech are example
kind, and we shall have further occasion to speak of this ib
269. The roots of our common trees are made up of con
Jayers, and grow by external addition under the bark, ir
manner as the trunk and branches. Their bark is gene
and they often grow one into another, and in a much more irre
form than the branches. There is often no apparent differe
texture, corresponding to sap and heart wood. The s
roots of trees are in European countries often used for fi
making charcoal, and in the resinous kinds they, in some
abound in turpentine, and are used in making tar and pitch
270. The fiber of root-wood is sometimes very strong and f
as in the young spruce. The stump and roots in some tr
twisted and contorted grain that gives them great value for
mental cabinet-work. The ‘‘ Thuja,” of the Atlas Mounta’
litris quadrivalvis), one of the most highly prized of fine y od
example. The black walnut often furnishes in its stump an
roots, a beautiful grain in the wood. a Sa
271. The roots of trees will insinuate themselves into the
crevices where they can find moisture and soil, and by the’
sion hasten disintegration, and sometimes raise and displace
masses of rock. For this reason, trees should not be plant
the lines of covered aqueducts, or other important works of
that might be injured by displacement. ae
272. The roots of poplars and willows will fill water-p
even wells, if they can reach them. This tendency to ]
damp soil, renders these kinds, including the cottonwoods, ve
ful in consolidating the banks of ditches, especially those u
irrigation in arid regions. They doubtless evaporate a p

~ Roots: their Structure and Growth. 77

the water in such cases through their leaves, but they give it
out to the air where it most needs it, if there be crops under cul-
tivation, and besides strengthening the banks, they shade the sur-
face from the sun and winds. The roots of willows afford the best
prevention against erosion of banks, in light soils, and these and
other trees and plants most effectually hold in place embankments,
and sands liable to drift by the winds.

273. The smaller roots of trees are covered, especially near their
extremities, by radicles or fibers, through which the water in the soil,
and various mineral elements in solution, are taken up and conveyed
in the form of sap to the leaves, by passing up among the pores of
the wood. The vigor of growth in a tree is generally proportioned
to the abundance of its radicles, and success in planting depends
upon their preservation to as great an extent as possible without
drying.

274. Roots will often form buds and produce leaves, when ex-
posed to the air, and in many species buds will form roots when
buried as layers while still attached to the tree. In the mistletoe
and other parasites, the roots will penetrate the wood of living trees
upon which their viscid seeds get attached, thus weakening the vi-
tality of the trees to which they fasten, by absorbing their juices.

275. In some cases the roots, and especially their bark, possess
medicinal properties, often due to an essential oil, as in the sassa-
fras. These qualities are generally more abundant in trees grown
in hot climates, and become less in the same species where they will
bear transplanting to cooler latitudes.

276. In rare cases, the roots of different trees of the same species
will grow together under ground, so that when one is cut down its
stump will continue to live, and even to increase slightly in size,
from the nourishment it derives from the other tree. But where from
close proximity trees of different species have their roots so closely
interlocked that are apparently united as one, it will be found upon
a cross-section that there is a line of bark or distinct separation be-
tween them.

277. In some cases, a fungus growth will attach to the root, and
spreading from one tree to another, cause their destruction, the in-
fection extending from a center ina circular form. This is most ef-
fectually arrested by digging trenches deeper than the roots reach,

78 The Sap and its Functions.

and by digging up and burning the infected portions. A aun
of the chestnut trees in Italy, France, and Spain has been attrib- —
uted to fungous growths upon the roots. A similar cause of is
is noticed in some species of the pine.

278. The truffle, a fungus that forms over the roots of the sane
in some countries, is a highly esteemed article of food, and becomes -
at times a product of much profit in the forests where it is produced.
This fungus is formed chiefly in calcareous soils, and appears to re-
quire certain conditions of climate. In the neighborhood of Avig-
non, in France, the revenue from this source alone, in a single com-
mune, sometimes exceeds $5,000 a year. ;

On the Pressure of Sap, and its Changes.

279. The moisture of the soil is absorbed by the roots, and nae =
ing through these to the trunk, branches, and leaves, descends again,
more or less changed, to supply nutriment to every part. The ac-
tion of liquids in passing through membranes and cellular tissues,
amounting sometimes to a pressure of several atmosphere, is called
endosmose, and is shown in a striking manner, when measured by
gauges. =

280. About 1720, the Rev. Stephen Hales, an English cheat
began a series of experiments upon the pressure of sap, and the ab-
sorption of water by plants, carefully noting*the changes observed, —
and publishing the results. These experiments form the basisof
much that has since been determined in this line of research. Ys

281. In the spring of 1873, a series of experiments was begun at
the Amherst Agricultural College, Mass., by its president (Mr. W.
8. Clark) and associates, which led to very interesting results. Sev-
eral mercurial gauges were provided, and attached to trees that had
been tapped, by screwing in a hollow plug of metal, to which the
gauge was connected. The changes in pressure were read upon a
seale. It was found that at some hours the pressure was inwards,
and at others outwards, In the latter case only would the sap
flow from the spouts in the usual way. These gauges, when at-
tached to the birch, showed a much greater range of pressure than
on the maple, and this even when connected with an isolated root
in the ground.

282. The extreme range in the sugar maple was from + 46 to

> Autumnal Colors: General Views. 79

— 23 inches of mercury, a difference of 69 inches.' In the poplar-
leaved white birch, it was from +- 35 to —17, in the body of the
tree, and from + 33.6 to — 20.2 in the root. In the yellow birch
(Betula excelsa), it ranged from +-65.5 to — 18.5; in the canoe-bireh,
from + 59 to —7; and inthe grape-vine, from + 74+o 12.7 inches.

_ Where one gauge was placed near the root of a tree, and another

near the top, they indicated a difference due to the hydrostatic
pressure of a column of water equal in length to the distance be-
tween the two levels. Trials were made upon the butternut, iron-
wood, apple tree, ete., with corresponding results, but less in degree.
These experiments were made before the leaves had opened, and
the force of suction could not therefore be ascribed to evaporation
from their surfaces.
Autumnal Colors.

283. The coloring of autumnal leaves appears to be due to the
formation of organic acids from the absorption of oxygen, and
caused by a ripening process, similar to that which colors ripening
fruits. It is not the effect of frost, as many people believe, but
may be hastened by the cool nights alternating with warm days,
that often occur in autumn. The autumnal coloring of European
forests is sometimes bright, but never as brilliant as in our Northern
States and in Canada. Its prevailing colors are yellow, shading off
into tints of pale orange and reddish brown, while in our northern
forests it is often the brightest scarlet and orange, a rich golden yel-
low, or an intense purple, but all passing gradually into a nearly
uniform shade of brown.

CHAPTER VIII.

GENERAL VIEWS IN REGARD TO FORESTRY.

Of the Investment of Labor and Capital in Forest-tree Planting—Ques-
tions of Profit.

284. Asa general rule, the most profitable lands for planting, at pres-
ent prices, are not those that would yield the best farm crops, although
the best lands will always produce the best growth of forest trees.
Upon such lands, forest trees would be sure to thrive, but the profits

1In these statements, the sign (+-) is used to denote the outward, and (—)
the inward pressure.

80 The Profits of Timber-Culture..

might be relatively less. In a region of hills and valley
always some portions of the land that yield a much sm
under equal care than others. ‘They may be valleys a
or steep declivities, or rocky and broken surfaces, and up
grove of trees may often prove the best investment.

285. In other cases, the soil may have been reduced ne
ness by improvident tillage, and then there is no better
store its fertility than by the growth of trees, and the ace
of a new supply of vegetable soil from the decay of the le
some sections of the country, where old fields have been 4
for cultivation, a crop of pines, oaks, or some other kinds
will come in and occupy the land, forming, in the course
years, quite a dense growth, but generally not of the mo
ble kinds. The latter may gradually become introduced.
been noticed that where we find a woodland principally eo
but one kind of timber, it is of comparatively recent origi
that a great diversity of species indicates that the woodl
been growing for a long period. ¥

286. In the midst of a well-settled country, with no op OS]
increase in value from external causes, the probable revenu
land under common forms of farm cultivation are less than in m
other kinds of property. The investment becomes especially «
ble from the security that it affords, and a reasonable prospect
this value may be increased by improvements and the gene
vance in values as the country becomes older. There are.
pleasing. associations connected with the solid and oudigeinel 0

secures. The value of farming land varies with the general we
and capital of a country, and increases or declines, not only «
fected bythe prosperity of places near it, but also by those w
may be more distant, but still large consumers of its produets.

287. Except in the suburbs of cities and villages, there is 1
that is speculative in the possession of land, after the lines of trans-
portation, and business points of a country have been fully estab- aM
lished. Should a time come when forests are managed 2 reat.

The Gaining Rates of Tree-Growth. 81

under careful management, and very considerable at the end of the
appointed periods.

988. To illustrate the rates of this increase, we will suppose that
_ the annual rings of growth in a tree are of equal
width. As a matter of fact, they are much
_ wider in some years than in others, but, for il-
lustration, we will consider them as uniform in
- thickness. Counting from the center outward,
we would have the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ete.,
_ showing the years of growth. The areas of
these circles (each including those within it) are ¢, concentric Rings of
as the squares of these numbers, viz., 1, 4, 9, rae Aleem.

16, 25, ete. By subtracting each of these from the preceding, we
have the series, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc., that represents the gain of each year
upon the year preceding.

289. These relative rates may be shown by a simple diagram, in
which the gain in diameter is represented by the ,,
lower diagonal, and the gain in area by the upper 4
one. The numbers along the bottom in this figure
represent the years, and those on the margin units
of quantity. The rates thus shown are actually
maintained for many years, while young, but be-
come less as the trees approach maturity. They
show the waste from cutting thrifty young timber
at the period of most profitable growth, and LNs
should lead us to spare it, when possible, till it has jiaintis Rates of
gained its full value. Sectional Areas.

290. But these gaining rates are only those of sectional area; the
trees are at the same time gaining in height, and the timber is gain-
ing in quality and value per cubie foot, as it grows older, for it can
then be applied to more important uses, when it has grown to large
size, besides being of intrinsically greater value, when fully mature.

291. The planting of forests, and their management afterwards,
till grown to fu!l maturity, can not be followed from fixed rules as
to time and manner, but the business must be conducted with an
intelligent understanding of the conditions that exist, and the cir-
cumstances that may influence their growth. Under equal cireum-
stances, as in all other forms of business, the man who pays the
closest attention to his affairs, and neglects nothing, will, at the end

i

82 Advantages from Planting: Its Limit and Proportion.

of a given period, have the most to show for his labor. The care

of woodlands is not generally as laborious as that of eultivated
fields, and, if they are both united upon a farm, the alternation of
care from one to the other, as the seasons and the occasion may re-
quire, serves to break the monotony of life, and contribute to its
enjoyment. |

292. Thereare incidental advantages to be derived from the planting

of trees for embellishment and shade, that can not be separately esti-
mated. That they increase the general value of an estate, can not

be doubted, and perhaps this might best be understood by asking,

how much less would the property be worth without them. As prices of —

timber may hereafter advance, the income from stated cuttings will
doubtless form a comfortable source of revenue, and there is a point
beyond which this may be greater than from any other form of cul-
tivation.

293. In the planting of avenues and parks, in or near towns and —

cities, questious of public utility, of personal comfort, and of health

become paramount to all others, and are altogether above pecuniary —

appraisal. There are other incidental advantages to be gained by
the planting of village streets and parks in the neighborhood of cities
that will be elsewhere more fully noticed.

On the Due Proportion of Woodlands to Cultivated Fields.

294. In considering only the wants of a country, we must admit
that wood is absolutely indispensable for our use—that it can only
be obtained by natural or artificial growth, and that therefore a cer-
tain proportion of land must be devoted to its production. Where
from commercial facilities, or colonial possessions, this growth may
be obtained by importation, and the land required for its production
may be distant, still the proportion must be maintained, or a great
future interest must be sacrificed to meet a present want. The
actual and relative amount of forests in Europe will enable us to
form some idea as to how this question stands at the present time in
these countries.

en falbeoeee|

- The Due Proportion of Woodlands to Fields. 83

*

Ib, “Forest Area ‘d various Countries of Europe, from late Official

Statistics.

Acres | Perc't Acres | Perc't

COUNTRIES, of of total COUNTRIES. of of total
Forests. | Area. Forests. | Area.
ee ee Nae aha 2 476,710,000 40.0 Switzerland..............| 1,788,786 | 18.0
At he SA 27,170,000 France ...............-.~| 22,687,716 17.3
Se ee 395, 84.1 OP ares Sie ee 1,721,029 | 143
gee we veir ee = 18,920,509 ME oe oes Sidslnn J Vase 7,833,647 73
= ft Saee 45,309,411] 29.4 ||Belgium ...............- 501,402 70
y $4,969,791; 26.1 |/Holland........ ........ 569,160 70
4 it Grains gagien >. 20,503,280 ' 22.9 Ln a 1,165,420 5.1
Roumania....... .... 4,940,000) ) ~~" Great Britain TPP ea ..| 8,106,824* 4.1
RE a Patel ws <ceraue 14,228,978} 22.0. ||Denmark.........-..... 464,360 3.4
OU abe, often 725,985,743 | 29.5

296. It will be seen from this table, that the general average
throughout Europe i is between a fourth and a third; that the least
proportion is in those countries where the facilities for foreign im-
portation are greatest, or where the demand is least, and
countries from whence for a century vast supplies have b
_ are by no means so well wooded as to promise indefi nite continu-
ance or inexhaustible supply. The relative abundance in Russia is
found only in the northern part, and nowhere can a contrast be-
tween plenty and want be more strongly shown. Moreover, it
_ should be remembered that in case of need, the government might
asily interrupt the exportation, if it became necessary to protect
its own interest, or to make other countries feel their dependence
upon it for supplies.

_ 297. It is obvious that foreign demands must greatly influence
_ the prices of a commodity in countries from whence it is supplied,
without reference to causes that might operate within them; and
since our country has furnished for a long period a large and con-
‘stantly increasing amount of timber and lumber to foreign coun-
tries, these questions become with us matters of direct practical in-
terest. It is proper, therefore, that we should take a general glance
at the distribution and extent of the native timber resources of the

- *This appears to be an over-statement. From statistics published in 1880, itisshown .
that there were then 1,435,434 acres of woodland in England, 162,135 in Ireland, and
811,703 in Scotland. The percentages of total area were 4.4.—3.4—and 1.6 respect-
ively.

84 Resemblances and Contrasts in Timber-Growth. —

United States; but before doing this, we will notice some points o:
resemblance and contrast, due to great geographical and g
causes, which we must recognize in all attempts at the natu
of species, and which may afford a useful guide in their cultivation,

Resemblances and Contrasts in the native Ti imber groin of diffe prentt
Regions of the United States. :

298. There has been noticed a wide difference between the ye
of the eastern and the western coasts of North America, and a
strong resemblance between the woodlands of the Atlantic States
and Canada and the eastern coast of Asia and the islands of Japan.
These resemblances apply to identical or representative species of the
genera that include the magnolias, lindens, sumacs, buckeyes, box: :
elder, yellow-wood, honey-locust, pear, shadbush, dog-woods, rhodo-—
dendrons, holly, persimmon, catalpa, sassafras, osage-orange, pla-—
rera, walnut, butternut, hazelnut, birch, alder, yellow and ba, «
pine, hemlock, arbor-vitee, bald cypress, and yews.

299. None of these, excepting some representatives of the sumac,
box-elder, pear, shadbush, and dog-wood, appear on the Pacific
coast. The Himalaya region, Northern China, and Mantechuria —
contain many native species that may be cultivated successfully in —
ornamental plantations in our Atlantic States, and are already ob- —
tainable from our great nurseries. It is already ascertained that —
they have better prospects of success than most of the species that
thrive so remarkably in their native localities upon the Pacific ;
coast, but under a climate and in conditions that we can not provide
for them in the Atlantic States. They are accustomed to heavy —
winter rains and long dry summers, and must have them. ~

300. The same difficulty occurs when we attempt to cultivate on
the Pacific coast, many of the species that thrive in the Atlantic
States. The hemlock, spruce, Norway spruce, and Austrian pine, ;
among the conifers, and the sugar maple and the hickory among

:

deciduous kinds, grow but slowly there. The pecan and the beech —
do better, but the locust tree is not at all reliable. Reasoning from —
this analogy, we would expect trees from the west of Europe to —
succeed in cases where they fail in the Atlantic States. It would —
well be worth trial as to whether the maritime pine, for example,
that grows so luxuriantly in the rainy region of Southwestern

ae

Native Forest Resources of the United States. 85

France, would not be found suited to similar conditions upon our
_ western coast, and prove a profitable tree for forest-culture.

- 301. In determining the kinds of trees best adapted to a given
‘region, it is well to observe what kinds have grown up, or that still
| gremain of the native growth, along the borders of streams, or in
"places where they have been sheltered and protected.

302. It may generally be presumed that these kinds would suc-
- ceed with much certainty, if planted again, although from ex-
“haustion of the soil by cultivation, or its injury from fires, it may
have been impoverished to an extent that would make it difficult to
plant. Before much expense was risked, experimental planting
might be tried upon a small scale, and in this it should be the duty
_of the government to assist, where the conditions are quite new and
the probabilities are unknown.

- General Glance at the Native Forest Resources of the United States and
Canada.

803. It is estimated by Professor Brewer, of Yale College, that

there may be eight hundred species of woody plants growing na-
tive in the United States, of which about three hundred attain a
height of thirty feet, and about two hundred and fifty are tolerably —
abundant somewhere. Excluding semi-tropical species on the extreme
southern border, and some others that are rare, there would still re-
_ main about one hundred and twenty species, of which about twenty
grow to one hundred feet, twelve to two hundred, and five or six
to three hundred feet or over. Of these one hundred and twenty,
_ about fifty are conifers.

304. East of the treeless plains, which extend from north to
south across the country, in a belt some hundreds of miles wide,
east of the Rocky Mountains, the native forests were largely of de-
_ ciduous kinds, and in great variety of species. West of this belt
they are almost entirely conifers. One species, the aspen (Populus
tremuloides), extends entirely across the continent. There may be a

few others that are found in rare cases.

The New England States.
305. In generalizing by regions, Professor Brewer remarks, that
in the New England States, once entirely wooded, there are eighty
to eighty-five native species, of which about sixty grow more than

86 Native Forest Resources of the United States.

fifty feet high. The greater number of these are hard-woods, ands
the conifers are chiefly of the pine, cedar, and spruce families.
As shade-trees, the elm and the sugar maple there i a attain
their finest development. ae

The Middle States. =

306. In the Middle States, from one hundred to one aloe
five species occur, of which sixty-five to sixty-seven grow fifty 1 ‘fee 7
or more in height. These states were once heavily wooded— t e
conifers in greater or less abundance being mingled among ‘the de- ;
ciduous kinds. Some of the oaks, the cheater beech, and sc 50 e
kinds of the ash, and the white-pine, there grow to ae perf
in their favorite localities.

Southern States. ae 7

307. From Virginia to Florida, about one hundred and pee s
species occur, of which about seventy-five grow to fifty feet or more, —
and perhaps a dozen to one hundred feet. The coast of this region -
produces the bald cypress, and towards the south the live-oak, ahs .
palmetto and other kinds. e

308. A broad belt of long-leaved pine (Pinus anshiiliay ened
further inland, in irregular form, around through the middle of the
Gulf States to beyond the Misael river. Still further inland,
and at higher level, the oaks and other hard-woods become more
common, and on the mountains the northern conifers are found. —
The pine forests of this region generally present an open appearance,
probably from their bekuee overrun by frequent fires.

309. The coast region and the swamps bear a tree-growth that is ;
dense and tangled, and although there may be timber of large size,
it is difficult of access, as the swamps never freeze so as to facilitate
luinbering asin the Northern States. In these swamps there is often
a deep deposit of vegetable soil, and in some places buried cedar may
be found still in excellent preservation.

310. At a short, distance west of Trinity river, in Texas, the for-
ests begin to disappear, and there are immense regions in that state,

i ibadiay from the Gulf to the northern and western borders, that :
are wholly destitute of trees.

-

The Western States. _ .
311. West of the Alleghenies, we find a country originally cov- a

Timber of the Western States—The Rocky Mountains. 87

ered with heavy timber, excepting in ‘‘oak openings” and ‘ bar-
_rens,” where the trees had been destroyed by freqvent fires, and the
fi _‘*prairies,” where from this or other causes no timber was found,
“except along the borders of streams.

312. These open spaces of every description, when drained aad
protected, are found to produce trees readily under cultivation, there
being scarcely any part that presents an inherent difficulty in the
a soil, and none in the climate.

313. According to the writer above cited, the country north-west
uy of the Ohio river, contains from one hundred and five to one hun-
_ dred and ten native species, of which sixty-eight to seventy grew to
a height of fifty feet. In Southern Ohio and Indiana, oaks and
_ various hard-woods grow to a very large size, and the walnuts, bass-
_ wood, and tulip-tree attain their finest development.

314. The white-pine region begins in North-western Ohio, and ex-
- tendsinto the states further northand west. In the interior of Michi-
gan, around Saginaw Bay, and along both lakes, there were vast
bodies of white pine, but much of this has been worked out, and
according to careful estimates the supply can not last many years.

315. In the upper Peninsula of Michigan, in Northern Wiscon-
sin, and in Eastern and North-eastern Minnesota, there were also
large bodies of timber, generally a mixture of conifers and hard-
woods. The forests south of Lake Superior were originally second
only to those of the Pacific coast for their density, and the size of
- their growth.

316. In Illinois and Southern Wisconsin, and from the Mississippi
river westward, the prairies begin to predominate, and the native
_ forests are limited to belts along the rivers and streams. In some
parts, these spread out into broad areas many miles in extent, and
in others they are mere fringes, that gradually disappeared altogether
further west.

The Rocky Mountain Region.

317. The sides and valleys of these mountains were in favorable
situations covered with coniferous forest trees, sometimes occupying
broad areas, and elsewhere of more limited extent. The number of
species in this region is not over twenty-eight or thirty, of which
the conifers form two-thirds the number in species, and by far the
greatest proportion in quantity. The box-elder (Negundo aceroides)
and the quaking aspen, are the more important deciduous trees.

88 Native Forest Resources of the United States.

:

318. The “ divides” between river systems are generally wooded, ~ }
but in scattered patches and irregular masses, that give a —— ;
appearance to the country, but do not afford for many years a sup--
ply, where mining or other settlements are made in their vicinity.
The waste and improvidence with which. this timber is being de-
stroyed should lead to prompt and adequate measures for its protec-
tion. In some places, it'can scarcely be made to grow again, when
once cut off, and in others the rate of growth is so slow that five
hundred years would scarcely replace the thoughtless waste of an
hour. eas

319. The decaying remains of coniferous and other trees are not.
unfrequently found in this region and westward, extending farther |
out towards the plains than any of the kind are now found growing,
or at least young and in thriving condition. This has been thought, —
to indicate that at no distant period in the past, these treesflourished
over a larger area than at present, and in places where, from changed
conditions of the climate, they could now scarcely be made to os 43
by the most careful cultivation.

320. This recession will, in all probability, be hastened by the
improvident waste that is now going on, and changes are already
perceptible, although the time since settlements began is but brief.
The nutritious bunch-grasses of the plains extend up into the bor-
ders of the timber belt, and in open valleys are found to nearly
11,000 feet above tide.

The Pacific Coast. “eae

321. The forests of this region are for the most part restricted to
the sea-coast, the borders of rivers, and the mountain sides, and are —
distinguished on account of the relatively large preponderance of
the coniferous as compared with the deciduous kinds. |

322. In speaking of the contrasts between this region and the At-
lantic States, Dr. Asa Gray remarks:

“California has no magnolia nor tulip-trees, nor star-anise tree; no 80-
called pawpaw; no barberry of the common single-leaved sort; . .. no
prickly-ash nor sumac; no loblolly-bay nor stuartia; no basswood nor lin-
den trees; neither locust, honey-locust, coffee-trees, nor yellow-wood; nothing
answering to hydrangea or witch-hazel, to gum-trees, viburnum, or dier-
villa; no huckle-berries, and hardly any blue-berries; no epigawa—charm of
our earliest spring—tempering the April wind with a delicious wild fra-
grance; no kalmia, nor clethra, nor holly, nor persimmon; ‘no catalpa tree;

— Timber Resources 5 of the United States and Canada. 89

furth Ler sm by naming patkenacte plants and others familiar to botanists.”

$23. The enormous sizes to which some of the conifers of this
egion grow, has been the wonder of all travelers; but these im-
‘mense growths do not cover large areas, and nowhere can such
strong contrasts between abundance and scarcity be elsewhere seen.
The heavy forests do not extend much beyond the coast region, the
_ borders of rivers or the mountain sides and valleys, and these usually
present remarkable peculiarities in the prevailing growth.
_ 824. The consumption and waste that have been going on since
settlement began, have already made serious inroads upon these ap-
parently ‘‘inexhaustible” supplies, and probably already more than
half, in all the accessible portions, is now gone. There is a most
_ urgent need of conservative measures, and the time is not distant
when the inhabitants of that region, and those depending upon
these supplies, will be admonished by enhanced prices of the im-
| portance of economy and the value of a growing tree.
| 325. In Canada, there are found sixty-five native species of trees,

in Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces; of which about
| a dozen range as far north as James Bay. The birches, poplars,
and tamarac are found in the more northerly region, and south of
these the pines and the beech, the latter chiefly south of a line
drawn from the outlet of Lake Superior to Quebec. West of Ni-
_ agara river is a zone where the walnut, butternut, tulip-tree, sassa-
' fras, and chestnut occur, with an increasing abundance of oaks.
The absence of trees and of mosses is a notable feature of the prairies
| of Manitoba and westward.’ The principal pine forests of Canada
| have receded to the upper waters of the great rivers flowing into
the St. Lawrence and the lakes, and from the investigations that
have been undertaken by the government in recent years, it appears
evident that the time of principal exhaustion is not many years
distant.

a Great Britain.

326, Of the native trees of Great Britain, there are only about a
dozen genera and thirty species, that grow to thirty feet or more

? Drummond’s Canadian Timber Trees, p. 5.

90 Alternations in Forest Growth.

in height, and only two of these are conifers. By importation from
other countries, the number now under cultivation is largely in-
creased, and very many have been found entirely suited to the soil

and climate. Among these, the larch may be mentioned as the one

that has come into favor more than any other species, as a forest
tree, especially in Scotland. The conifers of our Pacific coast, and
especially the Douglas fir, appear in many cases to thrive well _—
cultivated as timber frees

Alternations of Forest Growth.

327. It has been often observed that when a forest has we én ;
stroyed, and more especially if it has been killed off by fire, the —
growth that succeeds, when left to itself, is very often of a different —
kind. If the former growth was pine, the succeeding one may —

be cherry or poplar, and in some regions oak. In the Southern”

States, oak and hickory may be follnaec by pine. The white oak —
eut off at Valley Forge by the American army in 1777-8 was fol- —

lowed by black oak, hickory and chestnut. In Florida, the black-

jack (Quercus nigra) often follows the long-leaved pine ab
australis).

328. These facts have by some been regarded as favoritigis theory
of rotation of crops in timber, by natural causes, as we practice

with advantage in dertioudaces but, according to the best received

opinions, this alternation is not a law of nature, but rather the re-

sult of external circumstances, which will generally be found suf

ficient to account for all the facts we meet with. Either the decid-

uous or the resinous species can be introduced and maintained by —

the aid of judicious’ cultivation, in places where the conditions for
their welfare exist in the soil or climate.

329. But as different trees do not draw equally from the soil, we
should study the natural adaptation of the conditions of the local-
ity, and seek to accommodate the species to them, to the best ad-

vantage. In another part of this work, we notice Bic of the agen- .

cies icinsh which this natural teadings may occur.'
330. In seeking to continue the production of the same species

upon a. soil where it has formerly prospered, we must never allow —

the soil to become impoverished by the removal of the dead- leayes

1See pages 80-38, -

Aets relating to Timber on the Public Lands. 91

dasa ravbink. If this is done, the fertility is diminished, in a man-
_ ner comparable to that of agricultural lands that will gradually be-
come exhausted, unless manures are applied. In no form of forest-
-¢ulture is thiedein tendency to general exhaustion of the soil by long
continued use, as we observe in agricultural cultivation; still there
_ may be an exhaustion of the local supply for the roots of trees in
_ particular places, and when this occurs the trees may languish and
die, or their growth may be checked. This sometimes happens in
| ornamental planting, where very fertile soil is used for filling in the
| _ holes, and where these holes are dug in a very poor soil.

CHAPTER IX.

ACTS OF CONGRESS RELATING TO TIMBER RIGHTS.

Entry of Land under the Timber-culture Acts.

~ 831. By an act of Congress approved March 3, 1873, and amended
“March 13, 1874, and again June 14, 1878, any person who is the
head of a family, or who has arrived at the age of twenty-one, and
is a citizen of the United States, or who has filed his declaration of
intention to become such, may apply at the office of the Register of
a Land District, for the entry of any vacant land in such district as
‘a timber claim, upon the following conditions:
~ $832. The amount may not be more than a quarter section (160
acres) to one person, nor more than this amount ean be taken up
by any person in one section. The applicant must make oath that
the land is composed wholly of prairie lands, or other lands devoid
of timber; that the entry is made for the cultivation of timber, and
‘for his own exclusive use and benefit, and in good faith, and not forthe
purpose of speculation, or directly or indirectly for the use or bene-
fit of any other person; and that he intends to hold and cultivate
the land, and fully to comply with the provisions of the law. He
must also swear that he has not previously entered any lands under
‘the present act, or the acts of which it is amendatory.

333. Upon the payment of a fee of $10, and the further sum of
_ $4, for commissions, if for more than eighty acres, or of $5 and $4
if eighty acres or less, he receives a certificate of entry, and may
‘oceupy at once, upon the following conditions:
_ 834. If the entry is for 160 acres, he must break or plow five
acres the first year and another five acres the second year. The land

!

92 Acts relating to Timber on the Public Lands.

plowed the first year, must be cultivated by crop or otherwise in the”
second year. In the third year he must cultivate the five acres
broken in the second year, and plant in timber trees, tree-seeds,
or cuttings, the five acres first broken or plowed, and cultivate the
remainder that has been broken. In the fourth year, he must plant
in timber trees, tree-seeds, or cuttings, the second five acres. |

335. If the entry is for eighty acres, the amount to be broken and
planted must be one-half, or if for forty acres, one-fourth of theabove
amount. If the trees, seeds, or cuttings are destroyed by grass-
hoppers, or by extreme or unusual drouth, for any year or term of
years, the time for planting is increased one year for every such
year when they have been destroyed. - In applying for an extension
of time, an affidavit by the applicant, corroborated by two Wwithensen,
must befiled, setting forth the destruction of the trees.

336. At the end of eight years from the date of entry, or within a

five years thereafter, the person who made it, or if he or she be dead
his or her heirs.or legal representatives must prove, by two credible
witnesses, that the amount of land has been plowed, cultivated,
planted, and protected as above required, and a statement of the
quantity and character of trees thus planted; that not less than
2,700 trees were planted on each acre;' and that at least 675 are
living and thrifty, upon each acre, at the time of making such
proof. This will then entitle him to a patent for the Sad
tion, or less amount of land that was entered.

337. The claim is forfeited at any time before the eight years,
upon neglect of any of the conditions, and may be entered by another
person, either as a homestead or as a timber claim, the original
claimant being notified as prescribed by rules, and his rights deter-
mined by evidence, as in other contested cases...

338. Timber-claims are not liable to the satisfaction of debts con-
tracted before date of final certificate. The penalties preseribed
with respect to oaths and affirmations falsely made in other cases ap-
ply to this, and the Commissioner of the General Land Office is re-
quired to issue rules and regulations for the execution of the act.

339. Entries made under the acts of 1873 or 1874 may be com-
pleted under the act of 1878, upon complying with its conditions,
and in this case it is not necessary to prove that the manner of

1 Equivalent to rows four feet apart each way.

Acts of Congress relating to Timber Rights. 93

planting begun under former acts were complied with. It may have
been done under the manner prescribed by either of these acts.

340. With respect to the kinds of trees that might be regarded
as timber trees, within the meaning of the law, the following were
specified, viz.: ‘‘Ash, alder, beech, birch, black-walnut, basswood,
_ black-locust, cedar, chestnut, cottonwood, elm, fir, including spruce,

_hickory, boney-locust, larch, maple, including box-elder, oak, pine,
_ plane-tree, otherwise called cotton-tree, buttonwood or sycamore,
service-tree, otherwise called mountain-ash, white-walnut, otherwise
called butternut, white-willow, and whitewood, otherwise called
tulip-tree.”
841. The above list was only intended as a general guide, and
will not be construed to exclude any trees falling within the deserip-
tion of trees recognized in the neighborhood as of value for timber,
or for commercial purposes, or for firewood and domestic use.’

342. The preparation of the land and the planting of trees being
acts of cultivation, the time so employed is to be counted as a part
of the eight years of cultivation required by law. Final proof must
be made in person, with his witnesses, and in the Land District where
the land is located. The testimony must be given before a Judge
or Clerk of a court of record in that Land District, and the identity
aud credibility of the party making the affidavit must be certified
by the officer administering the oath.

343. The sum of $4, in addition to the amount paid upon entry,
must be paid when the final proof is made. No additional fees are
required or allowed.

344. By official rulings entries by subdivisions of quarter-sections
may be made, if in the same section, and in a compact body, not
exceeding 160 acres in all. Where an entry is made upon a claim
that has been abandoned after breaking or planting, the second
party is not entitled to any allowances for the work done. After
entry of 160 acres, if from sickness the party can not complete the

1 This general permission was granted by a decision of February 10, 1882.
The omissions in the list previously enumerated had given rise to severe criti-
cisms. LEither.of the following might in some localities be found worth cul-
tivating as t:mber trees, and several of them may be classed among the
more valuable kinds, viz: Ailanthus, blue-beech, cherry (especially the
black cherry,) gum-trees, hackberry, iron-wood, osage-orange, peach, pear,
apple, plum, etc.

Bis |

94 Acts of Congress relating to Timber Rights.

planting, if the amount broken be as much as the law requires for

a less amount, he may relinquish 80 acres, retaining the part on
which work is begun. A claim once entered can not be exchanged
for another. :

945. A strict compliance with the terms of the law has been held
as necessary. Should less than five acres be broken, for example,
in one year, the difference could not be made up by an excess of
plowing the second year. The word ‘ cultivation” does not neces-
sarily imply the raising of a crop. It may be done by plowing.
harrowing, or otherwise.

346. Every timber-culture entry is made subject to a right of con-
test, by any person who can show non-compliance as a ground of
forfeiture. He who faithfully complies with the law has little to
apprehend, for contestants must pay the costs if not successful. ;

347. Where a scattered growth of trees exists on the margin of a
stream or a section of land, and there are none growing elsewhere
on the section, it has been held that the tract is ‘‘ naturally devoid of
timber” if there are less than 50 trees to the section. The quality
of the trees, rather than their number, has determined questions
arising upon this point. Because a tract was covered by a prior
timber-culture entry, this is not evidence that the land is properly
subject to the timber-culture law. The person who makes affidavit
should assure himself of the fact.

way

Planting under the Homestead-Entry Act.

348. Under an act relating to homestead entries, in force from
March 13, 1874, to June 14, 1878, a person entitled under the
homestead act, who at any time after the third year of his or her
residence thereon, had, in addition to the settlement and improyve-
ments required by law, brought under cultivation for two years one acre
of timber, not more than twelve feet apart each way, and had kept
it in good thrifty condition, for each sixteen acres of his homestead,
he was entitled to receive a patent for the same, upon proof of the
fact. The rights acquired while this act was in force, will remain
valid, until the limitation of that act has expired.

Use of Timber by Railroad Companics. f
849. By an act approved March 8, 1878, entitled “‘ an act granting —
to railroads the right of way through the public lands of the United
States,” these companies are allowed the right of 100 feet on each

Acts relating to Timber on the Public Lands. 95

side of the central line of their road, and the right to take from the

public lands adjacent to the line of said road the timber and other

materials necessary for construction, and a tract not to exceed
twenty acres in a place, once in ten miles, for a station.

Privileges granted to the Citizens of Colorado, Nevada, and the Terri-

tories.

350. By “An Act authorizing the citizens of Colorado, Nevada,
and the Territories, to remove Timber on the Public Domain for Min-
ing and Domestic Purposes,” approved June 3, 1878, the bona fide
residents of the above states, and the territories of New Mexico,
Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, Dakota, Idaho and Montana, and all other
mineral districts of the United States, were permitted to take any
timber or other trees growing on the public lands, said lands being
mineral, and not subject to entry, as they might need for building,
agricutural, mining, or domestic purposes, subject to such regula-
tions as the Secretary of the Interior might prescribe.

Sale of Timber Lands in California, Oregon, and Nevada, and in Wash-
ington Territory.

851. By an act of June 3, 1878, providing for the survey of pub-
lic lands in the above states and territories which are chiefly valu-
able-for timber but unfit for cultivation, and which had not been
offered for sale, it is provided that such lands may be sold in quan-
tities not exceeding 160 acres to one person, at a minimum price of
$2.50 per acre. During the year ending June 30, 1881, there were
entered the following amounts :

In California, 179 entries—19,829.66 acres.
In Washington Ter., 134 entries=16,436 _ acres.
In Oregon, 49 entries 5,044.55 acres.
In Nevada, lentry = 160 acres.

392. An applicant must make affidavit that he isa citizen, or has
filed a declaration of intention to become such; that the land is un-
fit for cultivation, and chiefly valuable for timber (or stone); that
it is uninhabited; that it has not gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, or
coal; that he has made no previous application; does not buy on
speculation ; and has not made any agreement by which the benefit
shall accrue to any other person. This allegation must be sup-
ported by that of two other persons who have no interest in the

96 European Plans of Forest Management.

transaction. After advertisement for sixty days, if no- adverse

claim is filed, the land may be conveyed. This act does not re-
serve land covered by timber and fit for cultivation from the opera-
tion of the homestead or pre-emption laws. A person resident on a
timber claim has been allowed to change it toa homestead entry,
upon relinquishing the former, under section 8, Act of May 14, 1880.

Applicants are not allowed to remove the timber from the land em-

braced in their application prior to making proof and payment.

CHAPTER X. *

EUROPEAN PLANS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT, 2

359. In countries where Forestry has been studied with most

care, several different systems of management have been devised,

in each of which certain advantages may be gained when properly
employed. The preference that should be given to one or another,

must in all cases be determined by the circumstances and conditions.

They are as follows:

(1.) Method of Selection.*

360. In this method, the trees are cut out here and there, leaving

others not yet mature to grow to their full size. It is the same plan
that we see in common use, in the tracts of woodland reserved upon
farms, in the older parts of the United States, where the timber is
cut out here and there, as it is wanted for particular uses, or as it
begins to decay.

361. It is also employed to some extent in the cutting of trees for
lumber, chiefly in pine, cedar, or spruce forests, where all the trees
above a Certain diameter are cut out, and those of smaller size are
left, until the tract can again be cut over in like manner.

362. It results from this management, that the forest always
presents a great diversity of growth of young trees among the old,
and the actual amount of wood upon such a tract is generally much
less than where a great uniformity in size and age has been main-
tained. As too often practiced upon farms, if cattle and sheep are
allowed to pasture in such woods, the seedlings and young sprouts

1Called by the French “Jardinage,” literally “gardening;” or sometimes
“ fuertage,” that is, “stealing” here and there from the forest, as described
in the text.

European Plans of Forest Management. 97

“are « ten off, or are broken down, and the tendency to ruin is
363. In such woodlands, where trees are felled every year, the
_ young timber is very liable to injury,—bare places are very apt to
form, and the general tendency is to a continual narrowing in of
‘the boundary and final clearing off. In such irregular forests, the
wins are apt to do more injury than where the growth is uniform,
and the timber itself is generally not so valuable, on account of the
injuries and accidents to which it is exposed when young, and the
- unequal growth that it forms. Nevertheless, in certain cases, it is
the only form of management that is admissible, as, for example,
_ upon a mountain side liable to erosion from torrents, if all cleared
at once, or in places difficult of access, where large timber could
not be got out, or upon loose sands that might be liable to drift, if
fully exposed to the winds.

364. In the case of pine or spruce woodlands, and in cedar
swamps, where an interval of several years occurs between the cut-
tings, and due protection is given, the practice of selection is a good
one, because in such cases a chance for seeding is afforded at each
partial clearing, and the younger growth has the benefit of air and
light, most favorable to its welfare.

365. In all cases, where the young growth becomes too dense, so
that the branches interlock, it is advisable to thin out a part, in
_ order to favor the growth of the remainder. In some localities, the
young trees thus taken out may be profitably used for stakes and
poles, affording a small revenue to the owner.

3 (2.) Method of Coppice-growth.

366. The term ‘‘ coppice” is applied to a woodland that is cut
off completely when the timber has grown to a size for the uses to
which it is intended, and a new growth is allowed to spring up from
the roots and stumps.

5367. We have scarcely an instance among the resinous species in
which this can be done with advantage. But very few' will sprout

1The redwood of California (Seguoia sempervirens) is a notable exception
to this rule, as it sprouts freely from the stump, and even from the fallen
timber, if cut at the proper season. The pitch-pine of New England (Pinus
- rigida) shows some tendency to sprout, but the sprouts seldom attain much
growth,

98 European Plans of Forest Management.

from the stump at all, and of these the after-growth does not a
duce a new crop of much value.

368. Although most deciduous trees will spriut when cut, some
of them, especially the beech and the maple, will scarcely grow to
advantage. In other kinds, as the chestnut, oaks, ashes, poplars,
willows, linden, etc., the second growth under favorable conditions
is very good. As a rule, the growth is best when the cutting is
nearly or quite level with the ground, for then the sprouts are able
to get independent roots.

370. If, however, a second growth had already been obtained, it
would be better to cut a little higher, and in the new wood, where
the growth would be more likely to sueceed than under the haniaet
bark of the old wood.

371. ‘To insure success by this method, the timber must be cut a
little before the season when growth begins. In a climate so varied as
we find in the United States, it would be quite impossible to fix this —
time by a general rule, and even in a given locality it might vary
in different years. In the Northern States, the latter part of win-
ter would be best; but in intensely cold and dry weather the frost
might so injure and loosen the bark that it would separate from the
wood, and the vitality of the stump would be weakened or de-
troyed.

372. In some species, the flow of sap will tend to injury if the
cutting is done too near the time when it begins to start. It is de-
sirable to have the full effect of the first impulse of growth, and if
the cutting be delayed until after this has advanced the sprouts be-
come weak.

373. In mild climates, where we have no fear of heavy winter
frosts, the cutting may be done at any time after the fall of the
leaves, or in the broad-leaved evergreens, as soon as the movement
of the second sap has ceased.

374, If cut in midsummer or early autumn, after the growth of
wood for the year has formed, no sprouts will form, or they will be
feeble and transient.

375. It is further to be observed, that as the sprouts from a stump
start from along the line of junction between the wood and the bark,
care should be taken not to wound or tear off the bark when cut.
It is an excellent plan to go over the stumps witha sharp adze,
and carefully trim the edges, always cutting towards the center, so

European Plans of Forest Management. 99

s to leave the edges smooth and the stump convex. This will en-
able it to shed off the rains which might otherwise settle in hollow
_ places and hasten decay.
_ 876. As only a few of the sprouts that come up from the stump
are wanted as trees, a part of them should be cut off. If some of
them are bent down, secured in place by pegs, and partly covered
_ with soil, they will take root and become independent trees, when
separated from the parent stock. In putting down these layers, the
_ part that is buried should be partly cut off, and the tip end be left
exposed.
877. In some species, as in the locust, and in many of the pop-
lars, we find a strong tendency to spread by sending up sprouts
from the roots, often at a great distance from the parent tree.
_ These sprouts will readily form thrifty trees, and where these tracing
roots are broken, and the ends brought to the surface, they grow
readily from these ends.

378. Where it is desirable to hasten the growth of trees from
sprouts and the ground is full of small roots, we may break these
and bring their ends to the air and thus hasten a new growth. This

can be done where poplars have been cut off, and a new crop is de-

‘sired.

379. It is needless to remark that a coppice growth scarcely ad-
mits of any kind of pasturage at any time during its growth, and
that to insure success it should always be kept inclosed. In some
countries, the leaves are gathered while still green, and dried for
winter fodder.

380. The period at which a coppice may be cut depends upon the
uses to which the wood is to be applied, and the conditions of soil,
climate, and exposure under which it has grown. It should never
extend beyond forty, and it may be reduced to fifteen, or even to
ten years. It will be very liable to be governed by the wants of the
_ owner and the market prices of timber. Generally, from twenty to
thirty years is ample time for firewood, charcoal, railroad ties, ete.
For hoop poles and other small wood it may be cut in five or six
years.

381. As a general rule, the result is best where the period is uni-
form, but tais can not be determined in a given locality until all
the circumstances of growth and the opportunities for market are
known. The wood should be taken out before the sprouts get up

100 European Plans of Forest Management.

so as to be liable to injury, and the brush should be burned as soon
Be tapy be—if possible in the spring of the same year.

882. Roads are of first importance for facilitating the removal of
products, and when kept free from dry litter, they afford lines of
defense in case of forest fires.

383. Sometimes one or two agricultural crops are taken off at the
time of cutting of a coppice. The benefit in exceptional cases may
be considerable, but as a rule it will do more harm than good.

384. One of the most important applications of the method of
coppice growth, in Europe, is for the production of oak bark; to be
used in tanning, as will be elsewhere more fully noticed. 3

385. As thetrees in a coppice do not come to maturity, they seldom
tend to seed themselves, or if this occurs it is apt to result that in-
ferior species of easy and rapid growth may get an undue start, and
tend to supplant the more valuable kinds. It is always advisable
to notice the void places in a coppice woodland, and plant or sow
them at the proper season. In this, attention should be given to
favor the more valuable kinds. A proper mixture of species will
sometimes yield a greater quantity of material and more profit, in a
given time, than when it is all alike.

386. As coppice woods must be cut in the season when the sap is
about to start, the-durability of the wood is not so great as when
cut in the dormant season. For some uses this is not important,
but in others, as in the case of railroad ties, posts, and the like, it
becomes a question for consideration as to whether the season of cut-
ting should not be that which tends to greater durability, at the risk
of failure of reproduction by coppice-growth.

387. It is to be remarked that the best success in reproduction
after cutting, occurs in rich and humid soil, and in a damp climate,
and that as we pass to those that are dryer the chances become
less, until we approach those of the arid type, when they disappear
altogether. From the greater dryness of our climate, as compared
with that of Europe, we can not so uniformly depend upon this
method as there.

388. In a given species it is observed that the tendency to send
up vigorous sprouts diminishes with age, and that finally it ceases
almost entirely. We should not therefore depend upon the stumps
of trees of large size for the growth of coppice wood. In cases
where it is desirable to hasten their decay, to get room for others,

European Plans of Forest Management. 101

‘f Siiey thay be cut concave, so that the rain-water will settle upon
: them instead of running off.

- 389. In skilled forestry there is a constant effort to increase the
_ production of a given area, and to improve the quality of the wood
_ grown. Since coppice woods are generally cut before maturity,
their timber has not the size or excellence that allow it to be used
where pieces of large dimensions and great strength are needed, and
it has been customary at every cutting to reserve some of the finest
and thriftiest trees and allow them to grow to asecond, third, fourth,
or fifth period, thereby attaining their greatest size and value."

390. These reserved trees affect the young growth around them,
either by their covert or their shade.

(a.) The covert of a tree is the action that a tree may have upon
the space that is covered by the top and branches, and it is gener-
ally injurious, by intercepting a part of the rain and much of the
light, and by preventing the formation of dew.

(b.) The shade is the shadow which a tree casts at different times
in the day, and where it does not rest too long, and alternates with
sunshine, it is almost always salutary to the young growth. It tends
to prevent evaporation, while it does not hinder the free access of
the air.

391. Asa rule, the reserves should not cover more than from the
twentieth to the sixteenth part of the surface, and they should be
distributed as uniformly as possible. At every cutting some should
be taken out, so that the number of each class becoines less.

392. The oak, when thus left under an unusual exposure of the
sun and air, is especially liable to put out large lateral branches of
vigorous growth. These ‘‘ gormand” branches should not be allowed
to become large, and can best be trimmed off close to the trunk, and
late in summer. They will then be less liable to sprout the next
spring, and may sooner heal over with new wood. It is a good
practice to paint over these wounds with coal-tar.

! The trees thus left, received certain names according to the periods they
are left over. In French forestry these names, with their English equiva-
lents, as nearly as can be rendered, are us follows:

Ist period, BRaliveau—*“ young reserves.”

2d period. Modernes—* moderns.”

8d period. Anciens, 2d class—* old, of 2d class.
Ath period, Anciens 1st class—old, of 1st class.
5th period. Vieilles écorces—* old-bark.”

102 Kuropean Plans of Forest Management.

393. In the case of timber used for ship building, the knees and
other curved or angular parts are generally taken from trees that
have the desired shapes. These are oftener found along the borders
of a woodland than in the interior, and the reserves affording these
forms being more desirable, more of them may be left in propor-
tion to their number than of others that are more upright. It has
been practiced to some extent, to bend and confine young trees, to
secure these curves and forms that give them special value for cer-
tain uses. This may be done by fastening one branch to another
of the same tree, or by binding it to the ground, or fastening it to a
plank molded to the proper curve, until it will stay in place.

(3.) The Growing of Woodlands to full Maturity.’

394. For the production of large timber, of great strength, and
fit for the most important uses in civil and naval constructions,
a special course of management is required, which we will briefly
describe, although it has not hitherto been much followed, except
upon lands belonging to governments, and in a large degree for the
supply of their own wants.

395. In this form of cultivation, the trees are generally all started
at the same period, and at all stages of growth they are of the same
age and size, but progressively become less in number, by thinning
out from time to time, in order to allow the remainder a better
chance to grow.

396. The period of ‘‘ revolution” with the same kinds varies with
the. richness of the soil, the climate, and the exposure, and it is
longer in some kinds than with others.

397. The deciduous kinds most prized for this are the English
oak,? beech, elm, ash, sycamore, maple, hornbeam, birch, and
locust, often more or less mixed, and sometimes with spruces, firs,
and pines. The conifers can be cultivated only in this way or by
*‘jardinage.” [§ 360.]

398. The beginning is secured either by sowing or planting (upon

_ 1 We have no single word in the English language to express the idea
which the French convey in the word futaie, and the Germans in Aochwald,
meaning a forest grown to full age, in a period ranging from 60 or 70 years,
to 150 or 200. ,

2 Quercus pedunculata, and Q, sessiliflora, by some botanists regarded as
varieties of the same species, which they name Quercus rubur.

;

European Plans of Forest Management. 103

_ ground previously prepared) over its whole surface, or in squares or
_ pockets, so as to be near enough together to shade the whole ground
_ in two or three years, and thus take an upward growth to reach the
air and light. They should be thinned out when too dense, but no
_ rule can be given as to the time when, and the extent to which this
thinning should be done, where so much depends upon circum-
stances, and the judgment of the forester in charge.

399. In Germany, upon a good soil, and a uniform growth, the
number of trees at different clearings, after the trees get to be of a
_ considerable size, is about as follows:

Ist clearing, at 30 to 40 years, 1,300 to 1,600 trees left to an acre.

ae = ~ BO to 60. “ 500 to 600 cs ui

eee 85 3**-70 to 80: - 300 to 400 e a

aet...* . 90 t0 100 * 200 to 250 " ee

400. In the evergreen or coniferous kinds the number left may
be greater, because, with a given size of body, the foliage is less.
Upon poor soils and in rude climates it may be greater, because the
trees will be smaller, and upon mountain sides the same, because the
trees do not then shade one another so much, and are better exposed
to the light.

401. Much importance is attached to these thinnings, for they
secure a great gain in value of the final product, besides that de-
rived from the trees taken out, and that would have perished from
shading out if left to themselves. From the first of these thinnings
they have a value, which increased at every time, from poles to
timber of useful size; and at all stages they furnish wood for fuel
and charcoal.

402. While these accessory products afford in advanced stages a
reyenue, much above the whole cost of supervision and labor, their
removal stimulates the growth of the remainder in a notable degree,
and they gain much faster in size, as their branches and roots find
more room to spread. By letting in the sun and the air, they con-
tribute to give qualities of solidity and elasticity, that they could

not acquire in a dense shade.

403. In a well kept woodland, dead and dying trees should be
taken out whenever found, as their presence favors the breeding of
beetles, that might injure the remaining trees. It is a poor policy to
allow the dead leaves and the litter to be taken out; but when the

104 European Plans of Forest Management.

trees become large, the fattening of swine upon the nuts and sii
is usually allowed.

404. In such a forest, in best condition, the trees are much
nearer together than as we commonly find them in a wild-wood :*

he ground is so shaded that no grass will grow, and the seeds that
fall soon perish for want of air and light. In fact the trees them-
selves do not bear seeds as freely as when they have more space.

405. At the time of these thinnings, the soft woods of more
rapid growth, such as the poplars, birches, alders, ete., should be
taken out where they are not wanted; but a mixture of kinds, such
as the oak and beech, or the beech and Scotch pine is often en-
couraged, as they agree well together,.and make a more profitable
product than either would alone. As the oak yields a more yalu-
able timber, they generally prefer to give it a greater chance.

406. Care should be taken to clear out the brambles and shrubs,
good for nothing but faggots, and which are bound in bundles and —
sold. The branches of trees cut in thinning are also used as
faggots.

407. Finally, as the time for general cutting draws near, and it
becomes necessary to provide for a new forest-growth, the seeding
of the plants that are to form the future forest is secured without
cost, and with great suecess, by a simple course of management that
deserves careful notice :

408. At first, they take out some of the trees uniformly over the
whole surface, so as to let in the air and light, and thus favor the
remaining trecs in bearing fruit. The seeds that form fall under or
near the parent trees, and become lightly covered by the leaves of
the same season. Being on the surface of a rich soil, which has
been forming for a long period, from the decay of foliage, and now
exposed to the sun’s light and warmth, they spring up as young

1 Nothing can be more impressive to one accustomed only to the irregu-
larity of an American forest, than the sight of a well kept European plan-
tation in full growth, As he looks into the gloomy recesses, the trees stand
in rows like organ pipes, greatly exceeding in number those ever found
from spontaneous growth, and with asymmetry in size and height that is
remarkable, When scen at a distanee, such forests appear level at the top,
and we oft&n see different levels, indicating differences in age, The best
cultivated forests of Germany are worth from three to five times as much
as native woods,

European Plans of Forest Management. 105

pplents, and in a year or two the whole surface of the woodland is
. py parpeted with the fresh green foliage of young seedling trees.
___ 409. These tender plants would soon wither and perish in the full
ight of day in an open field. They need just the kind of shelter
_ that the parent-trees afford. The sunlight comes down sprinkled
here and there, and the shadows pass over them, so that with this
_ alternation of light and shelter the plants receive just the proportion
- that is needed for their most thrifty growth.
410, As they gain in size, they need more light, and will bear
_ more exposure ; and finally, when they need shelter no longer, the
remaining trees are carefully taken out, and the young forest starts
_ off on a new period, to supply timber for the use of generations un-
born.

411. This period in the larch and the birch ranges from 50 to 60
_ years, or with the former in cold regions it may extend to 120 or
140 years. With the locust and the maritime, Aleppo and Corsican
pines, it is from 60 to 70 years; with the Scotch pine, it is from 80
to 90 years; with the beech, from 80 to 140 years; with the ash;
from 90 to 100 years; with the chestnut, from 90 to 120 years;
with the spruce, from 90 to 140 years; with the fir, from 100 to
140, the average being about 120 years; with the elm, 100 to 120
years; and with the oak, 120 to 200 years.

412. The profits of a full-grown forest, as compared with a cop-
_ pice, are very great. It is shown by Hartig, a noted German au-
thor, that a high forest cut at 120 years bears to a coppice cut once
in 30 years, through the same time, the proportion of 7 to 4, all re-
ceipts and expenses being taken into the account.

415. Whenever the time shall come that our only supplies of
timber are furnished by cultivation, great corporations will doubtless
be formed, for managing great forest properties, under skilled
agents, and with a capital that can afiord to wait a long time, so
long as it is earning a good rate, and promises a sure profit. By
such means, forests can be grown to great advantage, but best upon
an extensive scale.

European Forest Administrations.
414, In every country upon the continent of Europe, considerable
tracts of woodland belong to the government. The local munici-
palities (communes, cities, etc.) own other tracts, generally near or

106 European Forest Administrations.

within their limits, and often subject to rights of common usage,
such as the supply of wood for fuel or building purposes, pasturage,
feeding of swine upon acorns, and the like. Many public estab-
lishments, such as churches, monasteries, charities, ete., also own
forest estates, as a part of their endowment.

415. Over all of these the government has supervision, and there
has grown up an organized branch of the public service, known as
the Forest Administration, with regular grades of promotion, and
generally pensions to those who have spent their strength in the
service until their working days are over.

416. In the German States, and in the Scandinavian kingdowase
the Forest Administration is generally a branch of the Ministry of
Finances; in Russia, in that of the Imperial Domains, and in Aus-
tria, France, Italy, and Spain, it is associated with the Ministry of
Agriculture, or cf Agriculture and Commerce, with some differences
due to the organization of the several governments.

417. They 1 agree in having a central administrative office, from
whence all important business is ordered, and to which reports are
made. They generally have in the superior grades of service a
number of inspectors, who make periodical visits to the different
' forests, to observe their condition, and detect any fault or neglect
that may have crept into their management. It is in some coun-
tries the custom to transfer the local superintendents from time to
time to new fields of duty, as tending to a more faithful discharge
of their trusts.

418. There is also a system of forest-guards, sometimes organized
upon a military basis, for the protection of timber and game, and
to see that the work of cutting and removal of products is done in
accordance with regulations. These guards, when on duty, always
wear a uniform, and are commonly armed with a carbine. They.
may make summary arrests, and are held accountable for any dam-
age or trespass done within their districts which are not promptly
reported by them for investigation and punishment.

419. For every grade of service a uniform is prescribed, to be
worn when on duty, and on certain public occasions, as in our army
and navy. Green, among Foresters, is a favorite color, and an oak-
leaf-and-acorn is a common symbol of the profession. A marking-
hammer is also a symbol of the Forester, as is the anchor with the
sailor, or the pick with the miner. .

. : A . European Forest Societies, Periodicals and Schools. 107

bi Forest Societies: Periodical Literature.
420. Forest societies of various kinds are organized in most coun-
tries. These generally meet quarterly or annually for the discussion
“of subjects of professional interest, and their proceedings are usually
‘published. These annual meetings usually last several days, and’
_ excursions are commonly made to places of interest. Besides these
associations, composed of proprietors and professional foresters, there

re various other associations, some for mutual relief of members,
and some for special objects, such as the maintenance of schools of
Forestry, the prosecution of experimental researches, the interests
_ concerned in the lumber and timber trade, ete.
421. There are also a great number of periodicals, issued at reg-
ular intervals, and wholly or partly devoted to the interests of For-
-estry. If we include quarterlies and annuals with those issued
Einonthly or oftener, the number would amount to nearly fifty.
Many of these are conducted with great ability, and afford substan-
tial aid to the interest to which they are devoted.

Schools of Forestry.

422. Nearly every goveriment upon the continent in Europe
has established one or more Schools of Forestry, for preparing
young men for service as officers of the forest and administration.
None can enter this service until they have passed through the
_ studies and practical exercises at these schools. The course gener-
ally lasts two to three years, and the students must first finish their
‘studies in the public schools. They are taught mathematics, natural
sciences (especially botany and entomology), chemistry, meteorology,
_ physies, sylviculture, drawing, surveying, forest and hunting laws,
_ forest management, etc., and make regular excursions with the pro-
-fessors, for observation and practice.

_ 423. The following are the principal schools of Forestry in
Europe. Those preceded by a star are connected with some univer-
‘sity or other institution :

Austria: *Vienna, Eulenburg, Weisswasser, ag Aggs-
_ bach, Bergenz, *Schemnitz, and *Gratz, and of lower ards in
other places.

Denmark: : *Copenhagen.

Finland: Evois.

108 Schools of Forestry: Planting of Dunes.

France: Nancy, Barres, and *Paris. (Institut Agronomique.)

GrerMANY: Baden, *Carlsruhe; Bavaria, Aschaffenburg, and
*Munich ; Hesse-Darmstadt, *“Giessen; Prussia, Eberswalde ‘ana
Minden; Saxe-Weimar, Eisnach; Saxony, Tharand; Wurtemburg,

*Tiibingen.
* Italy: Vallombrosa.

Norway: At two or three places small elementary schools.

Portugal: *Lisbon.

Russia: St. Petersburg, *Moscow, Lisino, and *Nova peveneyc
(Poland), besides a short course at six farm schools,

Spain: Escorial.

Sweden: Stockholm, and small schools at seven other places.

Switzerland: *Zurich.

Turkey : Constantinople.

424, These schools generally have forest gardens, laboratories,
collections in natural history, and especially in Forestry, and special
libraries connected with them. In Austria, several of them are
supported by Forest Associations, composed of land proprietors and
others interested in Forestry. In many universities and polytechnic
institutions, Forestry is incidentally taught as a part of their general
course.

Planting of Dunes.

425. On certain coasts the sands thrown up by the waves are
drifted by the winds into-hills, sometimes two hundred feet or more
in height and miles in width, which are constantly changing in
form, and gradually advancing inland. These drifting sands, by
closing the mouths of streams, generally cause a series of ponds
to be formed behind them, which may render the country sickly, as
well as the soil worthless from overflow. In various places on the
northern and western coast of France, villages and hamlets have been
buried by drifting sands, and considerable tracts of fertile land have
‘been thus overwhelmed.’ The planting of these ‘‘dunes,” and their

control, may be reckoned among the proudest achievements of

Forestry.

426. In these exposed places, the plants need shelter in getting
started, and the first thing to be done is to compel the winds to
build a high and regular embankment for their protection. To se-

1 We have an example of these disasters at Grand Haven, Michigan,
where « railroad station has been buried by drifting sands.

ee. Planting of Dunes. 109

eure this, a line of obstructions is placed along the shore, three or

four hundred feet from the water's edge, consisting of bundles of
faggots set in diagonal rows near together, or planks three or four
feet high, with a space of an inch between. A part of the sand as
it glides along will lodge in front of these obstructions, and a part
will pass through and settle behind.

_ 427. As they get buried, a new series of bundles of faggots is
set, or the planks are drawn up, from time to time, and a huge
mound of sand is finally formed, with a gentle slope towards the sea
@ ° to 12°) and one more abrupt (about 22°) on the land side. These

in ‘squares like a chess-board, so that they will spread and cover the
whole surface, and behind they sow the seeds of trees.
_ 428. On the southwestern coast of France, the most ample suc-
cess has followed from planting the maritime pine (Pinus pinaster),
the seeds being sown with those of beach-grass, and covered with
brush. This work was begun by Brémontier, an engineer under the
auspices of the government, in 1787, and is now practically finished
and the whole coast covered with a profitable growth of timber.’
_ 429. In other regions, where this pine will not thrive, various
grasses, with tracing roots, Scotch pine, poplars, willows, tamarisk,
and other plants are set, as the opportunities present.
_ 430. Upon the coast of Cape Cod, in Massachusetts, the pitch
pine (P. rigida) and the beach-grass (Calamagrostis arenaria) are
_ planted on the dunes with great success. Upon the Florida coast,
and farther north, the Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) has been
used with success, and the maritime pine may succeed there,
although it has failed upon the Massachusetts coast.
431. There are occasionally places in the interior where the sands
_ exposed to the winds will thus drift, and the surest way to prevent
this is by planting. In this we should begin on the side of the pre-
yailing winds, and if the soil is somewhat damp, willow cuttings

_* 1In October, 1881, we rode some twenty miles on horseback among these
dunes, in the neighborhood of Arcachon and La Teste. The pines are
largely used for the production of turpentine, and are cut out from time to
time, as they become large, to make room for a younger growth, but never
~ in bodies together, or so as to expose the sand. Many years ago the govern-

ment placed a monument in the midst of the pines that Brémontier planted,
__ to commemorate his great achievement.

110 Methods of Reboisement.

may provide the best defense. If seeds are sown, it may be neces-—

sary to cover them with brush, that is fastened down with stakes.

Under this cover, the plants may get well rooted; and if this is se- —

cured, the success of the work is certain.

Reboisement.

432. By ‘‘reboisement,” we mean the planting of woodlands
where they have been destroyed, and especially where their destruc-
tion has caused great injury from torrents by the eroding of mountain
sides, and covering the valleys below with stone and gravel. The
desolation and sterility. thus occasioned is increased by pasturage,
especially by sheep and goats, so that regions once highly fertile
and densely populated have often become utterly desolate and
solitary. .

433. In recent years, most Etropean governments have taken

measures to stop these ruinous practices, and have with much suc-
cess, but at vast expense, secured a gradual return of fertility, and -

an effectual prevention of future injuries. These measures may be
described under two heads:

(a.) Barriers for checking the Torrents.

434. These are made of stone, in the bottoms of the ravines, and
convex up-stream, the top being lowest in the middle. They are
sometimes made of bundles of willow securely fastened down.
They will then often spout and grow, thus by their roots preventing
further erosion.

(b.) Reboisement of the denuded Slopes.

435. This is by far the most important, and often the more diffi- —

cult work to be done, as it tends to prevent the formation of the
torrents. The rains that fall upon a wooded, or even a sodded
slope, have their force broken, and they quietly filter into the soil,
or flow down with so many obstructions that they do no injury.
But on a bare surface, they begin to wear little channels, which
presently enlarge in width and depth, till they become enormous
chasms.

436. To secure a wooded or sheltered surface, the soil should be

+ <li

Methods of Reboisement. | 111

- disturbed as little as possible in sowing or planting, and on a north
ayia the seed may sometimes be best sown on the snow.

_ 487. Steep banks that will probably slide or crumble down, should
be rendered more sloping before trees are planted. They are dug
away at the top, and the soil slid into the ravine below, or some-
times thrown down by blasting. A drain may be secured by first
filling in the bottom with trees and brush.

438. To obtain a chance for the roots of trees, the steep naked
slopes are dug into horizontal notches or terraces, beginning at the
_ top, and the edges of these are planted with almost any thing that
ean be made to grow, or at least are secured by fascines and strong
stakes. These bands are nearer together where the slope is steeper,
and the brush by slow decay helps to fertilize the soil. These ter-
races tend to get filled up in a year or two, and thus afford a soil
_ deep enough to hold the trees, and then lines of young trees from
_ burseries are set along these belts of deep soil. If they get fairly
rooted, they will secure the object intended, and will prevent the
recurrence of further damages.

439. Paths are made along the banks, to give access to the work,

and for future use in the removal of products, but in these situa-
tions no tree will ever be taken, unless others are coming on to re-
_ place it. By these costly but necessary methods, about one-fourth
part of the work to be done in France in the way of restoration by
reboisement, which was begun in 1860, had been accomplished in
16 years, and 63,168 acres had been replanted with trees, at an
enormous cost; but this expense was less than the damages which
a single flood might produce, and which wooded slopes on the hilis
and mountains would have prevented.
_ 440. In many parts of our own country, and especially in the
_ mountainous regions of the interior and upon the Pacific coast, the
_ greatest injury is being done from the clearing and burning off of
mountain sides, and we already notice a marked effect upon the
climate, aside from the local damages to the surface from this cause.!
The same, in less degree, may be seen in every part of the country, .
wherever there are steep slopes exposed to heavy rains; and private
interests should lead to watchful care, in every case where these
effects are in operation, or are liable to occur.

s

1 See Forestry Report, 1877, p. 334, for a statement of these effects.

112 A Kuropean Method of Forest. Planting.

On the Management of Forest Plantations in Scotland.

441. A Forester of great experience’ has given the following
summary of the course usually pursued in the management of wood-
lands in Scotland: ‘‘ For ordinary planting, the size of plants pre-
ferred are one year as seedling and two years transplanted; but for
bare heathery hills, that are much exposed, fir plants one year as
seedling and one year transplanted, or two years’ seedling are con-
sidered best. These are planted by notching.

442. ‘* The most approved mode of planting coniferous trees heré
is as follows: If the soil and situation are considered likely to pro-
duce larch (Laria Europea) to maturity as sound timber, it is gen-
erally planted as a pure crop, with a very slight intermixture of
silver fir (Abies pectinata) and Scot’s fir (Pinus sylvestris) among the
larches. If there is any doubt of the larch being overtaken by
disease, then we plant larch and Scot’s fir in equal numbers, at four .
feet apart, regularly intermixing them.

443. ‘In training them, the plantation may be trained up as a
mixed one, or if the larches prove healthy, it may be converted
wholly into a pure larch, or if otherwise, into a pure Scot's fir
plantation. Hence we plant a larger area under Scot’s fir, with a
considerable mixture of larch, and often on soft moorland a consid-
‘ erable number of spruce and silver fir; but the ground, where re-
quiring it, is thoroughly drained first. The trees are put in by
slitting.

444. ‘Oak and all other hard-wood trees are planted at from 12 to
15 feet apart, and the intermediate spaces are filled up generally
with larch to four feet apart. A slight intermixture of other conif-
erous trees is often introduced, so as to augment the ornaniental
character of the plantations. The larches and other firs are gradu-
ally thinned out as the plantation advances, leaving a few inter-
mixed for the ultimate crop. Oak and other hard-wood trees are
planted by pitting.

445, ‘‘The thinning of fir plantations commences when they have
stood about ten years, and is repeated at intervals of 4 to 6 years,

1Mr. Wm. McCorquodale, who for 45 years has held the office of wood-
mauager to the Earl of Mansfield. Mr. C. has also, during this period, sur-
veyed and reported upon the future management of over 160 other forest —
estates in Scotland. :

Scotch Plantations: Ornamental Planting. 1138

_ till the plantation arrives at about 40 to 45 years of age. At each
thinning, the trees are left standing about clear of each other. At
certain stages of growth, the trees might be thinned out to stand at
one-third of théir height apart, as, for example, trees of 21 feet
might stand 7 feet apart.
446. “We have generally, for the permanent crop, about 200 to
_ 250 trees per acre. After the last course of thinning, the trees are
not interfered with again until they arrive at maturity. When the
crop comes to the age of 60 to 80 years, it is sold in sections, in the
_ growing state, and the ground is again replanted as soon as it is
cleared off and properly prepared.
447. ‘“‘ Hard-wood plantations are treated as follows: As soon as
the nurses are interfering with the hard-wood trees, their thinning
begins, and it is gradually carried on till they are all removed, by
_ the time they arrive at thirty years of age, with the exception of
such as are left for ornament, to grow to maturity.”
448. An idea of the relative profit of trees of different kinds in
Scotland, we give the following list of prices of timber per cubic
foot, in 1882:

CS Se Sey 1s.to1s.2d. Ouk (standing).... 2s. to 3s.
Seot's-fir-s......665.. 6d. to 9d. BQ Es accgisscsiace 1s. 3c. to 1s. 6d.
PREMIO vans cacessstcues 4d. to 6d. BeOeCli: .2050000:2.05.% 10d. to 1s.
POE TT, +2605. .50000 6d. to 10d. i cticaiTiseperspe 1s. 8d. to 1s, 6d.

In 1876, fifteen acres of Scotch fir timber, 80 years old, near
Perth, Scotland, sold for £132 per acre. A handsome revenue had
been previously got from the thinnings.

CHAPTER XI.

ORNAMENTAL PLANTING.

449. Although the leading object of this book is to convey utili-
tarian ideas upon the subject of tree-planting, and to indicate the
methods and opportunities for doing this with most profit and surest
success, it should be borne in mind that these objects are not in the
least degree inconsistent with a due appreciation of the beauties of
woodland scenery, whether presented in the somber shadows of a
dense forest, the cheerful shade of a grove, or in the grandeur or
grace of an isolated tree.

114 Ornamental Planting.

450. In fact, there is nothing that will’ so effectually promote a
taste for sylviculture, and a familiarity with the methods of For-
estry, as the adornment of homesteads and villages by ornamental
planting. The pleasures to be derived from this employment have
been described by Addison, in the simplicity and elegance that char-
acterize his style, in one of the numbers’ of the Spectator:

451. ‘There is, indeed, something truly magnificent in this kind of
amusement. It gives a nobler air to several parts of nature; it
fills the earth with a variety of beautiful scenes, and has something
‘in it like creation. For this reason, the pleasure of one who plants
is something like that of a poet, who, as Aristotle observes, is more
delighted with his productions than any other writer or artist what-
soever. Plantations have one advantage in them which is not to be
found in most other works, as they give a pleasure of a more lasting
date, and continually improve in the eye of the planter. When
you have finished a building, or any other undertaking of the like ©
nature, it immediately begins to decay on your hands; you see it
brought to its utmost point of perfection, and from that time hast-
ening to its ruin. On the contrary, when you have finished your
plantations, they are still arriving at greater degrees of perfection,
as long as you live, and appear more delightful in each succeeding
year than they did in the foregoing.”

452. To realize how much the imagery of the poets and of beauty
in landscape painting depends upon sylvan scenery and rural asso-
ciations, we need but imagine how blank and dreary would poetry
and painting be without them. Whatever tends to cultivate and
extend this appreciation of the beautiful in nature is in direct ad-
vancement of Forestry. In this the taste and good sense of one,
may become an example for another, as in every phase of life, and
in every pursuit of business or of pleasure. Mankind are largely
influenced by the example of others, and can often assign no better
reason for this imitation than that it is the practice of neighbors.

453. It has sometimes been a custom to plant a tree to commem-
orate an event—the birth of a child; the visit of an illustrious
guest; the graduation of a college class, and other occasions, which
give a lasting interest to the act. It occasionally happens that some
historical incident becomes associated with a tree, as the Royal Oak

1 No. 583.

Ornamental. Planting. 115

_ that once sheltered Charles the Second; the Charter Oak at Hart-
ford, and the Treaty Tree at. Philadelphia, which were monuments
_ while they lasted, and were cherished as relies when they fell.

454. It is a pleasant thing on any commemorative occasion, as
the centennial of a town, the dedication of a church, or the founda-
tion of an institution, to plant a tree as a living witness of the
oecasion. It should be of some long-living and large-growing kind,
to the end that it may for a long period bear in remembrance the
occasion that gave it a place, and that claims for it a protection.

455. In considering the subject of ornamental planting, it may
be presented under the three following divisions, viz. :

_(1.) Home-adornment, and the planting of private grounds.

(2.) Village-improvement, and the planting of the wayside.

(3.) City parks, and the plantation of grounds in rural cemeteries,
and around public institutions.

(1.) SeieLobenevend and the Planting of Private Grounds,

456. In respect to this class of ornament, the author will venture
to quote from a paper read by him before the Department of Super-
intendence of the National Educational Association, at its meeting
held in New York city, in the spring of 1881, as presenting thoughts
concerning the motives and their effect, that may be deemed of in-
terest in this connection :

457. ‘‘The man who has cleared a farm out of the forest seldom
or never plants a tree. He has come, from long custom, to look
upon trees as an incumbrance to be removed; and whenever his

home presents a noticeable amount of sylvan shade, it is more likely
to be the work of a younger generation, who have no sympathy
with his aversion, and a better idea of the comforts of home-life.
Americans have been reproached for having but slight attachment
to the homes of their childhood; and this willingness to sell to a
stranger the land that a parent has cleared and cultivated, and on
which their own early years have been spent, has been ascribed to
a certain instability of character, and an uneasy desire for change.
There is doubtless a strong affinity between a love of home and of
country, and it is true that an attachment to a homestead because of
ancestral possessions and family associations, would greatly tend to
increase our national prosperity and happiness. It would lead to sub-
stantial investments for permanence and future enjoyment, that the

116 Ornamental Plantin g.

transient and speculative owner would never make, and it would tend
to the more solid foundation of our public institutions generally. The
man who settles temporarily for business, and expects to depart when
he becomes rich, spends no money upon public libraries, and cares noth-
ing for the charitable and educational establishments of the place, pro-
vided they do not burden him while he remains. His influence will
generally be adverse, if these objects require expenses that bring no
return during his stay, and he will prefer temporary expedients to per-
manent investments, if they but serve to bridge over the time of his
sojourn. The solid and substantial foundation of our institutions is
laid by those having a permanent interest in the prosperity of the
places where they are located. It is this class aloue that erects
monuments, and that leaves evidence that its members have lived
for the welfare of those who are to come after them. It is a point
worthy of inquiry, as to whether much of this indifference to the
home of childhood and to the possessions of ancestors with which ~
Americans have been charged, is not due to their bleak and cheer-
less surroundings. We can not doubt that the influence of a pleas-
ant rural homestead and the choice memories of' refined associations
in carly youth, are as capable of making as strong an impression
upon our native population as in any country whatever, and although
in the absence of laws of entail; and.ander the impulse of adventure,
or motives of interest, or the force of circumstances, a change of
ownership may often happen, and the choice and cherished homestead
become the property of a stranger, still the chances become less as
the attractions are greater, and a motive worthy of earnest and hon-
orable effort is presented, in favor of maintenance in the family
line.”

458. In the choice of a site for farm buildings, while there is an
obvious convenience in having them near a highway, there are ad-
vantages to be considered in placing them more or less in the interior,
where a spring of water or perennial stream may offer conveniences
that money could not carry to a roadside residence, and a gentle
swell of land a site for building that a prince might envy. The
saving of labor and team-work, in cultivating such a contralizgy
farm, should not be overlooked.

459. A neatly painted gateway should distinguish the main
entrance from others opening upon the highway, and if the farm be
of size to warrant the steady employment of a laborer with his

~ Ornamental Planting. 117

family, English taste would place his cottage by the gate. A mass
_ of shrubbery upon each-side of the entrance gives a pleasing effect.
_ 460. A good.road, bordered by an avenue of trees, should lead
_ by gentle curves, as the surface required, to the premises of the
owner. There may be a fence or not, as there is occasion, but a
well kept hedge is better. One advantage of the trees would be to
_ afford a guide by night, as well as shade-by day. They should be
_ set at measured intervals, and all of one kind. Such an avenue,
when fully grown, gives a stately effect, and an air of stability and
_ opulence far surpassing that of an irregular one, as if from trees
_ reserved in a clearing; and it may be had at no considerable cost.
If an intervening grove hides the dwelling until near approach, and
then presents it in full view, the effect is increased.

461. Large trees in the back-ground, and those of smaller size
and of less common kinds, in the foreground, produce the finest
effect. It is there that the species most ornamental from their blos-
soms, their fruit, or their bright-colored ornamental foliage, may be
used with greatest advantage. There should be a studied effort to
imitate nature in the groupings of trees and shrubbery, and this can
not be done by placing them in rows or in symmetrical order, but in
clumps, with openings here and there, and with a studied avoidance
of the formal in their arrangement.

462. With such approaches and surroundings, which do not re-
quire a large investment, a dwelling of itself not large or expensive,
may display an air of comfort, and even of opulence, which a more
costly mansion by the roadside, unadorned by trees and shrubbery,
could never be made to present. It gives to the observer the im-
pression that its owner has not only means but taste, and is a strong
indication of domestic happiness within.

463. The opportunities of a brook for supplying a fountain, or
feeding a fish-pond, may often occur, and the observing owner
may secure these ornaments at a moderate expense. His fountain '
will not need costly castings or masonry—the jets may issue from
piles of rustic rock-work, and his ponds may be bordered with a line
of rude stones, half concealed by ferns and wild flowers, and the
bottom covered with clean white sand.

464. But in case the buildings are already near the highway, and
there be no desire to change them, there are still opportunities for
rural adornment, to ample extent. The roadside may be bordered

118 Ornamental Planting.

with lines of trees as we approach-from either way; screens of ever- —
green may be planted on the cold side or the warm side, as there
may be need of shelter from the cold, or heat, or to conceal objects”
not pleasing to the eye, and groups of shrubbery may be planted in
clumps, or in masses, as may be found most pleasing and natural.
There should, upon large grounds, be a suitable variety, but if the
space be small, it is not wise to attempt too much. A single phase
of beauty, of whatever type the circumstances most favor, is ‘sure ~
to be pleasing ; where, if too many objects be to oleae Sains
the effect is eoufased and lost.

465.- Large and dense evergreens in the foreground ‘acti besitey
likely to produce a gloomy and somber impression; they will be~
found to show to best advantage, rising in the back- ground, behind
and among the deciduous kinds.

466. Trees should not be planted too near a dwollinis Thies
shade and humidity are unfavorable to health, if in excess, and —
they tend to cause damp, moldy walls. They hinder ventilation
and the access of air and light, so conducive to health, and some-
times breed insects that prove a nuisance. Their roots will find
their way into the walls; and trees planted near a building become
one-sided and deformed, from their unequal exposure to the light.

467. There is always something to conceal. An old stump, or
broken and dead tree, may possibly be still made beautiful with
the Virginia creeper or the ivy, Barns and out-buildings may be
partly hidden, or entirely screened trom notice by trees, and a harn-
yard may be made comfortable for stock, both in winter and sum-
mer, by dense shelter-belts. A useless pile of bowlders, or a rock,
may be covered with ferns and myrtle, by giving their roots a hold
in the soil. A brook, a marshy spot, or a pond, may be made orna-
mental, by drooping willows, or clumps of alders, and by a variety
of aquatic shrubs and plants.

468. It is in good taste to separate the kitchen garden by a hedge,
from the lawn plantations, and it is generally profitable to surround
the orchard with a shelter belt, or an evergreen screen. Clumps of
thrifty evergreens, here and there in an orchard, are of great ad-
vantage.

469. The Lombardy poplar forms an admirable wind-break ; but
in ornamental planting it shows to best advantage when-it rises
from behind, or among trees with rounded tops—not at measured

(oa Ornamental Planting. 119

Siisctate; but here and there. The same may be said of the ever-

greens having a pyramidal growth, unless they are purposely in-
tended as a screen or wind-break. The eye will tolerate a symmetry
of arrangement where there is an- obvious object, while symmetry
without a motive may fail to please.
470. In planting and willows, we should -remember that
their roots have a2@@e¥ ing for drains and wells, and will some-
times fill them if too near. They nvyreause’ leaks in aqueducts
of masonry, and the roots of these and other treessmay heave foun-
- dations and di 1e walls, if planted close by them, in a deep
mellow ities become of the greatest value in con-
. golidating “th , eroding streams, and upon embankments, the
| borders of irrigating ditches, and upon sands, where moisture can
be reached by the roots. They should be used in ornamental plant-
ing, where they can be placed to best advantage, but should gener-
ally have a secondary place.
, +471. In the immense range of opportunity which our country
_ presents, there is an infinite variety of conditions, and in the vast
number of our native species, and of exotic kinds that prove suit-
_ able for cultivation, no general rules could be followed in homestead
_ planting. If the general idea of studying the pleasing effects in
natural grouping be observed, and proper judgment is used in the
_ selection of kinds suited to the soil and exposure, the result will be
satisfactory.
| 472. It may be added that such a homestead is worth more money
_ than one wholly unadorned. This is indeed a low motive, as com-
_ pared with the more refined and honorable aims of life; but if we
| ean secure the enjoyment that these improvements afford, and at
the same time enhance the value of the estate, let us by no means
miss the opportunity.

(2.) Village-improvement, and the Planting of Way-sides.
_ 473. Nothing gives a more inviting appearance to a village street,
| ora country road, than well kept avenues of trees. To secure the
_ best effect, attention should be paid to the following rules:
(a.) In a village or city, the planting and care should be under
_ one direction, although the expense may be chargeable to the prop-
erty adjacent. This may be some officer designated by law, or a

i"
|

120 Ornamental Planting.

committee of citizens whose authority is recognized by general con-
sent.

(b.) Upon a given street, the trees should be all of one kind.
The different streets may be planted with different kinds, and a
pleasing diversity thus secured.

(c.) The lines of trees should not be less than six feet, and in
wide streets not less than eight or ten feet from the outer line. In
very wide and quiet streets, not thoroughfares, a charming effect is
secured, by having a line of trees in the middle, with carriage-ways
on each side, and at proper crossings.

(d.) The trees should be protected by proper guards while young,
and generally by a railing on the side towards the middle of the
road when they have grown to a large size.

(e.) They should be protected by well-enforced ordinances, and
by public sentiment, from being used as hitching-posts for horses.

To prevent the necessity, such posts should be provided, far enough

away to be free from danger to the trees; it may still be within
their shade.

(f.) For immediate effect, as well as ultimate advantage to the
plantation, the trees first set may be at half the distance apart that
is intended for the full-grown trees; and the alternate ones may be
of some quickly growing kind, that should be taken out as they
crowd the more valuable kinds which are to remain. These tem-
porary trees will tend to render the growth of those between them
higher, and will leave less trimming necessary afterwards. The
cottonwoods, sofi-maples, poplars, and willows afford convenient
trees for such uses.

(g.) Care should be taken that the soil be kept mellow around
the roots, and that they be watered while young in times of great
drouth.

474. In streets much traveled, a grating placed in the pavement,
and extending a yard or so on every side, would be useful. In Eu-
rope, iron gratings of ornamental design are placed around the
trees, but not in contact with them. They are on a level with the
pavement, and so placed as not to obstruct travel. Through these
gratings the air circulates freely, and the roots are fully exposed to
the rains. They may be watered and fertilized in case of need, and
the soil mellowed by spading from time to time. We here present
the sketch of a grating suitable for such a purpose. It may be made

~~~

Ornamental Planting. 121

highly ornamental, and a monogram, a trade-mark, a sign, or any
other device may be introduced,
that fancy might'suggest. In front
of premises owned by a city or a
state, the crest of the official arms
would be very proper. The part JC ReCCrererrie
with radiating bars, in this sketch,

might be of several sizes, to be Ahh
changed as the tree became large, )
and the grating might be sup-

ported by wrought-iron bars, as 68. Screen for placing over Roots of
represented by dotted lines. The

inner dise should be cast in two sections, and the outer one in
two or more. In our figure we have shown three divisions. They
should be securely fastened down, and would be very durable.
They might be circular, oval, or in any other form, and being flush
with the pavements, they would not in the least interfere with their
use. The edge nearest the tree should have a flange turned up, so
as to prevent injury to the bark by sliding objects.

475. With respect to the kinds of trees most suitable for streets
and roadsides, it is impossible to give arule. There are some, like
the horse chestnut, the catalpas, and the conifers generaily, that ap-
pear to better advantage alone or in groups, upon a lawn or in a
park, while others, like the elms, box-elder, maples, locusts, poplars,
lindens, and many of the oaks show to fine advantage in avenues.

476. In Germany, we see many miles of continuous lines of ap-
ple trees by the roadside, and in the absence of fences marking their
direction for great distances across the country. In France, it is
common to find the Lombardy poplar thus planted; and in Italy,
the mulberry and the olive, often supporting festoons of grape-
vines, and in their season loaded with fruit.

477. In planting the roadsides in a prairie, a rod or so of Jand should

be thoroughly broken up and cultivated along the line, before the
trees are set, and some hoed crop may be cultivated to advantage
between and around them till they get well set.
_ 478. In planting screens of evergreen to prevent snowdrifts in
_ exposed places, the trees should be set in several oblique rows, as in
the quincunx order [§ 181], and should be protected, if need be, by
a fence, until able to protect themselves.

122 Ornamental Planting.

479. In-planting avenues of trees, it is best to have the holes all
dug before the young trees are brought upon the ground. ‘The
holes should be deeper than the tree is to set, and wide enough to
allow the roots to be well spread. Some fresh soft, mellow, and fer-
tile soil should be thrown upon the bottom, before the trees are
placed, so as to bring up the tree nearly to the level at which it
formerly stood. z

480. Observations have been made to ascertain whether a tree
does better when set in the same position with respect to points of
compass that it stood in before planting, the conclusion being that
there was no perceptible difference. -

481. After spreading the roots, sprinkle over them first the richer ©
soil from the surface, so that it shall settle closely in among them,
leaving no void places. Then fill in the holes, putting the soil from
the deepest part on top. In prairie planting, and especially in dry
regions, there is no danger in pressing down the soil firmly over the
roots. Ina strong clay soil, this practice would be injurious. —

482. The young fibers of the roots require moisture at once. In
a moderately damp soil, they can find it, but in a dry soil they
should be well wet as soon as planted, and in a dry season after-
wards until the plants are well rooted.

483. The most effectual security against injury from drouth is in
mulching; and for this, decayed chips, hay, grass, straw, or dead —
leaves may be used. This practice will sometimes double ihe
growth in a single year, and save the life of a young tree in dry
seasons.

484. Before leaving the subject of planting in villages, we should
not omit to notice the advantages to be derived from Village Improve-
ment Associations, in the cultivation of a taste for rural ornament,
and the development of town pride and public spirit. In many
villages in New England and elsewhere, such associations have been
formed, and from the concert of action and unity of purpose that
they secure, they have done much to adorn and beautify their locali-
ties, thus rendering them more agreeable to their citizens and more
inviting to the transient visitor, and to those who may be seeking a
pleasant rural residence.

485. To give these associations permanence and regularity, they
should have the form of a regular Society, with a Constitution, By-
laws, and rules of membership, and their object may extend beyond

Ornamental Planting. 123

i ornamenting of streets by planting and paving, to their
grading and drainage, the maintenance of grass plats and flower-
beds upon public squares, the providing of fountains and drinking
troughs, the clearing off of snows in winter, lighting of streets at
night, and other subjects of like character.

486. Extending beyond the material, they may wisely include
- the intellectual welfare of their localities, by the formation and
maintenance of a public library and reading-room, courses of public
lectures, local museums, and, in short, whatever tends to elevate
and refine the taste, or to promote the enjoyment of the citizens by
uniting them in common interests, wherein each one contributes his
share, and from which he derives pleasure.

_ 487. An attractive plantation of streets and squares in one village,
becomes an object for imitation in another, and by friendly emula-
tion, each may tend to stimulate the efforts of the other in securing
a beautiful effect.

_ 488. Where the children in the public schools, and students in
academies can be interested in these improvements, the impressions
formed may be permanent, and will find application in after life in
- diffusing a correct taste for rural adornment in places far remote,
while the memory will travel back to these scenes of quiet beauty,
and rest with satisfaction upon the incidents that they recall.’

(3.) City Parks, and the Plantation of grounds in Rural Cemeteries,
and around Publie Institutions.

489. It is only in recent years that the advantages of providing

places of public resort, under official management, in the neighbor-

hood of our cities and large towns have been recugnized, or the op-

1The form of a charter of a “Village Improvement Association,” by
George E. Waring, Jr., is given in Seribner’s monthly for May, 1877, and
‘the subject is further noticed in our Forestry Report for 1877, page 217.
The Hon. B. G. Northrup, Mr. N. H. Egleston and others, have done much
_ to promote these objects, and their writings may be consulted with great
advantage,
_ The city of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, is sometimes called the “Druid City,”
from the oaks planted some forty-five years ago, at the instance of Mr.
‘Thomas Maxwell. The city of Cleveland is called the “Forest City,” through
the plantations induced by the late Leonard Case, and other property
owners. New Haven is called the “ City of Elms,” and well deserves its
hame.

124 Ornamental Planting.

portunities afforded by wild and rocky.suburb, or of waste and vacant
grounds for rural adornment, have been improved. In other cases
there are still barren wastes, river banks, shores, islands and points
of land, within or near a city, and sometimes belonging to the cor-
poration, that have not yet been noticed, where, at a moderate ex-
pense, there might be secured a little paradise of beauty, and an
inviting place at resort.

490. In laying out city parks, the leading idea should be Pas make
them easily accessible, and as widely useful as possible.

491, They need not; therefore, embrace wide areas, unless there be
convenient bodies of land available, but they should be as long as
may be. They may sometimes consist of separate pieces connected
by broad, well-planted boulevards or avenues. It is an excellent
plan, where the space is ample, to lay out the boundary-street, at
one or two hundred feet distance, within the actual line of owner-
ship, at the beginning, and to sell or lease this strip of land outside,
upon condition that dwellings shall be built and maintained upon
plans prescribed or approved by the commissioner in charge, and
that their future use for purposes injurious to the general objects of
the park be forbidden in their title deeds or leases.

492. In some instances, vacant grounds near cities have been |
highly improved with plantations, fountains, lakes, and other objects
of rural interest, upon private account; and the adjacent and inter-
vening lands sold upon conditions tending to maintenance and to great
profit upon the investment. Where persons of congenial tastes, and
united by a common sympathy in social, educational, religious, or
other matters, can establish suburban colonies of this kind near our
large cities, they may multiply the enjoyments of life indefinitely,
and by carefully arranging a plan of organization in the beginning,
they may secure the maintenance of their object, by the exclusion of
any thing that might interfere with its operation. Even as a simple
speculation, such enterprises have an admirable effect, and in some
instances present an inviting field for investment.

493. The traveler in Europe will often find the line of fortifications
of a former period now converted, or in process of transformation,
into a line of gardens and pleasure-grounds, the moat affording
ready-made a meandering lake, and the slopes and ramparts still
left presenting that diversity of surface most desirable for ornamental
plantation. Upon certain of these points admirable sites are found

Ornamental Planting. 125

for the erection of statues and monuments where they will appear
to best advantage. The cities of Copenhagen and of Leipzig may
be mentioned as.examples, while the “ Ring-Bahn” of Vienna, one
_of the finest streets of Europe, owes its beauty to the line of pub-
lie and private buildings which have been built upon the line of
its former defenses.

494. It occasionally happens that certain points in these meander-
ing gardens have a local history of thrilling interest, as being places
of successful attack, or of heroic defense, or as the point where the
fate of a battle was decided, or the fortunes of a commander made
or lost.

495. In a city park, a native woodland can often be improved to
_ great advantage, and artificial plantations are most successful where
they truly represent the features of a native forest. In the plant-
ing of trees in parks, with the exception of avenues of approach or
- connection, there should be a studied diversity in location, and a
great variety in the species.

- 496. There should also be—what is not often seen—at least
some portion specially planted as an arboretum, embracing in groups,
by natural families, as great a number of species of each genius as
ean be made to grow, each being labeled with its scientific and common
name.

497. In planting small parks upon college grounds, or in the midst
of great thoroughfares, we must remember that persons upon busi-
ness always hasten to their object in direct lines. They are impatient
at curves and winding ways, and will strike straight across a plat
of ground or a corner, unless absolutely prevented by a barrier.

498. It is therefore unwise to contend against this fact, in the
arrangement of walks in such places, and it is better to lay out a
few straight paths in the lines of most travel, at the sacrifice of what
might be thought a principle in taste, or a rule in landscape garden-
ing. Such walks may still be made attractive by flowers and
shrubbery along their borders, and comfortable by the shade of

trees.

_ 499. If the space allows, there should generally be provided in
_ these small parks such winding paths as the surface and the circum-
~ stances favor. They will be used only in moments of leisure, and
by persons seeking quiet and rest. ;

_ 600. If there be summer-houses, grottoes, fountains, monuments,

126 Ornamental Planting.

or objects of historical interest, that attract attention, or invite to
repose, they should be placed near these winding and less frequented
paths, rather than along the great thoroughfares of a park, and
along these chiefly should seats be placed.

501. It is the custom, however, in Europe, to place monuments
or other structures intended to inspire patriotic sentiment, or remind
the passer-by of a religious duty, in the most conspicuous parts of pub-
lie grounds, and often in the midst 6f the most frequented thorough-
fares. The little areas formed by intersecting city avenues present
the best opportunities for costly monuments and fountains, as they
may be seen to a distance from several directions. If possible they
should be inclosed, with a grass-plat or beds of flowers around them,
but no shrubbery or trees that would conceal any part.

502. In squares reserved for military parade, the area must nec-
essarily be left open, and planting can be done only around the
borders. There may often be laid out an avenue for promenade, »
shaded by a single or double row of trees, and at the entrance there
should be beds of flowers or colored-leaved plants, as the opportuni-
ties offer.

503. Upon the grounds belonging to universities, colleges, and
academies, we insist upon the labeling of trees, as above mentioned,
as one of the most important features of education, by familiarizing
the student and the visitor with these names, and of enabling them
to form true ideas concerning the resemblances and differences in
the form, foliage, and other characteristics of forest trees.

504. The best labels are tablets of porcelain, or of white earthen-
ware, with the names in black enameled lettering. The cheapest
are strips or plates of zinc, with the writing in a corrosive ink, that
leaves indelible black lines. Neither of these will suffer from the
weather, and both will last for an almost indefinite time.

505. In rural cemeteries, there is great opportunity for effect in
the plantation of avenues of approach, and of masses of shrubbery
and flowers around the entrance, and in the circles and plats formed
by intersecting avenues. There should be, if possible, a belt of
woodland, or its equivalent in a screen, that shall isolate it as far as
convenient from the busy world, and impart that aspect of separa-
tion and quiet, consistent with the general object of the place.

506. Custom has given to the ‘‘funeréal cypress,” and to other
evergreens, a prominence in cemeteries, and there is a certain fitness

~

Ornamental Planting: Hedges and Screens. 127

~ in their use ; but they should not exclude the proper introduction —

of the deciduous kinds. In this we should, above all, avoid the

_ planting of those that have tracing roots, as they are continually
liable to send up shoots, and, if neglected, to overrun the premises,

or at best occasion constant care in their suppression.

507. The planting and removal of trees in a cemetery should be
wholly under the control of a superintendent or a board, and by this
means alone can harmony of arrangement and an agreeable effect
be secured. ;

508. Upon the grounds of public institutions generally, and in
all forms of ornamental planting, there is an additional interest se-
cured by the use of exotic and unusual species, provided always
that they prove hardy and reliable. In this, the forest flora of
Eastern Asia and Japan, from its general resemblance, yet specific
differences, and the forests of the Himalaya region, have furnished
many species that deserve to be widely planted, and more generally
known. It is not improbable that by this wider diffusion, some
species will be noticed that show an unexpected vigor and success
in growth that may entitle them to notice for planting as timber
trees.

509. The English elm (Ulmus campestris) appears to be a better
tree for cities and smoky villages than our native elms. It will
grow on dryer ground and endure a greater degree of drouth.

CHAPTER XII.
HEDGES, SCREENS, AND SHELTER-BELTS!

Hedges and Screens.

510. A hedge is a living fence, generally planted with some thorny
tree or shrub, and strong enough to prevent the passing of domestic
animals. A screen is more frequently a closely planted wall of ver-
dure, generally of some evergreen tree, intended to conceal some
unsightly object, or to afford shelter from the winds and protection
to gardens, nurseries, orchards, stock-yards, or buildings. They |
may both be classed among ornamental plantations, and either of
them may perform the offices of both.

511. In no line of planting will there be found so great a variety
of opinions with regard to the kinds that should be planted, and as

128 Hedges anit Screens.

to the time and manner of planting, and after-treatment, as we find
with respect to hedges. Perhaps every one of those that have been
confidently recommended might be entitled to preference in some
particular localities, and it is certain that none have a general adapt-
ation to all parts of the country.

512. It is therefore necessary to well consider the conditions of a
given locality, as to its soil and climate, before making considerable
investments in any one kind, until its fitness has been proved. In
doubtful cases, and in a new-settled region, it would be well to ex-
periment in a small way with several kinds, and if they fail, the
loss will not be much; while if they succeed, the result may lead
to a wide-spread benefit.

513. We will first present a list of the species that have been
successfully used for hedges and screens, and afterwards state some
of the principles that apply in their planting and management:

Coniferous evergreens: Chiefly the spruces, cedars, and junipers, ~
Viz. :

Norway spruce (Picea excelsa).

Black and white spruces (P. nigra and P. alba).

Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis).

White cedar (Thuja occidentalis).

Chinese cedar (Thuja orientalis).

California white cedar (Libocedrus decurrens).

Red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana).

Coinmon juniper (Juniperus communis).

514. These are chiefly useful for screens, and should all of them
be started inghurseries. They should be set in spring, upon ground
previously well"prepared, and with the slightest possible exposure of
the roots to the-air, and they should be well watered. In a dry
climate, they should have some protection on the south side, and it
might be well to provide a shelter by planting some quick-growing
trees parallel with the line of the proposed screen, two or three years
previous, to be taken away when no longer needed.

515. An evergreen screen can be best made to thicken up by pinch-
ing or clipping off the ends of the branches. The terminal shoots,
should be allowed to grow to the height of the proposed screen with-
out disturbance, and then it may be checked. For an effectual
screen there should be two parallel rows of trees, in which case most
of the branches will strike out, on each side, towards the light.

Hedges and Screens. 129

| They may be set from one to three feet apart in the rows, and those

. in one row opposite the spaces in the other, as follows:
ate ee te ee > ee

SE See a ae ee eT

516. In a cool, humid climate, the hemlock makes a beautiful
hedge. It can often be transplanted from the woods, and it should
_ be set in double rows, to produce the finest effect.

517. For the dryer climate of Iowa and the region west of the
Missouri, the native red cedar is preferable to all others, and about
the only kind of evergreen that can be grown for a hedge with much
certainty.

518. For the Southern States, some species not coniferous, such as
the tamarisk (Tamarix), the Spanish bayonet ( Yucca aloeifolia), the
Cherokee rose (Rosa levigata), various species of the cactus, and other
plants may be employed to great advantage. The native thorny
and ornamental shrubbery of that region affords many evergreens
not conifers that would be available for this use, and it would be
advisable to select such as are best known to be suitable for the soil
and conditions, and that are proved to be hardy.

519. For the Northern and Middle States, the following (chiefly
deciduous) have been found successful in various localities :

Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathacticus).

Crab-apple (Pyrus coronaria).

English Hawthorn (Crategus oxyeanthus).

Native thorny trees (Crataegus, various species).

Privet (Ligustrum vulgare). :

Honey-locust (Gleditschia tricanthos. ) , -

Holly (Ilex opaca). \ e
Osage orange (Maclura aurantiaca). be

520. For the more northerly parts of the North-western States,
the white or gray willow has been used with great success. For the
more arid regions further west, the mesquit (Algorobis glandulosa),
the buffalo berry (Shepherdia aegunam); and the Caragana may be
tried with advantage.
521. Of all these, where the climate will permit, the osage orange, :
a native of Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, and the Indian Territory,
has the most decided preference, and the methods of its planting and
management are as follows :

522, The seeds should be procured fresh from their native locali-

130 ' Hedges and Screens.

ties, where their preparation for market now forms a regular business.
The fruit is collected and rotted, and the seeds washed out and dried.
They should not be dark-colored, nor moldy, but bright, and will
weigh about 35 pounds to the bushel. They are best if grown
the year previous, and should not be more than two years old.

523. It is usually better to obtain the plants from those who make
a business of raising them for the market. They are started from
the seed by first pouring on very warm, and almost scalding hot
water, draining off the surplus, covering, and allowing them to lie
(being frequently stirred) till they are swollen and ready to sprout.
They are then at once planted by hand, or by machine, in rows
about 18 to 24 inches apart, and cultivated to keep down the weeds.
Late in the fall they should be mowed down, and the roots, after
being loosened up by plowing, should be picked out, assorted, tied
into bunches, and buried in dry trenches or kept in a cellar till
spring.

524. Having previously prepared the ground along the line of the
hedge, by thorough plowing and cultivation, mark the lines with a
cord, and set the plants with a spade, dibble, or trowel, about two
inches deeper than they grew before, and in rows from 8 to 12 or 15
inches apart, the richer soil requiring a wider distance between.

525. For a strong hedge, it is sometimes well to set two rows, as
already described. These rows may be from 6 to 9 inches apart.

526. To secure an effectual hedge, two methods are employed.
The first and best one is to obtain a broad and dense base, by cut-
ting back, but allowing the plants to stand upright; in the-other,
they are allowed to grow high at first, but are then bent down, in-
terwoven and confined in a sloping or horizontal position.

527. It is not usual to prepare a bank and ditch, as is prescribed
in many English books upon hedge-making, but across wet grounds,
it would be advisable to do so.

528. The care required the first year, is to keep the ground mel-
low and free of weeds, and in very dry times it may be advisable
to protect the plants by mulching. If the object be to secure a
dense upright growth, the plants should be mowed off close, in the
spring of the second year, vacant places should be filled up, and
the cultivation continued. In mid-summer, the upright stems
should be cut back to within four or five inches of the ground, leay-
ing those that spread out laterally. If the growth is still vigorous

Hedges and Sereens. 131

they may be again cut back at the top, but not so low as before.
In the third year, the cutting back at the top is renewed, but higher
up, and under favorable conditions the hedge is now broad and
very dense near the ground. The subsequent care consists in keep-
ing the hedge trimmed to a convex curve on each side, and if the
roots appear to spread too far, they may be kept back by cutting
them off with a sharp coulter attached to the beam of a plow, and
drawn along on each side, as near as a team can be driven.

529. There are quite a number of patents issued for bending
down, interweaving with wires, confining by hooks and by stakes,
and the like, which can not be easily described without a greater
space than the limits of this article allow. In some of these, the
stems are partly cut off, and then. bent down and confined. In some,
the branches are interwoven in lattice form. The mcst convenient
tool for handling the plants (which are covered with cruel thorns),
has a strong iron head, consisting of two prongs, like the tines of a
fork, one of which is straight, and the other recurved, and firmly
fixed in a long handle. This instrument can be used both for push-
ing and pulling, and by its aid, two men, one upon each side, can
bring the stems into place without difficulty.

530. All hedges have the disadvantage of impoverishing the soil
adjacent, to a perceptable degree; and the honey locust, the poplars,
and the willows, have a tendency to send out tracing roots into the
adjacent plowed lands, and there sprout where they are not wanted.
The osage orange does not generally show this tendency, and this
fact has been mentioned as a motive in its favor. It has, however,
a somewhat tender habit, and when planted beyond its proper
limits, it is very liable to be killed back or killed altogether by a cold
winter.

531. Its northern limit can not be described with certainty.
Being a native of a mild climate, it is not readily grown in a cold
one, and perhaps it would be safer not to depend upon it in Iowa, or
further west in the same latitude. As the young shoots do not
ripen well, they are apt to be killed every year by the frost, and
they can hardly long survive these repeated injuries.

532. Among the enemies that a young hedge of osage orange is
exposed to, in the more Western States, is the gopher, a burrowing
rodent, that will follow a line of hedge many rods, and destroy the
roots. They may be killed off by poisoning. A fire, if allowed to

132 Hedges and Screens: Shelter- Belts.

get inamong the dry materials that lodge in a hedge, will be sure to
kill it, and the strictest care should be taken to prevent this accident.

533. In very poor soil, a trench may be dug along the line of an
intended hedge, and filled in with the more fertile soil of the adja-
cent surface, or elsewhere. It should be heaped above the former
level, to allow for settling.

Shelter- Belts.

534. As their name implies, these are belts of woodland, primarily
intended to protect the fields or places adjacent to them from the
winds, and to equalize to some extent the temperature and humidity
of a country, by mitigating the extremes of heat and cold, and by
lessening the effects of drouth. They are of special-benefit to fruit
culture, and when planted around an orchard, in a dry climate,
they tend to maintain a uniform and increased yield, the effect of
which is often made apparent by comparisons with the barrenness
and failure of orchards not thus protected.

535. Their effect in diminishing the damages that occasionally
happen from grasshoppers, and other insects, is well proved; and
by favoring the breeding of insectivorous birds, they further pro-
mote the destruction of the enemies of our fruit and field crops.

536. Their direct influence upon pasturage and meadows is seen
in the fresh green color of the herbage, and its perceptibly larger
growth. They have been known to double the yield of grain in
fields surrounded by them, by preventing injuries to which open
and naked fields are exposed. | :

537. In snowy countries, an important effect is secured in their
preventing the drifting of snows, which cover the surface longer
and melt away more slowly. The water will settle into the ground,
and the soil remain moist for a longer period than in broad open
fields. ‘Their immediate shelter to gardens, buildings, and stock
yards, and the cheerful and pleasant aspect that they impart to a
country, are obvious.

538. A shelter-belt should be planted more closely than would be
advantageous in a forest, and as the outside gets more air and light,
the trees along the borders will be more thrifty than those in the in-
terior. It should be not less than four rods in width, but ten rods
would be better. For full benefit, they should not be more than a
quarter of a mile apart. :

Shelter Belts. 133

_ 539. As our public lands were all surveyed in lines running north
and south, and at right angles to this course, these directions form
the natural ones for the subdivisions of farms. The act for encour-
agement of trée-planting in Nebraska affords certain premiums for
trees, if planted in belts running east and west, which implies that
they are there thought to afford most protection against winds from
the north or south. Insummer, we have most to dread from the lat-
ter, and in winter from the former. In a region where such belts
are on every farm, the one that shelters from the north affords a
southern protection to the lands adjacent, and both farms are
benefited.

540. In an east and west belt, the south side being most exposed
to the sun, should be planted by kinds that suffer least from heat
and drouth, and that in a dry region afford the most shade. The
north side of such a belt will be the most favorable for a double belt
of evergreens, which will thrive in such a place, if they can be
made to grow anywhere, and which by their close evergreen foliage
will give the belt more decided effect as a shelter against the hot and
dry winds of summer, and the sweeping storms from the north in
winter.

541. There are some careful observers who express decided pref-
erence for a shelter-belt running north and south. In this direction,
both sides are exposed an equal number of hours to the sun, but the
west side receives more heat, as being in the sunshine in the hottest
part of the day. In such a belt, a line of evergreens would do best
in the middle, or a little nearer the east side, if not overshaded by
other trees.

542. It is our decided opinion that belts would prove of greatest
benefit to agriculture, if planted in both directions, and if this cus-
tom were generally adopted in a prairie country, farms would pro-
tect one another against injurious winds from any direction, and if
in sufficient proportion, the humidity of the climate would be per-
ceptibly increased, and the tendency to drouth lessened.

5438. The planting of a shelter-belt does not materially differ from
that elsewhere described for groves. The soil should be cultivated
a year or two before, to thoroughly decompose the sod, and the
seeds, cuttings, or young plants should be set in quincunx rows,
and be kept clear of grass and weeds till they shade the ground.
They must be protected from stock of all kinds until beyond their

134 Shelter-Belts: Planting along Railroads.

reach or power of injury, when they may be used for their shelter .
in winter. “

544, The inside rows may be planted with black walnut, oak, ca-
talpa, ash, or other kinds of most value for timber; and when a
belt becomes old and thin, it would be better to cut it off, after
starting a new one under its shelter. The ground fertilized by the
decay of leaves for many years might be broken up and cultivated
for a time with great advantage. In older countries, the rules of
rotation in the culture of timber and of farm crops have been set-
tled by long practice, and the advantages from this are well under-
stood; but in our country they are as yet unappreciated, and toa
great degree unknown.

545. For a narrow, but effectual wind-break, a double row of
Scotch or white pine, in rows eight or ten feet apart, and at about
the same distance between the trees in the rows, will form, in six
or eight years, in a climate where they can be grown, a close and
effectual screen.

Protection of Railroad Cuts from Drifting Snows by Tree-Planting.

546. In no form of planting do shelter-belts show greater benefits
than along the deep cuts of railroads, in an open country liable to
deep snows. They should be planted, in these cases, upon both
sides of the road, but wider on that exposed to the most wind,
which will generally be the north or west sides.

547. In preparing the soil for this planting upon new prairies, it
should be broken up in June, in strips a rod and a half to two
rods wide, parallel with the line of road and about seventy-five or
eighty feet from the center. The ground should be back-set by
plowing deeper in September or October, and again as deep as prac-
ticable as early in the spring following as may be. Immediately
after plowing, the ground should be harrowed, and set with cuttings,
or planted with seedlings, in lines from four to six feet apart, and
about a foot apart in the rows. In general, there should be four to
six rows on the side most exposed, and not less than three (but
better more) on the other side.

548. In places particularly exposed to oblique winds along the
valleys, the plantation might widen out to advantage, forming a
grove of some extent. The kinds most certain in northern and
snowy region are the cottonwoods and willows. Where the soil and

Planting along Railroads. 135

_ climate favor, the evergreens, and especially the white and red ce-
dars, the Scotch pine and the Norway or black spruce are most ef-
fectual. They should be started in nurseries in all cases, as ever-
greens require more care at first.

649. When planted or set, the rows must be thoroughly culti-
vated by stirring the ground with a cultivator or by hand-hoeing
until the trees appear to need it no longer. For the first and second
years a double cultivator may be used, if care is taken to protect
the row between with cloths under the forward part. If bent down,
the trees will straighten up, and if not broken, or the bark torn, they
will not be injured. Plantations thus set will need thinning as they
become well started, and will require protection against cattle and
against fires.

550. For the prevention of injury from prairie fires, lines of fresh
earth should be formed outside near the trees, and at a distance
of one or two hundred feet parallel with them, by plowing two or
three furrows, and burning off the space between in a still time,
and as early in the fall as fire can be made to spread. The grass
between the belts, along the track, should in this manner be also
cleared off every fall, and by these precautions the chances of acci-
dent from fire would be almost wholly removed.
| 551. In the North-western States, the planting time lasts about
| a month, and ends about the middle or twentieth of May. It be-
gins again in October, from the tenth to the fifteenth, and lasts till
freezing weather. Farther south, the spring planting begins earlier,
h

and the fall planting later, and both will vary in different years.
552. Much success has attended the planting of trees along the
sides of railroad cuts, to prevent the drifting of snows in the winter
in lines crossing the steppes of Russia. The first of these experi-
‘ments was begun in the spring of 1876, near Nikitooka, on the
__ Kursk-Kharkoff-Azov Railroad, about 1,000 feet above the sea, in a
__ region that was treeless, and utterly unpromising. It was in fact
selected with the view of securing a strong argument in favor of
the measure, in case the trees could be made a success. Towards
the end of March, a strip of land was broken up, and afterwards
sub-soiled and harrowed. On the 10th of April, the season being
__-well advanced, over 100,000 trees and shrubs were set from nurse-
| ries, in 7 rows, about 6 feet apart, and 6 feet between trees in each
. row, the nearest one being 84 feet from the track. The kinds set

136 Planting along Railroads.

were the hawthorn (Crategus oxycantha) furtherest from the track;
next the elms ( Ulmus effusa and U. suberosa), the maple (Ascer tartari-
cum), locust (Robinia pseudacacia), the Caragana arborescens, and last,
towards the track, another row of hawthorn. There was no heap-
ing up of the earth around the roots, but the soil was beaten down
level and smooth. The hawthorn lost its leaves, but it budded
again, and came on in good healthy condition, and proved a great
success. The loss was not over one per cent, chiefly the locust,
which had been planted too deep. The Ulmus suberosa was found
the most hardy. The plantation was cultivated by hand-hoeing and
with horse-cultivators.

553. In August, when the dry season came, and almost all the
vegetation of the steppe was dried up, and the ground completely
covered with cracks, the soil in this plantation remained moist,
and could be rolled into balls. At the end of the season some of
‘the trees were taken out, and it was found that the roots had grown
from two to four feet, and were well provided with fibers.

554. In establishing a nursery for supplying the trees used for
this work, the ground was surrounded by rows of trees (maples,
elms; and caragana), and the seed when sown were well watered,
and the ground covered with straw until the plants began to ap-
pear. ‘This litter was then gradually removed, and laid in the paths
between the seed-beds, in order to keep the moisture as much as pos-
sible in the soil. It was still found necessary to water the plants in
the beds, until they had got well started. By the end of summer
the locusts had made a growth of from 6 to 18 inches, and the others
averaged 10 inches. The so-called autumnal sowings began in Au-
gust, and was continued up to the middle of December, and all of
them were covered carefully with straw.

555. It is found on the steppes that successful planting depends
upon thorough cultivation and deep sub-soil plowing. The example
of the railroads is being followed by many of the farmers who have
witnessed the result, and who had been strongly prejudiced against
any attempts at planting, believing that it could not succeed.

556. Upon other lines of railroad extensive plantations have been
commenced, the usual number of rows being seven, and the series
adopted upon one of them being as follows, counting outward from
the track, viz.: Caragana arborescen:, Robinia pseudacacia, Ulmus
suberosa, Acer tartaricum, Robinia pseudacacia, Acer tartaricum, Ulmus

Cutting and Seasoning of Wood. 187

_ suberosa mixed with the locust, and the last two rows the Caragana
alone. In one case plants were taken too old, and the drouth and
cattle caused the destruction of 25 per cent. In another case it was
21 per cent, and in another some of the pines were planted, but
with poor success. The general results are, however, deemed satis-
factory, and in many cases the loss did not exceed eight per cent.
In all of these plantations, the seeds were sown in local nurseries
along the'lines of the roads, and the transplanting is done before the
trees become of much size. The preparation of the soil is deep and
‘thorough, and its subsequent cultivation carefully kept up.

CHAPTER XIII.
CUTTING AND SEASONING OF WOOD; DEFECTS IN TIMBER.
The proper Time for Cutting Timber.

557. As a general rule, timber cut in the season when vegetation
is suspended, or in deciduous species, when the leaves are off and
the growth of the year is ended, lasts longer and seasons more readily
than when cut in the season of active growth, and when the tree is
full of sap. In the winter season it is found that there are stored
up in the interior cells, the elements that are to serve for the first
growth. of the next season, such as starch, ete. This is proved by
applying chemical tests, such as solutions of iodine, which will color
the medullary rays of winter-cut wood, in thin sections, with a
deeper violet-tinge than in wood cut in spring or early summer.
In cases where the wood is to be peeled, the timber can only be cut
in early summer. Hoop-poles should never be cut when the bark
will peel, as their utility and value are lessened.

558. Summer has, from time immemorial, been the favorite
season for cutting coniferous timber in the Vosges of Eastern
France. Perhaps one great advantage in this, results from the fact
that it can be peeled at that.season, and thus saved from the injuries
that are very likely to occur from the attack of bark-boring insects.
All timber that is to be peeled, must be cut in the early part of
summer. It will then season more readily than it could if the bark
had been left on. Coniferous woods will generally remain white,
and the lumber will be lighter in weight. There are, indeed, certain
advantages to be gained by summer cutting, which have led an ap-

138 ‘Cutting and Seasoning of Wood.

proved French writer' to remark as follows: ‘The result of this ex-
perience has a tendency to contradict the received opinion relative to
the time of cutting the deciduous woods, and seems also to afford
an argument in favor of cutting these trees in summer, after the
movements of the sap has ceased—if not with respect to their
calorific properties, at least in favor of their durability. But it
would be imprudent to give a positive opinion upon this point until
the facts have been accurately ascertained by numerous exact and
comparable experiments, and until this has been done, it would be
safer to follow the old rules. It is, furthermore, probable that the -
difference is chiefly shown in the more or less complete maturity of

the sap-wood, and that it is greater in that part.” It appears, there-

fore, that the question as to the proper season for cutting can not be

regarded as settled, until more carefully settled by observation.

559. It may be of some historical interest, but probably of not

-much practical importance, to notice the superstitions that have pre-
vailed, and which are still observed, with respect to the effect of the
moon’s age at the time that treesare felled. It is traced in the writings
of the ancients and-is mentioned by Columella, Cato, Vitruvius, and
Pliny. The first Napoleon directed that the time for felling naval
timber should be ‘‘in the wane of the moon, from November 1st to
March 15th.” The wood-cutters in some countries act in accordance
with this belief.

560. It is laid down as a precept by Behlen,’ that ‘all build-
ing timber must be felled two or three days before or after the new
moon, and in a dry time, and oak timber always at the new moon,”
and adds, that the timber cut at that time has greater durability.
He gives nearly two pages of precepts, extending to particular days
of the week in connection with the moon’s age, and varying some-

what in different seasons of the year. We deem these rules as quite

without reason, and can see no other effect from the moon’s presence
or absence than that due to a moderate amount of light without
heat.

The Seasoning of Woods.
561. Wood when newly cut, contains from thirty-seven to inte
eight per cent of water, depending upon the kind, age, and the season

1H. Nanquette, late Director of the School of Forestry, at Nancy, France.
2 Real-und Verbal-Lexicon, der Frost und Jagdkunde.—iv. 676.

Seasoning of Wood. : 139

Be af vegetation, the older wood being generally heavier than the

young; and the weight greater in. the active, rather than the dor-
mant season. |

_ 562. This water is not chemically united, and a part of it is given
out when exposed to the air. But at a certain point it ceases to be-
come lighter, and after that it gains or looses in weight, as the
temperature and moisture of the atmosphere vary. The following
table shows the changes, in percentage of weight, that occur with
some kinds of woods by seasoning :

Percentage in weight of Water in Woods, at different periods after

Cutting.
Rounp Woop From Brancues,|| ROUND bah da Youne
KInpDs oF Woop.

6 mo. | lyear. | 18 mo. |2 years.|| 6 mo. | 1 year.| 18mo. |2 years,
SS Pe 33.48 | 24.00 | 19.80 | 20.92 || 30.44 | 23.46 | 18.60 | 19.95
Se $1.20 26.90 24.55 21.09 82.71 26.74 23.55 20.28
Hornbeam .......... 31.38 25.49 22.33 19.30 27.19 23.08 20.60 18.59
SESS 87.34 28.99 24.12 21.78 89.72 29.01 22.73 19.52
OCR ae ee 35 69 26.01 21.85 19.44 40.45 26.22 17.77+ | 17.92
| OLD ABA Se 28.29 17.14 15.09 18.66 33.78 16.87 15,21 18.09
PSR 85.30 17.59 15.72 17.39 41.49 18.67 15. 17.42

563. It appears from this table, that there is generally nothing
gained, but something lost in keeping woods any longer than eighteen
months, as some of them, such as the beech, fir and pine, become
damp rather than dry by longer keeping, and the others gain in
dryness but feebly after that time. Mr. Marcus Bull, in his experi-
ments upon the properties of woods, many years since, ascertained
that wood, after being perfectly dried, when exposed in a room
without fire for a year, absorbed on an average, of 46 kinds,
10 per cent of their weight, in common states of the weather, and
8 per cent in the dry. A coincidence was noticed in the weight
of charcoal from these woods similarly exposed. The amount of
moisture absorbed was not found to diminish with their increase of
density, while green woods in drying lost uniformly less in weight,
according as their density was greater. Hickory, from green to ab-
solutely dry, lost 374 per cent; white oak, 41; and maple, 48.
Assuming the general average at 42 per cent, we have a striking
illustration of the economy in freight, between the carrying of wood
green or dry, and in burning wood before or after seasoning.

140 , Seasoning of Wood.

564. Wood that has been floated will season sooner and become
lighter than that which has not. By long exposure in the water,
with repéated drying, wood becomes extremely light, as we onen
see in flood-wood.

565. For seasoning to best advantage, wood should be piled in the
open fields, rather than in the woods, and it is customary in many parts
of Europe to lay some pieces lengthwise of the pile, well braced at the
outer end, and meeting at an obtuse angle in the middle. These afford
a kind of arch, open at the bottom for the air to circulate under the
piles. Where fire-wood is piled in quantities for seasoning, there
should be intervals between the piles, in order to give access to the
air within.

566. Coniferous wood will season quicker if left with the branches
on until the leaves fall off, as they seem to evaporate the moisture
from the wood. Trees felled towards the north are more exposed
to the sun, and season sooner than in other positions.

567. The seasoning of lumber is sometimes hastened by artificial
heat, but in this case provision must be made for ventilation, or the
vapor must be condensed by the circulation of cold water through
upright pipes placed within the apartment.’

568. Oak timber is sometimes very effectually seasoned by being
peeled while st‘ll standing, and left for several months before cutting.
This was remarked by Vitruvius, a Roman architect. It was tried
by Duhamel, in the preparation of ship-timber, and he explained
the result by saying that although such trees may live for a time
after peeling, they can not form new layers of wood, and that the
growth due to a new deposit of wood was carried into the cellular
tissues of the sap wood, and perhaps the heart wood, rendering it
heavier and stronger, but more liable to crack. This method is
expensive, and is now scarcely ever used.

569. The seasoning of wood is always hastened by taking off
the bark, and in the case of willow, cottonwood, and some
other kinds, it tends to harden the wood and increase its durabil-
ity. As a general rule, all railroad ties, telegraph poles, and posts
last longer when peeled, and no timber or lumber should be used in
constructions of any kind before seasoning, unless in places where
‘the air has full access.

Geo. Wood’s patent.

Seasoning of Wood. | 141

7

570. Seasoning tends to secure the durability of wood not ex-
_ posed to the weather, or in contact with the earth, or with damp
walls, if sufficient ventilation is allowed. The presence of moisture,
and especially of the starch, sugar, and albumen of the sap in wood,
* tends to hasten fermentation and decay. If these are partly dis-
solyed out by placing the freshly cut timber in running water, it
drys more readily. Seasoning by smoking has the effect of increas-
ing the durability of wood, by charging it with creosote, but this is
corrosive to iron, and should not be used in contact with it.

571. In the process of seasoning, wood tends to shrink, from the

contraction of the tissues as they become dry.

As there is more moisture and less wood fiber

in the outer layers, the contraction is greatest

toward the outside, as shown in the annexed
engraving. The process takes place more

slowly, and with less cracking in winter. It is

still further improved by delaying the drying,

which may be done by placing in the shade, ®,,hiect,of Seasoning of
where the air circulates freely between the {h¢, Shrinkage greatest
pieces, but it should not be exposed to the dry-

ing winds.

572. It is desirable to prevent the cracking of timber at the ends,
by which means a loss is suffered in the more valuable kinds. This
may be prevented in a great degree, by pasting heavy paper over
the end, or by painting or washing with diluted muriatic acid, neu-
tralized with lime.

573. If there be nothing at hand better, the timbers may be lightly
shaded from the sun by branches of trees or

any other slight covering, where it is desirable (2% aa
to prevent deep erevices from being formed. |~PxYA Sea
Shrinkage tends to distort timber that is dressed [Qf A/ (GE
green, as shown in the annexed cut, and un- |A4yY hy Lf:
less the center of growth is in the center of |} / Vy LK

' the piece, it will need to be dressed over again |E Gtk ese,

to secure a true form. Boards and plank when 6g. Tendency to Distor-

: : fs Timber
eut green will warp from this cause, the contrac- Se thtintaee: Beats

tion being strongest on the side fur- _

therest from the center of growth, and SSS eee

Es

least in the direction of the medul-
a 70. Tendency to Warp by Contraction
lary rays. nearest the Outside of the Tree.

142 Seasoning of Wood: Strength of Timber.

574. Wood cut in planes radiating from the center can not warp.
When sawn into this form, there is a waste from a feather-edge
on one side, and from extra thickness on the other, but the silver-
grain is brought out with great beauty in some species by this mode
of cutting, and for some uses it may be preferable. When wood
is to be used as the: foundation for veneering, it should be cut as
near as may be in the direction of the medullary rays, and it must
be Seles ef seasoned.

575. English shipwrights generally consider that three years are
required to season large timbers. They are usually cut to shape a
year before they are framed, and then left another year in the
skeleton before being planked.' All wood used in carving requires
the most careful and thorough seasoning.

576. Hard-woods season more slowly than those of light open
grain. They may often be cut to nearly the shapes required for
use before being put away to dry, and should be piled open with spaces
for the air to circulate between the pieces. It may be desirable to
pile them over again, from time to time, so as to expose the parts at
first in contact.

The Strength of Timber, with respect to its Form, and to the Lines of
Growth.

577. The dudagth of the timber when used in horizontal pieces

depends upon its form, and upon the manner in which it is cut,

with reference to the layers of annual growth. If laid datwine!

71. Proper Mode of placing a 72. Improper Mode of placing a Plank
Plank to secure Durability to secure Durability and Strength. .
and Strength.

with the layers convex on the upper side; they act as an arch, and

tend to give it strength. If the same piece were laid edgewise,

like a joist, it would be much stronger than if the lines of growth
were transverse, and when such pieces break from over-loading, the

crack is more apt to be between, than across, these layers of growth.

1Britton on the Dry Rot, p. 68.

Defects of Timber. . 143

If, on the contrary, a plank be laid flatwise, with the hollow of the
grain up, the pressure of whatever weight is applied, will be on the
inside of the arch, and if exposed to moisture, the water will tend
_ to settle between the layers of growth, and thus hasten its decay.
These principles find application in the laying of planks in side-
walks, bridges, platforms, the floors of warehouses, and the like.

Defects of Timber from Various Causes.
578. Timber is liable to acquire certain defects from old age,
_ shrinkage in seasoning, or other causes, Z

_ that more or less injure its quality for
strength, and its value for use, when
sawn into lumber. One of these is the
“‘heart-shake,” perhaps most frequently
_ seen in old timber, and caused by the
contraction of the inner portions of the
tree, as the first symptom of decay.

579. The ‘‘star-shake” consists of a
similar contraction, but often wider to-
| wards the outside, as seen in young tim-
_ her when exposed to rapid drying after
- being cut green. It, however, is often = Ziiy,,
seen in the tree before cutting, and some- ca tar Biake
times a bulge on the outside of the tree
shows where these cracks come to the
surface.

580. The ‘‘ cup-shake” is a separation
between the rings of growth, more fre-
_ quently found near the roots of the tree.
It may be caused by a sudden change of
temperature, frosts, storms, or other
causes, and in some cases it extends
through the whole length of the tree, es-
pecially if the ring of separation is com-
_ plete at the base. If only a segment is
_ Separate, it does not usually extend far
up. Again, there are various combina-
_ tions of these defects that may impair the
value of timber, against which there is

144 Defects of Timber.—Qualities desirable in Fuel.

no known prevention, and in many cases there are no means of

knowing their presence until the tree is cut. So far as caused or
increased by rapid seasoning, they may be prevented by cutting
only in the season when vegetation is dormant, and by drying
slowly in the shade.

581. Wherever the bark becomes loose on a tree, to that extent:

the wood looses its vitality under it, and it can only be healed by
the growing over of the wood from the side. These accidents may
be caused by external injuries, scorching from fires, sun-sealds, or
frost when the wood is full of sap. When the wood from opposite
sides meets over such a place, it will in two or three years consoli-
date entirely, and furm continuous layers over it, but the dead
wood within, if not previously decayed, remains unchanged. These
bare spots should be covered over with coal-tar or paint, if the tree

is valuable, but if there are decayed places these should first be ©

cleaned out, and the surface should be dry when the tar or paint is
applied.

582. In some cases wood in the first stages of decay shows a
change of color, before its strength or texture is impaired, as in
some species of the pine. It will generally be stopped by drying,
and may not affect its value. The tint of wood is in a great de-
gree influenced by the nature of the soil upon which it has grown.
The larch and the fir on a dry, level, and deep sandy soil, are often
of a slightly reddish tinge, while in other situations they are nearly
white. It is probably from some chemical differences in the soil
that mahogany and other tropical woods of the same species are of
deeper shades of color in some localities than in others.

CHAPTER XIV.
FUEL—CHARCOAL—WOOD-GAS.

The Qualities desirable in Wood for Fuel.

583. The best qualities of wood for fuel are found when it burns
easily and uniformly—neither too fast nor too slow—and when, in
a given volume, it gives the greatest amount of heat. These qual-
ities are found in highest degree at full maturity, and before decline.
In coppice-woods, grawn from the sprouts, this quality is reached
sooner than from seed, and in those from old stocks sooner than

~

Qualities desirable in Fuel—Charcoal. 145

from the younger ones, the period ranging from 25 to 40 years. If

_ we wish wood for burning only, the coppice is more profitable than

_ full-grown timber, although, in a given quantity of best fire-wood
from each, a cord of the latter would be worth the most.

_ 684. But, for charcoal, the point of greatest excellence is almost

Reiched i in middle age, when the difference is very small, between its
excellence then and at full majority.’

585. In 1826, Marcus Bull, of Philadelphia, a gold-beater by
profession, a member of the American Philosophical Society, and
much interested in scientific studies, first published the results of

_ experiments carefully made by him upon the heating and coaling
qualities of many kinds, chiefly of native wood. They possess per-
manent value, and may be concisely stated as in table on the fol-
lowing page.

586. It should be remembered that woods differ according to the
soil, aspect, elevation, and other conditions under which they have
been grown, and that allowance must be made for these differences
in applying the above or any other statements.

Charcoal.

587. When wood is heated to about 530° (Fahr.), or above, the
volatile parts pass off in the form of watery vapor, acetic acid, tar,
ete., with certain non-condensible gases, and there remains a fixed
residue called charcoal.

588. This substance is black, porous, brittle, and when struck,
sonorous. It breaks with a glossy conchodial fracture, and when
prepared at a low degree of heat, it retains the form and structure
of the wood, but in reduced bulk. It is among the most inde-
_ structible of substances when exposed to the open air, or in the

- ground, and for this reason billets of charcoal are buried in the soil,
to mark the corners of sections and their subdivisions in our public
land surveys.’

1 Karsten, cited by Lorentz § Parade. 5 ed., p. 443. In the oak, the propor-
tion was 25.45 to 25.60; in the beech, 25,50 to 25.75; and in the hornbeam,
24.90 to 26.10.

2Tn visiting the ruins of Herculaneum, in 1881, we noticed the woodwork
of doors and windows that had been charred by a lava-stream nearly two
thousand years ago, in which the kind of wood eould be determined, and
even tlie oo into which it had been wrought.

146 Marcus Bull’s Table—Heating Qualities of Wood.

Comparative Qualities and Values for Heating Purposes of different

American Woods.

‘roquins~

n a a) wm sa°] a>) ies] sar)
=
2 | @ laze] 3B] €] 2] & 28 Els 3
Be = ee el & Blemle ® (oes &
re) ge S 2) a|oa/o = 5 fe RE
3 | = lFosl @}] 99 | #2) Bo pee gm
) oa sik oe |e colo" lZoc| &
414 Sl.o2| fo] S| =o |Bao "eo
Common names. a 4 BE eS ed oe fe ag ie)
° Sins Be | <5 |} 46 ols
be? a < g} = os|22) 49) $Sl Re
a land é Q = SO en & B =a :
4 5 on, =I 3 os Fy i) a —
s | & | S82] =| 8] S| Pel geregs
s/g| 8] ¢| =| &] g] B3l ge
[-) 4 = S nt S Cl
B | 8 | 35 51 5) 8] 2} ea] ee
hem
Whitethen yc 5 055 os csc 2ess5 0.772| 3450) 25.74] .547| 28.78} 888} 81 40) 77
Apple Tree..........0.0005- 0.697| 3115| 25.00] .445] 23.41] 779 | 33 40] 70
White Beeeh.............. 0.724) 3236] 19.62} .518) 27.26) 635 | 23 65
Black Biren. 0.4 aces ses 0.697) 38115} 19.40} .428) 22.52) 604 63
White Birch. -..(....5..% . | 0.580} 2369) 19.00) .364) 19.15] 440] 24 48
BUUernan: 6 0550 eran . | 0.567} 2534) 20.79] .2387| 12 47] 527 | 42 51
ROO MOORS, szckbicnl sana 2525) 24.72) . .238] 12.52) 624] 50 56
CHEMIN US « . 5.5 cece civ vee 2333] 25.29] .879} 19.94} 590 80 * 52
Wikt CHEITY. . 5 2 oir iae pers 26681 21.70} .411! 21.63) 579 5d
DORWOOd 3. tics ps senctes 3643} 21.00) © .550} 28.94) 765 75
WiStOsian oS cd vex das wel 2592] 24.85) .357| 18.79] 644 58
Boar Ca stows eee aes 3142| 22.16} .400] 21.05) 696 67

American Holly,...........
Hornbeam.. ..

Mountain Laurel
Sugar Maple................

WSO MAPIO ss . iexaseeas > «

Large Mugnolia............
Chestnut White-Oak. .....
White Oak. 3.054: Sher eae

Shell-bark White Oak.....
Barren Scrub Oak.,.. .....
Pe ORR a5 Rit; cee aes

Scrub Blaek Oak...........
MOO WAR at Sie Mascece sh
Barren Oak 2. woieccss- =

2}Rock Chestnut Oak.......
StVOHOW. ORK 3 Foca) es apinesies

Spanish iQak'..6.. 0.4 secre
PErsinimon <%....csecsngnee
Mellow Pine. 7.560 ce55 mes
JOTSCV SPINE... 0. sss
PACCR PUIG! <a uiiane ows eis
White pine. -...... me
Yellow Poplar. ...........
Lombardy Poplar..........
SAMIR Say) os hep! ort
VAG DOT VICE! oe. ss. acces

Whortleberry......s+5+++--

BBSREREeS ES SSESS BSSSSS
o
x

2

&

8

5

&
SSBSRESENSNSRESKRERSESY

no
SS
=)
ROS OD
w
=8

WERLSSSHESRSRSASSAAURASSRSSS

SBSRRSSSSS SESS

0.535} 2391] 23.60] .374] 19.68] 564 | 29
0.681] 3044| 22.56] .418] 22.00} 687 |. 31
0.752| 3361] 23.30] .505] 26.57] 783} 29

i
'

Marcus Bull’s Table—Charcoal. 147

Botanical Names of the foregoing kinds of Trees and Shrubs.

1. Fraxinus Americana, 16. Carya ——. 33, Qyerens prinos acumin-
“2 malus, 17. Hamamelis virginica.
sylvatica, 18. Ilex opaca: 34. Quereus faienta,
tote. 19. Garpinns Americana. 35. joeneres renew
‘ ; Betula alba, var, populi-|20, Kalmia latifolia. 36. Pinus mit
: fol 21, Acer saccharinum. 37. Pinus i
6. Juglans cinerea. 22. Acer rubrum, 38. Pinus rigida.
he aoe Virginiana. |23 Magnolia grandifiora, 39. Pinus strobus.
8. Cysts mac veeea, var. Amer-|24. uercus prinus palustris.|40, Liriodendron tulipifera.
9. Gorapes: Virginia be Raseoes obtaciioba 2 Eatoafea opamnte,
niana, 26. Quercus usi . «2. Tas 0
10. Cornus F Florida. 27. Quercus Catesbaei. 43, Amelanchier Canadensis.
IL ct peer scana, 28. Quercus peste poles. 44. Acer L pecudo-piaienss:
12. N; ultiflora. 29. Q terii, 45. Juglans nigra,
i. ta peur styracifiua, |30, paeens rubra, 416. Vaccinium corymboeum.
Ble Quercus ferruginen
i Garya psec 32. Quercus prinos monticola,

589. Charcoal is a slow conductor of heat and a non-conductor
of electricity. When exposed to the most intense heat, without ac-
cess of air, it remains unchanged, but it burns freely without flame
or smoke in the open air, leaving as ashes a part of ihe mineral
constituents of the wood from which it was made.

590. It absorbs and holds moisture with great readiness, and is
an active absorbent of gases. It will take up many times its bulk,
but this amount is much greater with some gases than others.’ It is
for this reason a most valuable disinfectant, and a material for filters. —

591. The chief use, however, of charcoal is as a fuel in smelting
ores, and in forges, furnaces, and other metallurgical operations,
and for these uses immense quantities of wood are annually re-
quired.

592. The wood for charcoal should be cut only in winter, and it
is generally piled for partial seasoning till the next autumn. It is
found, as is shown elsewhere under the head of “seasoning,” that
wood acquires its greatest dryness in about eighteen months, but
practically a single summer's drying is found sufficient.

593. There are several modes of charring wood in use, but by
far the most common one is that in ‘‘ meilers” or ‘‘ coal-pits.” For

1De Saussure found that boxwood charcoal would absorb 90 times its
bulk of ammonia, 55 times of sulphuretted hydrogen, 35 times of carbonic
acid gas, 9} times of oxygen, 74 times of nitrogen, and 1} times of hydro-
gen. The absorbing power is greatest when the wood has been charred at a
low temperature in a damp atmosphere, and with a high barometrie pressure
of the air. The absorption of gases is attended with an increase of tem-

perature,

148 Preparation of Charcoal.

these, a place should be selected where the ground is dry, and a
little descending from the central part; the rubbish should be care-
fully cleared away, the soil beaten down hard, and the greatest
precaution taken against the escape of fire. In Europe, the law
generally requires that a trench should be dug around the coaling-
ground, and that a sufficient supply of water shall be near. The
place should be well sheltered from the winds, and the soil should be
compact, and not so porous that air can enter through it from below.

594. Three stakes are first set in a triangular form, and around
these the wood is piled as closely as possible, and generally as cut in
lengths of 3 to 4 feet. It is either laid horizontally or vertically, as
shown in the accompanying cut, taken from Karsten’s Atlas. The

77. Vertical Section through the Centers of two Different Kinds of
Meilers.

more common way is to set the wood endwise, sloping towards the
center, and there is usually a second course, with the top filled out
and made convex by wood piled flatwise.

595. The whole is then covered with straw, dead leaves, or sod,
and over this with earth, and the fire is droppéd in at the top.
Around the bottom holes are left for the admission of air; or some-
times a passage is left on one side for introducing the fire. It is
best to kindle early in the morning, and in fine weather, because it
requires much attention at first to get the ignition begun. When
this is fairly established, the top is closed with sod. .

596. At first, a great deal of steam is generated, which condenses
on the inner surface of the cover, and especially around the base,
which is left open; and explosions may occur from the admission
of air to the inflammable gases within, especially with dry resinous
woods.

Preparation of Charcoal. 149

- 597. When the sweating stage is over, the openings around the
base should be partly closed, but some vent-holes must be left for
the escape of gases. If hollow places form, the cover must be re-
moved, and their place hastily filled in with wood. The process
must be watched day and night until it is completed, which is known
by the color of the smoke. The time required for cooling is gener-
ally about three weeks. The meiler is then packed as closely as
possible, to exclude the air, and when cool enough the coals are
drawn out.

598. It is stated from experience that it is best not to wait until
the fire is wholly extinguished, but to quench with water such sparks
or burning places as are found.

599. Sometimes a meiler is made higher and narrower than in the
preceding figures, and in every form it is convenient to have plat-
forms around the sides, at one or two levels, so as to be able to reach
conveniently every part. In the annexed figure, a, b, represents the
central opening for .
applying the fire, ¢,
d, a bank of earth,
with a step ate. An
upper step, g, is sup-
ported by braces on
various sides, as at f,
and near the top the 78. Section of a Meiler, or Coal-pit, prepared for Firing,
cover is laid open un- as Practiced in Bavaria.
til the whole part is well ignited, and the steam has principally
passed off.

600. It is sometimes preferred to burn charcoal in kilns. They
are generally made of brick, and the following sizes, among others,
are in use:

Length. Width. Height. one eee )
Used in New England ........ ...... i = feet. 7 feet. ae feet. ee
Type of those used in Mexico........ 40 ‘“* 19 *s eee wr

A kind used in Michigan............... 48 “ PER 13“ 90. **

It requires from 35 to 40 M. of brick for a kiln of 45 cords, and
60 to 65 M. for one of 90 cords. These rectangular kilns are arched
at the top, and supported externally by a wooden framework, and
iron tie rods. They have an iron door (d) capable of being made
air-tight, and near the top a smaller door (¢) for filing the upper

150 Preparation of Charcoal.

part. Along the sides are air-holes (a, 6, c,) that spe be closed at
will,

Fig.t.

| =o == Fd
C a =
oo
’
4 =>. ae ees
o we AAANWA ARADO *
7 : Sc -
: = js x
Hi RS uw =
$ Bs > G SY
P = — |= Sy ZY "

A RRS ORI CRIA O I

NHR SEM SAHA

a

] ‘
Nii im 7

BIAS
o

END ELEVATION

79, Charcoal Kilns.—Side elevation, with air-holes, a, b, c. End elevation, with
air-holes, a, b, c, an iron doar, d, for filling with w ‘ood and withdrawing coal,
and small door, e. for completing the filling. Cross-section, with air-holes,
doors, etc., as in end elevation. The figures on dotted lines are feet and

inches.

601. Other kilns are cylindrical, with a low arch for a cover, but
the principle of their operation does not essentially differ from that
above represented. They all have openings for admitting air around
the base, and for the escape of gases from above, all of which may
be closed at will.

602. In another method, the kilns are of brick or stone made
round and somewhat conical like a hay-stack, with openings on the
side for filling and emptying, and air-holes for regulating the burning.
They are of various capacities, but generally hold from 40 to 60
cords of wood. They are best built upon sloping ground, with doors
on the upper side for filling, and at the bottom for removing the
coal, and in both rectangular and conical kilns there is a further ad-

Preparation of Charcoal. | 151

vantage from having several near together, that they may be watched
and attended at less expense.

603. In kilns of every form it will be found that the acid vapors
of the smoke tend to act upon the lime in the mortar, and to corrode
the iron-work exposed to its action, requiring attention, in order to
prevent failure or accident from this cause. -It is this action of
smoke upon the mortar in chimneys that sometimes renders them

- unsafe when they become old.

604. Charcoal made at low temperatures contains relatively more
carbon and other gaseous elements than at a high degree of heat.
‘The quantity also depends on the temperature, and the duration of
the process. The weight and excellence is generally in proportion
to the dry weight of the wood from which it is made, and it is
more easily kindled, if made at a low heat.

605. The average yield in weight and volume varies, as will be
seen by the following table:

Percentage of Charcoal made in Standing Meilers, as shown by European

Experiments.’
In Kilns or
“Standing Meilers.” ||!2 Temporary Meilers.
KINDs OF Woop.
In Weight.|InVolume |/In Weight.|InVolume.
Birch boay SOE 56 AER ak pee Sols 20-21 65-68 18 53
Beech and oak body-wood 3 ee ee 23-27 52-54 19 47
Beech round-wood...... ............. 18-20 ed Eee Fitts pire
AG DOAY*WOOd . 5... ad ceeginc densa 24-28 60-70 19 58
MeN PON eM O0E 2 oon sicndecss cess ues 42-50 18 53
Pine stump-wood. .. .........+...++ 21-25 PS oe ig eta end See See
Spruce VOW OOW Scan necaseien, oie. 22-25 60-64 20 52
Spruce round-wood.................., 18 57 16 42
Rarch body-wood.>. ..6....-.5:.-e50-: 24 75 22 60
MAYOR TOUNG-WOOK oi oss nos cocci ge Pecans we crt (sere 18 55
Silver fir body-wood.. .... ......... 20-28 60-65 19 52
Silver fir round-wood ................ 20 BOe mS Wee ee; 24 beth > beaten
OE OOP at ee teeny | ap ane |S eR ae 20 50
MMNCar TETAS GUE 825 soos occa gio. Meee Fete otha fines cdvccs des 25 54
ENRON i SE ee ce Tel via vied Al cans See cued aN nok zaee'ss 18 37

606. In laying-meilers, the average per cent of the coniferous
woods is about 23 by weight, and 60 by volume—and for beech woods
22 per cent of weight, and 50 by volume.

1From Fromme’s Austrian Forest Calendar, 1882, p. 255, upon various
authorities there cited.

152 Preparation of Chareoal.

607. By the Dromart Process a kiin is -constructed of cast-iron
plates that form the floor and sides, and may be set up and taken
down from time to time as it becomes desirable to change the site.
Beneath the iron floor there are flues leading to equi-distant points
in the bottom, and a fire is kindled externally for supplying in part
the heat required by the process. There are air-holes around the
side and a chimney at the top, all of which may be opened or closed
at will. The wood is set up endwise, and fills the entire space. In
this, as in all other kilns, the volatile products may be saved.

608. The Moreau Process proposes to secure carbonization in sheet-
iron receivers of cylindrical or prismatic form, and capable of hold-
ing a cord or two each. They are filled at es top through an openr
ing that may be closely sealed, and the air is admitted through
perforated tubes from below. These receivers are so arranged that
several may be attended by the same men simultaneously, some
being filled or emptied while the others are at work. They have
no bottom, and are speedily emptied by being turned over on their
side. It is claimed that they afford 41 to 43 per cent in volume,
and 30 in weight.

609. Charcoal is an ingredient in gunpowder, and the best is
made from the alder buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula), although the
common alder, willow, soft maple, hornbeam, basswood, and poplar
are used. It is best prepared in iron retorts, in-which the heat is
applied externally, and the wood should be peeled, to avoid acei-
dents from the ignition by sparks from sand. in the bark in manu-
facture.

610. The percentage of ash in woods, as a rule, decreases as well
in the bark as the wood, from below upwards, being more in the
branches than in the trunk, and most in the twigs and leaves. In
coniferous trees, the alkalies, magnesia, phosphoric acid, and sul-
phuric acid in various combinations, occur most in the needles, and
lime, iron, and manganese in the bark, and small branches.

611. By far the most ashes are contained in the cambium and
bark bundles, and more in the sap-wood generally than in the heart-
wood. As the cellular system ceases to be active, it appears to give
up its alkali and phosphoric acid to the use of the younger forma-
tions, and thus in the life-process the same atoms may be use over
and again in the same tree.

612. It follows, from this, that the tree when young requires rela-
tively more food than when old, and that nurseries exhaust the soil

Red Charcoal—Distilled Products of Wood. 153

more rapidly in proportion than a forest of large trees. The process
of assimilation may be compared to that observed in animal life,
where the structures are formed in early life.

Red Charcoal.

613. About 1836, a method. was introduced in France for semi-
carbonizing wood, by placing it in chambers at the mouths of fur-
naces, and exposing it to a heat by which the water and acetic acid
are expelled, and the combustible gases left. This product, some-
times called ‘ torrified wood,” is used in melting pig-iron for cast-
ing and other purposes. It ignites freely, does not impair by keep-
ing, and burns with a copious flame and intense heat. It is said
for certain purposes to afford 30 per cent more of heat than fully-
_ burned charcoal. The process being stopped just at the point
where carbonization begins, the wood retains its texture and ap-
pearance; it may be split, cut, or sawed, but has lost its strength,
and is of a reddish brown color.

Distilled Products of Wood,

614. In all forms of kilns the volatile products may be condensed
and saved. ‘The smoke is drawn from the kilns and condensed. The
methylic alcohol or wood-spirit is first separated by distillation ; the
residue of dilute acetic acid is then neutralized with lime, and
evaporated to dryness. About two gallons of the wood spirit are
produced from the smoke of a cord of hard wood, and when puri- -
fied it may be applied to all chemical uses for which common alco-
hol is employed, but chiefly in making paints and varnishes. After
the spirits are distilled out, the residue, with lime added, yields
about 200 pounds to the cord. It is chiefly used in making white
lead.
615. Besides these, a large number of chemical products may be
derived from the distillation of wood, having use in calico printing,
and in other industries, and the value from a given quantity of
wood from these sources, at present prices, amounts to more than
twice that of the charcoal made at the same time. The gases re-
maining in this process have not much illuminating power, but are
used in supplying a part of the heat required for the evaporation.

154 Wood Gas—Forest. Fires.

Illuminating Gas from Wood.

616. It is found that wood exposed to cherry-red heat in close
retorts, yields a gas which, when purified, has a much greater
illuminating power than the best obtained from coal. In this way
chips and other waste pieces of wood have been turned to profitable
account. The heat in this process must be carried to a greater de-
gree than in the making of charcoal, and hence the residual product
is of inferior quality. . The different. kinds of wood are about alike
as to value in furnishing gas for illumination, the quantity averag-
ing, in eight of the common kinds, about 582.35 cubic feet to 100
pounds of wood.

617. The condition as to dryness, however, is of great imeporbiewaed
since the vapor of. water coming in contact with the incandescent
charcoal will form an oxyde of carbon and of hydrogen, that will
reduce its illuminating power. The wood should therefore be dried
as much as possible just before being placed in the retort, or else it
will again absorb moisture from the air.

618. Where steam-power is used, the waste steam may be carried
in pipes through the drying chamber, and a current of air may be
driven or drawn through the’ wood, securing the requisite degree
of dryness, without much expense. The retorts may be like those
for coal gas, but larger, and as the process gives the best result
when heated rapidly, the furnaces should have a larger amount of
grate-surface. A charge is worked out in an hour and a half, and
the charcoal formed is at the end drawn out into sheet-iron extin-
guishers and tightly closed for cooling. As the liquid products are
corrosive to iron, copper pipes must be used, and the gas must be
purified before being used.’

CHAPTER XV.

FOREST FIRES.

619. There is no subject in Forestry more important than the
prevention and control of forest fires. They every year do a vast
amount of injury, not only to standing timber and young trees, but

1Those wishing to look further into this subject, will find detailed informa-
tion in the Forestry Report of 1877, published by the Department of Agri-
culture, p. 133, and in the authorities there cited.

Forest Fires. 155

- to fences, bridges, buildings, farms and mill property, and to cord-
wood, lumber and bark cut in readiness for market. Not only this,
they sterilize the land by burning out the vegetable mold, so that
trees can not be made to grow again, until in some degree this ma-
terial is restored by the decayed herbage, and the fall of leaves from
an undergrowth of bushes—a process which requires many years
to accomplish.

- 620. Sometimes the fire runs from tree to tree in the tops, instead
of spreading along the ground, as in the great Miramachi fire of
_ New Brunswick, in 1825, and the Peshtigo fire of Wisconsin, in
1871. Upon each of these occasions, many hundred human lives
were lost. The Michigan fires of 1871 and 1881 were memorable
from the destruction of towns, villages, bridges, and farm property
that they occasioned.

621. In the great fires above mentioned, the forests had been
long exposed to intense solar heat and to drouth, and vegetable
matter in every form would ignite from the least spark, and burn
beyond control. The currents of air which the flames excited, be-
came furious gales of wind, and swept every thing before them in a
tornado of fire.

622. Without giving historical or statistical details, we will pre-
sent the subjects under the three heads of causes, prevention and
control.

(1.) Causes of Forest Fires.
_ 623. These fires generally originate from the following causes,
and somewhat in order of importance as here placed :

(a.) From fires that escape in the clearing of lands, and the burn-
ing off of brush and stubble in preparing the ground for cultivation.

(6.) From sparks and coals of locomotives along lines of railroad.

(c.) From fires purposely set to improve pasturage, upon moun-
tains and in marshy grounds. This is a very common practice in
the Southwestern and Southern States, the fires being often set by
persons who do not own the land, to afford grazing to their few
head of cattle, upon lands not their own.

(d.) From fires carelessly left by persons camping, hunting or
fishing, and by tramps.

- (e.) From the careless use of matches, that are thrown down and
‘not extinguished, or from tobacco-pipes, cigars, or gun-wads.

156 Forest Fires.

(f.) From fires that escape from coal-pits and other operations
carried on in the woods.

(g.) From malicious design.

(h.) From natural causes, such as lightning, friction between
dry wood in high winds, and spontaneous combustion.

(2.) Prevention of Forest Fires.

624. A constant vigilance in the use of fire, and in extinguishing
every spark, when left, and proper care in the clearing away of all
combustible materials around the place where a fire is kindled in or
near a woodland, would render every other prevention almost need-
less. The danger from fires should be thoroughly impressed upon
every one, and especially upon children, at home and at school, so
that they may grow up with careful habits in this respect.

625. A kind of safety-match is made in immense quantities in ©
Sweden, and is used extensively throughout Europe. It can not be
ignited except when rubbed upon a surface that is chemically pre-
pared, and that is placed upon one side of the box in which they
are sold. The use of matches prepared like these, and the habit of
extinguishing them when lighted, would prevent accidents from
this cause. Gun-wads are also made that will not burn, and that
are entirely safe as to retaining fire.

626. The risk of fire from locomotives may be largely diminished
by the use of spark-extinguishers and other arrangements, many of
which have been patented. The law in most states renders rail-
road companies responsible for the damages that they may cause,
and this law rigidly enforced would greatly tend to the exercise
of more care in this respect. As a further precaution, the leaves
and rubbish along railroads should be raked off and burned, at a
time when the fires can be managed. Piles of old decaying ties
should be removed. Belts of timber, less inflammable than pines,
should be planted along railroads that run through pine forests,
and railroads should be patrolled in a dry time, for the purpose of
extinguishing the fires that may be set, before damages are done.

627. In regions where fires are exceedingly liable to occur, the
burning off of belis of land in winter, when the fires do not spread
beyond control, and need some help to burn at all, is a safe precau-
tion; such fires, however, injure the young trees, and they should
be allowed to extend no more than necessary.

Forest Fires. 157

_ 628. Damages from prairie fires are best prevented by plowing
a few furrows in parallel lines, fifty or a hundred feet apart, and
burning off the grass between, soon after it is killed down by frost,
and before it is very dry. This practice along the sides of railroads
in a prairie region, is excellent.

629. In Europe, fire-guards are made through the woods, by
clearing away all trees and all matter that can burn, in belts from fifty
to one hundred feet wide. To be effectual, they must be cleaned
out every year or two. If such belts were planted with deciduous
trees, that do not take fire so readily as conifers, they would afford
some protection, but not as much as the bare soil.

630. Common roads answer the same end, and in a region liable
to fires, they should be wide and the sides well cleared. The French
Ordinance of Waters and Forests (1669), prescribed that public
roads through forests should be at least seventy-two feet wide, and
that all thorns and bushes within sixty feet should be cleared off
on each side.

631. Avenues through a forest present the unavoidable disad-
vantage of exposing the timber to the winds. This effect is greatest
in heavy-topped hemlocks, etc., and least where the woodland has
grown up with the space reserved, as the branches of the trees on
the outside are then strong, and extend lower down, affording much
resistance to the wind.

_ . 632. Where streams of water flow through nearly level wood-

lands, they may sometimes be raised by dams, so as to form a series
of narrow ponds for long distances, that would check all ground-
fires. Stone walls, mounds of earth, and cactis-hedges affurd some
_ protection.

633. Our state laws should provide for the designation of some
existing officer, or the election of some special officer, who should
have authority to call out help for extinguishing forest fires. Such
men should be thoroughly familiar with their districts, and with all
lines of defense that can be used to oppose an advancing fire. Per-
sons when thus called upon, should be liable to a fine if they refuse
to assist without reasonable excuse.

634. Laws rendering all persons responsible for the damages that
_ may be done from fires that they set, whether carelessly or in-

tentionally, should be enacted and enforced. In Pennsylvania they
have a law rendering the counties responsible for the expenses in

158 Forest Fires.

hiring men to extinguish fires, and it should be adopted generally.
If farmers found that they might have taxes to pay for damages
done by this cause, they would be very careful in burning their
fallows, and in seeking to prevent it from being done carelessly a
others. t
635. A ground-fire that runs through a young plantation of ry
oak, catalpa, and other deciduous trees, may kill down the tops, and
appaweily destroy them entirely. We should not give them-up as
ruined, for they will often sprout from the roots, and grow as-vigor-
ously as before. The most that can be done in such cases, is to cut
off the old stems and all but the thriftiest of the new ones. As for
the old one, it only does harm by preventing its place from healing
over. Several small growing sprouts from one root are not so de-
sirable as one strong one.

636. In humid climates, and in damp grounds, the undergrowth '
sometimes comes in so as to cover the surface, to the injury of the
growth of the trees.’ It is necessary, in order to seeure the
greatest benefit, to clear out the bushes and ground-herbage and
burn it. For this purpose the materia], after being pulled up, is
best arranged in piles, at some distance from the trees, covering
it with sod before setting it on fire. By avoiding a dry. time,
this can be done safely, as the fire will smolder away, with much
smoke and little flame, until the whole is reduced to ashes. These
are then spread over the ground, tending to renew its fertility.
The larve of many kinds of insects that fiud shelter in the Bisa.
are by this means destroyed.

(3.) Control of Forest Fires.

637. Among the means employed for stopping the progress of a
forest fire when started, the following are the most important;
Throwing water and wetting a line of ground; sand and soil thrown
upon the edge of a line of fire will sometimes do almost as well;
the fire may be whipped out with green bushes; the rubbish may
be raked away toward the advancing fire and burned; and some-
times furrows may be plowed, to present a line of fresh earth.

638. Back-firing, consists in setting a fire commencing along some
road, stream of water, wall, or other line where its spread in one

1Tn French Forestry this undergrowth is called “bois mort,” literally “dead
wood.”

Forest Fires—Other Injuries. 159

direction may be prevented, and allowing this fire’ to run till it
meets the principal fire. Great ‘fires sometimes cause an inward
_ current of air that favors back-firing. As fires advance down hill
more slowly than they ascend, the counter-fires may often be set. to
best adyantage at the bottom of a valley. The crest of a ridge is,
however, a much better line of defense.

639. After a fire has apparently. been brought under control, it
should be carefully watched until it is entirely extinguished. If
neglected it will sometimes get under way with more energy than
before, even some days or weeks afterwards. On a rocky surface,
full of deep fissures, there is very great danger to be dreaded from
_ these concealed fires, that may smolder unobserved for a long time.

640. It is always a safe precaution to have water, buckets, spades,
axes, etc., in readiness for use in case of fires. In some regions in

Europe, a system of signals is arranged, and persons are on watch
from towers on high hills, for the special purpose of discovering
fires, und making known their locality. A system of telegraphic
signals, consisting of willow-baskets by day, and of lanterns ‘by
_ night, has been proposed in Spain for this use, and by a simple com-
bination representing numbers, a correspondent may receive a great
variety of messages in a brief space of time, by the aid of books in
which these messages are referred to by corresponding numbers.

CHAPTER XVI.

PROTECTION FROM OTHER INJURIES THAN FIRES.

641. A young woodland needs protection even more than a grain-
field, because the injuries done, may destroy the growth of several
years instead of one. These damages may be done by wild or do-
mestic animals, or by insects; or they may be caused by disease, by
storms of wind, by the obstruction of water-courses that may over-
flow level lands, and in various other ways, many of which can be
prevented or removed.

Pasturage of Woodlands.

642. In European governments, the rights of pasturage in the
public woodlands are regulated by law, and sometimes they are
sold, for one year at a time, at public auction. In many cases it is
a common right, subject to regulation by the local government.

160 Injuries from Animals.

The practice is forbidden altogether in young woods, until the
growth has reached a size that would prevent injury from being
done. .

643. As a general rule, sheep and goats do much more ee than
horses and cattle, and in. some countries they are altogether ex-
cluded at all times. The fattening of swine upon acorns and nuts
is considered of no injury to large trees. The pasturage of steep
mountain slopes is much more injurious than upon level land, and
has tended to produce immense injuries by exposing the soil to

erosions, as elsewhere more fully noticed.

644. It is an admirable practice to plant groves of trees in pas-
ture grounds, to provide shade for stock, but such groves must be
protected by fences until the foliage is above the reach of cattle,
and the trunks of the trees are so large that they would not be liable
to injury.

Injuries to Seeds, Seedlings, and Trees, by wild Animals.

645. In noticing the agencies for the distribution of seeds, we
have elsewhere given credit to birds, and especially to squirrels, as°
planters [§ 125]. We must, however, guard against the latter, in
keeping nuts in heaps for spring planting. The liability to injury
by moles and mice in winter, is a principal reason for our delaying
to plant nuts, acorns, and other seeds till spring, instead of planting
in the fall, as is done in nature. [§ 130.]

646. These animals do injuries to nurseries and plantations in
winter, especially when the snows are deep. Rabbits are very fond
of gnawing the bark from young trees, and where these animals are
kept, it is necessary to guard against their injuries by stone walls,
laid from below the reach of their burrows, or by wire screens.

647. Fruit and shade trees may be protected by binding tarred
paper around the trunks near the ground, and by treading down
the snows around them in winter. . Hedgehogs will feed upon the
bark and twigs of the hemlock in winter, and certain birds may do
injury to trees by biting off the buds.

648. The gopher (Geomys bursarius) is oné of the most trouble-
some pests in the Western States, from its eating off the roots of
young trees; anda single animal has been known to follow a line
of newly set osage orange hedge, in the soil soft from recent~plant-
ing, and destroy the roots for many rods.- They may be poisoned ©

pene att te iets

Birds that Destroy Pine Seeds—Insect Ravages. 161

by placing strychnine or arsenic in a carrot, apple, or a potato near
where their burrows come to the surface—but caution should be
taken in the use of these dangerous poisons.

649. In parks and forests where game is protected, there is some-
times much sacrificed from their propensity to gnaw and rub. Deer

are as destructive to the herbage of young trees as sheep or goats.

In Europe, it is customary to feed hay and turnips to herbivorous
game in winter.

650. In sowing pine seeds, it becomes necessary to guard against
some of the gramnivorous birds, who seem to be attracted, as if by
instinct, to the feast. The white-throated and white-crowned spar-
rows, appear to ‘be particularly fond of these seeds, and after the
young shoots have come up, they become dainty food for the com-
mon yellow-bird. The best remedy against these birds, is a thin

. eovering of marsh-grass or of fine brush, care being taken that it

does not smother the young plants. A better one would be an old
seine, suspended upon poles a few inches above the seed-beds in the
nursery.

CHAPTER XVII.
INSECT RAVAGES IN WOODLANDS.

651. Our limits do not permit more than a general notice of the
damages done to trees from insects. They begin with the seed—are
found in the young shoot, and in the bark or wood of the roots,
trunk and branches, at every stage of growth—in the leaves, the
blossoms, and the ripening fruit. They sometimes appear in small
numbers, and every year alike, and at others they increase in im-
mense number, and either progressively or simultaneously destroy
every thing before them.

652. Among those most systematic in their movements is the
processionary catanpilise, shown in the annexed engravings, copied
from De la Blanchére."| The moth appears in August or Septem-
ber, and for some days remains motionless under the leaves and
branches, flying only in the twilight. The female lays some
two hundred eggs upon the bark, and from these the worms soon
hatch out. They live together in a common net, often changing
their abode till the third moult, when they set out in the evening

- Les Ravageurs des Foréts, et des Arbres d Alignement, i. 170.

162 Insect Ravages in Woodlands.

=

SS
a =

s5

Sa

i

J
|

80. Bombyx processionea.—(The Processionary Caterpillar.)

in an orderly march—first one, then
two, three, and fsur abreast, and so
widening by one at every rank, in solid
triangular phalanx, and in immense
legions. When there are no more

of the Bombyx pro-
cessionea oak leaves to destroy, they consume
the undergrowth, and they do not
fail to take harvests and gardens
before them. The hirsute append-
ages with which they are covered
cause irritating inflammations
when in contact with the naked
- skin or a mucous surface, and
neither man nor beast can remain
in a forest when they are abroad.
653. Against enemies like these
man is scarcely able to defend
himself, but there are enemics

lar.

al ME ee i

Insect Ravages in Woodlands. 168

tend to limit these injuries. One of these is
a carnivorous beetle, that hatches out at about
the same time. ~ Although they have wings,
they attack them on the ground, and mount
upon the trees to seize their prey.

654. Usually beetles of the general form
shown in the foregoing engraving, with long
sharp jaws and very rapid movements, belong
to the carnivorous class. Something may be
done to prevent the injuries of the worms above
described, by scraping off the eggs from the ©
bark. They are always deposited on the out-
side trees of a forest, and never within it.

655. Of bark-boring insects the conifers have
an unusually large share, there being, perhaps,
no species that is entirely free from their rav-
ages. They are sometimes very symmetrical
in their work, the bark, externally, showing a
row of holes at equal intervals, and, between
the wood and bark, burrows running sometimes
horizontally, at other times vertically or ob-
liquely, with numerous branching burrows that
seldom or never run into one another, however
nearly they may approach.

656. The main stem of these burrows is
made by the parent-insect, who, as she ad-
vances, deposits her eggs on the sides. From
these the larvee hatch, and, because small, the
passage which they make is at first narrow. It
widens as they grow in size, and at the end may
expand into a little chamber. When the worm g jrcoot Bitkases under
has finished this stage of its growth, it becomes the Bark of Trees.

a pupa, and finally eats out into the open air, as a perfect insect.
Its natural size is shown by the side of the above engraving.
657. The immense numbers in which these insects appear in some

"years, render their ravages very destructivé, and as they often pro-

duce two broods in a year, a single insect may, in three or four
seasons, when the increase is not checked, multiply in enormous
quantities.

164 Insect Ravages in Woodlands.

658. As a general rule, these bark-boring insects are most liable
to attack fallen timber, and especially that which has been over-
thrown by storms in. the season of active vegetation, or trees that
have had their vitality weakened from being scorched by fire.

Pan

84. Hylesinus pini- 85, Burrows of the Hylesinus pintperda under the Bark of the
erda (greatly en- Scotch Pine, with the Insects of natural size.

arged). :

659. The damage done to logs cut for lumber may be lessened by
. taking off the bark -as
soon as the trees are
felled. The above en-
gravings represent an en-
larged view of one of
these bark-insects, with
the form of its burrows,
and the insect of its nat-
ural size.

660. With respect to
wood-boring insects, the
amount of injury done to
the timber depends upon

aM Se sete the uses to which it is to
86. Punctures made inthe Heart-wood of Oak, by a ; as 3
Lymexyelon, natural size. be applied. If slight, It

i
-

ee ee
‘ ,
ay ‘a

may still be good for car-
pentry, but improper for
coopers’ use; if the bur-
rows are large, they tend
to admit moisture, and to
become great open cavi-
ties, and in certain other
cases the wood is so eaten
that it becomes nothing
but a shell—perhaps sound
and without the least ap-
pearance of injury exter-
nally, but wholly eaten
out into caverns within.

661. These wood-eating
insects are especially com-
mon in decaying wood,
and where they are strict-
ly limited to this, they can
searcely be considered as
of great injury, and in
some cases they may be
even beneficial, in hasten-
ing its decay.

662. There are other
classes of insects found
upon wood and leaves, and
even in burrows in the
wood and bark, that are
predatory in their habits,

pursuing other insects and

destroying them, either in
the perfect state, or as lar-

Insect Ravages in Woodlands. 165

87. Cavities made in Fallen Timber oe the
Larve of Insects, tending to rapidly
hasten its Decay.

Ve, or by feeding UPON s8. Wood that has been chovseanis ruined 23 the

their eggs.

Larve of the Cerambyz heros.

6624. These carnivorous insects are the surest agency for counter-
acting the inordinate increase of the injurious kinds, and when the
latter multiply to undue extent, the abundance of food thus offered
leads to their increase also, until the balance of nature is again re-

166 Insect Ravages in Woodlands.

stored. We here present a cut of the larva of the great capricorn:
beetle; that which sometimes proves destructive to the oak, and
that causes the damages shown in the last preceding engraving.

89. Larva of the Cerambyz heros.

These insects require three years for their transformations, and do

not usually attack the timber until it has passed its stage of full _

maturity and has begun: to decline, but while the wood is still hard
and sound. ‘The capricorn beetles to which this insect belongs, are
among the most destructive of wood-borers ; some inhabiting the
trunks of trees, and some only the limbs. There are other insects
that devour the pith or the roots, and some are found only in
herbaceous plants.

663. The insects that burrow under the bark, or that mine into
the wood, are sometimes very systematic in their operations, and
this symmetry may all be due to the work of one insect, that de-
posits her eggs at equal intervals along the burrow. These, upon
hatching into larvee, eat their way from the main burrow, sometimes
to but a short distance, and without enlargement at the end, and at

90. Cross-section showing the Burrows of the Bostrichus
ineatus.

other times widening as they gain in size, till they reach their limit
of growth, and then, after completing their transformations, they

a

_ very hot and dry season may favor an

: birds is therefore to be encouraged ; 91. Vertical Section through

OOO OOO SS — rl ee

Insect Ravages in Woodlands. 167

emerge through holes eaten in the bark, and come forth as perfect’
insects.

664. Climatic vicissitudes have great
influence upon the multiplication or
decrease in the number of insects. A

increase, or an unusually cold, wet, and
backward one may destroy them.

665. Insectivorous birds do much
to keep injurious insects in check, and
where there is an abundance of this
food, they. will sometimes appear in
greatnumbers. The presence of these

4 the Burrows of the Bostrichus
and as groves and belts of timber are = #neatus.

multiplied, the conditions favoring their coming and sojourn, to the
benefit of our grain and fruits, are increased. or these reasons
they should be strongly protected by efficient game laws, and by
public sentiment, against their destruction, or the disturbance of
their nests.

6654. In some countries, as in France, the importance of protect-
ing birds is taught in the schools, and the children are shown how
to distinguish the useful kinds of birds, small animals, reptiles, and
insects from those that are injurious, and the best means for pro-
tecting the former, and of destroying the latter. Little ‘‘ Protec-
tion Societies” are organized among the children, for preventing in-
juries to birds and their nests, and various means are devised to
impress the young with correct ideas concerning the interests
depending upon the allies of the field.

666. In nurseries, gardens, orchards, and parks, we may some-
times adopt measures for the destruction of insects, when they ap-
pear in unusual number, by some kind of poisons, such as Paris-
green, London-purple, white-hellibore, ete., but where they invade’
a whole forest, and especially when they occur in regions remote
from settlements, we can do nothing, and must await the operation
of natural causes for restoring the balance, through the natural
agencies of climate and the antagonism in insect life.

667. In some countries this can be done by costly methods, such
as cutting down the infected trees, and burning the tops and the

168 Insect Ravages in Woodlands.

bark. But these heroic remedies are practically much beyond our
means for successful application in a large way. Fortunately these
great invasions do not last many years in succession. They may
leave a wide-spread ruin behind them, but some other species of
‘timber tree with fewer insect enemies will come on to supply the
place; and generally the timber killed may still be used for lumber
or fuel, if cut within a year or two afterwards. In the case of
timber bored into cavities, of course the value is greatly impaired
for many uses, and its decay is generally hastened by these causes.
a Where the tree survives the injury of an insect year, the
$F 3 effect is generally seen in the diminished growth
of that season. We have seen in the Museum of a
School of Forestry, a section of a tree some hun-
dreds of years old, in which for long periods to-
gether every third ring of growth was narrow, as
we see in one of the rings in the annexed engray-
ing. This was caused by the eating off of the
leaves every third year by a caterpillar.
669. If the leading shoot of a young conifer is
LISS? * eaten off by insects, or killed from any other
t2, Effect of Insect T- cause, its growth is checked until another, and
upon the unequal sometimes two shoots are formed in its place. This
gives a defective form, and injures its value. In
a lawn or nursery, this damage may be repaired by herbaceous
grafting from the terminal shoot of another tree, as elsewhere
described.
670. The damages done by insects to a forest are sometimes im-
mense. In recent years the spruce timber in New Brunswick,
Maine, and Northern New York has been thus destroyed to the ex-
tent of millions of dollars in value.
’ 671. Kaltenbach, an approved European writer upon Forest
Entomology, enumerates 557 species of insects injurious to the oaks,
107 to the elms, 264 to the poplars, 396 to the willows, 270 to the
birches, 119 to the alder, 154 to the beech, 97 to the hazelnut, and
88 to the hornbeam. Of coniferous trees, ‘he pines, spruces, larch,
and firs are fed upon by 299 species, and the junipers by 33.
672. In the United States, while many observers have_ given
their attention to this branch of natural history, much still remains
to be known upon this subject, especially as relates to the geograph-

ie

Classification of Insects: Coleoptera. 169

ical range of species, their migrations, the causes that favor or

hinder their increase, and the means for diminishing their damages.
673. In a recent publication of the U. S. Entomological Com-
mission, prepared by Prof. A. S. Packard, Jr., of Providence, R. L.,*
there has been collected a summary of all that had been previously
published concerning the forest-insects of the United States. We
will present some of the more important facts of this Report, con-
cerning the more injurious of these insects. As it will be necessary
to refer to the orders under which insects are classed, they may be
first concisely defined :

(1.) CoLtzoprera (Beetles).

_ 674, These are insects with jaws, two thick wing-covers, in a
straight line on the top of the back, with two filmy-wings, which are
folded transversely. They pass through four stages of life—the
egg, the larvx or grubs (generally provided with six legs), the pupa,
and the perfect insect. In most cases the greatest damage is done
in the larva state. The coleoptera are divided into several great
divisions, the principal of which are as follows:

675. (a.) The Searabeide, embracing an immense number of
species, known as ground or dung-beetles, tree-beetles, ete. Their
larve do great damages to the roots of trees, and the perfect in-
sects to the leaves and twigs. They fly.in the evening, and may be
destroyed to some extent by shaking them off from the trees in the
morning, first spreading cloths before jarring the trees.

676. (b.) The Lucanide, or stag-beetles, which are distinguished
by the great size and peculiar form of their upper jaws. The grubs
of the larger kinds are said to remain six years before changing to
a perfect insect. They live in the trunks and roots of trees, and
bore into the solid wood.

677. (c.) The Bupestride, or saw-horned beetles, so called because
the tips of the joints of their antennz project more or less on the
inside, somewhat like the teeth of a saw. They are often brightly
colored, and have usually a hard shell and an oblong form, tapering
behind. They keep concealed at night, and are abroad only by

1 Bulletin No. 7. Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees, 1881, p. 275.
This Commission consists of Professors Charles V. Riley, of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture at Washington, Dr. A. 8. Packard, Jr., of Brown Uni-
versity, Providence, and Prof. Cyrus Thomas, of Carbondale, Ill.

170 Classification of Insects: Coleoptera.

day. The larvse are wood-borers, and chiefly attack forest and -

fruit trees that are past their prime. The pine and hickory trees
especially suffer from their ravages. Their larve are long, rather
flat, yellowish white, and widened near the forward part. The
head itself is small, and provided with teeth for boring. They in-

93. Melolortha vulgaris (Male and Female).

clude the fiat-headed larvee found under the bark and in the wood
of our fruit trees, and may to some extent be kept out by surround-
ing the trunks with tarred paper, and by soaping, white-washing,
and cutting out, or by seeking and destroying the perfect insects.
678. (d.) The Elateride, or spring-beetles, are most destructive to
wood and roots in the larva state. They are sometimes called wire-
worms, and some are wood-eaters, living under the bark; and in the

sth Bs

Classification of Insects: Coleoptera. 171

trunks of old trees. The timber-beetles, so destructive in ship-
yards, belong to this division. The foregoing beetles, although
differing greatly in form and habits, agree in one character, viz.,
their feet are five-jointed, while those that follow are four-jointed.

679. (e.) The Rhynchophoride, or weevils, mostly of very small size,
so destructive to grains, and upon trees, boring into the bark, leaves,
buds, fruit, and seeds, and feeding upon the juices and soft parts
therein. They are day-insects, and love to come out in the sun-
shine. Some fly well, but others have no wings, and generally they
are slow and timid in their motions. The weevils are divided into
several great families, and include an immense number of species.

680. (f.) The Scolytide, or cylindrical bark-beetles, mostly very
small, but often doing the most serious injuries, especially in pine
and spruce forests, by mining under the bark, and boring galleries
in the new wood.

681. (g.) The Bostrichide—formerly classed with the preceding,
but now separately. They are often of large size, and especially in
tropical countries, they may prove very destructive. Their larve
bore galleries in the solid wood of living trees.

94. Bostrichus typo- 95. Burrows of the Bostrichus typographicus under the
praphicus (greatly Bark of the Spruce, with the Insects of the Natural
enlarged). Size.

682. Two nearly allied species of the Bostrychus have proved very
destructive to spruce forests in Europe. They are always found
more or less under the bark of decaying trees, but when the condi-

172 Classification of Insects : Coleoptera.

ditions for their incredse are multiplied, as in case of many trees
being prostrated by a gale, they increase in enormous quantities, and
destroy whole forests. In such cases, they appear to attack per-
fectly healthy trees. The first of these (B. typographicus) does the
most harm, and is found chiefly in and under the bark of the trunk
and large branches. The preceding engraving represents a set
of burrows made by the larve hatched from the eggs of one insect,
and an enlarged view of the insect itself.

683. The burrows of the Bostrichus caleographus are generally
found at the same time, and upon the same trees as those of the
preceding. species, but only upon the smaller branches. The only

zy

y
jj

Yl;

96. Burrows of the Bostrichus chalcographus, with the Insects
of Natural Size.
effectual remedy known against these insects, is that of cutting down
the trees, and peeling and burning the bark. In an invasion of
these insects in the Jura region in South-eastern France, following
as one of the consequences of a storm that happened in November,
1864, it became necessary from 1867 to 1873 to carefully examine
every tree in a forest, and to cut down every spruce that showed
signs of the insect, and to peel and burn the bark upon over

Classification of Insects: Orthoptera. 178

181,000 trees. By this energetic means, the ravages of these in-
sects were arrested.

684. In the United States, at present prices of labor, and of
timber, such a remedy would be wholly impracticable, but this
statement serves to illustrate the great importance attached to this
subject in Europe, and the sacrifices that are sometimes made to
check these injuries.

685. (h). The Cerambycidee — the
long-horned or capricorn beetles, are de-
structive wood-borers. They generally
rest. by day upon the trees, and fly by
night. Their larvee are long whitish
grubs, with the head smaller than the
first ring, and provided with short but
powerful jaws. These grubs, in some
cases, live several years before coming
to maturity. They are divided into
three families and many groups, some
species in the tropics measuring five or
six inches in length and two inches in
breadth.

686. The remaining divisions of the beetles, some of which are
injurious to trees, and especially to the leaves, can not be here de-
scribed in detail. Some species are leaf-miners, eating out the soft
parts and leaving the skeleton, and some doing injury in the larva
form while others injure as perfect insects. Many of these appear
to be governed by climatic influences, appearing in some years very
abundantly, while at other times they disappear for a series of years
altogether.

(2.) OrrHoprerA (Cockroaches, Orickets, Grasshoppers, etc).

687. These are insects with jaws, two rather thick and opaque
upper wings, overlapping a little on the back, and two larger thin
wings, which are folded in plaits. Transformation partial, larve
and pup active, but want-
ing wings. All insects of
this order—except the camel-
erickets, which prey upon
other insects—are injurious 98. Mole-Cricket.

97. Cerambyz carcharias.

174 = Insects: Hemiptera, Neuroptera, Lepidoptera.

to man. The mole-cricket is one of this class, and in Europe is
very troublesome in nurseries and gardens, by eating the roots of
trees and plants. A single brood will destroy a whole seed-bed.
By breaking the crust of hardened earth in June, their nests are
exposed to the air, and the eggs perish.

(3.) Hemrprera (Bugs, Locusts, Plant-lice, ete.).

688. These are insects with a horny beak for suction, four wings,
of which the upper are generally thick at the base, with thinner ex-
tremities, and which lie flat and cross each other on the top of the back,
or are of uniform thickness throughout, and slope at the sides like a
roof. Transformation partial, larvae and pupae nearly like the adult
insect, but wanting wings. Some, like the cochineal insect, are use-
ful, but the damages done by plant-bugs, locusts, tree-hoppers,
froth-insects, plant-lice, bark-lice, mealy-bugs, and the like, by
sucking the juices of plants, is very great.

(4.) Nevroprera (Dragon-flies, Lace-winged Flies, May-flies, Ant-lion,
Day-fly, White Ants, ete.).

689. These are insects with jaws, four netted wifgs, of which
the hinder ones are the largest, and no sting. Transformation com-
plete or partial, larva and pupa various. White ants, wood-lice and
wood-ticks, are almost the only noxious insects of this order, and
even these do not injure living plants. Many of them destroy other
insects for their food.

(5.) Lepmoprera (Butterflies, Sphinges, and Moths).

690. These insects have a mouth with a spiral sucking tube;
wings four, covered with branny scales. Transformation complete. |
The larve are caterpillars, and have six true legs, and from four to:
ten fleshy prop-legs. Pupa with the cases of the wings and of the
legs indistinct, and soldered to the breast.

691. Of the butterflies proper, the forester has not much to com-
plain. The perfect insects feed upon flowers, and the larve upon
vegetable substances. They usually change their skins about four
times before they come to full size. Their life in the final state is
brief, and in the splendor of colors they rival sometimes all other
forms of animal life. ;

a. a ere

<~ «wee
a

yy eer? Fee

Classification of Insects: Lepidoptera. 175

692. The Sphinges or hawk-moths
derive the name “Sphynx” from a
fancied resemblance of their cater-
pillars, when at rest, to the Egyptian
sphynx, supporting themselves up-
right by their fore-legs. They in-
clude a peach-tree borer, and some
other species injurious to trees. We
present in the margin an engraving 99. One of the Hawk-moths or
of the perfect insect, the larve of i me ge ort gt aaa
which infest the wood of the elm, al-
ways boring at the base of the trunk, where it unites with the root,
and appearing to divide the territory with the Cossus, that bores
only in the trunk.

693. A night-moth near-
ly allied with the Bom-
byces, and by some natu-
ralists classed with them,
but by others made a sep-
arate family, named Zeu-
zerade, is very often found
in Europe upon the horse-
chestnut. The larve are
white, soft and naked, or
slightly downy, with brown
horny heads, spots on the
body, as shown in the en-
graving, and sixteen legs. : oS
They are wood-borers, and 101. Larva of the Zeuzera.
are also very destructive
to the pear, apple, lilac, and occasionally to the young elms. In

f »,

_ favorite trees it may be killed by a wire inserted into its burrow,

the opening of which may be known by the dust that falls out, and
a violet-colored tinge on its border. The genus to which this be-
longs is European, and, according to Davis, has not been found in
this country. We have many others, however, of closely allied
forms, and of very destructive nature.

694. Linnzeus divided the Moths into eight groups, viz. : Attict,
Bombyces, Noctue, Geometre, Tortrices, Pyralides, Tinee and Alucite.

176 Classification of Insects: Lepidoptera.

The first of these has, by Jater naturalists, been merged with others,
but, with this exception, these groups have been considered as well
marked, and are generally retained. We present a few examples
of some of these forms.

695. The Bomby-
ces, or spinners, are
thick-bodied moths,
with feathered an-
tenne, at least in the
=> | males, tongue short
(Male.) ( Female.) or wanting, thorax

102. Bombyx neustria. (Perfect Insect.) woolly bus not reuse
ed, and the larve
generally spinners.
The figures here giy-
en show one of nu-
merous. species of
this group. They
have: sometimes
proved . exceedingly
destructive, by eat-
ing off the leaves of
trees, while in the
larva state. We
here present a view
of the perfect insect,
the larve of which
prove very destruc-
tive to the Scotch
pine. Whole forests

104. Bombyx of the Pine, (Female.)

“al H

105. Larva of the Bombyx pini.

—

Classification of Insects: Lepidoptera. 177

are sometimes laid waste by these devourers. They will even fill
ditches that have been dug to arrest their progress, and the only
way to control them is to collect in winter and burn the mosses in
which they are concealed.

696. The Noctue, or owlet moths, chiefly fly by night, and are
thick-bodied, swift-flying moths, that do considerable damage to
vegetation, and some of them live exposed on the leaves of trees
and shrubs, but the greater part feed only by night.

697. The Geometre, or span worms, five mostly in the larva state
only on the leaves of trees, and undergo their transformation in the
ground. Their larve derive their name from their manner of crawl-
ing, by drawing up the body into an arch, ge
and then reaching forward for a new hold. rs
When disturbed, they drop by a silken thread, 27 (Nes
till the danger is over, and then climb back W | “ Ny
again to their former place, with a tolerably io. arate Moth of the Geom:
rapid motion, by seizing the thread with — grubrima, one of the
their jaws and forelegs.

698. The canker-worm female moths are nearly without wings,

and are sluggish in their movements. They in-
stinctively make their way from the ground where a

they have been hatched towards the nearest trees,

and slowly creep up the trunks, pairing with their jo) poate Moth
winged mates in their ascent. They are chiefly in- pf, the Cheimo-
jurious to the apple and elm trees, but also attack

the plum, cherry, and lime trees,
and strip them of the pulpy part y
of the leaves, leaving the mid- }
ribs and veins remaining.

699. The Tortrices, or leaf-
rollers, are so called from the
eylindrical rolls that they form 1% Larva oF tne cae tavases,” 2nd the
around themselves at the close
of their larva-life. Very few of them make cocoons,.and most of
them go through their transformations in their leaf-cases. The moths
of this tribe are mostly small, and they fold their wings over their
bodies when at rest, like a steep roof. Most of them when dis-

178 Classification of Insects : Iepidoptera.

turbed in the larva state will drop by a silk thread like the pre-
ceding kinds.

108. Tortrix resinianz. (The Insect at Rest of the Natural Size;
the Larva and Flying Insect Enlarged.)

700. The Pyralides are nearly akin to the geometers, and are
sometimes called delta-moths, from the triangular manner of closing
their wings. This tribe includes the meal-worms of old flour barrels,
the grease-moths, the hop-vine caterpillar, etc., but they are not
particularly injurious to trees. |

701. The Tinee are chiefly destructive to clothing and household
stuff, but some of them burrow into leaves, and make winding
passages in the pulpy substance of plants.

Classification of Insects: Hymenoptera, Diptera. 179

702. The Alucite, or feather-winged moths, is a small tribe of
not much importance from the injuries done.

(6.) Hymenoptera (Saw-Flies, Ants, Wasps, Bees, etc).
703. These are insects with jaws, four veined wings in most species,
the hinder pair being the smallest, and a piercer or sting at the end
of theabdomen. Transformation complete. Larvz mostly maggot
or slug-like; of some, caterpillar-like. Pups with the legs and
wings unconfined.

704. In the adult state, these chiefly live upon honey, the pollen of

flowers, and the juices of fruits. As slugs or false caterpillars they
_ sometimes injure plants. Some are wood-borers and wood-eaters,
the pines and firs suffering most. Others cause galls and excres-
cences upon leaves and twigs, those upon the oak furnishing the nut-
_ galls of commerce. On the whole, the injury they do is far more
_ than counterbalanced by their benefits, especially in the ichneumon
flies, which destroy enormous numbers of noxious insects, by
| puncturing their eggs or their larvee, and depositing their own eggs
_ within them.
705. Others lay their eggs in the provisioned nests of other
- insects, whose young are starved by the food being first eaten by
_ the earlier-hatched intruders. The larve in which the ichneumon
_ fly has Jaid its eggs do not at once die. They may even complete
this stage, and furm a cocoon, from which, in due time, an ichneumon
| fly will emerge in place of the original insect.

706. The wood-wasps, sand-wasps, etc., are predaceous, and feed
| upon other insects. Our honey-bee and the bumble-bee belong to
| this order, and serve a most useful purpose, by conveying the pullen

(7.) Dierera (Musquitoes, Gnats, Flies, ete).

_ 7063. These are insects with a horny or fleshy proboscis, two
| wings only, and two knobbed threads, called balancers or poisers,
_ behind the wings. Transformation complete. Their maggots have
no feet. These are generally not injurious to trees. The Cecidomy-
_ diade includes the midges, or gall-gnats, whose effects are often seen
_ on the leaves of trees, but generally not so as to materially injure
their growth. The wheat-fly, Hessian- ‘fy, and fruit-flies belong to
pie order.

180 Insects injurious to Oaks and Elms.

707. Some writers have assigned the rank of a separate order to
certain groups that present intermediate or anomalous characters,
but for the present purpose the above may be sufficient, and in
speaking of these orders, we will use the numbers above given,
instead of their names.

708. Insects that attack. the Oaks. Of these 223 are enumerated,
of which about 38 belong to the 1st class, 9 to the 8d, 103 to
the 5th, and 64 to the 6th. To the 1st class belong several de-
structive flat-headed and bark borers, the oak-pruner, a leaf-roller,
and several species of borers that live in stumps and decaying
timber.

709. The 3d class includes the seventeen-year locust (Cicida sep-
temdecem), which spends the interval between its appearance as a
perfect insect, in the ground, attached to the roots of trees or other
plants, and when it comes out to breed does considerable damage to
the twigs or trees by stinging them, for the purpose of depositing its
eggs.

710. The 5th class includes the carpenter-moths, whose larve
bore large holes in the wood, acorn-worms, the leaf-miners, tent-
caterpillars, oak-worms, tussock caterpillar, American silk-worm .
(from which silk of good quality may be made), geometer moths,
and leaf-rollers.

711. The 6th class includes the gall-flies, that sting the twigs and
leaves, of which there are many species. Of these something can
be done to destroy the flat-headed borers, by applying soap to the
trunk, and by cutting in and extracting them. Where branches
fall, from the work of oak-pruners, they may be gathered and burned,
to destroy the eggs or insects that are in them.

712. Insects injurious to the Elms. Of these about 47 are known,
of which 14 belong to the 1st class, 1 to the 2d, 4 to the 3d, 25 to
the 5th, and 3 to the 6th. The 1st class includes the elm-tree borer
(Saperda tridentata), bark-borers, and great elm-beetle. ‘The 3d in-
cludes the gall-louse; the 5th, the canker-worms, span-worms, fall
web-worms, and American silk-worm, of the same species found
upon the oak (Telea polyphemus) ; and the 6th the saw-flies.

713. As a remedy against the canker-worm, printer’s ink spread
on tarred paper, or the use of troughs filled with oil, or cotton fast-
ened around the tree, will prevent the females from ascending it.

Insects injurious to Elms. 181

Web-worm nests can be removed with mops dipped in carbolie acid
solution or kerosene.
714. The elm is liable to suffer from a beetle which makes its at-
tack upon the bark, in the interior and on the under side, and with-
out showing much appearance externally. The tree will begin to

| languish, apparently while in the full vigor of growth, and, when

cut down, the bark will in a little while loosen and fall off, disclosing
a multitude of burrows.

Kee

110. Perfect Insect of the Scolytus destructor, of natural size above, “and enlarged ‘be-
low: together with the Larva and Pupa, of natural size and enlarged; and. the
Burrows, under the Bark, made by the Scolytus multistriatus.

715. A remedy has been proposed by Dr. Eugene Robert, of
Paris, which consists in shaving off the outer-bark down to the liber
_ or live bark, from the whole trunk, and on scarifying down to the wood

_ the smaller branches, by drawing a sharp, three-bladed hooking in-

strument (with the middle blade somewhat shorter than the others)
lengthwise along the surface. This is, of course, an expensive pro-
cess, and only to be practiced in city parks, and other places where
the elms are prized as shade trees. It should be done only after the
summer growth is ended, and before the sap starts in spring. The
disagreeable color which this process leaves, may be covered up with
a paint composed of coal tar and yellow ochre, to imitate the natu-
ral shade of color of the bark. It is not found necessary to burn

_ the bark that comes off, unless it contains the perfect insects, for

the larvee will die without further attention, and the eggs, if they
should hatch, would find nothing to feed on.
716. Insects injurious to the Hickorics, Of these 97 species are

182 Insects injurious to Hickories, Walnuts, Chestnuts, ete.

enumerated, of which about 35 belong to the 1st class, 1 to the 2d,
33 to the 3d, 8 to the 7th, and the remainder to the 5th. The ist —
class includes the hickory-borers, twig-girdler, and bark-borers; the
2d the walking-stick ; the 3d various bark-lice, gall-lice, tree-hoppers,

phylloxeras, ete; and the 5th the tussock-moth, leaf-rollers, ete. .

717. The 1st class includes various hickory-borers, the most de-
structive of which is the Scolytus tetraspinosa, affecting the bitternut,
shell-bark, pig-nut, and probably the pecan. It mines under the —
bark and into the wood of the trunk and branches. The Cyllene
picta, a borer found in this tree, is the same that proves so destrue-
tive to the locust.

718. Insects injurious to the Black Walnut. About a dozen species
are found on this tree, the most destructive being the borer so in- —

- jurious to the locust and the hickory (Cyllene picta). .
719. Insects injurious to the Butternut. About 20 species feed upon —
this tree, of which 2 are of the Ist class, 6 of the 8d, 1 of the 6th, —
and the rest of the 5th. It is comparatively free from injuries, the —
more important ones being bark-lice, hoppers, and scale insects, and
oceasionally the larvee of moths upon the leaves.

720. Insects injurious to the Chestnut. Of these, 20 are mentioned,
some being uifcertain as to classification. They are chiefly borers,
that pierce the bark, the wood and the fruit, or leaf-hoppers and
phylloxeras, that feed upon the leaves. The white ant sometimes
consumes the interior of chestnut fence-posts, etc., as it also mines
in the elm, pine and other woods.

721. Insects injurious to the Locust. Twenty-two insects are men-
tioned as infesting this tree, of which by far the most important is
the locust-borer (Cyllene picta), which has so effectually destroyed
the plantations begun with much success in the early history of tree-
planting in the prairie states. It is a beetle of velvet-black, with
transverse bands of yellow, and is often found feeding on the blos-
soms of the golden-rod. It lays its eggs in the crevices of the bark
near the roots, in September, and, after mining in the wood in the
larva state, it comes out a perfect insect in the month of June fol-
lowing. It appears to have migrated westward, being first noticed
about 1845 near Chicago, and, in 1863, at Rock Island. Two years
after it was in Iowa, and it is now common in most parts of that
state and westward. :

722. In densely planted groves in the eastern states, it chietty at-

twigs.

Insects injurious to Locust, Maples, Cottonwoods, etc. 183

tacks the outer trees only. Something may be done to save a val-
uable tree by soaping the trunk in August, or by whitewashing, or
covering with grafting composition. This tree suffers from several

- leaf-miners (against which there is no remedy but hand-picking),

and several gall-flies and midges.

' 111. Larva of the Melolontha, upon the 112. Pupa of the Melolontha,

Root of an Acacia. (upper and under sides),

723. The pods and seeds of the locust are at times inhabited by
a weevil, and dead locust timber is liable to be consumed by borers
differing from those that pierce the living trees.

724. Insects injurious to the Maple. Of these 38 are mentioned,
including a borer that pierces the solid trunks of sound sugar-maple
trees (Glycobius speciosas), the. flat-headed borer that is also found
on the apple tree (Chrysobothris femorata), and various worms—the
lary of moths that strip the trees of their leaves. The American
silk-worm (Telea polyphemus) sometimes attacks the maple, and does
much damage.

725. Insects injurious to the Cottonwood. Of these 16 are named,
chiefly beetles that bore the wood or consume the leaves. There
are several saw-flies and gall-insects that affect the leaves and

726. Insects injurious to the Poplars. Of these 386 are named, in-
eluding borers, span-worms, gall-lice, several leaf-rollers, and miners
that eat out the soft parts of the leaves. The larve of the genus

184 Insects injurious to the Poplar, Birch, ete.

Sciapteron, a moth much like that which injures the currant-bush
by boring, has proved very destructive to the poplars in Nevada and
in California. One species attacks also the locust, in the latter state.
The accompanying engraving shows one of the insects that attacks
the poplars in Europe, and the effect of its ravages.

Sy bit hoe

113. Ravages of the Saperda 114. The Poplar Twig Borer
carcharias upon the Poplar. (Saperda —).

(Insect and Larva of Na-
tural Size.)

727. Insects that injure the Linden. The basswood has 23 known
enemies, including borers, inch-worms that consume the leaves, leaf-
beetles, and leaf-miners. Some of these are the same that feed upon
the poplars.

728. Insects that injure the Birch. Of these there are 19, including
plant-lice, leaf-hoppers, etc., chiefly attacking the leaves. This tree
is comparatively free from these injuries. 3

729. Insects that injure the Beech. Of these 15 are named, chiefly
eating the leaves. :

—

Insects injurious to the Willows and Pines. 185

730. The Willows have 99 species of insects feeding upon their wood
and leaves, a very large number being gall-insects, plant-lice, and
leaf-rollers. Of the remaining deciduous species, there is no one but
that has several insects upon its leaves, or other parts, and there is
perhaps not one that wholly escapes alive when these are in excess.

731. We next come to consider the coniferous species, some of
which suffer severely, especially when their leaves are attacked,
because these do not put forth new leaves again, as do most of those
enumerated, and when the leaves are stripped off, the tree must die.
They can not sprout from the roots, and seldom put forth side
branches to save life when severely injured. Taken as a whole,
coniferous forests are much more liable to general ruin when attacked
_ than others. ;

732. The Pines are liable to attack from about 110 species, of
which about 62 belong to the 1st class, 16 to the 3d, 21 to the 5th,
8 to the 6th, and 2 to the 7th. Of the 1st class are many species
. of wood and bark-borers, that are generally more liable to attack
old trees that have passed their prime.

115. Pine Weevil (Hylobus

).

733. The pine weevil is a very destructive insect, breeding un-
der the bark, but doing the greatest injury after it has come to
the perfect form. It then attacks the young trees, generally those
of from three to six years of age, eating out the terminal shoot, the
~buds and the young stems. It is not much inclined to fly, and in
very hot weather, as also in the cool of night, it conceals itself
among the herbage and litter on the ground. |

186

Insects injurious to Pines and Spruces.

734. The white-pine weevil (Pissodes strobi), allied to the species
here presented, does great damage to the young pines, by eating

:

116, Pissodes notatus. (The Length of the Insect is indicated by the
White Line in the lower left-hand Corner.)

into the leading shoot. A method is practiced in Europe of de-
stroying these and other insects of the pine, which consists in stick-

ing some newly cut branches of the pine-trees
in the ground, in some open place, at about
the season when the insects are laying their
eggs. In a few hours the branches will be coy-
ered with beetles, which may be shaken into a
cloth and burned. This is, however, altogether
impracticable in a forest, and the best check
upon their increase is provided by nature in the
ichneumon flies that deposit their eggs in their
bodies, and thus finally destroy them. The
accompanying engraving shows the effect of
these injuries upon the young twigs of the
pine.

735. The Spruces suffer very much in the
same way as the pines, but the number of spe-
cies noticed is only about a quarter as great.
The most destructive are the bark and wood-

117. Effectof Ravagesof boring beetles, which although generally at-

the Hylesinus upon the
Pine

tacking trees that are on the decline, appear at

times nevertheless to-bore into perfectly sound and healthy trees.
The family of coleoptera known as Scolytide, which may be called

os

Ae

Tnseets injurious to Spruces and other Conifers. 187

‘‘eylindrical bark-beetles,” appears to be the most destructive,
especially the genera Hylurgus, Tomicus, Scolytus, Xyloterus, Bostri-
chus, Xyloborus, Crypturgus, ete., as variously described by authors.
_ 736. They are very small, but oceur in immense numbers, and by
burrowing under the bark, and in the newly formed layer of sap-
wood, effectually girdle the trees and destroy them. There are
also various span-worins and larve of caterpillars, saw-flies, bud
and leaf-lice, and other insects that feed upon the leaves and
buds.

737. The Balsam Fi 7 suffers from the same long-horned beetle that
proves so destructive to the pines and spruces (Monohammus confusor),
and from a saw-fly (class 6), and from the larve af various moths
and butterflies.

738. The Hemlock suffers from borers in the weed, and inch-
worms upon the leaves, but seldom to much extent. The same may
be said of the red and white cedars, the junipers, the larch, and
other conifers.

739. Very many of these destructive insects have their insect
enemies, some of them being carnivorous beetles, others mites that
fasten upon them, or ichneumon flies, that lay their eggs in their
‘bodies. It has also been noticed that certain insectivorous birds,
and especially woodpeckers, will appear in unusual abundance
in spruce and pine woods infested with bark-boring insects. They
will even follow the logs of the mill-yards, and persist in their
search for this food wherever there is opportunity. By.protecting
these birds we may therefore derive much benefit from their aid in
the destruction of these injurious insects.

. CHAPTER XVIII.

PROCESSES FOR INCREASING THE DURABILITY OF TIMBER OR FOR
IMPROVING ITS QUALITY.

740. In vegetable, as in animal organizations, life itself is gener-
ally sufficient to maintain the elements against decay while it lasts,
although in both it inevitably tends to dissolution, with age, if not
prematurely destroyed. In most kinds of wood the inner portion,
or heart-wood, is more solid and durable than the newer and softer
sap wood near the outside. It is generally thought that this mature

wood is no longer a living part of the tree, but simply the old fibers

188 Processes for Wood-preservation.

thickened and hardened, by deposit of material peculiar to the spe-
cies. It is dryer, heavier, and contains less potash than the newer
wood. Still, an iron tube driven deeply into the heart of a maple
tree will yield sap, showing that there is circulation to some extent
still present. In many trees the heart wood may decay without ap-
parently lessening the vigor of growth,

741. Many processes have been devised to increase the durability,
not only of the sap wood, but of the whole tree, either by rendering
it impervious to moisture, after thorough seasoning, or by neutral-
izing the tendencies to decay, or by injecting substances in solution
that become unalterable and permanent, either by directly uniting
with the tissues of the wood or by forming new combinations be-
tween different substances injected into it.

742. When the pores of wood are filled with other substances of
an oily or resinous nature, they show less tendency to warp or split,
simply because they do not absorb and give out moisture with the
changes of atmosphere.

743. In some of these’ processes the attempt is made to render
wood harder, stronger, less combustible, more dense, more flexible,
or of richer color, or in other ways more valuable, as well as more
durable. =~

744. Of the two finatia or more antiseptic processes that haye
been recommended for preventing the decay of wood, we can only
notice the more important." They consist generally in torrefication
of the outside, or in the injection or absorption of metallic or non-
metallic salts, of acids and their bases, of essential oils, or of resin-
ous or oily substances. The chemical action appears to be different,
according to the process used, the albumen being coagulated in
some, while insoluble and durable mineral and organic combinations
are formed in others. Wherever metallic salts are applied in the
preservation of wood, they should be neutral, as an excess of acid
would act upon the vegetable fiber and destroy it. From the latest
results of scientific inquiry, it appears that the real cause of decay
is probably due to the action of organized ferments, fungi or bacteria,

1 About 120 American patents are on record and in force at the time of
writing. We can not undertake to enumerate them here; some are not
worth notice, and the few that we mention are placed in their alphabetical
order, not because they are i seni than others, but because they are perhaps
better known. © —

Processes for Wood-preservation. 189

which these antiseptic processes tend to destroy, and that those
methods are most certain that accomplish this result most uniformly
and effectually throughout the wood.

745. Charring.—We have elsewhere noticed the extreme durabil-
ity of charcoal. By slowly scorching the outside of a post or stake
before setting it in the ground, its durability is much increased.
This is sometimes done with the railway ties in Europe, and two
methods are employed.

746. By one of them, the stick is laid upon an iron frame, that ad-
mits of an easy sliding motion in all directions, and a tongue of flame,
either from a gas-jet or from air blown through flame, is passed over
every part. By this means the degree of torrefication may be reg-
ulated at will. The process may be applied to all kinds of wood-
work, and it may be so managed as not to destroy the sharpness of
any work upon the surface.

747. By another process, a long iron tube is filled with flame, and

_railway ties or other wood may be passed slowly through it on a
broad iron chain. Piles charred before using will last for a long

period. It was the practice employed at Venice for the piles on
which that city was built. In whatever manner the scorching is
done, the timber must be first thoroughly seasoned ; if not, it will
only hasten its decay.

748. There is an advantage in plunging the wood newly charred
into coal-tar or melted pitch, or by painting it thoroughly with three
or four coats of these substances. The charring process is in favor
upon the Belgian railways. It has the advantage of preventing
injuries from gnawing animals or white ants, and hence its value in
India and other countries where these insects are destructive, as also
in the wood work of basements, where there is much humidity,
without proper ventilation. It is a most effectual remedy against

} othe dry rot.

749. It was formerly customary to slightly char the outside of
ship timber after it was prepared for framing, but before it was put
together. The “‘ Royal William,” one of the most long-lived ships
in the British navy, was thus prepared. The fires used in this pro-

cess were made of shavings or straw, and accidents would sometimes

happen.
750. In some timbers used for railway ties, such as oak, it is not

easy to inject with mineral salts or other antiseptic substances, and

190 Processes for Wood-preservation.

charring is the best method of preserving them. After they have
been used several years, they may be taken up, rasped off, burnt
over a second time, and again used. The same may be done with
beech and other woods, where they have not been thoroughly im-
pregnated.

751. By a process invented by M. de Lapparent (1862) a ree
pipe was devised for carbonizing the outside of railroad ties, under
a flame of common burning gas and air, supplied from separate
reservoirs, With pipes that unite just as they issue. This process has
been largely employed at Cherbourg in preparing wood to resist
decay in the French fleet, and a list of twenty-four vessels is given
in which this method was used. It has also been employed in Dantzie
and Pola.

752. By an apparatus of more powerful construction, patented by
a French engineer, Hugon, in 1864, the flame is supplied from
coal-oil. This has been used by the Orleans Railway Company, and
from four sets of apparatus 288 ties could be prepared in a day, at
a very low rate, and it is claimed with excellent result. It is also
used in preparing telegraph poles. It has been thought that the
preservative qualities obtained by partial charring are at least partly
due to the formation of creosote in the pores of the wood—a sub-
stance known to be one of the best of antiseptic agents.

753. By painting well seasoned wood with boiled linseed oil
thickened with pulverized charcoal, it will last much longer in the
ground than without this application. The paint should be allowed
to dry before the posts are set.

754. A coat of hot coal tar and sand may be applied to posts to
great advantage before setting them in the ground. The end of
the wood should especially be well coated, and the covering should -
extend a foot above the ground. It is claimed that this is partieu-
larly valuable when applied to chestnut stakes and posts.

754. Glauber, in 1657, recommended charring the surface of
wood, then covering with tar, and immersing in pyroligneous acid,
He is said to have been the first. to recommend the use of tar, which
in one form or another has since been employed in very many of
these methods for the preservation of timber. —

755. It is said that green Lombardy poplar absorbs boiling coal
tar very readily, and acquires thereby very durable properties. It —
might be tried upon cottonwood and willow, and for some uses it —

Processes for Wood-preservation. 191

might prove very effectual. It is even recommended for stakes
and posts, whicl without preparation would speedily decay. The
wood should be peeled before boiling.

756. Immersion in Water, or placing in Soils permanently Wet. It

is well known that piles driven into the soil, or timbers laid in the
water, or under a wall where it is always damp, and where access
to the air is wholly prevented, will last for an immense period.
Wrecks of vessels will thus remain for centuries, and sometimes
vessels are’ sunk to preserve them from decay, as was done with the
fleet captured by Commodore Perry on Lake Erie, in 1814. It
remained under water in the harbor at Erie, Pa., for many
years. ‘Timber is sometimes thus preserved till wanted, or it is
immersed at certain seasons to protect it from insects that infest
ship-yards.
757. Wood that has been long buried or immersed, finally becomes
_ “black and dense, but it retains its texture. Foundations laid upon
piles or timbers should of course never be drained, nor should air
be ever admitted to them from sewers or otherwise. Washing and
immersion in sea-water have been recommended.

758. Penetration of Liquids, and of Solid Substances in Solution.
This may be secured in a variety of ways, as from simple capillarity
by immersion in a cold liquid, or by boiling, or by compression at
one end of a piece of timber still covered with its bark, or by first
exhausting the air from the pores, and afterwards admitting liquid
substances under pressure, or by exposure to antiseptic agents in
the form of vapor, generally under pressure, or by absorption in the
living trees, by placing liquid substances where they may be taken
up as the sap is taken up in the vital process of vegetation.

759. As penetration under pressure after exhaustion of the air,
first proposed by Bréant, is employed in many processes, the method
may be briefly described, as nearly alike in all. A strong and large
iron cylinder is constructed, one end of which may be fully opened,
or strongly closed, at ‘will. The wood usually first wrought into
shape for use, is placed upon a frame, usually running upon wheels,
so that it may be easily run into the cylinder and withdrawn with-
_ out displacing the wood piled or fastened upon it. The pressure is
generally supplied by steam, but sometimes by pumps, and its
amount is shown bya gauge. The exhaustion is sometimes obtained

192 Processes for Wood-preservation.

by pumping, and at other times by the condensation of steam, as in
low-pressure steam-engines.

760. It may be remarked of all methods of injection, that woods
with an open, porous grain, receive better than those that are solid,
and that the sap wood is more easily injected than the heart wood.
The coniferous species, especially the sap wood, if not already full
of resin, generally afford good results, while the oaks and other
solid woods ean scarcely be injected in their heart wood. It is fur-
ther found that in wood that has begun to decay the tissues appear
to be disorganized, so that solutions will not penetrate, even under
great pressure. Without attempting to classify the various processes
employed for increasing the durability of timber, we will briefly
describe some of the more common methods. °

761. Impregnation with Oils. This is an ancient process. The
essential oils were used in wooden structures in Rome. Perhaps
the best is linseed oil, or other vegetable fixed oils, in preference to
animal oils, whicli cause the wood to become brittle. In India,
cocoa-nut oil, beaten up with shell-lime, is used asa varnish to plank.
Our.common paints derive their well-known preservative effect
largely from the oils that they contain, but they should never be
applied except to wood thoroughly seasoned. ‘Trenails are sometimes
boiled in oil before using.

762. Crude Petroleum is found to be an excellent preserving agent,
and has been employed in ship and house-building with great suc-
cess.

763. Common Salt is sometimes put into ships, while bina and
has the effect of rendering the wood durable. It is liable to be dis-
solved away, and to cause a corrosion of iron fastenings. It also
renders vessels damp and unwholesome, and if in excess, it swells
the tissues by the crystals that form in drying. The method of
salting is required by lake underwriters in new first-class vessels,
and it is recommended by the American Lloyds.’

1“ The mode of salting is to fix stops of boards between the timbers of
the frames about the height of the load-line, and when the ceiling and plank-
ing are worked and the plank-shear ready to go into place, the spaces
between the timbers are filled with salt. Near the end of the vessel the salt
is sometimes put between the frames, quite down to the dead wood. A
vessel of 500 tons will take 100 barrels of salt applied in the usual manner.”
(W. W. Bates, Ag. Rep. 1866.)

=

Vieg ws

hil

ee S ae ee ees

Processes for Wood-preservation. 193

764. Incombustible Wood. Experiments have been made by order
of the English Admiralty, to test a process of Dr. Jones for render-
ing wood incombustible, by the use of the tungstate of soda, a salt
obtained by the action of muriatic acid and common salt upon the
tungstate of lime (scheelite). Soft woods are said to be rendered
solid and durable.’

765. Alum tends to render wood incombustible, and claims have
been asserted in favor of its antiseptic properties, while others have
found that it tends to hasten decay. The soluble nature of alum
would render it improper for use where exposed to the rains, but
its well-established properties for resisting ignition may render it
worthy of notice for inside work.

766. Borax. It has been proposed to saturate wood with borax,
by immersing and gradually heating to a boiling point, and leaving
for half a day. The wood is then piled, and after a time again

boiled for less time in a weaker solution. It is claimed that this

renders wood less combustible, and the process does not discolor it.

767. Lime appears to render wood durable, as we see in the boards
used for mortar-beds. M. Lostal, a French contractor, has proposed
to place wood in a large basin or receiver, and cover it with a layer
of fresh-buried lime, which is watered by degrees till it slacks.
Water is then let in till the wood is covered, and it is allowed to
stand for some time. It gives a hardness, and it is claimed a dura-
bility worthy of notice. It also tends to render wood less liable to
ignition.

768. Sulphate of Iron. It is well known that copperas or green
vitriol will tend to increase the durability in woods, and the lasting
qualities of vessels engaged in the coal trade of England are attrib-
uted to the pyrites which all English coals contain, and which form
this salt by exposure to the air and to moisture. The pieces forming
parts of carriage-wheels and other wooden structures, when fitted
for putting together, are sometimes boiled three or four hours in a”
solution of this salt, and then placed for some days in a warm place
to dry. It is not corrosive to iron, and nails driven into it will last
as long as the wood itself.’

1Revue des Eaux et Foréts, 1874, p. 302; 1875, p. 143.

* Prof. F. W. Clarke in noticing the disagreement in statements concern-
ing this substance remarks: “At all events, it has had less thoroughly than
some other more fashionable preservatives, the test of long experience. It

194 Processes for Wood-preservation.

769. The Bethell Process was patented by Mr. John Bethell, in
England, July 11, 1838. It consists in subjecting seasoned timber,
under pressure, to creosote or oil of tar and other bituminous sub-
stances that contain it, and also to pyrolignite of iron, which holds
more creosote in solution than any other watery menstruum. While it
unquestionably renders wood much more durable, and also proofagainst
the attack of worms in sea-water, it has the disadvantage of ren-
dering it more combustible, and of offensive odor. We have known
a bridge frame set on fire and consumed while under construction,
by a workman attempting to burn outa hole through two pieces in
contact, so as to allow a bolt to fit.

770. Creosote coagulates the albumen, fills the pores of timber
with a bituminous substance, prevents the absorption of water, and is
obnoxious to animal life. By a patent of 1853, Bethell proposed to
first inject timbers with metallic salts, and after thorough drying,
inject creosote. He used about 10 pounds of creosote to a cubic
foot. It is sometimes carried to twice this amount. It has been
most used on pines, and for railway ties, and enormous quantities of
the latter have been sent to India and other hot climates. It is
also largely used for piles, docks, and bridge timbers.

771. The pressure employed varies from 150 to 200 pounds to
the inch, and the liquid is heated to 120° (Fahr.), and admitted
after the air has been exhausted. The cost varies widely, but aver-
ages perhaps 7 to 8 cents a cubic foot. Railway ties that are half
round last longer when thus prepared than those that are sawn
square, and a fine open sand is best for ballast. It is found that
ties that have been creosoted are stronger and better able to resist a
crushing weight than before, but sometimes in India they have suf-
fered from the white ants.

772+ The Boucherie Prozess... In December, 1837, Dr. Auguste
Boucherie, of Bordeaux, France, proposed the injection of antiseptic
fluids through the natural circulation of the living tree. He suc-
ceeded in the use of the sulphates and the acetates of copper, of

iron, and of zine, the bi-chloride of mercury, arsenious acid, and ~

the arseniate of potash, and in some cases of several of these in
succession. Of odorous substances, he procured the absorption of

was recommended by Strutzlei in 1834, Harle in 1843, and Apelt ‘in 1853.
Bohl . . . has employed it simultaneously with creosote.”

Processes for Wood-preservation. 195

camphor, the essential oils of lemon, bergamot, orange, lavender,
and rosemary ; and of coloring materials a neutral sulphate pre-
pared from indigo, and an aqueous solution of the coloring principle
of yellow-wood. Of resinous substances, he procured a considerable
absorption of spirits of turpentine, both pure and crude. By intro-
ducing the chlorides of lime and magnesia, he proposed to give an

_ unnatural elasticity and flexibility to wood: by using the deliques-

cent salts, he sought to render it incombustible; and finally, by
using various solutions that give precipitates the base of which is
silica, he attempted to secure a kind of petrification.

773. He at first gave preference to the pyrolignite of iron, ob-
tained by exposing scraps of iron to the action of the crude acetic
-acid obtained from wood by distillation. He afterwards abandoned
this for the solution of sulphate of copper, and instead of absorption
by the living tree, he injected the wood as follows:

774. The logs still full of sap and with the bark still on, were
placed upon skids, and a collar fitted closely to one end. The solu-
tion was then forced through the pores, either by pumps or by hy-
drostatic pressure, the wood being still fresh and full of sap. It is
found that solid woods, like the cherry, oak, etc., will not receive
the solution in the heart-wood, and that the process affords but par-
tial benefit; while in other kinds the success is very great, the
woods thus prepared lasting two, three, and even five times longer
as railway ties, and for other like exposures, than that which has
not been treated. This process has been largely used in France,
and its inventor, unlike many discoverers, realized its benefits in
his lifetime. He died in 1871, leaving quite a fortune acquired
from his patents.

775. This process has been also much employed in Belgium
Germany, and Switzerland, in preparing fir timbers for telegraph
poles, and many other uses. After injection, the wood should be
seasoned before using, which it does very readily, becoming quite
light and portable. It is claimed that the sulphate of copper be-
comes fixed in the wood, somewhat like the mordant in dyes, so as
not to dissolve out in fresh water, although in sea water it appears
to gradually lose its antiseptic qualities by prolonged exposure.
The amount of this salt absorbed is found to be notably diminished
by the presence of iron, or of certain saline solutions, or of carbonic

196 Processes for Wood-preservation.

acid. It is less adapted to dry wood than to that newly cut, if, in-
deed, it is not limited to the latter.’

776. It is found that the sulphate of copper penetrates with great
difficulty into oak, the ends only absorbing to some extent along the
spongy layers of the spring growth, while the hard layers of wood
formed later in the season do not absorb the least. Elm will absorb
very well, excepting in the close firm knots. Beech will admit of
very complete penetration in every part. Pine will absorb only in
the sap wood. Locust wholly resists penetration. Ash is in about
the same class with oak, and so is the chestnut. Birch, when sea-
soned, may be prepared very well, and poplar the most completely
of all. .

777. The Burnett Process. This was first brought to notice be-
tween the years 1838 and 1840 by Sir William Burnett, formerly
Director General of the Medical Department of the British Navy.
Tt consists in an injection of the chloride of zine, at the rate of 1
pound to 9 or 10 gailons of water, under a pressure of 150 pounds
to the inch. This salt, although soluble, does not easily come out
when exposed to the weather or buried in the ground. It is claimed
to render wood uninflammable. The cost is about 6 to 8 cents a cubic
foot. Extensive works have been constructed for the preparation of
wood by this process, and very favorable testimonials have been of-
fered in its favor. A concentrated solution is sold at 5s. per gallon
in London, to be diluted with 40 gallons of water for use by this
process, with instructions and license to use.

778. By Carey’s Process (1829), a mixture of salt powdered char-
coal and animal or vegetable oil is introduced into timber by holes
in various parts, and the holes are then closed. . Various patents
have been granted for inserting preservative substances in the wood,
such as coal tar and pulverized mineral substances, more or less
soluble and antiseptic in their nature.

779. The Hatzfeld Process. From the fact that oak timbers buried
in contact with ochres and the salts of iron acquire great durability,
apparently from the reaction between the tannin of the wood and
iron, Mr. H. proposes to inject various woods with tannic acid, and
then with the pyrolignite of iron, thus assimilating the wood to the

1 Baist, in Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal, 1861, Vol. 162, p, 897. See %b.,
1851, Vol. 120, p. 140; 128, p. 223.

4

Processes for Wood-preservation. 197

| condition of oak long buried. It is claimed to be particularly

serviceable for mining timbers and the like, much exposed to moist-
ure, and therefore liable to decay. It is understood that this process
is being largely adopted by the Eastern Railway in France and by
the telegraph service, under the co-operation and authority of the
Ministry of the Interior.

780. The Houtin and Boutigny Process, aims to hermetrically close
the ends of the wood, so as to neutralize the property of absorbing
moisture. This might be done, either by covering with some hydro-
carbon, as, for example, coal oil, or by charring the end, and then
plunging it, while hot, in a melted mixture of pitch, tar, and gum-
lac, or by covering the whole piece with tar in the usual manner.

781. The Kyanizing Process. On the 3ist of March, 1832, Mr.
John H. Kyan took out an English patent fora process for prevent-
ing timber from decay, by penetrating the tissues with a soluticn
of the bi-chloride of mercury, or “‘ corrosive sublimate.”' This was
done by placing the timber in large tanks, so that it could not float,
and then submerging it with the solution for about a week. It was
afterwards found necessary to apply pressure, equal to about 100
pounds to the inch. The strength of the solution was finally fixed
at about 1 pound to 15 gallons of water, although as strong as 1
pound to 2 gallons had been used.

782. There appear to be still conflicting facts for and against this
method, and although formerly much practiced, it is now seldom
used. The value of corrosive sublimate as a wash to kill dry-rot,
and to prevent insect injuries in wood, had been long known, and it
is still employed by botanists for preserving dried specimens from
insects. Its agency as an antiseptic was ascribed to the coagulation
of albumen in the tissues of the wood, and perhaps the differences in
effect were due to the greater or less abundance of this material in
the wood, or in permeability of the pores by which it could be
reached. The principal objections against this process were its ex-
pense and the exceedingly poisonous nature of the material used,
which rendered it dangerous to the health of the workmen em-
ployed. |

783. The Margary Process, patented in England in 1838, consists
in immersing in a solution of acetate or sulphate of copper.

~ 1'Phis material had been proposed by Knowles and Davy in 1821, but not
practically applied. In 1837, Letellier proposed to use it with gelatine.

198 Processes for Wood-preservation.

784. The Payne Process, patented in England in 1841. This con-
sists in using two solutions, one after the other, and both soluble,
but forming an insoluble substance within the wood. The earthy or
metallic solution is first introduced under pressure; after which the
decomposing fluid is forced in. The sulphate of iron and carbonate
of soda are said to form the insoluble compound in the pores of the
wood. He tried a mixture of the sulphate of barium or of calcium
with the sulphate of iron, and various other compounds. The pro-
cess was costly and imperfect, and is now abandoned.’

785. By Prechtl’s Process (1822) the wood is first exposed to the
vapor of water alone, and then to that of a mixture of tar and
water.

786. The Robbins’s Process’ consists in first removing the surface
moisture of the wood by heat, and then thoroughly impregnating
and saturating the pores and fibers by oleaginous vapors, as of coal-
tar, resin, or other substances, the temperature being from 212° to
250° (F.) for the former, and about 300° or more for the latter part
of the process.

787. The Tait Process consists in saturating the pores of the wood ~
with a concentrated solution of bi-sulphate of lime or baryta, the
same being rendered soluble by an excess of sulphuric acid gas under
pressure, or by refrigeration, and being made insoluble as a neutral
sulphate, when the pressure or excess of gas is removed.

788. The Thilmany Process* consists in saturating the wood first
with a solution of the sulphate of copper, followed by one of the
muriate of barytes, the intention being to form an insoluble sulphate
of barytes within the wood.

789. The following application has been recommended as valuable
in a German journal: ‘‘ Melt 12 pounds of resin, and add 12 pints
of whale oi! and 8 pounds of sulphur; mix an ochre of the color
desired, mix very thoroughly in oil, and add. Apply at first a
light coat white hot, and in two or three days, when well dried, a
second and a third one.” This is intended for fences and other
wood-work much exposed.

1 Boston City Docs. No. 100, 1873 ; ina Prize Essay by Prof. F. W. Clarke,
p. 15.

2 Patents were taken out by Louis S. Robbins, April 4, 1865; April ra i
1869; July 20, 1875, and Dec. 21, 1880.

8 Patented by W. Thilmany, May 23, 1876.

Production of Turpentine, ete. 199

790. The following recipe is from Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal,
and is intended for piles and posts: ‘‘ Take 50 parts of rosin, 40 of.
- finely powdered chaik, 300 (more or less) of fine white sharp. sand,
4 of linseed oil, 1 of native red oxyde of copper, and 1 of sulphuric
acid. First heat the resin, chalk, sand, and oil, then add the oxyde
and with care the acid; stir carefully, and apply as a paint while
still hot. If not liquid enough, add oil.” This coating when cold
and dry is very hard, and it is claimed to be very durable.

CHAPTER XIX.
RESINOUS AND OTHER PRODUCTS OF CONIFERS.

Naval Stores.

791. This term, as used in conmerce, includes the several resinous
products of pine forests, and particularly the oil or spirits of turpen-
tine, distilled from crude turpentine ; rosin, or the solid residuum of
this distillation; tar, obtained by the combustion of resinous woods
or refuse materials, containing resin, in smothered fires, or their ex-
posure to heat externally applied, and pitch, which differs chiefly
from tar in being solid when cold.

792. Formerly, crude turpentine was an article of commerce, and
its distillation was carried on in large establishments near the cen-
ters of trade; but in recent years local distilleries have been erected
near the forests where the raw material is collected, and the products
are sent to market prepared for use.

The Production of Turpentine and other Resinous Materials.

_ 793. When we cut through the bark into the outer wood of a
pine, a fir, or a spruce tree,’ in the spring or early summer, there
slowly exudes from the wound a viscid and at first colorless and
transparent substance, known in the pine as “‘ turpentine.” Upon ex-
posure to the air, it absorbs oxygen and becomes whitish, opaque, and
solid. When distilled with a little water, the volatile portion passes
off with the vapor, and when condensed, it separates and becomes
a limpid, volatile, and strongly scented liquid, known as the spirits
of turpentine. The portion not volatile, and remaining in the still,

1The Taxus does not have resiniferous canals in its wood. They are found

in the genera Cedrus, Abies, Pinus, Larix, Picca, Pseudolarix, Thuja, Pinus,
- Cupressus, Biotia, Araucaria, etc., both in the root and stem.

200 Production of Turpentine in the Southern States.

hardens on cooling, and becomes a more or-less translucent and —
sometimes almost transparent solid, of various shades of yellow and

brown, known in commerce as “ rosin.”

794. Both of these products are of important use in the arts, the
former being much used in the preparation of varnishes, india-
rubber goods, patent leather, etc., and in painting. It is an ingre-
dient in ‘‘ camphine” and other burning fluids, and is employed in
medicine. Rosin is largely used in the manufacture of soap, can-
dles, paper, sealing-wax, and a vast variety of other articles, and
when it can be cheaply procured, it makes an excellent illuminating
gas. Before the late war, many villages and cities were lighted by
gas made wholly from rosin, but the high prices that this event
occasioned made it necessary to substitute the cannel-coals.

795. In former times, turpentine was produced to a limited extent
from the yellow or Norway pine (Pinus resinosa), and the pitch
pine (P. rigida), in the Middle and Eastern States; but the chief
source of supply within the United States is now almost wholly de-

rived from the long-leaved or yellow pine (P. australis) of the

Southern States.

796. The ‘‘ Pine Belt” extends from a little south of the Roanoke
river, in North Carolina, through that State, South Carolina, Geor-
gia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, into the edge of Texas.
It is also found extensively in Florida. This belt is generally from
50 to 150 miles from the coast, and of variable width, the borders
being often not sharply defined, and the whole blended more or less
- with other trees. Sometimes it occurs in detached masses of consid-
erable extent. The differences that occur in its distribution within
these limits will probably be found due to geological causes.

797. The “ Pine Belt,” where it begins on the north, is about fifty
miles wide, but as it extends further south and west it widens in
some places to twice this width. This species thrives best on mod-
erately hilly, dry, and sandy soils. In level regions with a retentive
sub-soil it does not succeed as well as other species.

798. The mode of procuring turpentine, as heretofore and at
present practiced, is wasteful and destructive, as compared with pro-
cesses we will presently describe, and is epnotally as follows:

799. In winter the trees are ‘‘ boxed,” by cutting a hole in the
side, about three inches wide, six inches deep, and twelve inches
long, near the foot of the tree, forming a cavity that will hold about

Production of Turpentine: Improved Methods. 201

three pints. The tuspentine begins to flow early in the spring, and

\

continues till towards the end of-summer. The incisions are en-
larged and extended higher up, about once in a week or ten days, and
sometimes two or three ‘‘ boxes” are cut in the same tree. The
crude turpentine is dipped out of the boxes, and scraped off from
the trees from time to time, and now the greater part is distilled
near the forests, and the refined products sent from thence to the
markets.

800. In North Carolina, the turpentine is collected about once a
month, and 10,000 trees will in a good season yield 50 barrels of
spirits of turpentine, and 200 barrels of rosin. In other regions,
the trees are cut from twenty to thirty times in a season, and yield
from eight to ten dippings. A man will “chip” from 10,000 to
12,000 boxes in a week, as a task. From 1,000 boxes they dip

’ from three to five barrels, of 280 pounds each.

801. The yield per box in soft turpentine is from ten to twelve
pounds, or twenty to twenty-five to the tree of usual size. A barrel
of crude turpentine will yield five gallons of spirits of turpentine,
and from sixty-two to sixty-five per cent of its bulk in rosin. The pro-
duct of the first year yields a fine light resin, and it grows darker
from year to year. A still of forty barrels capacity, will distill the
crude product of about 350,000 boxes.

802. Turpentine is produced to advantage only in a warm cli-
mate, and in a given place, to better advantage in hot and humid
seasons than in those that are cold and dry.

803. Trees exposed to the air and the sun yield better than those
that are crowded and shaded, and those with a well-developed. top
and well-set with branches much better than those with thin and
light foliage.

804. By the improved methods now in use in Europe, and
especially in the south-western part of France, the production of
crude turpentine (there obtained from the Pinus pinaster, or ‘* mari-
time pine”) is continued many years without killing the trees, and
by the following method:

805. In winter the rough bark is smoothed off with a drawing-
knife, and as spring approaches, a light incision is made, four or
five inches wide and about fifteen inches long, through the bark and
a little into the outer wood. This is done with a sharp instrument
having a convex edge. At the bottom a lip of zine is driven in,

202 French Method of procuring Turpentine.

and under this a small earthern jar, glazed on the inside and shaped
like a flower-pot, is placed.

806. About once a week the cutting is renewed, by taking off a
RR thin slice of wood a little deeper

. | and an inch or two higher up,
and this is renewed through the
‘ warm season, and from year to
year. There are two or more of
/ these incisions on each tree, but
Vm never wider than at first begun.
They are carried up till they are
47 twelve or fifteen feet high, but
: there is always left a strip of
io bark, at least as wide, between
them. Gradually the wood grow-
ing only under this bark, will close
over the incisions, generally leay-
ing a deep crevice to show its
place. This wood is again cut
into long, narrow bands as be-
fore, and so for a long period.

807. The general growth of the
tree is checked, but the quality
of the wood improved by this process. It appears to hasten its
maturity, and it no doubt shortens its life; but such trees are kept
in production from the age of twenty years till they are fifty or sixty
years old. It is, however, generally more profitable to cut them
when of good size for timber, to make room for those that are eom-
ing up from self-seeding, and that will be more productive.

808. As the incisions extend up, the earthern jars are hung
higher up, and they are emptied from time to time. The whitish
opaque incrustation is scraped off in the fall, and the jars are left
bottom upwards at the foot of the tree till spring. The work of
‘‘resinage” is commonly done upon shares, and a division is made
between the proprietor and the ‘‘resineur,” after the sales are made.
Up to a certain price, the division is equal, but at high rates the pro-
prietor receives the greater share of the profits.

118, The Maritime Pine (Pinus pinaster).

Tar-making : Pitch: Lamp-black, ete. 203

Tar-manufacture.

809. In making charcoal from highly resinous woods, tar is pro-
duced, in notable quantities ; and for collecting this a circular floor
of masonry is prepared, sloping to a central point, from whence it
flows out through a pipe into a reservoir on one side from which it

may be dipped.

119. Foundation of a Tar-kiln, in which a, d, is a sloping brick or stone hearth,
witha grating at d, through which the tar passes, and is conducted by the
pipe, 6, to the reservoir, c.

810. By a more slovenly and wasteful process, the tar is allowed
to ooze out into gutters in the soil, and is led from these into barrels
sunk in the ground.

811. In the more refined methods of tar-making, the knots, resin-
ous wood, or refuse products of the turpentine works are. put into
large iron receivers set in masonry, so that heat may be applied ex-
ternally by fire in an arch. A pipe leads from the bottom of these
receivers for carrying off the tar. Another pipe, near the top,
conducts away the volatile portions, which are condensed, as in
common distillation.

812. Pitch is simply tar boiled down till it will become solid when

cold. Its principal use is in ship-building, for rendering the seams _
under water and the rigging exposed to the weather impervious to
water. It is also used in roofing and elsewhere for similar pur-
poses.
813. Lamp-black is the smoke of resinous woods, or of the refuse
strainings of rosin. When these are burned, the smoke is passed
into the chambers lined with coarse cloths, which allow the gases to
escape, but intercept the carbonaceous portion, which is collected
from time to time.

814. Canada Balsam is obtained from the blisters that form in the
bark of the Abies balsamea, or balsam-fir, found growing in the
swamps of the Northern States and in Canada. It is used medicin-
ally, and is an officinal article in the pharmacopeeias. Among other

204 Perfume from Pine-Sap.

officinal resinous products of conifers may be mentioned Burgundy
pitch, from Abies excelsa, or Norway spruce; Canada pitch, from the
Tsuga Canadensis, or hemlock; Venice turpentine, from the Larix
Europea, or larch; gum sandarac, from the Callitris quadrivalvis ;
frankincense, from the Pinus tedia, ete.

815. Various essential oils are distilled from the leaves of the
hemlock, cedar, savin, juniper, spruce, and other evergreens, and
are used medicinally. It is probable that amber is a resinous pro-
duct of a coniferous tree, although found only in a fossil form.
Kauri is the resin of the Dammara australis, but gathered only from
the soil formerly covered by forests of the kauri pine of New Zealand.

Perfume from Pine Sap. .
816. A perfume resembling that from the vanilla bean, and ap-

plicable to the same uses, has- in recent years been obtained from

the sap of the pine and other conifers. The substance has been
called coniferin, and is collected and prepared as follows :

817. As the trees are cut down in the summer months (about
June 1 to August 15), the bark is taken off, and the sap or cambium
is scraped off from the trunk with some sharp instrument, wiped
off upon a sponge and squeezed into a tin pail. A tree of vigorous
growth and medium size will yield from four to five litres of sap
(about as many quarts), and where the soil is damp and fertile
nearly twice as much. It is greater when gathered in warm damp
weather than when it is cold and dry.

818. The sap, when first collected, is milky and clouded, and
more or less mixed with impurities, and it contains a kind of glu-
cose, albumen, and coniferin. It would soon ferment and spoil, and
must be strained, after boiling ten or fifteen minutes, to coagulate
the albumen. It is then evaporated down to one-fifth of its volume,
when it is clear and of a yellowish color, It is then set aside over
night in a cool place, when little white crystals of coniferin will de-
posit. These are separated by straining and pressing out the liquid
through cloths.

819. A person will collect about three to four pints in a day.
The price of the dry crystalline substance, as prepared in the forest,
is about $18.60 to the pound avoirdupois. The forest of Murat, in
France, furnishes from twenty-five to forty pounds a year; The
coniferin is taken to Paris, and there, in chemical laboratories, it is

Use of Wood in Paper-making. 205

converted into the material so highly prized for flavoring and
perfume.
CHAPTER XX.

USE OF WOOD IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER,

820. In recent years, the employment of wood for paper has
come inte extensive use, both in Europe and America. For this
purpose it must first be reduced to pulp, and mixed with a certain pro-
portion of rags. The chief kinds used in this country are the poplar
and the spruce, and in Europe, besides these, various pines and the
white birch. The wood should be worked up fresh, and in preparing it
the bark and defective or rotten parts must be first taken off. There
are two principal methods of reducing wood to pulp—the mechan-
ical and the chemical; and each of these is subdivided into several
distinct processes.

821. By the more common of the former, known as the “ Vélter
Process,” from Henry Vélter, of Wurtemburg, who first brought
it into successful use,’ the wood is ground into pulp upon the edge
of broad and large grindstones running vertically in water, the wood
being pressed firmly down sideways of the grain, by automatic
screws, at four or five places. The feed is about an inch in five
minutes, and the speed about 200 revolutions in a minute.

822. Of course the power required to run such machines is very
great. The wood is sometimes boiled or steamed before grinding,
and the pulp is screened through fine wire cloth, and the coarser
parts ground with water between mill-stone like those for grinding
grain. This process began to be successfully used about 1846, and
is largely used, both in Europe and the United States.

823. By the ‘“‘ Hartmann Process” the wood is ground between
two smaller vertical stones, the approach being secured by a weight.
By the ‘“‘Siebrecht Process” the grinding is done upon a great hori-
zontal stone, and the wood is held down by hydraulic pressure.
There are other processes by which the wood is sawn into short
lengths, and then crushed under heavy rollers, or the fibers are torn

1 The inventor of this process was F. G. Keller, who took out a patent in
Germany, in 1844, for a wood-pulp grinding machine, but not having the cap-
ital sold ont his interest. He afterwards fell into indigence and was aided
by a subscription among the German paper-makers.

206 Use of Wood in Paper-making.

obliquely off by saws, and in both of these the wood is grou ina
mill before being used.

824. By the chemical process, which is more recent and more
costly, but which produces a better result, the wood is first cut into
short chips by heavy revolving planes, and then macerated in large
and strong boilers, with caustic soda, and under a pressure of 10 or 12
atmospheres. By the ‘‘Sinclair Process” this is done in upright

boilers. By the ‘‘ Lee Process” it is done in larger boilers, that are —

horizontal. By the ‘‘ Fry Process” water alone is used, under a
pressure of 5 or 6 atmospheres, and saw-dust is thus made avail-
able as a material. The product is a brown pulp, and used for wrap-
ping paper only.

825. Wood-pulp is chiefly used for making wrapping and news-
paper, wall-papers, and the like. It is sometimes used for envelopes,
but as at present made it is scarcely proper for writing-paper, nor
for the grades required in finer book-work. But the consumption for
these is enormous, and constantly increasing, and these industries
are here noticed chiefly as affording a profitable business in forest
culture.

‘826. We have elsewhere (p. 90) noticed the strong tendency of
poplars to come up as second growth where pines have been cut
away, and where the soil has been injured by forest fires, so as to be
unprofitable for the cultivation of common field crops. When pro-
tected, such poplar groves properly thinned out grow rapidly, and
in from ten to fifteen years will be fit to cut for paper-pulp. They
will readily reproduce themselves from sprouts, and the cuttings
should be so arranged, if possible, that the trees be kept at the same
age, and be cut off down to ihe limit of smallest available size in
the same year.

827. Saw-dust of red-cedar is used in the coarse thick paper
placed under carpets, upon the theory that it will prevent injuries
from moths.

CHAPTER XXI.
TANNING MATERIALS.

828. Supplies of material for tanning leather are derived from
the forests, chiefly in the form of bark, or their extracts; but oe-
casionally other materials are used, such as valonia, or the-acorn-

cups of an oak (Quercus egilops), growing in Greece and Asia-Minor,

Sahm,

- Tanning Materials. 207

nut-galls from the Levant, the leaves of the sumac, and extracts
' prepared from various herbaceous plants. The tanning principle is
not often found in the wood, nor in\plants having poisonous quali-
ties or milky juices, and as a general rule it is greater in the bark
of young oak trees than of old ones, and more in a deep: rich soil
_ than in trees grown upon sterile land.

829. The principal supply of oak-bark used in Europe for tanning
purposes is from the Quercus pedunculata and Q. sessilifolia, the
common English oaks. The relative value of different barks used
in England for tanning is about as follows: Oak-coppice, 300; chest-
nut, 243; birch, 162; mountain ash, 125; larch, 131. The spruce
also furnishes some tanning material, and is used with oak. By
peeling, oak-coppice wood looses about one-cight part of its volume.

830. In the Northern States, the principal bark used comes from
the hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis), and immense quantities of timber
have been wasted by being left after peeling to rot on the ground.
This wasteful practice is still continued in some places. In the
‘southern part of Pennsylvania, in Maryland, and southward, as
also in many parts of the Western States, and to less extent in
New England and New York, the red or black oaks have furnished
most of the barks used for tanning.

831. Tanning-extract is prepared by grinding the bark, leeching
out the tannin with hot water, and evaporating in vacuum-pans down
to the consistence of syrup. In this state it is sent to market in
barrels and sold by the pound.

832. When oak is grown in coppices in Europe, for the pro-
duction of tan-bark, the coppices may be cut on damp soils (where
the bark tends to become covered with mosses, and to become rough),
at the age of fifteen years. Asa general rule, however, it is al-
lowed to grow about twenty years. In older trees the rough corky
bark is of but little value. The best comes from trees in a healthy
growing condition, with a thick juicy liber, and that are cut in the
spring before the leaves have expanded.

833. In peeling oak-coppice, the workmen endeavor to take it as
far as they can from the standing tree. If young trees are left a
short time after felling, the bark becomes adherent, and the process
difficult. The work of peeling is most easily carried on in warm
humid weather, and is interrupted by cold, dry winds. The upper
part and branches peel easier than the main trunk, and they save

208 Tanning Materials: Nomaison Process.

the bark of all that can be obtained. It is first exposed to the
sun, with the inside up, for a short time, and is then piled with the —

outer side up until dry. It is estimated that the trees yield about
five per cent of their weight in bark, and that the latter looses
about one-third of its weight in drying.

834. Oak bark is much injured by rains, and even when care-
fully dried and housed it deteriorates by keeping. Quercitron (the
bark of Q. coccinea) used for dyeing yellow, and for tanning, is usu-
ally ground and sold in sacks. Oak wood, when peeled, is used for
various manufacturing purposes, and for firewood and charcoal.

The Peeling of Oak Bark: by the aid of Heat. ,
835. The inconvenience of crowding the work of peeling into a

busy season of the year, has led to the introduction of a process in ©

Europe, by the aid of which this work can be done at all seasons
of the year. It is known from the inventor as the “Nomaison Pro-
cess.” ‘The apparatus consists of several large iron receivers‘of thin

plate iron, strong enough to bear a moderate strain, and air-tight.

The wood is placed in these, and steam at about 170° centigrade
(338° Fahr.) is admitted from a boiler so placed as to serve several
of these receivers. They hold about half a cord each, and the
time required varies from an hour and a half to two hours and a
half, according to the season when the wood is cut. It is then taken
out and peeled. If the heat is continued too long, the bark again
becomes adherent. anh.

836. One great advantage to be gained by this process in the
working of coppice-wood is, that it is not necessary to cut the wood
at the season when the greatest injury is done to the stumps that

are to send up a new growth. Careful experiments have been —

made by order of the French and Prussian governments upon the
quality of the bark thus peeled, with favorable results. It is men-
tioned in this connection as of interest with respect to the future
supplies of bark for tanning, as our native woodlands that furnish
this material become scarce.
Sumac.

837. The leaves of the sumac contain a tanning material much
used in dyeing, and in tanning light leather, and from six to ten
thousand tons are imported into the United States annually from

o

ot Bago

. Cultivation of the Sumae. 7 209

Europe—chiefly from Sicily—for these uses, at a cost of from half
to three-quarters of a million of dollars per annum.

838. The Sicilian sumac (Jhus coriaria) thrives only in a warm
climate, where the orange, the carob, and the pistacia grow in the
open air, and the ash produces manna. It will bear an occasional
light frost in midwinter. It is particularly liable to injury from a
white frost in spring. It is propagated from sprouts that come up
around the mature shrubs. They are taken off in December and
January, and set in rows, which are ridged up, and well cultivated
at intervals through the first year, but it does not begin to produce
till the third year.

839. The leaves are harvested by trimming the shoots that spring
up around the main stem, a process that is done by men with a
pruning-hook, or by picking the leaves by hand, which is done by
women and children, duringthesummer. The leaves and trimmings
are then dried, and the leaves are beaten off from the latter by
_ threshing with flails, or treading Of animals, preference being given
to the hottest hours of the day, as the leaves then separate most
easily. The best qualities are baled with the leaves entire, and with-
_ out their stems. The next grade has the leaves bruised, with the
stems adhering; the next, is the leaf crop of one-year old plants,
while the lowest and poorest grade is from the tops of branches
gathered in the beginning of autumn.

840. In any attempt to cultivate this species in the United States,
_ suecess could only be expected from fresh cuttings, planted in the
_ southern border of the Gulf States and in Southern California. Of
_ native species we have three that are used to some extent for tan-
_ ning purposes. They are, in order of preference, the Rhus glabra,
_ orsmooth sumac, the R. copallina, the wing-ribbed or mountain sumac,
and the R. typhina, or stag-horn sumac.

841. The principal Ainesines sumac that is ned for market
comes from Virginia. The leaves are picked by country people,
_ without much regard to the season, from the shrubs found growing
_ wild, and are dried and sold by weight to the owners of mills for
grinding. The leaves should be taken when full of sap, and before
__ they turn red or begin to wither, and especially before frost. After
_ being wilted in the sun, they should be spread upon shelves or racks
to dry in a shaded but airy place, and should be allowed to remain
at least a month, and in damp weather longer, before going to mar-

210 Cultivation of the Sumac. -

ket. Its value is judged by the color of the leaves, which should
be of a bright green, and the price ranges about 75 cents per 100
pounds. The quantity gathered is about 7,000 to 8,000 tons. It is
ground in close compartments, under revolving stone or wooden —
rollers, and is sent to market in sacks.

842. The difference in quality between Sicilian and American su-
macs is about 6 to 8 per cent of tannic acid in favor of the former,
while its price is about $50 more per ton. The native sumacs grow
readily from seeds and sprouts, and when once started might be
propagated with facility. It has not yet been determined as to the
differences that may result from climate, but judging from the ex-
perience of Europe, a warm climate, and asouthern slope, would be —
more favorable than others, and as it is found growing wild in the
most rugged and rocky grounds, it may doubtless be cultivated in
such places with profit.

843. A considerable amount of sumac was formerly gathered in
Connecticut, and there are still persons who make it an exclusive
business to gather, dry, and thresh the leaves for market. It sells
in New York and Boston at from $40 to $50 per ton. It is gathered
entirely from the wild shrubs, no attempt being made at cultivation.

CHAPTER XXII.

DESCRIPTIONS OF PARTICULAR SPECIES.

844. It is not our purpose to follow a systematic classification in
the following pages, nor to introduce botanical descriptions. We
shall present some facts concerning the number and distribution of
species; more particularly those that appear worthy of attention in
forest-culture, without attempting to notice those that are of chief
interest for ornamental planting, or that are merely woody shrubs.

The Oaks and their related Species,

845. Of the natural order Cupulifere to which the oaks, beech,
chestnut, etc., belong, there are about four hundred species. They
are divided into three tribes, viz: Betule, including the birches and.
alders; Coryllew, including the hornbeam, ironwood, hazel, ete., and
the Quercine, including the oaks, chestnuts, and beeches.

846. The oaks are, by general consent, ranked by English writers
upon sylviculture as of first importance, on account of the great

The Oaks: General Division. 211

_ size to which the more important species grow, the vast age that
~ they attain, and the hardness and durability of the timber. Since
the introduction of iron as a building material, the oak has lost
much of its importance in ship-building and for structures requiring
great solidity. and strength, such as bridges and large buildings for
business purposes or public use in cities; but the better kinds of
oak will always be valued among the most desirable for forest
planting, and under favorable conditions as the most profitable that
ean be grown.

847. The oaks are chiefly natives of the north temperate zone,
but some occur upon mountains within the tropics, in the Malay
archipelago, and in South America. None are found in Australia ;
one genus only of the family is found in the south temperate zone,
and a few are found within the Arctic circle.

848. About 250 species of the Quercus, or oak genus, are known
to botanists. They are arranged by De Candole’ into six sections,
four of which are found only in South-eastern Asia. About forty
species occur native within the United States. They may be con-
. veniently arranged into two classes, viz., the ‘‘ white” and the
* black” oaks.

849. The white oaks, are so called from the grayish or ash-colored
tint of the bark, which often tends to separate into scales. The
wood is tough, dense, and excellent for cooperage, wagon-making,
and other uses requiring closeness of grain, strength, and durability.
The trees are slower in growth than the other divisions to be men-
tioned, but owing to the superior quality of the timber, they may
prove more profitable for planting, although longer in coming to full
maturity. They are excellent for fuel and charcoal, and most of
them are desirable for ornamental planting.

850. The black oaks, have a bark which is dark, rough, and deeply
cracked. The wood is brittle, porous, and a poor fuel. It is so
porous that it can not be used for casks for holding liquids. The
peduncles or fruit stems are short or wanting, and the acorns gener-
ally ripen the second year, but to this there are some exceptions.
Their growth, as compared with the white oaks, is very rapid, gen-
erally as two to one, and even more. There is generally less dis-

tinction between the heart-wood and the sap-wood, and they occur

1Prodromus, Vol. XVI.

212. - Classification of the Oaks.

principally in the Atlantic States. _ They far excel the white oaks
in the tanning qualities of the bark.

851. Michaux described twenty-eight species of the oak in his
‘Sylva Americana,” including three introduced European species ;
and used as the first basis of subdivision the character of the leaves.
In the first division, he placed the species with beardless leaves, and
in the second, those in which the lobes are terminated by a bristle.
The interval between blossoming and the ripening of the fruit was
admitted as a secondary character, which, in the first of his divis-

ions, is generally annual, and in the second biennial.
852. The species that he described were as follows:

First Division: Fructification annual; leaves beardless.

First Section:

1. White oak, Quercus alba.
Common European oak, Q.
robur.
European white oak, Q.

robur pedenculata.

BS

Second Section:
7. Swamp white oak, Q. prinus

discolor.

8. Chestnut white oak, Q. prinus
palustris. »»)

9. Rock chestnut oak, Q. prinus
monticola.

Leaves lobed.

3. Mossy-cup oak, Q. oliveformis,

4. Over-cup white oak, Q. ma-
crocarpa, \w

5. Post oak, Q. obtusitoba.

6. Over-cup oak, Q. lyrata.

Leaves toothed.
10. Yellow oak, Q. prinus acu- -

minata.
11. Small chestnut oak, Q. prinus
chinquapin. Ay <9RAA

Sreconp Division: Fructification biennial; leaves mucronated.'

First Section: Leaves obtuse or entire.

12. Live oak, Q. virens.

13. Cork oak, Q. suber.

14. Willow oak, Q. phellos.
15. Laurel oak, Q. imbricaria.

1 Except in thirteenth species.

16. Upland willow oak, Q. cine-
ren. °

17. Running oak, Q. pumila.

Classification of the Oaks. 213

. Second Section: Leaves lobed.

18. Bartram oak, Q. heterophylla. 20. Black-jack oak, Q servubiede.
19. Water oak, Q. aquatica. 21. Bear oak, Q. Bannisteri.
Third Section: Leaves multifid or many-cleft.

22. Barren scrub oak, Q. Cates- 25. Scarlet oak, Q. coccinea.

baei. 26. Gray oak, Q. ambigua.
23. Spanish oak, Q. falcata. 27. Pin oak, Q. palustris.
eam O8k, Q, Snetoria. 28. Red oak, Q. rubra.

853. The oaks save been made a subject of careful study by Dr.
Geo. Engelmann, of St. Louis, who arranges the native American
species according to their natural affinities, as follows :*

A. LeucosaLanus (White Oaks.)
1. Seeds maturing annually :
(a.) Leaves deciduous.
~ Quercus alba, White oak.

a lobata, California white oak.
as Brewérii, Brewer's oak.
“« Garrayana, Oregon white oak.
** stellata, Post oak.

~— € — maerocarpa, Burr oak ; overcup oak.
*« _ lyrata, Southern overcup oak.

re 2 bicolor (Michauxii), Swamp white oak.
** prinus, Rock-chestnut oak.
a Muhlenbergii (prinoides), Small chestnut oak.
— Douglasii, California white oak.
Ls undulata, Rocky Mountain white oak.
*¢ —_pungens, Arizona white oak.

(b.) Leaves persistent.

Quercus oblongifolia, Oblong-leaved oak.

a dumosa, Dwarf California oak.
reticulata.
&e virens, Live oak.

1 Transactions of St. Louis Academy of Sciences, Vol. III., No: 4, p. 388.
The common names that we have added, are somewhat uncertain in their
use. It will be seen that some have two, some more, and others are applied
to more than one species.

214 | Classification of the Oaks.

2. Seeds maturing the second year :
Quercus chrysolepis (vacciniifolia), Canon live oak.
ne Palmerii, Palmer’s dwarf oak.
ey tomentella.

B. MELANoBALANUS (Black Oaks.)

1. Seeds maturing annually ; leaves persistent :
Quercus Emoryi, Emory’s oak.
y agrifolia, Field oak.
‘* pumila, Dwarf oak.
es hypoleuca.

2. Seeds maturing the second year:
(a.) Leaves deciduous.
Quercus rubra, Black oak; Red-oak.
“ coccinea’ (tinctoria), Scarlet-oak.
‘3 Kelloggii, California black-oak.
‘« faleata, Spanish-oak.
we Catesbaei, Catesby’s oak,
x iicifolia, Black scrub-oak.

‘palustris, Pin-oak.

a Georgiana.

as aquatica, Water-oak.

mS laurifolia, Water-oak.

he migra, Black-jack.

Pe cinerea, Upland willow-oak. *

+ imbricaria, Shingle-oak.
‘¢ phellos, Willow-oak.

(b.) Leaves persistent.
Quercus Wislizeni, California live-oak.
3 myrtifolia.

Gino other, the California chestnut oak (Q. copay); can be
classed with neither.

854. Hybrids are occasionally noticed .in the oaks, from the cross-
fertilization of species, but not outside of the group to which the
species belong. The differences between white oaks and black oaks
are too great to admit of this crossing, and they have been more
frequently noticed in the black oaks. The following black oaks,

1The Q. coccinea and Q. tinctoria are, by some botanists, made separate
species.

Hybrid Oaks: General mode of Cultivation. 215

heretofore described as species, are regarded by Dr. Engelmann as
hybrids: ! ;
Quercus sinuata, probably from Q. Catesbaei and Q. laurifolia. (South
Carolina.)
*« tridentata, from Q. imbriecaria and Q. nigra. (Illinois. )
«« Leana, from Q. imbricaria and Q. coecinea. _ to Mis-
souri, and near Washington. )
** heterophylla, from Q. phellos and Q. coccinea. dn New Jer-
sey and Delaware.)

855. Oaks succeed best on a deep loomy soil, and on low lands
rather than upon hills. They are especially liable to injury from
late spring frosts, both in the blossoms and leaves, and having a
long tap-root, they are somewhat difficult to transplant, without
careful preparation, tending to the suppression of this root, and to
the formation of abundant fibers. They may be planted in the fall
or early in the spring, in the places where they are to remain, and |
should be cultivated till they shade the grounds. When started in
nurseries, they should be transplanted two or three times before final
planting, and the tap-roots should be cut off with a sharp knife, to
induce the formation of lateral roots and more abundant radicles.

120. Quercus pedunculata: The English Oak—Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit,

216 Cultivation of the Oak.

856. There is a great advantage in planting them with other spe-
cies, such as the beech, pines, and spruces, with the view of com-
pelling the trees to form a long straight body; but in this case,
reasonable care should be taken to remove those other kinds from
time to time, as the growth becomes dense.

857. Where the oak is cultivated in Europe for its bark and
wood, it is recommended to cut close to the ground, and in a dry
time to cover the stumps with a handful of leaves, or any rubbish
that may be convenient, to keep them from becoming too dry. If
cut very close, the sprouts will be fewer in number, but stronger,
and better rooted. Where this practice is carefully followed, they
will reproduce a great number of times.

121. Oak from Provence, France. Very 122, Oak from Bourgogne, France. Very
hard, and of rapid growth. hard, but of slow growth.

858. The quality of oak timber is much influenced by the condi-
_tions in which it has grown. Ina rich and moderately humid soil,
and in a warm climate, the fibers acquire their highest qualities of
strength and durability. Such wood the French call ‘ maigre”
(lean), or ‘‘dur” (hard). The grain is hard and close: it searcely
absorbs water. The wood splits easily without running out on one |
side, and when planed the shavings form strong tough strips. When
~ such wood is broken, the fracture forms many long sharp splinters.
The two specimens on page 217 are also of this class.

859. But when oak is grown ina soil that is submerged for a time
in spring, but dry the rest of the year, the spring growth is loose
and spongy, while that formed later in the season may be very hard.
Such wood can not be either strong or durable, although from the
differences in the grain, it may be highly ornamental for inside fin-
ishing and for cabinet work. |

860. THe AMERICAN WHITE OAK (Quercus alba). This tree oc-
curs from Canada southward to the Gulf, and westward to beyond
the Missouri, but it comes to greatest perfection in the Middle
States, and in the deep, strong, and moderately damp soil. The

The White Oak. 217.

- dand on which it formed a principal part of the timber, generally has
_ proved when Erougar under cultivation to be well adapted for

123. Italian Oak: Very coarse, 124. Italian Oak: Coarse, but
but strong when fully ripened. very strong.

wheat. It derives its name from the whitish color of the bark. The
wood has a slightly reddish tinge, and although not as heavy and
compact as the common English oak, it is solid, strong, and durable,
and is found excellent for heavy timber-work, and for all kinds of
structures requiring durability and strength. It is extensively used
for staves, agricultural implements, carriage and car-building, cab-
inet wares, fencing, and various farm purposes, and is a favorite wood
in ship-building. Like the European oaks above described, the
quality of the wood differs according to the nature of the soil iu
which it has grown, being relatively more dense, strong, and dura-
ble when grown in a warm climate and upon a rich and moderately
humid, clayey loam.

861. This timber has been largely exported from the northern
borders of the United States, and from Canada by way of the St.
Lawrence to England, and in districts where it was once abundant
it is now scarce. A considerable amount that leaves the port of
Quebee is now brought from Michigan and other states bordering
upon the lakes. In floating this timber it is usually made up into
rafts with pine, to give it greater bouyancy.

. 862. Tue Live OaKk (Quercus virens), is an evergreen tree found

218 Live Oak: California Species.

growing in Georgia, Florida, and along the Gulf Coast, and since
an early period in our government it has been an object of protec-
tion to some extent on account of its great value in ship-building.
Some experiments at cultivation were attempted many years since,
but without much success, excepting the clearing away of bushes
around young plants found native in the thickets. It could doubt-
less be grown from acorns with proper care, perhaps by using slight
perishable baskets for keeping the soil around the roots in trans-
planting from seed-beds, as is practiced with bamboo shells in rais-
ing the teak and the cinchonas in India. The wood of the live
oak is of great strength and hardness, but not of slow growth, the
annual layers being often a quarter or a third of an inch in thiek-
ness. This tree especially deserves cultivation in TegiOOe where it
will grow.

125. Quercus Hindsii.—Leaves and Acorn one-half the Natural

863. Among the remaining oaks of the Atlantic States, there are
many. that have a local value, but none that enter largely into com-
merce, or that are extensively used in manufactures. Most of them
afford excellent fuel and charcoal, and some of them are quite durable
when used as railway ties or fence posts. The bark of the “scarlet

c California Oaks. 219

oak” (Quercus coccinea) furnishes the ‘quercitron,” so highly val-
ued as a yellow dye and a tanning mater‘al, and is an article of e con-
siderable commercial importance.

864. Upon the Pacific Coast we find a dozen or more sees of
the oak, some of them fine and ornamental, but none of them of
great importance for their timber, which is weak, brittle, and alto-
gether inferior to the general quality of oaks as found in the Atlan-
tic States. They chiefly belong to the ‘ white oak” family. Four
or five of them have persistent leaves, the rest being deciduous, and
one of them much resembles the chestnut.

865. Tur Lonc-Acornep Oak (Q. Hindsii) of California, much
resembles the white oak of the Eastern States. It is the finest and
perhaps most abundant of the oaks of that region, occurring along
the foot-hills and the valleys of streams in clumps and belts, branch-
ing out low and broad, and sometimes five or six feet in diameter
near the ground. The wood is porous and brittle. The acorns are
gathered and eaten by the natives, and stored for winter use.

866. Tue CarrrorniA Cuestnut OAK (Q. densiflora) is a small
tree with evergreen leaves, found growing on the coast range with
the red-woods. It sometimes occurs fifty or sixty feet high, and
from one to two feet in diameter. It is often only a shrub. The
fruit ripens the second year, and the wood is worthless and brittle.
This oak is the only American representative of a group found
chiefly in Asia, haying strong resemblance to the chestnut, with
spines on its cup, somewhat like those on the chestnut-burr. In the
Sacramento Valley, it forms a low but handsome tree.

867. Tae EverGREEN Oak of California; often called the ‘shrub
oak” (Q. agrifolia, is a low spreading tree, having much the form
of an apple-tree, rarely over a foot in diameter, and 30 to 40 feet
high. It occurs in the Sacramento Valley, and extends south into
Mexico. The wood is hard, brittle, and too small for valuable use.

868. Tur Cuestnut (Castanea vesca). This tree is found native
from the central part of New England and Central New York
southward and westward, extending into the mountains of the Car-
olinas and Georgia, and occurring abundantly in the eastern part
of Kentucky and Tennessee. In Canada it is found only in the
peninsula westward from the Niagara river, and is not of sufficient
abundance to be of much practical account. It is common in the
states north of the Ohio river, where the soil is favorable. Our

220 The Chestnut.

American chestnut is a variety of the same species that is culti-
vated in Europe. 5

y)

ae

(126. Quercus agrifolia.—Leaves and Fruit one-half Natural -
Size. [See page 219.]

869. The chestnut in Massachusetts forms one of the largest of
the native forest trees, growing sometimes in the southwestern part
of the state to the height of ninety or a hundred feet. It extends
into the southern edge of Maine, but scarcely beyond the 44th de-
gree of latitude, nor does it generally thrive near the sea.

870. The chestnut is early to feel the warmth of spring, and some-
times suffers from late spring frosts. For this reason, it is least apt
to suffer on a northern or north-eastern slope. It requires a light,
silecious soil, if deep and substantial, and especially prefers that
formed by the decomposition of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, or sand-
stone. Upon granitic gravel and volcanic scoriae it gives the most
abundant products. It is useless to plant it upon calcareous soils,
nor does it prosper upon clays, or in marshy and undrained situations.
It prefers hills and mountains of moderate height, and succeeds much
better there than upon plains.

871. For cultivation as a timber-tree, it should be planted upon
gravelly hills,,and generally where it is to remain. The young
plants are robust from the first, and do not prosper in the shade.
They are more apt to suffer from frost than the oak. The roots are
generally abundant, and strike deep into the soil, but not as deep
as the oak. The growth is rapid, and sustained till sixty or seventy

“a e

The Chestnut. | 291

years of age, but it continues to live and grow to more than twice
this period, and under favorable circumstances it sometimes lives to
an immense age.’

872. Of our native forest trees, there are few that show a greater
tendency to grow from the sprouts than the chestnut, and on rocky
and broken grounds, where this tree will flourish best, there is no
crop that under favorable circumstances and proper protection will
pay so good a profit upon the land.

873. It is remarked by the highest authorities upon forestry, that
“chestnut stumps have a remarkable durability, and that the
sprouts they send up afford a growth both vigorous and rapid. It
is especially in vine countries that coppices of this wood are found
most profitable, from the hoops they furnish for casks and props for
the vines.”* It is not advisable to reserve trees for large growth in
a chestnut coppice, as is done with great advantage in the oak, be-
cause the shade would do more harm to the young growth than the
air and light would benefit the reserves.

874. The trees, when ten or fifteen years old, will begin to bear
fruit, and thus assist in re-stocking. It would be advisable to re-
serve a few trees around the borders of the tract to secure some
timber of larger growth, and increase the chestnut harvest.

875. Chestnut ‘‘ sprout lands” must of course be kept inclosed
against sheep, horses, and cattle at all seasons, for although they
may be cut off at one time, there will still be sprouts of small size,
and these will be needed for re-stocking the ground. The same
objection would not exist against the admission of swine, which in
fruitful seasons would thrive and fatten without injury to the trees.

876. Where a chestnut grove is to be started in Europe, it is
recommended to set the young trees from nurseries, when about
three years old, at distances of two or three yards apart, cultivat-
ing the ground between as long as it can be conveniently done with
potatoes or grain. When the trees have grown to two or three
inches in diameter, they carefully cut them off close to the ground,

1A chestnut tree (or perhaps a group of trees) formerly stood upon Mt.
Etna, more than fifty yards in circumference. It was hollow, and must
have been some 2,000 years old. It was called ‘‘castagno di cento cavalli.”
It appears from an account published in 1865, that this remarkable tree no
longer exists.” (Revue des Deux Mondes, July, 1, 1865.)

2 Lorentz and Parade—Culiure des Bois,

222 The Chestnut. =

and the next spring the stump is covered with numerous strong
sprouts. :

877. In six or eight years, when the shoots have become thick -
and strong, the smaller rods are cut out, leaving only two or three,
which when thus relieved take a vigorous start, and at the end of
six or seven years more are from four to six inches in diameter. It
is again thinned out, and at 20 to 25 years from the time of plant-
ing, the trees that are left have made a truly wonderful growth.
The thinnings from beginning have value, first, for coarse basket and
wicker-work; and then for hoops and poles, suitable for many uses.

878. Generally a coppice of chestnut is cut off when twelve or
fifteen years old, and in Alsace and Eastern France, the profits
from such a cutting are twice as great as from the white oak of that
region at twice its age, a hectare at fifteen years being worth 3,000
francs.' It is there recommended to cultivate the ground with po-
tatoes and rye two or three years after each cutting, the yield of
these harvests being more than double the cost of cultivation and
seed. Chestnut coppices thus managed will last in Alsace for a
hundred years. This cultivation is thought to stimulate the growth
of sprouts, by bringing the ends of the roots to the air, besides rid-
ding the ground of bushes and brambles.

879. The European chestnut is an important article of food, es-
pecially in Italy, France, and Spain. The fruit is much larger
than the American variety, and runs into differences in quality that
have been introduced by cultivation, and that are propagated by
grafting. In bearing years, the yield of a single tree is often very
large, amounting in some cases to a ton or more of the fresh fruit
ina single year. This shrinks about one-third in weight upon dry-
ing. When used as food it is boiled or roasted. The dried fruit re-
duced to a meal is made into a kind of bread called in Italy polenta.
It furnishes a principal article of food to the poor inhabitants of the
mountain regions through the greater part of the year.

880. The chestnut product of Italy is about 6,400 tons a year for
the markets, and the trees are under cultivation for the fruit upon
a million and a quarter of acres.

881. Chestnut wood is heavier and closer grained when grown in

1 Brolliard’s ‘‘ Traitement des Bois en France,” p. 108. A hectare is 2.47
acres. The rate here mentioned is a little over $240 per acre for 15 years or
$16 per acre annually. TASS

The Chestnut. 223

warm climates, and in Italy it is thought equal to the oak for staves.
In colder evuntries it is too porous for coopers’ use excepting for dry

wares. It is highly prized for carpentry, bears exposure very well,
and is very durable for fencing. It is sometimes made into shingles,

_ but although durable, it is very apt to warp. Its lumber is much

used for furniture and inside finishing, and shows to fine advantage
when oiled or varnished.

#82. Throughout France and the south of Europe, young chest-
nut rods are extensively used for hoops, and from their durability
in moist places they will long resist the dampness of cellars. Chest-
nut coppices are considered valuable property for this use, and are
cut off about once in seven years, the smaller rods being saved for

‘hoops, and the larger ones for vine-props. The American chestnut

is not found well adapted for this use, as the wood is more brittle,
and more liable to split off at the ends.

883. Asa fuel, the chestnut ranks with the light woods. Its
pores being full of air, it snaps as it burns, and its charcoal is light,
but still useful in forges, although not as valuable as the hard-woods
in the reduction of metallic ores.

884. The extract of chestnut is prepared in France, by cutting the
green wood into chips, with revolving planes, that slice across the
grain. The chips are then put into great covered boilers, and al-
lowed to mascerate for some time, when steam is admitted, and the
process is continved till the tannin in the wood is exhausted. The
liquor is then strained out and evaporated to the desired consistence.
This acid product is used in preparing silks, and is employed in tan-
ning the lighter kinds of leather. In the neighborhood of Lyons,
France, they get 25 per cent of weight of the wood in the form of
extract, worth about 18 francs per 100 kilograms, equal to about
500 pounds to the ton, worth $32.72.

885. Chestnut wood has been used to a small extent in the
United States for tanning purposes. It appears to require a warm
climate, to develop these properties so as to be of much value.

886. Dying off of the Chestnut. Throughout the Piedmont region
in North Carolina and in the northern part of Georgia and Ala-
bama, the chestnut trees have been dying off in many cases to a large
extent, and from causes that have not been ascertained. The mor-
tality is noticed in trees of all ages, and now there is but little of
this timber found in a growing condition in North Carolina east of

224 The Chestnut, and the Chinquapins.

Ee

the Blue Ridge, until we get high up on its peaks and spurs.
estward of this ridge, the trees do not bear fruit now as they did
twenty years ago, so that hog-raising, formerly an important busi-
ness, has almost ceased. Occasionally there is still a good chestnut,
crop, but it is rare and uncertain. |
887. In Europe, a similar fatality has been noticed in some parts
of Italy and Spain, and there has been found in connection with the
roots a fungus, composed of blackish brown filaments, forming a
net-werk that penetrates the cellular tissues of the bark and wood, _
feeding upon the juices of the living tree, and upon the decompos-
ing remains of the dead. No remedy has been proposed there
short of grubbing up and destroying by fire the roots of infected —
trees, and all the debris; but of course in our country such a meas-
ure would be wholly impracticable, unless possibly in isolated cases,
should this treatment be found effectual, and its necessity urgent? .
888. THE Cminquarrn (Castanea pumila) is usually a shrub or
small tree, growing in swamps, in the Middle and Southern States,
rarely attaining a height of thirty or forty feet, and generally being
too small for use. In Arkansas, however, it grows to a large size—
sometimes three and even four feet in diameter, but not to a great .
height. The fruit is small and sweet, and sometimes finds its way
into market. A dwarf variety grows upon poor soils, and bears fruit
when not more than a foot in height. It has been recommended
for cultivation as a covering for land too poor for other growth, and
as affording food for swine.
889. Tur WESTERN CHINQuAPIN (Castanopsis chrysophylla) is gen-
erally a low and unimportant evergreen shrub, growing in Califor-
nia and Oregon; but in the Cascade Mountains, it sometimes grows
to thirty feet in height, or even much larger. The leaves have a
dark green color above, but are covered with a yellow powder be-
neath. The nut is small, with a harder shell than the eastern
chinquapin, which it otherwise much resembles. .

ee ee ee ee

1A writer in Carrol Co., Ga., mentions this disease of the chestnut, which
appeared about fifteen years ago, and had made a clean sweep—even the
bushes having nearly all died; no worms or insects had been found upon
them before death, and even now the dead ckestnut trees were the most val-
uable rail-timber they had, it being soft but very durable, lasting longer in
the open weather than any other kind, After being dead over ten years,
the trees were sound, and without signs of decay.

The Beeches. 225

Tue Beecu (Genus Fagus).

- 890. About twenty-five species of the Fagus are described by
botanists, being widely diffused in the temperate zones both north
_and south.

_ 891. In Europe the beech (Fagus sylvatica) is very extensively
cultivated in France, Germany, and Denmark, constituting a very
important timber-tree, preferring a cool to a mild climate, and in
warm regions growing only at considerable elevations. It thrives in
great variety of soils, but prefers those that are calcareous and
gravelly, but not sandy, and where the climate favors, it grows both
upon mountains and the plains. It is often cultivated alone, form-
ing great forests by itself; but it grows very well with the oak, fir,
maple, Scotch pine, etc., and» as its roots spread near the surface,
while those of the oak penetrate deep into the sub-soil, these trees
appear to thrive very well together.

892. The wood of the beech splits remarkably well when green,
but it is very liable to shrink, and should not be used until well
seasoned. It is largely used for cabinet work, and for a wide di-
versity of uses in the industries, but does not bear exposure to the
weather nor changes from wet to dry. When injected with the sul-
phate of copper, it has been much used as railroad ties, but it is not
as lasting as unimpregnated oak. It is very highly esteemed for
fuel and charcoal, and the oil from its nuts has the same uses as that
from the olive. .

893. Its growth is rather slow at first, but a little more rapid than ~
that of the oak. It is noticed that under a deep shade the beech
will sprout from the seed and grow to a yard or so in height, when
it will stop growing, and remain almost indefinitely; but start vig-
orously again, as soon as the light is admitted.’ The slight differ-
ence in quality between the sap-wood and the heart-wood, allows of
the whole being used without the waste of any part. }

894. The beech comes to maturity sooner than the oak, and does
not grow to so large a size. As there is not much gain in qual-
ity when grown to greatest size, it is generally cut when from 24 to
30 inches in diameter. In some forests it is grown as coppice-wood
by sprouts from the roots and stump, but in many places this is found
an uncertain process, and it is planted from nurseries, or started by
natural seeding.

5 6 4 8 10

127. Fagus sylvatica.—The European Beach. 1. Upper side of a twig in May, with
male and female blossoms. 2. A separate male blossom, 38. Anthers, front and
rear views, and sections. 4. Female blossoms of natural size. 5. The same, sep-
arated and enlarged. 6. Section of the same, showing the germs of seeds, en-
larged. 7. Transverse section of the latter, at the point marked by astar. 8. The
ripe fruitin its burr. 9. The same, before opening. 10. Cross-section of a nut.
11. Twig with two leaf-buds. Excepting 1, 4, 8, 9, and 11, these figures are more

Tim baee see sere

The Beeches. 227

895. A very simple method is employed for preserving the nuts
for planting. They are gathered, spread in an airy place, turned
daily to allow of moderate drying, and then left on a floorunder a
covering of straw to keep from frost. With the greatest care it is
sometimes difficult to keep them alive from fall to spring.

896. In order to succeed in planting the beech, it is necessary to
provide shelter for the young plant, which may be found by raking
in the nuts upon bare places in the woods, or by planting.in east and
west rows, some other kinds of trees a year or two before we plant

|< the beech. These nurses may be birch, elm, pine, or whatever else

best suits the soil, as they are to be removed when no longer needed.

897. The nuts should be planted like corn, and when up, they
should be carefully hoed, taking care to cover the seminal leaves, leav-
ing only the leaves proper above the ground. If planted in fall,
as is preferable, the seed will sprout in the spring following. Ow-
ing to the difficulty in getting plants started from the seed, it is
common to seek the young plants where they have been self-sown
in the woods, set them in nursery rows, and transplant when of
sufficient size. These seed-plants are best taken, up with a trowel,
and a cool cloudy time should be chosen for the operation.

898. Our native species (Fagus feruginea) occurs widely scattered
throughout the New England, Middle, and Northwestern States, as
far west as Wisconsin, and in Canada, as far north as a line run-
ning from a little beyond Lake Huron eastward to the Bay of
Chaleurs. It extends southward into the Southern States, grow-
ing sparingly upon the low-lands, but to'large size in the moun-
tains. It attains its greatest development in Michigan and Wis-
consin, and in the heavy forests south of Lake Superior its growth
is truly magnificent.

899. In Northern Pennsylvania and in some portions of New
England and New York, the beech grows as almost the only tree
upon dry rocky ridges, and in fruit-seasons these beech ridges have
attracted enormous flocks of wild-pigeons for nesting.

900. Various exceptional forms and tints of foliage have been
produced in the beech under cultivation, and are. perpetuated by
grafting or layers, such as cut-leaved, purple or copper-leaved,
golden-stripe leaved, ete. Some of these produce a highly orna-
mental effect upon the lawn, and in parks and avenues.

901. The beech is termed ‘“ red” cr ‘‘ white” by woodmen, from

928 The Beeches and the Birches.

the difference in color of the heart-wood; but they appear to be
simply varieties of the same species, from differences in the soil or
exposure. The red beech is much more durable, and under water
it appears almost indestructible. It has also been found durable in
plank-roads, and in ship-building where permanently under water,
and for this reason it is sometimes used for the keels of vessels.

902. The beech of Victoria and Tasmania (Fagus Cunningham)
is a magnificent evergreen of colossal size, and living only in cool,
damp, rich forest valleys where it not unfrequently grows to the —
height of two hundred feet. The wood, muh used by carpenters —
and others, is known to the trade as ‘‘ myrtle.”

903. Other evergreen beeches of fine size and much value, (F. —
Menziesii), known as the “‘ red birch ;” F’. fusca, the ‘‘ black birch ;” —
fF’. Solandri, the ‘‘ white birch,” of colonists) are found in New Zea-
land. It is not improbable that some of these might succeed un-
der similar conditions, especially in Southern California, where so
many Australian species have been found to thrive.

» en ha

Tur Birca (Genus Betula).

904. About twenty-five species of the birch are known in Europe,
Asia, and North America, and they are divided into some sixty sub-
species or characteristic varieties. . They prefer a cool, humid cli-
mate, some growing upon mountains of considerable elevation, and
others preferring swampy grounds and river banks.

905. The birch extends about as far into the Arctic zone as woody
plants of any kind will grow. In the remote part of the Highlands
of Scotland, it forms coppices on rocky elevations where no other
ligneous plant is found, and throughout Northern Europe it forms
an important article for fuel.

906. It shows a tendency to succeed the pines where they have
been cut off, and is readily propagated from seed, but does best on
new ground, and can hardly be made to grow where nursery trees
have previously been raised. The seeds scarcely admit of any coy-
ering, and if simply pressed into the ground with the feet they will
grow. A bushel of seed will stock thirty Jinear yards of a seed-
bed four feet wide. When a year old, they may be transplanted to
nursery rows, and when two or three feet high may be set for pen
manence. a

907. Cut-leaved, weeping, and other varieties have been intro-
duced for ornamental planting, and are perpetuated by grafting.

a ee

The Birches. . 229

Sor neti imes the wood has knots and curls in the grain that take a
‘fine polish when used as veneers. It is a favorite wood for shoe-

spools, bobbins, and other small articles. It is peeled into
Gece a and strips of its wood are braided into baskets and fishing-
traps. The smoke of its wood imparts a fine flavor to hams, and

198. Betula alba.—White Birch.

E its bark is used for tanning leather. “An oil prepared from the birch
3 imparts the peculiar odor to Russia leather much used in substantial
_ book-binding. Birch-wine is made from the sap of this tree by
fermentation.

908. The seeds of the birch and the alder scatter very soon after

230 The Birches.

they ripen, and it is difficult to keep them. They should be gath-
ered by hand just as the burrs begin to turn brown, and if possible,
they should be sown the same year. An expeditious way to obtain
the seed is to cut off the branches that bear the burrs at the time

when they are just ripening, and hang them in a dry place till the
seed falls out. As they should be covered but very slightly, they

are best raked in, upon soil previously prepared, and if sown in aw

tumn, they will start the next spring.

909. The birch can not reproduce with much savanna from the
stumps, but it readily springs up from the seed in vacant spots in
the woods.

910. Tue YEeLLow Brrcu (Betula excelsa) is a northern species,
growing toa greater size than any other of the birches, and when
large, the grain is often twisted in a spiral manner. Its wood is’

solid, fine-grained, and easily worked, and is much used for cabine! a

wares. The bark possesses tanning properties, yet is but seldom used.

911. Tue Canoe Bircu (Betula papyracea) is also a northern spe-
cies, occurring along the northern border of the United States, and
far northward into Canada. The bark is used for making canoes,
baskets, and other uses, and its wood, which is white, is largely
used for making shoe-pegs, spools, lasts, and eabinet wares. It
turns smoothly, and takes a fine finish.

912. Tar Rep Brrcsa (Betula nigra) grows in the Atlantic States,
from New England to the Carolinas. It is also common in the
Western and South-western States, always preferring river banks,
and sometimes growing to one or two feet in diameter, but usually
much less. It derives its name from the reddish tinge of the bark,
which hangs in loose shreds upon the trunk and branches, giving it
a peculiarly ragged appearance.

913. Tae Sweer Bircu (Betula lenta) sometimes called ‘‘ Cherry
Birch,” or “‘ Black Birch,” from the dark color of its bark, is a tree
of small size; is chiefly a northern species, extending from Canada
southward along the mountains as far as North Carolina. The Be-
tula glandulosa, a far-northern species, and some others of less ac-
count, are also found within our territory, occurring as a low bush
upon our northwestern coast.

914. THe Western Breca (Betula occidentalis) is a shrub, grow-
ing 10 to 20 feet high, with a close, dark-colored bark, which be-
comes light brown, copiously sprinkled with resinous warts. It—

The Alders. 231

occurs in the eastern cafions of the Sierra Nevada, at an elevation
of 4,500 to 10,000 feet above tide, where it is said to be common.

It is found northward in Washington Territory and in British
America, and among the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico. Well-
grown -trees are found in the northern part of the Frazer basin, and
in the Pearl river country, in British Columbia.

Tue ALperR (Genus Alnus).

915. Of these ther are about fifteen species, found in middle
and northern Europe, North America, and upon the Andes in South
America. About half the number occur in North America.

916. The European alder most commonly cultivated is the A.
glutinosa. It is indigenous throughout Europe, and when growing
wild, seldom attains more than thirty or forty feet in height; but in
Great Britain it has, under cultivation, grown to eighty feet with a
trunk three to four feet in diameter. It matures at fifty or sixty
years. Its timber, when always submerged, is very durable, but not
where exposed to alternations of wet and dry. Its brush is used in
filling marshy lands, and its wood as staves for fish barrels, and for
lasts, turned goods, cabinet wares, ete. To prevent insects from at-
tacking it, the fiuer pieces are sometimes, in Scotland, immersed for
some months in water in a peat bog. If some lime is thrown in,
the effect is improved. Such wood has some resemblance to ma-
hogany, and is used for tables, etc. Charcoal from this wood is
used in making gunpowder, and the bark for tanning.

917. The alder prefers a rich, damp soil, such as alluvial bottom-
lands and the borders of streams. It will, however, grow to a large
size on dryer land, and from its rapid growth and great tenacity of
life, it is estéemed as a nurse for the more tender kinds in bleak and
exposed situations. It is, like the willow, useful for consolidating
banks, and to keep it in best condition for this, it is cut as coppice-
wood once in eight or ten years. It sprouts readily from the stumps.
As a screen for osier fields and the like, it is very valuable.

918. The alder is propagated with facility from the seed, which
should be spread in their cones on a dry floor, and stirred from time
to time till they are dry. They may be sown at once, or in March
or April following, on rich, moist land, previously prepared. They
should be thinly covered and rolled, and the next spring trans-
planted from the seed-beds, and after another year in the nursery,

19

129. Alnus glutinosa.—The Black Alder. 1. Twig with leaves, and the germs of male

and female blossoms of the next vear. 2. Male catkin in full bloom. 3, 4, 5,6. A

_full-blossomed capsule, from different points of view. 7,8. A four-lobed single
blossom, side and med points of view. 9. Female catkin, enlarged. 10, 11, 12,
13, 14, 15, 16. Enlarged view of female blossom, with appendages, and the fruit.
17. The ripe fruit-capsule. 18. The same, opened. 19. A twig, with eaf-buds.
20. Cross-section of a twig. Of the above figures, only 1, 2, 17, 18, 19, and 20 are
of the natural size, the remainder being enlarged.

~ The Alders and the Hornbeams. 233

_ they may be finally transplanted. The alder is rated as a soft wood,
and sold at a low price. For general cultivation it is not profitable,

_ but for special uses it has great advantages.

_ 919. Tue American ALDER (Alnus incana), the most widely dis-
: Saetlertod of our native species, occurs from New England northward ,
far into British America, and westward to Oregon. It is found in
New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah, and in the Sierra Nevada mount-
ains to an elevation of 6,000 to 7,000 feet. It most commonly oc-
curs in dense thickets along the border of streams, seldom growing

to a size for any use but firewood.

920. Tue Rep Auber (A. rubra) occurs along the Pacific from
Alaska southward, sometimes growing 30 to 40 feet high. It grows
to a small tree on Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands and the
coast of the mainland, and its wood is sometimes used for charcoal.

921. Tue Wuire AupeEr (A. rhombifolia) occurs from Oregon to
Southern California as a tree 20 to 50 feet high and 2 to 3 feet in
diameter. It has a light, ash-gray bark, slender branches.

922. The Alnus oblongifolia occurs in Southern California and New
Mexico as a tree 20 to 30 feet in height.

_ 923. Tar Orecon ALDER (A. Oregona) is a tree growing to 50
or 60 feet in height, and sometimes two feet in diameter, near the
-ground. Like the other alders, it prefers the banks of streams.

The wood is brittle, and not employed for useful purposes.

Hornpeam (Genus Carpinus).

924. Of the genus Carpinus, about nine species are found in the
North Temperate Zone of the Old and New World, and but one (€.
Americana) is found native in the United States. It is known by va-
rious common names, such as the ‘‘ hop-hornbeam,” from the clusters
of fruit somewhat resembling hops, ‘‘ blue-beech,” ‘‘ water or swamp
beech,” ete. It has the general habit of the beech, and its bark is
smooth like that tree. The stem is generally somewhat fluted or
angular, and it is of smaller size. The foliage becomes crimson,
scarlet, and orange in autumn.

925. The hornbeam occurs widely distributed throughout the At-
lantic States and Canada; never in dense groves, but scattered
through forests of other deciduous kinds. The wood is close, white,
hard, and fine-grained, remarkably tough and strong, and well
adapted to places where it is required to resist great pressure or fric-
tion. When of sufficient size, the wocd is useful in the mechanic

234 The Hornbeams and the Maples. —

arts, and is suitable for the making of levers, tool-handles, and
other articles requiring great strength. It forms an excellent fire- ~
wood and material for charcoal used for cooking, or in forges, or for
making gunpowder.

926. Tue European Hornseam (Carpinus betulus) is often culti-
vated for screens and hedges in Europe, and it was thought by
Michaux that it might be introduced with profit into the United
States. Among its merits are the following: It bears pruning well,
is not liable to disease, grows for a long time in a confined form,
and does not injure the adjacent crops, probably because its roots
draw their support from a greater depth; it grows very close and
twiggy, and retains its leaves late; it endures a rough and windy
situation, and grows well in a great varicty of soils.

927. It seeds abundantly, and when sown immediately, a few
spring up the first year, put most of them not till the second year.
The usual mode of cultivation is to sow in spring, at the rate of a
bushel of clean seed to fifty yards of a bed four feet wide; and as
the seeds do not grow the first year, the ground may be occupied by
some other light crop, such as onions, lettuce, raddish, or cabbage.
They may be thinned out when one year old by transplanting to
nursery rows, but the young plants do best if not taken up till they
are two years old. In two years more, they will be suitable for set-
ting in single hedge rows. Under cultivation, the hornbeam has
produced cut-leaved and variegated forms that are propagated by
layers for ornamental planting.

Toe Maries (Genus Acer).

928. The maples occur widely distributed in the Northern Temper-
ate Zone upon both continents, and upon the eastern rather than upon
the western sides. There are about fifty species described, of which
nine or ten occur within the United States. They generally grow
to trees of considerable size, take when planted alone, a rounded,
symmetrical form, and are highly prized for ornamental planting in
village streets and by the wayside.

929. The wood of the maples is generally light colored or with a
reddish tinge, works smoothly, is not liable to warp or check, and is
much valued for cabinet work. In some cases, the grain is curled
or contorted in such a manner as to give it, when finished, a highly
ornamental effect.

930. The maple leaves in autumn take bright crimson and orange

130. Carpinus betulus.—The European Hornbeam. 1. Twig, with two male and one

female blossoms, 2. A fruitiul stem, with leaves. 8, 4. Male blossoms, from up-

Per lower, and side points of view. 5, Asingle seed-capsule, with section. 6.

2af-cover, with the inclosed female blossoms. 7. A pair of female blossoms,

with the envelope removed. 8. A single pistil. 9. A oe seed, wit its three-
a

lobed seed-leaf. 10. The seed-capsule, separated and enlarged. 11. Transverse
section of the same. 12. The. germs, separated. 13. Twig, with three leaf-buds
above, and two male flower-buds. 14. Germ, as it first appears upon sprouting.

236 The Maples.

colored tints, that give a characteristic splendor to the woodlands
during the few days that they remain after they are fairly ripe.

931. THE Sucar Marie (Acer saccharinum). This tree, which
is altogether the most valuable of the maples, is a native of Can-
ada and the Northern States, extending southward along the mount-
ains into the Carolinas, and westward to the Mississippi river. It
is abundant in Western North Carolina, but it thrives best in a
rather cool climate, and in a calcareous and loamy, rather than a
sandy soil. In Canada it extends northward to a line running from
the northeastern shore of Lake Superior to a short distance below
Quebec, and thence northeastward to the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
The ‘‘ Maple Leaf” is a national emblem with the Canadians, and the
gorgeous splendor of the autumnal forests in the north is largely
due to the colors assumed by the foliage of this tree at this season.

932. The sugar maple grows to a height of sixty to eighty feet,
and to a diameter of two feet and over. When planted alone, it as-
sumes a rounded, symmetrical form, and it deservedly enjoys a high
reputation as an ornamental tree in village and roadside planting,
but it does not endure the dust and smoke of cities. When grown in
woodlands, it assumes a tall, regular form, and it is often found in for-
ests by itself, or mingled with beech, birch, hemlock, and other trees.

933. Upon the prairies of Illinois this tree grows slow when
young, but at length takes a more vigorous start, and becomes a
fine tree. It will not grow with entire success beyond the Missis-
sippi, and fails altogether in Kansas and Nebraska.

934. In the Northern States and in Canada, when tapped upon
the approach of spring, and for a period of thirty or forty days,
ending as the buds begin to swell, this tree yields a sweetish sap,
which by evaporation may be reduced to syrup and to sugar of su-
perior quality. Several million of pounds of this sugar are made
every year, and upon some farms in Vermont and Northern New
York more profit is realized from a maple woodland, than could pos-
sibly be gained upon an equal area by any agricultural crop. The
yield is usually two or three pounds to the tree in the season, but in
exceptional cases it may be more.

935. From the limited experiments that have been made, it ap-
pears that the sap of the maple contains more sugarin the early
part of the season than toward its close, and that different trees
vary in the amount of sugar, some giving much sweeter sap than
others. As the buds begin to swell, the sap becomes ‘‘ ropy,” and

The Maples. 237

_ gives off an offensive odor in boiling. It erystalizes with difficulty,
and it is customary to use the last run, partly concentrated by boil-
ing, for making vinegar, by exposing it to fermentation.

936. The flow of sap is much influenced by meteorological con-
ditions, and is best with freezing nights and thawing days, and ina
damp atmosphere. It will sometimes flow by night, and a run may
last two or three days, and then be suspended, from causes unknown,
until another freezing night. The sap flows in drops, at the rate of
from thirty to a hundred in a minute, and from three to four gal-
lons will make a pound of sugar.

937..The holes bored in a maple tree will close up in two or three
years, and do not appear to injure the growth of the trees. They
may be tapped annually from the time when they are ten or twelve
inches in diameter till they are seventy or eighty years old, and a

' maple grove kept inclosed against cattle may be used perpetually
for sugar-making, the young trees coming on to replace those that
are cut at full maturity.

938. The wood of the sugar maple is highly valued as a fuel and
for cabinet work, and varieties known as ‘‘ birds-eye” are highly

valued for the making of veneers, affording some of the most beau-
tiful of the woods used in ornamental work.

939. THe Brack Marte (Acer nigrum) is commonly regarded as
only a variety of the A. saccharium, and is equally valuable for the
making of sugar, and its timber for all the uses to which the sugar-
maple is applied.

940. Tue Smtver-LeEAF or River Mapte (Acer dasycarpum).
This and the next following species are often called ‘soft maples,”
or “‘ white maples,” from the texture and color of the wood. They
bear fruit early in the season, and their seeds must be planted the
same year, and while still fresh. Z

941. This species is planted extensively as a shade tree in the
Middle and Western States, and grows very rapidly, but the wood
being brittle, the trees are liable to injury by the winds. In rich
alluvial soils it grows to a large size; but the tree is not long-lived,
and its wood, although used for inside finishing and cabinet work,
soon perishes when exposed to the weather.

942. The silver maple is less common in the South than the red
maple. In North Carolina it grows sometimes thirty or forty feet
high, and the sap is sometimes made into sugar, which has a su-

238 _ The Maples.

perior flavor and light color, but is not more than half as productive
from a given measure of sap as the sugar maple of that region.

943. Rep Marte (Acer rubrum). This tree derives its name
from the color of its bright red blossoms, that appear early in the
spring, and before the leaves. It is sometimes called “‘ white maple,”
from the color of its wood, and ‘‘swamp maple,” from its favorite
place of growth. It does not generally grow to so large a size, nor
live to so great an age as the sugar maple. Its wood is lighter and
softer, but is often used in cabinet work. It is not durable when
exposed to the weather. When the grain is wavy it has, whem fim-
ished up, a beautiful glossy luster, uffording the variety of fine
woods known as the “ curl maple.”

944. The red maple is found from Canada to Florida and Louis-
irna, and through the Western States to Nebraska. It does not, in
the regions further west, succeed under cultivation so well as the
‘< silver-leaf maple.” The sap of the red maple is not so sweet as
that of the sugar maple, and is seldom used in making sugar. The
young bark affords, with copperas as a mordant, a purplish-black
dye, occasionally used in coloring wool and cotton.

945. In North Carolina this tree is found from the coast to the
mountains, sometimes seventy feet high and three to four feet in
diameter.

946. Srripep Marie (Acer Pennsylvanicum). This is generally
a small slender tree, seldom growing in groves, but scattered here
and there among other woods, and never growing to a large size, or
living to so great an age as some other maples. The wood is white
and soft, and the bark smooth, greenish, and marked with stripes.
It is sometimes called ‘‘ moosewood,” ‘‘ dogwood,” or ‘‘ dogmackie.”
It may be cultivated for ornament, but is not generally successful
unless partly shaded by other trees. In North Carolina this tree is
found on the mountains as a shrub, rarely ten feet high.

- 947. Tur Mountarn Mapte (Acer spicatum), This is a shrub,
generally growing in clumps from a common root, along rocky ra-
vines in the Northern and Eastern States. It is too small for use,
but will bear cultivation with other shrubs, in a rocky soil.

948. Tue OREGON OR LARGE-LEAVED MAPLE (Acer maero-
plyllum). This tree grows from fifty to ninety feet in height, and
from two to three feet in diameter, and is distinguished by the size of
its leaves, which are occasionally a foot across, and usually from 6 to 10

The Maples. 239

inches. It seldom grows alone in much abundance, but is scattered
through the evergreen forests, and seldom growing to as large a size
as the sugar mapie.

949. It occurs in mountain ravines from Santa Barbara north-
ward to British Columbia, where it is found on Vancouver and ad-
jacent islands, and on the immediate coast of the mainland, never
inland, and scarcely beyond 55° north latitude. It there forms a
small tree, sometimes a foot in diameter. In California it chiefly
oceurs on the Coast Range. The young branches present green
stripes, not unlike those characteristic of the striped maple of the

Atlantic States.

950. The wood is close-grained, Saeik takes a beautiful Pallas
and the grain is sometimes twisted and curled, giving it a highly
ornamental appearance.

951. Tue Vine Marte (Acer cireinatum). This is also peculiar
to the Pacific Coast, growing in pine forests from Northern California
to Oregon, and always near the coast. Jt is a shrub, growing some-
times 30 to 40 feet in height, and rarely a foot in diameter, and
usually in several slender trunks springing from one root, as in the
mountain maple of the Atlantic States. These do not grow up-
right, but, arching down, touch the ground, and there taking root,
present a tangled thicket most difficult to penetrate. It prefers
‘moist deep soils. Its leaves much resemble those of the sugar
maple, and its wood is very tough and strong, heavy, white, close-
grained, and sometimes twisted in its grain. It is used in making
axe-helyes and tool-handles, but is generally too small for cabinet
work, although otherwise well adapted to this use.

952. Tue Smoora Marie (Acer glabrum). This is an unim-
portant shrub, found from Colorado and New Mexico eastward to
California, and from Yosemite northward. It is too small for use-
ful purposes, and grows chiefly in damp mountain ravines.

953. Tue Box-Evper, or AsH-LEAVED Mapie (Negundo acer-

oides). There are four species of the Negundo, of which the At-!
lantic States, the Pacific Coast, Mexico and Japan, have each one.
_ It isso nearly allied to the maples that it has, by some botanists,
been classed with them as the Acer negundo.

954. The box-elder, in the Atlantic States, is somewhat southern

in its habits. In North Carolina it is found most common in the

middle portion of the state, along the borders of the streams, grow-

240 The Maples and the Box-Elders. Se aie

ing from 15 to 25 feet.in height. It is rare in the lower district.
Further north it takes a larger growth, and it is found northward
as far as Southern New York.

955. In the Western States, along the Mississippi and beyond, it
grows well, and it occurs out on the plains, in the timber belts that
fringe the rivers and streams, about as far west as any tree can be
found.

956. Under its best conditions this tree grows to the height of
70 feet, but it is usually much less. It grows very rapidly, and
comes to maturity in from twenty to thirty years. It is among the best
of trees to cultivate for avenues and along public roads, and under
cultivation it has produced some varieties having bleached and yel-
lowish foliage, that gives it a fine appearance in ornamental planting.

957. Although it prefers low rich grounds, it bears a drouth very
well, and in the more westerly states, on the borders of the Great
Plains, it deserves much attention as easily propagated, and likely
to succeed where many other kinds would fail.

958. In the Western and Northwestern States, the sap of this
tree is made into sugar and syrup of excellent quality and flavor, —
but less in amount than that from the sugar maple.

959. As the staminate and pistilate flowers of the box elder grow —
upon different trees, the seeds must be gathered in groves where
both kinds occur. The former are easily distinguished when in blos-
som by the stamens hanging in groups springing from common
points, by slender hairy stems, with four or five anthers at the end,
while the fertile blossoms show the rudiments of the future wings
of the seed, and have two pistils coming out between them,

960. Tae CarirorntdA Box Exper (Negundo Californiensis).
This is commonly a small tree, but rarely it grows to the height of
70 feet. It occurs along streams, following the coast range in Cal-
ifornia, from San Luis Obispo northward, but not into British Co-
lumbia. Its leaves are smaller and narrower than those of the other
species, and they are more coarsely toothed; otherwise there is
much resemblance between them. :

Tue Linpen or Basswoop Famity (Tiliacee).
961. About thirty genera belong to this family, chiefly occurring
in the torrid and south temperate zones. ‘They are mosily trees,
often of great size, with handsome flowers and foliage, a mucilagin-

The Basswoods. 241

‘ous juice, and tough, stringy inner bark. Some of them yield a
succulent and edible fruit. The wood is soft, light, and in some
species very elastic. The jute of commerce, a much esteemed
fibrous plant of annual growth, belongs to this natural order.

962. Europe has several native species of the Tilia, of which the

T. parvifolia is supposed to be the only one native of Britain, al-
though the 7. Europea, T. grandifolia, and other species, have been
long under cultivation, and trees occur several hundred years old.
‘The tree is there chiefly propagated by layers, when raised for orna-
mental planting, and by this means various ragged-leaved, silver-
leaved, and other curious varieties are continued.

963. The linden is a great favorite for ornamental planting in
Holland and elsewhere in Europe. The large leaved species grows
to the largest size, and reaches the greatest age. In Russia, the
inner bark of the basswood is made into textile fabrics, cordage, and
the like: The wood is sometimes ground into pulp for paper.

964. Our common basswood, linden, or lime-tree of the Atlantic
States and Canada (Tilia Americana), is by far the most widely dis-
tributed of the four species found native in the United States. It
grows to a large size, but when old is very apt to become hollow. The
_ wood is very white, light, uniform in texture, not liable to crack or
- split, is quite tough, and when sawn into thin boards, may be read-
ily bent into curves. It is much prized for cabinet wares and the
panels of carriages, and its lumber is much used for carving and for
finishing the inside work of houses, but it does not bear exposure to
the weather well, unless painted. When thoroughly seasoned and
painted, it makes an excellent material for outside work, as it re-
ceives and holds the paint well.

965. The basswood, when standing alone, takes a finely rounded
form, and it is one of the best of trees for avenues. The blossoms
abound in honey, and in bee-keeping this tree affords a most excel-
lent source of supply.

966. Tae Warre Lryys (Tilia heterophylla and T. alba) and the
Southern Linn (7. pubescens) are much less widely distributed, being
southern and western, and the latter a tree of large size.

967. The basswood loves a ‘deep, rich, and humid soil, and under
favorable conditions it grows quite rapidly. It is generally consid-
ered an indication of a good soil. It seldom occurs in groves by it-
self, but is scattered among other deciduous trees, often in-clumps,

242 The Basswood.

f oe ahr /
PLL: Milf
WH Ap. =} a

Se Wy

131, Tilia parvifolia: The Small-leaved Basswood. 1. A sprig, with blossoms and
leaves. 2,3. The blossoms from upper and under points of view. 4,5. Trans-
verse and longitudinal sections of a fruit-bud.. 6. Pistil. 7. Thefruit. 8. See-
tion of the same, 9, Section of the seed. 10. Twig, with buds. 11. Young
sprout.

The Elms. 243

as if from sprouts that have come up around a tree that has decayed.
It is easily cultivated from the seed, which-should generally be
planted in the autumn of the same year that they ripen. For or-
namential planting, they should be started in seed-beds, and then
transplanted into nursery rows. .

Tue Etms (Genus Ulmus).

_ 968. About sixteen species and numerous varieties of the elm
are known to botanists, chiefly in the north temperate zone.of both
continents, or upon mountains within the tropics. ‘They are for the
most part trees of rapid growth, and attaining a large size, and the
wood is strong, tough, fibrous, difficult to split, and useful for a
great variety of purposes. It is generally very durable. under
water, and its quality is much influenced by the conditions of soil,
humidity, and temperature under which it has grown. The seeds
ripen early in summer, and should be sown the same year.

(a.) (b.) (e.) -
182. Differences in the Growth of Elms.—Sections of the Elm: (a.) From Canada—The
layers of growth so thin that they can scarcely be distinguished, (b.) From
Dunkirk, France—Wood very strong, and grown in deep humid soil. (c.) From
the batrle-field of Toulon—Grown on a sub-soil that is very damp, but owing
to the heat of the climate the wood is strong. (d.) From Provence, France—
Grown on soil that is less humid.
969. Tar Wuire Exar (Ulmus Americana). This tree is justly
valued as one of the best. for ornamental plantations, and one of
the most graceful in form. The branches generally divide at ten
or fifteen feet above the ground, and gradually diverging as they
rise, spread out on every side and then descend, giving the tree an
urn-shaped form, that at once distinguishes it at a great distance
from all other forest trees. Some of the New England towns and
villages, especially along the Connecticut river, present magnificent
avenues of this tree.
OTH Who analhty af tha wand ic conorally aveallant ac it 12 verv

244 The Elms.

°
tough, strong, and flexible. It is much used for hoops, carriage
and wagon making, cheese boxes, and bent-work generally, and is
an excellent timber in carpentry, but very apt to shrink and warp
when sawn into boards.

971. The ‘‘ Rock Elm,” as a variety of this species is called, is
particularly prized for wagon hubs, and although this tree occurs
from the Carolinas to Canada, and westward to the Mississippi, the
best qualities for this use are found in New England and New York.
A fine quality is also found in some parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio,
and Indiana. In the rock elm, about five feet of the butt is all that
can be used for hubs, and the best qualities are found in trees
grown in an open space and freely exposed to the sun and air. For
this use the trees should be cut in December or January. The inner
bark should be left on, and the sticks should not be left long on the
ground. After remaining in cross-piles for two months, they should
be cut into blocks for further curing, and the ends dipped in melted
lard and rosin, to prevent them from checking. In this condition
they should be left under shelter till dry.

TS & ti

133. Leaves of the Red Elm.

972. Tae Surprery or Rep Extm (Ulmus fulva). This tree,
is scattered over most of the Northern and Western States. It
grows to a large size, but has not the graceful form of the common
American elm. The wood is very durable, when not in contact
with the ground, and is of a reddish tinge, that gives it the common
name. The leaves are coarser and more corrugated than the kind
above mentioned, and the inner bark is highly mucilaginous when

The Elms. 245

- steeped in water, giving it valuable medicinal properties, as a de-
mulcent drink, and for emollient poultices. This material, when
thoroughly dried, cut small, and ground in a mill, is an article of
commerce, and is kept by most druggists.

973. A writer in Iowa, in speaking of the cultivation of the red
elm remarks, that this tree has not received the attention that it
merits, and sums up its good qualities as follows :

1. It is hardy, even in the most exposed position on the prairies.

2. It grows on rich soil with great rapidity.

8. The seeds are easily gathered, and require no great skill in
‘handling and planting.

4, It is unusually free from disease and injury from insects.

5. It has a large proportion of heart-wood, even when young.

6. When grown thickly in groves, it runs up straight and tall,
and when the poles are large enough to split for two rails, it may .
be divided as easily as the chestnut. When laid as rails, or nailed
to posts, they are very durable.

7. When large enough for vine-stakes, if cut in summer, peeled,
and dried before setting, they will last well.

974. Tue Cork Exo (Ulmus racemosa). This derives its name
from the corky exerescences on the bark of the young twigs and -
small branches, although this character is far from being con-
stant, nor is it limited to this species. This tree occurs in New
England, New York, and westward, and often grows to a large size.
Its foliage is of a darker green, and its wood harder, stronger, and
more durable than that of the preceding species.

975. THe SMALL-LEAVED Exim (U/mus alata), sometimes called
_ the ‘‘ wahoo,” is a southern species, and grows to a smaller size than
the white or red elm, but it has a very compact wood, which is
much used for the naves of wheels, and is even preferred to the
black-gum for this purpose. From the inner bark a rope is some-
times made, which has been used in bagging cotton.

976. Tue Eneuish Exm (Ulmus campestris). This is a favorite
tree for ornamental planting in Great Britain, and has been intro-
duced in many parts of the United States. Some of the finest elms
in Boston are of this species. As to its merits for city planting Mr.
Emerson remarks: ‘‘ I haye been unable to compare satisfactorily the
rapidity of its growth with that of the American elm, but probably in
its best condition the latter is of far more rapid growth, although in

246 The Elms.

the ordinary situations where the elm is planted, and where it gen=
erally suffers from insufficiency of root moisture, the European elm
is immeasurably its superior in rapidity of growth, length of life,

and general thriftiness. The fact that the European is fully a — |

134. Ulmus campestris—English Elm.

month longer in leaf than the American elm, that its tougher
leaves would seem to offer a less appetizing food to the canker-worm,
the greatest enemy to the American elm in New England, and its
adaptability to all situations are strong arguments in favor of. giv-
ing the preference to the former for general cultivation. Its

=

g

The Osage Orange. . 247

_ thriftiness in smoky situations makes the European elm the most
valuable tree our climate will allow for city, street, and square
planting, and as.a shade tree by road-sides no American tree is its
equal.”?

977. The quality of the timber of this species is acknowledged to
be superior to that of our native species, and it well deserves atten-
tion for cultivation as a timber-tree. All of the elms afford in their
ashes a large amount of potash, and hence a top dressing of wood
ashes is of great advantage in their cultivation.

978. Tae Wycn Exam (Ulmus montana). This is also a European
species, often planted in parks. It grows to a large size, and more
resembles the red than the white elm.

THe PLANERA (Planera aquatica).

979. This is a southern tree, found growing in river swamps from
North Carolina southward. It has the general habit of the elms,
but is cf no special importance in forest-culture.

THE OsaGE ORANGE (Maclura aurantiaca).

980. This tree, sometimes called bois-Tare (bow-wood), is found
native in the South-western States, in Texas, Arkansas, and Indian
Territory, sometimes growing to the height of fifty to seventy feet, and
to a diameter of three or four feet. ‘The wood is there found to be ex-
tremely durable for stakes and posts, and is much prized for wagon-
making, on account of its hardness and slight tendency to shrink.
In its native region it grows best on a strong alluvial soil, but grows
well in other situations, excepting where the soil is damp, and with-
out drainage. ' It begins to bear fruit when about eight years old,
and the ripe ‘‘ apples” are readily eaten by cattle.

981. It can be cultivated for timber in the South-western States
very successfully in strong bottom lands, by preparing the land,
planting and cultivating for the first year or two, in- the same way
as for corn. They must be thinned out to 12 or 16 feet apart, and
be trimmed up, in order to secure a straight body and a fine growth,
but not more than is necessary to prevent the branches from inter-
locking or crowding too close. When standing alone, it makes a
low spreading tree, with but little trunk. It therefore requires
side-shading or trimming to make it grow high. As grown in the

1 Agriculture of Mass., 1875-6, p. 272.

248 The Osage Orange: The Mulberries.

south-west, it makes a fire-wood of the best quality, nearly or quite
equal to hickory.

982. The sap-wood is perishable, but the heart-wood is very dura-
ble. If cut in winter or spring, it is liable to the attack of borers,
but generally not when cut in August or early in autumn. The
wood is very easily split, and is therefore unfit for hubs, although
very suitable for spokes. From its great durability when exposed
to the weather, it is very well adapted for agricultural implements.
The wood has a very rich orange color, becoming darker with age,
and rendering it valuable for ornamental cabinet work.

983. The osage orange is not a tree of rapid growth. It will re-
quire from twelve to fifteen years for it to become large enough for
fence-posts, and some twenty-five or thirty years for railroad ties.
From its hardness and tendency to split, it is necessary to bore holes
before driving spikes. ‘When planted at four feet apart, it will
need cultivation for four or five years, and it will need to be thinned ©
‘out in from eight to twelve years, according to the stage of its
growth and the fertility of the soil. As the staminate and pistilate
flowers of the osage orange grow in different trees, the seeds must
be gathered in its native region, where both sexes of the tree are
found growing. But one species is known to botanists.

Tue Mutperry (Genus Morus).

984. Some writers describe from ten to twelve species of this
genus, while others reduce them to five. They are found in the
north temperate zone, and within the tropics of both the old and
new world, and are of great economical interest from the fact that
their leaves form the principal food of the silk-worm.

985. We have within the United States a native species, the Rep
MutBerry (Morus rubra), that is widely diffused, being found in
most of the Atlantic States, and sometimes growing to the height
of sixty to seventy feet, with a diameter of two feet. The wood is
_ strong, solid, and durable, and much valued as fence-posts, and for
ship-building. From experiments that have been made in the feed-
ing of silk worms upon the leaves of the red mulberry, it appears.
that the quantity of silk produced is less, and that the worms are
more liable to disease.

986. Tae Wuitr Muipery (Morus alba) has been introduced in
many places, under the name of ‘‘ Morus multicaulis,” for the feeding
of silk worms, and a mania of speculation led to attempts at its cul-

The Mulberries. ae 249

tivation in many regions where a little reason would have shown
- that it was utterly hopeless. The white mulberry is made to grow
“without difficulty in most parts of the Middle, Southern, and West-
ern States, and, under intelligent direction, the silk industry may
doubtless in many places be carried on with profit. It is propagated

135. The Mulberry Leaves and Fruit.

by cutting and layers, and requires a warm, dry soil, and will suc-
ceed in almost any place that will bear a good corn crop. There
are many varieties under cultivation, and many special publications
have been issued, giving directions for their management.

987. Tue Russtan Mutserry. This tree, which seems to be
closely allied to the Morus nigra, or black mulberry, and the M.
Tartarica, a native of Russia, has in recent years been introduced by
Mennonite emigrants, and is found to thrive very well in the West-
ern States. Trees six years old are found eight inches in diameter
and sixteen feet high. The berries may be eaten fresh, or made
into jellies, wine, and preserves. Most of them are black, but some
of a reddish white, with an aromatic odor and sub-acid, sweetish
taste.

988. The Mennonites set this as a hedge plant, and its leaves are
said to be valuable for feeding silk worms. It is easily transplanted,
and the timber is excellent for fence posts. For hedges, the plants
should be set a foot apart, and they should be kept cut back to

250 The Hackberry: The Tulip- Tree.

make them thicken up and spread at the bottom. It may be culti-
vated alone or with other timber in groves, and it makes, when set
alone, a handsome street or lawn tree. The Russian mulberry is
thought by some to be more valuable than the gray willow or the
cottonwood, it being useful from its shelter, its fruit, and its wood.
It is grown from cuttings. ~

Tur Hacxserry (Genus Celtis).

989. Over seventy species of this genus are found in the Torrid and
North Temperate Zones of both hemispheres. The C. orientalis,
most cultivated in Europe, much resembles the beech in appearance
and in the color of the bark. Its wood is very hard, but is not much
cultivated as a forest tree. It is sometimes called tie ‘ nettle-tree.”

990. The American hackberry (C. occidentalis) is “somewhat
southern in its native locality, but is found scattered here and there
throughout the Northern, Middle, and Western States. When
planted, it starts very slowly at first, but when it has passed a cer-
tain stage of delay, it will start and grow vigorously. It extends
from New England and Canada to Oregon, and southward to
Florida, Texas, and New Mexico. In the Wahsatch mountains, it
grows to an elevation of from 4,200 to 6,500 feet above tide. It is
one of the species that deserves attention in planting upon the
western plains.

Tue Tuip-TrEE (Liriodendron tulipifera).

991. This tree belongs to the magnolia family, and is known by
various popular names, as the ‘‘ white-wood,” the “‘ yellow poplar,” and
the ‘‘ tulip-poplar.” It is the only species belonging to the genus. It
grows toa magnificent size, with a cylindrical trunk, an open, rounded
head, a dark, ash-colored bark, somewhat square, truncated, decidu-
ous leaves, and large, greenish-yellow, but not fragrant flowers.
The bark of the root and branches is bitter and aromatic, acting as
|as a diaphoretic and tonic, and is sometimes used in the treatment
of intermittent fever and chronic rheumatism. These properties
are extracted by alcohol, or it may be used as a powder.

992. It affords a lumber of great excellence for floors, ceiling,
and cabinet work, and for inside finishing, but it does not, unless
protected: by paint, endure well in the open air. Being soft and
easily worked, it takes the place of pine for inside work of houses,
and paper has been made from the bark. ;

The Tulip-Tree: The Sycamore. 251

993. In speaking of the uses of this wood, Mr. Emerson re- »
marks:' ‘(In New England, it is preferred to all other kinds of
wood, in all uses-which require great flexibility, as about stairs, for
the wash-board, in circular rooms, and for the panels of carriages ;
also for the bottom of drawers, and for panels in common ward-
robes, and other small articles.”

994. The tulip-tree grows to magnificent size, retiring a moist,
rich soil, and in good situations it grows to 100 and even 150 feet
in height, and from six to nine and eyen ten feet in diameter.

995. The nature of the soil has an effect on the color and quality
of the wood, and in West Virginia, where it grows to great per-
fection, mechanics class the wood as white, blue, or yellow, but
these can not be determined by external signs. The white variety
prefers a dry, elevated, and gravelly ground; it has a branching
head, with a small amount of heart-wood, and has a coarser and
harder grain and a less durability than the other varieties. The
blue has nearly the same characters. The yellow is by far the
finest, and is extensively used for lumber and shingles. It affords
a good foundation for veneers, and is much used in cabinet work.

996. The tulip-tree is readily propagated from seed, and should
be sown in a fine, soft mold, in a cool and shady place. If sown in
the same autumn of its growth, it will germinate the next spring;
but if sown in spring, it may not sprout till the next year.

997. This tree is rather difficult to transplant, and the end of the
root should be cut off with a sharp knife when it is taken from the
seed-bed and set in a new place. The development of lateral fibers
may be encouraged in the same manner as we elsewhere describe for
the oak. The tulip-tree occurred native in Canada, west of the Ni-
agara river, but much of it has been cut away.

Tue Piane-Tree, Burronwoop, or Sycamore (Genus Platanus).

998. This is the only genus of the natural order Platanee,and it
embraces five or six species, natives of the Northern Hemisphere, in
the Old World and the New. They are of rapid growth, and, for the
most part, thrive only along river banks and in deep, rich, alluvial
‘soil.

999. The Common Burronwoop of the Atlantic States (Platanus
occidentalis) has a wide range in the Atlantic States, and grows to a

1“ Trees of Massachusetts,” 2d ed., p. 606.

252 ~The Sycamores. | ip

large size in rich and humid soils along the rivers and in low
grounds, reaching its greatest development in the Western and —
South-western States. In Canada, it is chiefly limited to the penin-
sula west of Niagara river. When found of a very large size,
it is very often quite hollow, but this does not prevent it from grow-
ing toa greatage.

1000. This tree is distinguished by the smoothness and whiteness
of its bark in the middle and upper part of its trunk and branches.
The outer bark falls off in large, irregular scales, leaving a surface
which, in winter, is very white, but gradually becomes darker col-
ored. This striking feature in winter enables one to observe the
course of a stream for a great distance by the line of sycamores
along its banks.

1001. The seeds of this tree form a compact, spherical ball, which
remains on till spring, when it falls off and the seeds scatter, just as
the leaves are about to open. ‘This tree is very easily cultivated,
and bears the smoke and dust of cities better than many other
kinds, perhaps from the shedding of its outer bark from time to
time.

1002. Our native plane-tree is perfectly naturalized in Europe,
and grows rapidly and to a great size. It is chiefly planted along ~
public roads and canals, and in parks and pleasure grounds, growing
best on deep, humid soils, and in sheltered localities. The wood is
much esteemed for cabinet wares, and for this use is reputed as dur-
able as the oak, but it does not bear exposure to the weather well.
The sycamore is easily propagated from the seed, or from cuttings
or layers. The seedlings need protection at first, but they grow
rapidly, and will bear transplanting early.

1003. THe Mexican Sycamore (P. racemosa) is found extending
into Southern California, and grows to a majestic tree, sometimes six
feet in diameter and a hundred feet high. Like the species in the
Atlantic States, it thrives along rivers, its bark exfoliates in large
flakes, and its general habit is much the same. The leaves are,
however, more deeply cut, polished, and of darker green, and the
bark remarkably white. The fruit grows in racimes of from three

to six, instead of being solitary, as in the common species. The
wood is very brittle.

1004. THe OrtentaL PLANE-TREE (P. orientalis), in its native

\

climate, grows to magnificent size, __
but as cultivated in Europe it does %
not equal our common American
species. It is said to have been in- %
troduced into England about the G
middle of the sixteenth century, and
a oper ie = but is not 136, ag ten o the oon of

137. Platanus racemosa, (Leaf and Fruit, one-half the Natural Size.)

Tae Horse-Cuestnuts, Buckeyes, ete. (Genus A’sculus).
1005. The genus sculus embraces about fifteen species, half of

254 ‘The Horse- Chestnuts.

which occur in North America, and the rest in Asia. Their bark is
bitter and astringent, and has been used in some species for tanning.
The seeds contain a bitter principle that renders them unpalatable,
but it is said that starch has been made from them that was equal to
that from wheat. |
1006. Tur Horst-Cuestnut (A2sculus hippocastanum). ‘This is
a native of Asia, but is found perfectly well adapted to the North-

Fi

Eos
a Sl =

2

138. The Horse-chestnut Tree.

ern and Middle States, and is noted for the beauty of its flowers

and its stately and rapid growth. It is better suited for lawns than
for avenues, and is not of much value as a timber-tree. There are
a considerable number of varieties distinguished by the color of the
foliage and blossoms, and the habit of growth.

1007. Tue Onto Buckeye (¢sculus glabra). This tree grows from
Western Pennsylvania and Virginia westward to beyond the Mis-
sissippi, and is most abundant in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. It
is a small tree, with a rough bark, which has an unpleasant odor.
Its fruit is less than half the size of that of the horse-chestnut.

The Buckeyes. “255

1008. Tue Sweet or Bic Buckeye (seulus flava). This oe-
curs in the Western States and on the mountains in the Southern
States, as a tree from 69.to 80 feet in height, and 3 to 4 feet in di-
ameter. Upon the lowlands in the south it isa shrub from 3 to 6
feet high. It prefers the banks of rivers, and is an indication of a
rich soil. The seeds are larger than those of the common horse-
chestnut.
1009. THe Smarty Buckeye (4%sculus pavia). This is a shrub

from 3 to 10 feet high, found growing in fertile valleys from Vir-
ginia southward to Georgia, and westward to Arkansas. It some-

times grows to a small tree. The root is used as a substitute for
soap.

1010. The Aseulus parviflora is a small shrub found in South
Carolina and Georgia, from 2 to 4 feet high, with a fruit said to be
edible. .

1011. Tur Carrornta Buckeyy (Asculus Californica). This is
a shrub seldom growing more than twenty feet high, or more than
a foot in diameter. It puts forth flowers in successive crops during
most of the spring and summer, and for this reas»n may be desir-
able for ornamental planting, although of no account as a timber-
tree, as its wood is soft and brittle. It oceurs from San Luis Obispo
to Mendocino Co. and Mt. Shasta, and on the foot-hills of the Sierra
Nevada Mountains.

1012. Tur Texas Buckeye (Ungnadia speciosa). This occurs
in Texas, where it forms a small shrub or tree, with brittle wood,
alternate and unequally pinnate leaves, and showy rose-colored blos-
soms. The seeds are sweet-tasted like the walnuts, but are said to
possess emetic properties. It somewhat resembles the hickories in
its leaves, but more the horse-chestnut in its fruit.

1013. Tae Soapsperry (Sapindus saponaria). This is a small
tree, growing upon the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, from
20 to 50 feet in height. It derives its name: from the soap-like

_ properties of the fruit, which, when pounded up, forms a lather
with soft water, and may be used instead of soap. When bruised
and thrown into water, the fruit will intoxicate fish. This tree be-
longs to the same family as the buckeyes. There are one or two
other species in the southwest. There are about forty species of the
Sapindus known, chiefly found in the tropical and sub-tropical cli-
mates, in which alone it can be cultivated with success.

256 The Locust, and nearly related Genera.

thy he na

THE LOCUST.

1014. Tur Common Locust (Robinia pseudacacia). This is some-
times called the ‘‘ black locust,” the ‘‘ yellow locust,” or the ** false
acacia,” and occurs native west of the Alleghenies from Pennsylva-
nia to Arkansas. In the Carolinas, it is found native only in the

139. Leaves and Flower of the Asculus Californica, of one-half the
Natural Size. (See page 255.)
~“Jower mountain ridges, but it is thought that it once grew wild at
some distance east of the Blue Ridge, where it is not now found in
its native state. = .
1015. It is widely diffused by cultivation in all the Atlantic
States and in Europe. The rapidity of its growth, the beauty of its

_ The Locust. 257

blossoms, the solidity and durability of its wood, have heretofore
_ led to high expectations of great profit in its planting; and in the
early settlement of the prairie region of Illinois and elsewhere, it
was for many years a great favorite.

- 1016. These hopes were in many regions so effectually disap-

‘pointed by the “borers” that the trees not wholly destroyed by
them were to a great extent cut down, and the planting discon-
tinued. The most destructive of these borers are the larve of the
Cyllene picta,' already noticed [§ 721], although there are two or
three other species that commit great injuries. One of these is a
little reddish caterpillar, that bores into the pith of the twigs, which
become spongy and brittle. Another is a large grub of an insect,
which in its perfect state is a moth. These bore upwards and down-
wards, in oblique directions, in the solid wood, the holes increasing
in size as they grow, and finally coming through the bark to the
outside of the trunk.

1017. The locust does not generally succeed well when grown in
company with other trees. It is, however, thought by some that
when planted alternately with the box-elder, it is less liable to the
attack of borers.? The age at which a locust coppice should be eut
depends much on the uses to which it is to be applied. At ten or
fifteen years it yields excellent poles for fencing and other use, but
the timber is of greatest value when kept properly thinned out, at
forty or fifty years. Upon the banks of streams, and in light shift-
ing sands, it takes a remarkable growth, as it also does upon shel-
tered slopes in a hilly region, where it gets a good exposure to the
air and light. It is more profitable to plant it in clumps or groups
in these favorite spots than over great areas. Its-strong tendency
to sprout renders it inconvenient on the borders of cultivated
grounds. ie.

1018. The locust, under cultivation, produces many varieties,
some with upright and others with pendant or twisted and deformed
branches. It is in some varieties thornless, and in others the leaves

1 Known as the Cossus Robinae, as named by Professor Peck, by whom it
was supposed that it remained three years in the caterpillar state The
same insect, or some one very nearly like it, perforates the trunks of the
red ouk,

2Jowa Forestry Annual, 1881, p. 15.
17

258 The Locust, Coffee- Tree, ete.

are crisped or otherwise deformed, and the’ flowers assume various
yellow and pink colors, and different sizes and forms of growth.
From its tracing roots it sends up sprouts in great abundance, and
it may be propagated from these with great facility.

1019. The wood of the locust is fine grained, yellowish, hard, ne
very durable. For this reason, it is much used for trenails of ves-
sels. It is also very durable as posts and for studding of wainscots

in damp situations.

1020. THe CLammy Locust (Robinia viscosa). This is a smail
tree, native in the mountains from Southern North Carolina to
Georgia, where it grows to the height of forty-feet. It derives its
name from a glandular-viscid secretion upon the pods, leaf-stems,
and twigs.

1021. Tur Rosr-Loctusr (Robinia hispida). This is a small and
hispid species, found upon the mountains of the Carolinas and
Georgia and in pine barrens. It is sometimes cultivated for orna-
ment, the blossoms being twice the size of the common locust and
of a rose-red tinge.

1022. Kentucky Correr-TrEE (Gymnocladus Canadensis). This
tree, one of the leguminous family, grows native in the Western
States, and to great perfection in Kentucky and the southern parts
of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. It occurs in Western New York
and west of the Niagara river in Canada, and extends westward to
Nebraska. Under the must favorable conditions, it grows from
sixty to eighty feet in heivht. The bark is rough, the branches
stout and abruptly terminated, appearing in winter like a dead
tree. It has doubly pinnate leaves, a dense fine-grained wood, suit-
able for cabinet work. It is readily propagated from the seeds, but
these must be scalded and left soaking in warm water for some
hours before plarting.

1023. Tur Honry-Locvusr (Gleditschia tricanthos), This tree is
found widely diffused, but grows to greatest size in the Southern
States. It is nowhere abundant, but often cultivated for ornament,
and affords an excellent tree for hedges. In favorable circumstances,
it grows to the height of fifty feet or more, with a diameter of two
to three feet. The wood is hard, close-grained, and suitable for
many uses in manufactures, and is said to be very durable when
used as posts. It extends westward into hone. and Nebraska, and
southward to Mississippi.

The Red-Bud: The Acacias. 259

_ 1024. This species offers many inducements for planting. It is
- not troublesome from sprouting, as is the common locust; it is far
_ less liable to insect injuries, and after the first year itis hardy. It
bears transplanting much more easily than most other trees.

1025. Tae Warer-Locust (Gleditschia monosperma). This is a
small tree, growing in swamps along the Gulf States and as far
northward as Southern Illinois. It is of but small size, and the
wood of little value.

1026. Rep-Bup or Session (Cereis Canadensis). This is a
small but highly ornamental tree, which is covered in spring with
bright red blossoms. One of its common names was given by Ger-
ard, an old English gardener (1596), who says that ‘this is the
tree whereon Judas did hange himselfe, and not upon ye elder, as it is
said.” The common European species is the C. siliquastrum.

1027. The red-bud is found native on river banks from New
Jersey southward to Florida, and in the Western States. It grows
to the height of from 15 to 30 feet, and is often cultivated for orna-
ment. ~The small, deep, rose-colored flowers appear before the
leaves, in clumps of 4 to 8, in March and April. The fruit has an
acid taste.

' Tue Acacias.

1028. The genus Acacia numbers about 400 species, chiefly
found in warm climates, and most abundant in Australia and
Africa. We have about a dozen native spécies, chiefly herb-
aceous, on the southern borders of the United States, and one
(A. Greggii) in California. Several species of the WarriE (Acacia
pyenantha—the ‘ broad leaf,” ‘‘ golden,” and ‘‘ green” wattle; A. de-
eurrens, the ‘‘ black” wattle; and A. dealbata, or “silver” wattle)
‘are extensively used in Australia, and exported from thence as a
tanning material. The wattles grow readily on loose, sandy soil,
and might be cultivated in the milder regions of the United States,
and especially on the Pacific coast.

1029. The wood is tough, hard, and durable, and is used for
staves, spokes of wheels, tool handles, and many other purposes.
The acacias exude a gum that has commercial value, and furnish
excellent firewood. The quality of the bark for tanning depends
much upon the soil, and it is of much less value when grown upon
a limestone formation. The tree is not long lived, and it is at its
prime when about ten years old, at which age the wood is nine or

260 The Acacias: The Pears and Apples.

ten inches in diameter. In extreme cases, it becomes two feet
thick. The yield of tanning extract varies from thirty to ast
per cent.

1030. Tue Vicrorta Myauu (Acacia homalophylla). This has a
dark-brown wood, and is much used for turner’s work, and is valued
on account of its solidity and fragrance. It is also much used for
the manufacture of tobacco pipes. .

1031. Tae Buackwoop (A. melanoxylon) grows on river flats and
in moist, fertile valleys. In irrigated valleys and a deep soil, it
will attain a height of eighty feet, and several feet in diameter.
The wood is prized for furniture, railway carriages, boat building,
billiard tables, the sounding-boards of pianos, etc., and for veneers.
It takes a fine polish, and is fully equal to the best of walnut. It
bends very well when steamed.

1032. YELLow-woop (Cladrastis tinctoria). This species, de-
scribed by Michaux as the ‘‘ Virgilia latea,” and often known among
nurserymen as the ‘‘ virgilia,”’ occurs native in deep, fertile soil in
Western Tennessee and in Kentucky, growing, as a tree, from
twenty to forty feet high, and sometimes a foot in diameter. It has
a smooth, greenish bark, and a yellow heart-wood, which im-
parts its color to water, and is used as a domestic dye. It bears
large, white flowers, and is cultivated successfully for ornament in
the middle latitudes, and as far north as Central New York.

THe Pears and AppLes (Genus Pirus).

1033. This numbers about forty species, natives of the North
Temperate Zone, and widely cultivated for their fruit. In some
cases, they are valuable for their wood, which is solid, fine-grained,
and of uniform texture; well adapted for turning, and for certain
kinds of wood-engraving, although much inferior to the boxwood.
It makes an excellent fuel, and in some regions it may be bie
profitably for this use.

1034. In the open country east of the Cascade mountains in
Washington Territory, it appears to be particularly well adapted for

1The Virgilia is a distinct genus, not represented in the native flora of
the United States. The V. capensis is a tree growing in South Africa,
There is but one other species of the Cladrastis, and that grows in.Mant-
choura, in Asia.

The Mountain Ash: The Sweet-Scented Crab Tree. 261

_ this use, and the Surveyor-General of that Territory, in a report
made in 1881, says that a grove of apple or pear trees, if set out at
twelve feet apart, will attain a wonderful height in a few years.
The fruit will be worthless, but the timber will grow straight and
tall, if the bodies are thus kept shaded; and adds: ‘‘I doubt if
more valuable timber could be grown, for either fuel or manufactur-
ing purposes, all things considered. Such trees would grow wher-
ever planted with but little care or expense.”

1035. Toe Mountain Asx (Pirus Americana). This species

- grows in high northern
latitudes, from Green-
land and Labrador to
the Pacific coast, and
in the New England
and Northern States.
It is generally found
‘upon mountains, and
grows toa small tree.
The fruit, which is red,

remains on during the

winter, and it is often
cultivated for orna-
ment. It much resem-
bles the European

mountain ash (P. au- &

cuparia), but does not
grow to so large a size.
The latter grows freely
throughout the North-
ern States under culti-
vation, and is highly
ornamental when in
fruit.

@

140. Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit of the Mountain Ash. 1

1036. Tae Sweer-Scentep Cras TREE (Pirus coronaria). This
tree grows in Western New York, and as far west as Iowa, and
southward to Georgia and Louisiana. It forms a tree from ten to
twenty feet high, and is sometimes cultivated. The fruit, when
ripe, is an inch to an inch and 4 half in diameter, greenish-yellow,
somewhat translucent, and extremely acid.

262 The Plums and Cherries.

1037. Toe Orecon Cras-AppLe (Pirus rivularis). This occurs
as a shrub, usually forming dense thickets, but sometimes growing
as a tree from 15 to 25 feet in height, and a foot in diameter, from
Alaska southward along the islands and the mainland as far as So-
noma county, California. It has a very hard wood, susceptible of a
fine polish, and useful in mill work, where there is great wear. Its
fruit is prized by the Indian for food.

1038. Tae Western Mountain Asu (Pirus sambucifolia). This
is a small shrub, growing at great elevations upon the Sierras, and
sparingly in various parts of the interior of British America. — It is
usually a shrub from 4 to 8 feet in height.

THE Prums AND Crerrtes (Genus Prunus).

1039. This numbers about eighty species, widely scattered over
the North Temperate
Zone, and of these
some twenty are found
in North America,
and fourteen in the At-
lantic States. Upon
the Pacific coast, half
a dozen species occur,
F-» all of them shrubs,.
and of but slight: ac-
count either for their
wood or their fruit.
Thesespeciesare often
planted at great dis-
tances from the par-
ent tree, their seeds
being dropped undi-
gested by birds.

1040. Taz Brack
Cuerry (Prunus se-
rotina). This tree, in
a rich soil, grows very
rapidly, and forms one
of the most valued of
141. Wild Black Cherry.—Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit. our native woods for

,

The Plums and Cherries. 263

cabinet work. It is almost equal to mahogany, which it in some
degree resembles when darkened by age. It grows readily from
the seed, which may be planted in the fall or early in the spring,
and they generally do best if started in the place where the tree is
toremain. The kark, especially that of the roots, possess valuable
_ tonic and sedative qualities, and afford the basis of various remedies
sold in market. The leaves are also sometimes used in domestic
medicine.

1041. This tree is found to be well adapted to prairie planting in
Illinois, Iowa, and other Western States. In a deep, rich soil, it
sometimes attains a great size. It is noticed that the fruit improves
in quality and size under cultivation, and it begins to bear at an
early age.

1042. Brrp Cuerry (Prunus Pennsylvanica). This tree grows
to a small tree, but is short-lived, and its wood is too small and per-
ishable to be much value for any purpose but fuel. It is very apt
to spring up on land that has been burnt over; often intermingled
with poplars, and gradually giving place to larger and more hardy
kinds. The fruit grows in small clusters like the garden cherry.
The cherries are small, acid, and a favorite food of birds, through
whose agency the growth of this tree on a burnt district may be
probably ascribed.

1043, Tne Cuoxe-Cuerry (Prunus Virginiana). This derives
its name from the astringent property of its fruit, which grows in
racimes like grapes or currents. This species grows in dense thick-
- ets, and not of sufficient size to be of value for its wood.

1044. Tae Carotina Pim (Prunus Caroliniana). This is a highly
ornamental southern species, with evergreen foliage, and growing to
a height of from thirty to fifty feet. It has a very regular oval
head, and smooth branches. Its leaves are said to be very poison-
ous to cattle. It vccurs on the coast and islands of the Carolinas
and Georgia, and is well adapted for ornamental planting.

1045. Tae Carcasaw Prum (Prunus Chicasa). This is a native
of the South-western States, but is extensively naturalized in the
South, and is sometimes cultivated inthe North. The fruit is small,
and rather astringent, but runs into varieties, some of which are
much prized. It has been sometimes cultivated as a hedge-plant,
and is worthy of notice in tree-planting in the Western States.

264 The Thorn-Tree: The Service- Berry.

Several other species of this genus grow in the United States, but
none of them of much importance in forestry.

Tue Tuorn-Tree (Genus Crataegus).

1046. Between sixty and seventy species occur in Europe, in East-
ern Asia, and Japan, and in North America. A bout fifteen species are
found in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. The quality of
their wood is about the same as that of the apple-tree. They are of
slow growth, and unimportant as timber-trees, but they are in some
regions remarkably well adapted for hedges, being thorny, and
very scraggly in their growth, presenting a thicket that is quite im-
penetrable by man or beast.

1047. Two species are found in California, viz., C. rivalaris and
C. Douglas. They are shrubs or small trees, the former growing
to 10 or 15 feet, and the latter from 18 to 25 feet, with stout spines -
and black or dark purple fruit. |

1048. Tur Scar.etr-Fruirep THorn (Crategus coccinea). This
thorn, when grown as a hedge-plant, should be trained to grow
thin and tall, which can be done best by weaving in the branches
in one direction, and trimming them in the other.

_ 1049. Dorren-Frurr Peony (Crategus punctata). This is a
common species in the Atlantic States, growing naturally along
the borders of rivers, and is easily transplanted. When properly
trimmed and managed, it makes a superior hedge-plant. The fruit
is dull red, or yellowish, and dotted, and the leaves are: wedge-
shaped, tapering below into a slender leaf-stem.

Tur Service-Berry (Genus Amelanchier).

1050. Some four or five species of this genus are found in South-
ern Europe, Asia-Minor, Japan, and North America. Of these the
A. Canadensis, variously known as the ‘‘shad-bush,” ‘ june-berry,”
etc., is common in the Atlantic States, and the A. alnifolia upon the
Pacific coast. They are shrubs of small size, of no great interest
to the forester. The wood of the western species is very hard, and
is used by the Indians for various purposes. The berries are dried
and stored away by them in large quantities for winter use.

THE Evcatyprvs.
1051. Of the genus Eucal; yptus (of the natural orders Myrtaceee),

The Eucalyptus. 265

about 150 species are described, chiefly natives of Australia and the
Indian Archipelago, and of these the best known is the E. globulus.
This was first discovered by Labillardiére, in Tasmania, in 1792,
but was not much noticed in Europe until 1861. M. Prosper

Ramel, who had seen it growing in a botanical garden in Melbourne,
Was so impressed with its probable value for cultivation in Europé,
that he sent the seeds to Paris in 1860, and attempts in planting
were made the next year. It grew remarkably well, but was killed
down in winter, and it is now well known that it can not survive
the frost, at least not till the wood is several years old. It thrives,
however, very well in Southern France, and is found peculiarly
well adapted to cultivation in Algeria.

1052. It has been tried in many parts of the United States, but
not with much success, excepting in California, where, within the
influence of the coast climate, but not in the interior valleys, it
thrives with great luxuriance, provided that the temperature never
goes down below about 28° (F.). The influence of the sea-air ap-
pears to give it some immunity against frost.

1053. Under favorable conditions, the growth is truly wonderful.
A section was shown at the Centennial Exhibition, in 1878, but
eleven years old, that came from a tree sixty feet high and thir-
teen and a half inches in diameter at five feet from the ground.

1054. About twenty species of the eucalyptus have been tried in
that state, of which half a dozen have been planted to some extent,
and probably three-fifths of them are the ‘ blue-gums” (E. globu-
lus), the rest being chiefly the E. viminalis, F. marginata, and E. ros-
trata. Of these the first has attracted the most attention, on ac-
count of its rapid growth, although its timber is less valuable than
some other hard-wooded species. It is estimated that six millions
of this tree had been planted in the ten years preceding 1882, mostly
in streets and yards, in cities, villages, and around dwellings.

1055. The E. cornuta and E. gigantea have shown a susceptibility
to the frost quite equal to that of the E. globulus, although the LE.
rostrata and E. viminalis are more hardy. Of 120,000 trees planted
at Tipton, and well-cared for, nearly all of the E. globulus, E. cornuta,
and E. gigantea died within two years, and the E. rostrata thrived,
but grew slowly.

1056. The texture of the wood thus rapidly grown is soft and
sappy, as compared with that hardened by age, but it is highly

266. The Eucalyptus.

probable that it would all the more readily admit of the injection
of creosote, or the mineral salts in solution, that would render it
hard, strong, and durable.

1057. The mature wood is rather pale, and not so ornamental
as many others of the genus, but it takes a good polish, is hard,
durable, and nearly equal to English oak as a building timber, but
it will not bear contact with the soil or water as well as the red-gum,
iron-bark, and box-eucalypts. It varies in solidity according to the
conditions of its growth, and is sometimes too heavy to float. It
is used in ship-building, carriage-making, and the manufacture of
agricultural implements, and for telegraph poles and railway ties.
In its native country it is a favorite material for fencing, and ya-
rious farm uses.

1058. As to profit in the cultivation of the Eucalyptus globulus in
California, we have returns of twenty acres cleared, when eleven -
years old, to make room for an orchard, in which after charging
every item of cost, and a yearly rental of $5 per acre, the net
profits were $3,866.04, or about $17.87 per acre annually. When
used as fuel, the wood should be split immediately after felling, or
otherwise it becomes soggy and worthless.

1059. Ina paper presented at the American Forestry Congress
at Cincinnati, in April, 1882, by Prof. R. E. C. Stearns, of the
California State University, after presenting the leading facts in
reference to tree-planting in that state with evident fairness, he
adds: ‘‘If one-half of the trees planted, as represented by the pre-
ceding figures, are still living and growing, the past has been really a
very great success: If new plantations are being made at the rate
of say only 50,000 or 75,000 per annum, the present is full of prom-
ise, and the future full of hope.”

1060. The seeds of the E. globulus are small (about 10,000 to an
ounce), and will keep their vitality about four years. The lower
leaves are broad and heart-shaped, but the upper ones turn edge-
wise, so as to present both sides to the light, and are long-pointed
and curved flatwise. For this reason this tree does not shade the
ground so much as most forest trees.

_ 1061. The leaves, when rubbed, emit a strong aromatic odor,
and afford by distillation an essential oil that is found to possess
‘valuable medicinal qualities. About the year 1870, the exporta-
-tion of this oil from Australia by a single manufacturer amounted

The Eugenias: The Cornel Family. 267

to over 12,000 pounds. It is used also for scenting soaps, for di-
~ luting the oil. of roses, and for other perfumes. The alcoholic ex-
tract of the leaves is found tu be efficacious in intermittent fever,
and the balsamic odors emitted while growing’ are believed to be
‘salutary in certain diseases. From the rapidity of its growth, this
tree evaporates a large amount of water that is taken up by the
roots, and has a tendency by this means to promote the drainage of
-pestilential swamps.’

1062. In its native country the blue-gum grows to the enormous
size of 400 to 500 feet in height, and over 80 feet in circumference.
It even rivals the giant trees of California in height, but not in
symmetry of proportion and in solid contents. Among the other
species of this genus there are many that grow to colossal size, and
some that excel in beauty and durability of the wood.

1063. Tur Eveenta belongs also to the allspice family (My-
tacee), and four or five species occur as small trees or shrubs in
Southern Florida. The wood closely resembles that of boxwood,
and is found to be equally suitable for wood-engraving. It is, how-
ever, of small size, and has not hitherto been brought into use for
this purpose. An immense number of species of this genus have
been described, of which about five hundred are deemed well char-
acterized, and some two hundred others as less certain. They are
chiefly natives of tropical and sub-tropical regions in Asia and
America, and a few are found in Australia and Africa.

Tue Cornet Faminy (Cornacee).
1064. This embraces about a dozen genera, and less than a hun-
dred species, and is widely distributed throughout the north tem-
perate zone. They are mostly unimportant shrubs, but some of

1In the autumn of 1881, the author visited the Abbey of Trois-Fontaines,
‘near the city of Rome, and saw the operations of planting this tree that
were going on, about 150 convicts being employed in the labor. The seeds
are sown in boxes filled with rich soil, and the plants were taken out with-
out disturbing the roots, and set in places first prepared, and well-watered.
They need watering the first season, but afterwards will take care of them-
selves. The soil is excessively hard and dry. This region was so unhealthy
‘that the abbey had been wholly abandoned. The planting began about
1868, and the place is now inhabited by a great number of persons, and in
1881, for the first time, the convicts were lodged upon the premises instead
of being taken back to the city every night as formerly.

268 : The Sour-Gum.

them grow to a useful size as trees. Their bark is bitter and tonic,
and their wood generally very hard and fine-grained.

1065. Of the genus Cornus, we find in the United States about a
dozen species. Of these in the Atlantic States the Frowerine
Doawoop (C. florida) is perhaps the most important, as well for
cultivation as an ornamental tree, as for the solidity and excellence
of its wood.

1066. The C. Nuttallit grows in California, and northward to Brit-
ish Columbia, to the size of 50 to 70 feet, and bears a showy
blossom. Its wood is close-grained and hard, and it is well worthy
of cultivation. There are about half a dozen other species of this
genus in California.

Tue Sovr-Gum (Genus Nyssa).

1067. This genus, also belonging to the Cornacee, of which five
or six species are found in the north temperate zone, in North
America, the Himalaya region, and Malay archipelago. The san-
dal-wood of commerce belongs to this family.

1068. Tue PrerrertpGe (N. multiflora) occurs in the Atlantic
Staies from New England southward to the gulf coast. It is va-
riously named the “ tupelo,” ‘‘ hornbeam,” ‘‘ snag-tree,” ete., and
grows chiefly in swamps, and often to a large size. Its wood is ex-
ceedingly fibrous and difficult to split, and this quality renders it a
valuable material for wagon-hubs, the best being found in the
swamps of Maryland and the sea-coast of New Jersey, where it is
found in perfection.

1069. When used for hubs, it should be cut in the early part of
winter, and from five to ten feet from each tree, near the butt, may
be taken. It should be at once deprived of the bark, and be cross-
piled in dry open sheds for three years or more, until thoroughly
dried. The best qualities are fined-grained, heavy, and the fibers
of the wood are so woven together that it can scarcely be split by
any force that can be applied.

1070. The wood is also, for this reason, much used for making
packing-boxes that require great strength, and at Syracuse, N. Y.,
it is used in making pipes for distributing the brine at the salt
works in that vicinity. Four other Bpecies of the Nyssa, 0 occur in
the Miodle: and Southern States.

The Elders: The Haw and the Button-Bush. 269.

. THE Expers (Genus Sambucus).

1071. The two principal species of the elder found native in the
United States are unimportant shrubs. One of them, the red-ber-
ried elder, (S. pubens) has sometimes an arborescent form, and is
occasionally, but rarely, found 15 to 18 feet high. The S. glauca of
California and Oregon is sometimes of this height, and from six inches
toa foot indiameter. The Europeon elder (S. racemosa and S. nigra)
grows to a tree of considerable size at the base, but not high in pro-
portion, and the young branches are straight, and with a relatively
large pith, as in the common elder (S. Canadensis) of the Atlantic
States. Its berries are sometimes used in making pies, and their
juice in making wine. Of the elders, about ten or twelve species
are known, chiefly natives of temperate regions, except one or two
found in South Africa and some upon mountains within the tropics.
This genus and the following belong to the natural order Caprifo-
lacee :

Haw: Stor: Arrow-Woop (Genus Viburnum).

1072. Of this genus about eighty species are described, and about —
a dozen are native in the United States. They are, for the most
part, unimportant shrubs, growing in swamps, or damp woods, but
some of them preferring a dry situation, and occasionally they be-
come small trees.

1073. The black haw (V. prunifolium) grows to the height of 20
feet, and the V. lentago to an equal size. Both have a wide range
towards the north and west, and varieties of the former endure a
dry climate quite well, and may help to make up some rea if in
the forest culture of the western regions.

1074. The Viburnum opulus is the ‘‘ high cranberry,” sometimes
cultivated for its fruit, or as an ornamental hedge-plant. A garden
variety of this species, introduced from Europe, has large showy
white flowers, all sterile, and is known as the “‘ snow-ball bush.” It is
easily propagated by sprouts from the root, and by layers, and has
a hard fine-grained wood.

1075. Tue Burroy-Busu (Cephalanthus occidentalis), of the nat-
ural order Rubiacee, is an unimportant shrub, growing throughout
the Northern and Western States and on the Pacific coast. It pre-
fers the margins of swamps and a rich soil, and sometimes grows to
a small tree, but is too small sized for any useful purpose. The

270 The Silver-Bell: The Ash.

fruit closely resembles in form that of the plane-tree, but is smaller.
It is sometimes called the *‘ pond dogwood.” .

Tur Snow-Drop, or Strver-Bett TreE (Genus Halesia).

1076. The family to which this tree belongs, (Styracee) contains
but two genera within the United States, and this genus but five
species, of which two are found in North America, one in China,
and two or three in Japan. Our species are small trees, found in
the Southern Atlantic States, and bear showy white flowers. They
are often cultivated for ornament. The H. diptera is found in rich
woods along the Gulf States: the H. tetraptera occurs in woods and
along streams in West Virginia, and from Ilinois to Florida, mostly
upon or near mountains, and the H. parviflora is a southern species.

Tue Asn (Genus Frazxinus).

1077. This belongs
to the olive family
(Oleacee), which in-
cludes, besides, the
European olive, so
valued for its fruit-
and oil, the Forsyth-
ias, lilacs, privets,
and fringe-tree, that
have been introduced
for ornamental plant-
ing.

1078. The Europ-
ean ash (Fraxinus
* excelsior) is generally
found growing with
other kinds, and sel-
domalone. It thrives
best in a warm cli-
mate, and is found,
not only upon plains,
but on slopes and
plateaus of consid-
142. Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit of the Ash. erable size. It suc-

The White Ash. 271

ceeds best, however, in the former, but not upon elay nor sand. It
generally bears seeds early and abundantly every year.” Its leaves
are often gathered as forage. The wood is used to advantage in
places always wet or always dry, but it does not bear alternate ex-
posures. The timber is especially valued in carriage-making, and
for various manufactures.

1079. The genus F’ravinus includes about a dozen species within

_ the United States, the principal of which are the following:
1080. Wurre Asn (Fravinus Americana). This tree prefers a
deep and somewhat damp soil, and grows in congenial situations
rapidly and to a large size. The wood of second-growth white ash
has, perhaps, no equal for lightness, elasticity, and strength, and is
largely used for the handles of forks, rakes, ete., scythe snaths, ag-
riculiural implements, carriage-making, cooperage, and other man-
ufactures, and when sawn into thin boards it furnishes a highly or-
namental wood for joinery and carpenter work.
- 1081. The large ‘‘ burls” that form on its trunk are- especially
valued for the making of veneers. The wood splits with great ease
and regularity, and is much used for hoops, basket work, and the
bottoming of chairs.

1082. The white ash ranks among our best timbers, where grown
upon dry ground and under favorable conditions. The wood is
light, strong, elastic, and durable. As grown in open ground, it
gains rapidly in size, and the wood is of superior quality for scythe
snaths, fork-handles, and in wagon-making. In a dry climate it
does not grow as well as the green-ash, but the latter does not grow
to so large a size. .

1083. The ash is best raised fromthe seeds, which may be gath-
ered in the fall, and kept in a cool damp place till spring. They
may be planted like corn, but not over an inch in depth. They may
be transplanted from nurseries with facility, but do not get so early
a start as when planted where they are to remain. If planted in .
rows, about three feet apart and two feet between trees, in a cool and
damp, but not wet soil, the alternate trees will, at the end of ten
years, afford the best of hoop-poles, and afterwards, at intervals of
ten or fifteen years, other thinnings of much greater value. As an
ornamental tree, it thrives finely in full exposure, but the shade is
not dense.

1084 The white ash grows in moist woods, from Canada to Flor-

272 - The Ashes.

ida and Louisiana. A variety (microcarpa), with remarkably small
fruit, is found in Alabama, and another variety (Tezensis, perhape
a distinct species), is found in Texas, near the Rio Grande.

1085. Buack Asn (Fraxinus sambucifolia). This ash grows
chiefly in swamps, and is distinguished by the greater number of
its leaflets and the blunt appearance of its branches, as compared
with those of the preceding species.

1086. This tree grows very commonly in the Eastern, Northern,
and North-western States. The wood is not so valuable as that of
the white ash, but is used for hoops, and the large knots upon the
trunk are turned into bowls. It should never be planted upon dry
land, but on the borders of swamps and in humid soils. It may be
planted closely, for the thinnings have value from a small size,
being suitable for hoop-poles, poles, etc., up to sizes suitable for
fence-rails, rafters, and sills.

1087. Tue Green Asn (Fraxinus viridis) is a small or middle-
sized tree, having much the same range as the white ash, and found
well adapted to cultivation in the prairie region.

1088. Tae. Biur Asu (Fraxinus quadrangulata) is a large tim-
ber-tree found growing in dry woods in the Western States, from
Michigan to Tennessee. It derives its name from the bluish tinge
which ‘its inner bark gives to water when macerated in it.

1089. Toe Water Asn (Fravinus platycarpa) is a middle-sized
tree growing in swamps from Virginia to Louisiana.

1090. THe Rep Asn (Fraxinus pubescens), a middle or large-
sized tree‘ growing from Canada to’ Dakota, and south to Florida.

1091.. Tur Orrcon Asn (Fraxinus Oregona) is a low-spreading —
tree, common along the Columbia river and the upper part of the
Sacramento Valley. It seldom grows more than a foot in diameter
by thirty to forty feet-in height.

1092. The following. may be mentioned only by their botanical
names, as of less importance, viz.:

Fraxinus anomala, a shrub or low tree in Southern Utah.

F. cuspidata, a shrub five to eight feet high in New Mexico.

F. dipetala, a small tree in Western California.

F.. Greggiti, a shrub five to eight feet high found on limestone soil
in South-western Texas and the adjacent parts of Mexico.

F, pistaciefolia, a small tree found in South-western Texas, and
westward to Arizona.

The Olive: The Lilac: The Walnut Family. 278

f Tue Otrve. (Genus Olea).

~ 1093. This embraces about’ thirty-five species, found in tropical
Asia and the region bordering upon the Mediterranean. The com-
mou European olive (O. Europea) has been long under cultivation
in California, but not to considerable extent.

1094. Tae Witp Ottve of the Southern States (Osmanthus
Americana) has about the same range as the live-oak, and is worthy
of cultivation as affording some variety, but it does not grow to a

large size.

Tae Livac. (Genus Syringa).

- 1095. Of this there are about half a dozen species, natives of
Eastern Europe and Asia. They form desirable shrubs for cultiva-
tion, on account of the beauty and fragrance of their blossoms, but
are of too small size to be important in forest culture.

Toe Watnur Famiry. (Juglandee).

1096. This embraces five genera, and some thirty-two species,
widely scattered over the northern hemisphere of both continents,
and upon mountains within the tropics. The two genera of es-
pecial interest are the Carya and Juglans, or the hickories and the
walnuts, both of -
which are of the
greatest importance
as timber-trees, and — Ss
several of them of iy S
great value for their \ \ fj a
frait. Sg

1097. All of this ry x
family yield, when ee?
tapped in spring, a 2° f :

sweetish sap, that
may be evaporated
down to syrup and
sugar. The amount 143. The Walnut.—Leaves and Fruit.

is not, however, sufficient to render it an object, and the injury to
the trees would be much greater than any benefit that could be de-

rived from this practice. i
18

274 The Hickories.

Tae Hicxortes. (Genus Carya).

1098. These occur native only in North America, although fossil
species are found in Europe.
About ten living species are
known in the United States
and Mexico. The wood of the
hickories is generally heavy,
hard, close-grained, and re-
markably strong and elastic.
As a fuel they rank higher
than any other of our native
woods.

1099. Tore Prcan-NutT

i (Carya oliveformis). This is
144. The Weteak Foun taniee Blossoms, foynd growing to the height
of sixty to seventy feet along
the country bordering the Mississippi and the lower Ohio, from Iowa
southward to Louisiana, and westward in Indian Territory. The wood is
coarse-grained, hard,strong,
and durable, but not so val-
uable as that of some other
species. The fruit of the
pecan is considered as one
of the best of the hickories,
and occasionally a tree is
found upon which it is ex-
~ ceptionally fine. There can
be no doubt but that these
could be greatly improved
by cultivation, and that the
finer varieties could be
grafted upon other species,
and grown with much
profit.

1100. Tue Birrrer Hicx-
~ ory (Carya amara). This species occurs from New England and
New York, and southward into the Carolinas, where it is oetasion-
ally found from the coast to the mountains. It grows best in a cool

145. Carya oliveformis—The Pecan-nut.

The Hickories. 275

rich soil, but the timber is not equal to that of some other species.
It comes to greatest perfection in the Western States, and is found
as far westas Nebraska. It issometimes called the ‘‘ swamp hickory.”

110]. Tue Saetit-Bark Hickory (Carya alba). This is one of
_ the most widely distributed and most valuable of the hickories. It
is found from Massachusetts to Nebraska, and is particularly well
_ developed in deep fertile soil in the Western States. In West Vir-
ginia it is sometimes found eighty to a hundred feet in height, and
from two and a half to three feet in diameter. Its timber is highly
prized in carriage-making, but is not durable in the weather. It is
found somewhat sparingly in North Caroliaa, and is most common
in the Southern States, upon the uplands of the interior.

1102. Tae Wurre-Heartr Hickory or Mocxer-Not (Carya to-
mentosa). This species is found from New England southward to
the Carolinas, and westward to Iowa and Nebraska. In North Car-
olina it grows to sixty feet or more in height, and from twenty inches
to two feet indiameter. It extends from the coast to the mountains,
and is the only hickory that grows on the “ barrens.” Its timber is
much used in earriage-making.

1103. Tae Tarcx Suevt-Bark Hickory (Carya suleata). This
is chiefly a western species, and grows in rich soils to eighty and a

hundred feet in height and three feet in diameter.
1104. Tae Broom-Hicxory or Pic-Nur (Carya poreina). This
is the most common species in the Eastern and Middle States, and
is found westward to Nebraska: Its fibers are very tough, and it is
sometimes made into brooms. Under favorable conditions it grows
to four feet in didmeter.

1105. Tue Pic-Nur Hickory (Carya glabra). This species is
somewhat widely distributed, and is found disseminated among other
hickories in North Carolina and southward. It is found westward
to Iowa.

1106. Tae Warer Brrrer-Nur Hickory (Carya aquatica). This
is found in swamps in North Carolina. Its timber is of poorer qual-
ity than that of any other of the hickories.

Tae Brack Waunut, Burrernvr, Erc. (Genus Juglans).
1107. Of this genus, seven or eight species are known in temper-
ate and sub-tropical regions, of which one is found in Europe and
Central Asia, two in Eastern Asia and Japan, and four or five in

276 The Black Walnut.

Canada, the United States, Mexico, and the West Indies. The
fruit is oily and richly flavored, and is sold in the markets for eat-
ing, and when young and before the shell hardens, it is often used
as pickles. The outer husk of the fruit, and sometimes the bark,
are used in dyeing.

1108. Tar Brack Watnut (Juglans nigra). This tree derives
its name from the color of the heart-wood, which is of a dark tinge,
and it has long been a favorite material for cabinet-wares. When
exposed to the weather, it is durable, and in the first settlement of
regions where it was common it was much used for posts and rails.

1109, When the wood of this tree has a waved or curly grain, it
is highly prized for veneers. Such pieces are best obtained from a
crotch of large limbs, or from the stump and large roots, or, better
still, from the large burls or excrescences that are sometimes found
on the trunk. Enormous prices have been paid for single trees hay-
ing an exceptionally fine grain.

1110. This may be justly regarded as among the most valuable
of our native species, and in a rich and rather humid soil is among
the most profitable to plant. It will grow very well, but not so
rapidly, upon lands that are dry, and in a climate approaching the
arid, and it is found well adapted for cultivation upon the prairies
and the eastern borders of the great plains. As it sends down a
strong tap-root, and is very liable to suffer in transplanting, it
should always be planted where it is to remain. This may be done
in autumn or early in the spring, and if the latter, from nuts that
have been exposed to freezing, as elsewhere described.

1111. There is another fact to be noticed, in reference to this
tree, that deserves attention. In the more westerly States, where
the blue-grass thrives, it is very apt to get into a. black walnut
grove, and unless carefully kept out by cultivation, it will injure its
growth. This happens from the fact that the grass starts very
early, and even matures its seed before the foliage of the trees is
fully opened.

1112. It is therefore best to plant it alternately with other trees
that put forth their leaves earlier, although they may not be worth
as much for their wood, such as soft maples, box-elder, or cotton-
wood. The latter have the further advantage of compelling the
black walnut trees to run up straight and high, and they-serve to
shelter and protect it from the hot sun and from drying winds.

The Butternut. 277

1113. These nursing-trees may be taken out when the growth be-
comes too dense, and they will be then of use as fuel and for various
farm purposes.’ An acre of land requires for planting about seven
bushels of black walnuts with the shucks on. They must be
planted early, and in a dry prairie soil they require to be covered
more deeply than in a humid soil.

1114. In Canada, the black walnut once abounded in the country
drained by the tributaries of the St. Clair river, but it has now be-
come scarce, and from present prospects it will soon disappear as a
native timber tree.

1115. Burrernur (Juglans cinerea). This tree, when grown
alone, is noted for its broad-spreading habit, but in woods, among
other trees, it grows to forty or sixty feet in height. Its lumber is
brownish-white, and in texture much like that of the black walnut.
It works smoothly, takes a good finish, and is much used for inside
finishings.

1116. This tree is widely distributed throughout the Northern
and Middle States, is easily raised from the nuts, and, like the black
walnut, it is difficult to transplant. It prefers a rich, caleareous
soil, and under favorable circumstances its growth is quite rapid.
It must, however, be crowded laterally, if we wish to have it form
a tall straight trunk.

1117. The bark of the butternut has medicinal properties that
give it the specific name—Cathartica, as applied by Micaux. It is
also sometimes used for dyeing, and it possesses some tanning prop-
erties. ?

1118. Juglans Californica. This is a large shrub or small tree,
but sometimes found forty to sixty feet in height and from two to
four feet in diameter. It occurs in California, from San Francisco
southward.

1119. Juglans rupestris, This is a shrub found in Texas, New
Mexico, and Arizona, and grows to from six to twenty feet in height.

THe WitLows AND Popiars. (Natural Order Salicinee).

1120. This natural order embraces only the willows and the pop-
lars, concerning which botanists differ greatly in the classification.
They are scattered over the north temperate and borders of the
Arctic zone; some occur within the tropics, and a few in the south-
ern hemisphere, but none in Australia or on the islands of the South-
ern Pacific.

278 The Willows.

Tue Wittows. (Genus Saliz).

1121. The willows form a great number of species,' and run into
hybrids and varieties that render their study botanically a matter
of unusual difficulty.? They occur in a great variety of soil, but
generally prefer humid localities, and many kinds occur chiefly
along the borders of streams. Their roots in such places present the
most efficient means for preventing erosions, and they site be
planted for this purpose with great success.

1122. Willows produce seeds much like those of the poplars, and
these ripen in the spring. They are, however, best propagated from
cuttings from the robust young wood or in sections from the roots.

1123. These cuttings may be made late in the fall or in winter,
but always after the fall of the leaf, and before the sap starts in the
spring. They should be selected from sound and thrifty young.
wood, of the previous year’s growth, tied in bundles and set in a
damp cellar, their lower ends set in sand or wet moss, and their
tops prevented from drying; or, instead of this, they may be set in
trenches not liable to standing water, and covered from the frost.
They should be set early in spring, in ground previously prepared,
and will need cultivation till they are above the reach of weeds.

1124. ‘There are several of the willows that grow to large trees
and produce valuable timber. Their rapidity of growth, under fa-
vorable conditions, is remarkable. The wood is light, tough, and
easily worked, and in some kinds it is used for hoops, tool handles,
and turned wares. ‘The bark contains tanning and medicinal qual-
ities, and the charcoal from its wood is used for making gunpowder.

1 About 160 in number, of which about 60 occur in North America.

*Itis remarked by Grigor that ‘‘there is no genus of plants in general”
cultivation whose species are more confused than that of the willow. This
is accounted for partly from the more prominent kinds having been hybrid-
ized, and yielded intermediate varieties without number, and partly from
each species, containing male and female plants, and the same species dif-
fering to some extent in appearance at certain seasons of the year. Add
to this the circumstance of old trees assuming a very different appearance
from young ones, and that no tree is more apt to change its appearance
from a change of soil and climate, and it will not be surprising that some
confusion should exist in the genus, and that the more prominent species
only should be readily recognized.” (Arboriculture, page 310.)

The Willows. 279

The ashes of the willow are rich in potash, and the leaves in some
- countries are gathered for feeding sheep in winter.

1125. Among the willows of large growth, the Waitt W1LLow
(S. alba) is by far the most important. It is sometimes called the
gray or Huntingdon willow, and is already widely introduced in the
prairie region of the northwest, where it is valued above all others
as a wind-break.

1126. The white willow is found to thrive exceedingly well in
Northern Iowa and in Minnesota, as a hedge and screen. It grows
With great rapidity, and its wood is useful as a fuel, and, when
peeled and seasoned, as poles for all kinds of farm uses. When
split-and nailed to posts, it makes a very good fence. -

1127. This willow is readily propagated from cuttings, as already
described, and they should be set rather deep in soil liable to drouth,
and so thick that they will shade the ground early, but care should
be taken to thin them out as soon as they become crowded.

1128. Toe Rounp-LEavep or Goat-Wit1ow (S. caprea). This
is one of the kinds of willow that grow to a large size, with a tough
elastic wood, of about the same market value as the birch. The
bark is used for tanning leather. This willow, in England, is much
prized for coppice-growth, where there is a demand for hoops, poles,
rods for crates, sheep-fences, or similar uses, and no tree cut once in
three or four years will yield in a short period a greater bulk of
faggot wood. On congenial soil, the growth of one season is from
eight to twelve feet long, and an inch in diameter at a yard from
the ground. It grows forty or fifty feet high, and from one and a
half to two feet in diameter. It stands exposure to the sea winds
better than most trees.

1129. Tae Beprorp Wit1ow (8S. Russelliana) is of rapid growth,
and the wood equal to that of the white willow, if not superior.
The Rep-Woop Wi1tow (8. fragilis). This has a light, tough, and
durable wood, but when old it is very liable to die at the top. The
specific name is given from the facility with which the twigs used
for basket-work, break from the tree, although the twigs themselves
are tough and pliable.

1130. Willow, when sawn into boards, is extremely light, but
tough, and is not apt to splinter or receive damage from the fall or
friction of hard materials. It is for this reason much prized as a
lining for cart-bodies and barrows. In England it is highly prized

280 The Osier Willow.

for railroad-brakes, as it is not readily set on fire by friction. In the
works constructed for preventing the erosion of mountain torrents,
bundles of willow are often fastened down in the beds of streams, —
where they sometimes take root and grow. In the jettys constructed ©
by Captain Eades, for improving the mouth of the Mississippi for
navigation in recent years, the willow was the principal brush-wood
employed.
Cultivation of the Osier or Basket- Willow.

1131. Although this is scarcely a branch of forestry in its ordi-
nary sense, it is often noticed in connection with it, and as it involves
some principles in cultivation in common with tree-planting, we will
concisely state the principal rules concerning it. It deserves favor
on account of the small capital that it employs, the large amount of
hand-labor that it affords at remunerative prices, and the considerable
amount of money that would be saved to the country were the sup-
plies that we use, wholly produced upon our own soil.' It is fur-
ther to be noticed, that willows may be cultivated upon soil too
marshy for most kinds of farm-crops, and that the labor they fur-
nish may be carried on through the year.

1132. The soils best adapted for the willow are rich alluvions,
and reclaimed swamps, and the land should be sufficiently drained.
It would be better if means were provided for irrigation in dry sea-
sons. If liable to overflow in spring floods, it should have ditches
at proper intervals for sooner carrying off the water.

1133. In preparing an osier field for planting, it should be cleared
of all vegetation, and the soil should be mellowed. by plowing or
spading late in the fall before planting.

1134. The kinds of. willow preferred in Europe are chiefly the
following :

1. Red-willow (Salix purpurea).

2. Ural willow (S. purpurea var. Uralensis).

3. White osier (S. viminalis).

4, Narrow-leaved willow (S, rubra or S. viminalis-purpurea).

5. Soft-leaved willow (S. mollissima).

6. Caspian willow (S. acutifolia or S. pruinosa).

1135. These, under cultivation, run into varieties, so that their

1 During the ten years ending in 1879, the annual importation of prepared
willow averaged $33,000, and that of willow-work $170,000,

The Osier Willow. 281

distinctive characters are lost. They differ greatly in habit of
growth, hardiness, and qualities suitable for various uses. The
kinds suited to a given location can not be known before trial, and
those who may engage in this planting will do well to experiment
_ with several kinds before planting largely with any. In starting an
osier plantetion, it is recommended to obtain the cuttings in the
latter part of February or the first of March, and carefully kept
_ from drying until ready for use.

. 1136. The finest stems should be selected, from the wood grown
_ the year before. The ground is marked out by cords, and some
prefer to run the lines east and west. For the kinds that are to
be cut every year, they may be set in rows 18 to 20 inches apart,
and for those to be cut every second year, they should be wider.
For the white osier and the Caspian willow the space is sometimes
30 inches between the lines, and the intervals between are planted
with some crop. They should be at about one-third of these distances
between in the rows. It is important that the ground should be
well shaded, and the plants always grow more uniform when some-

}) what crowded than when wider apart. In more open spaces, the

sprouts branch, but the wood is more solid and durable.

1137. The number of cuttings required for an acre will range
from 18,000 to 75,000, and may be calculated by the aid of a table
elsewhere given in this book. They must be cut smoothly into
lengths of ten or twelve inches, and pressed into the soil, the butt-
end first, so as to leave about an inch out of the ground. Care
must be taken not to peel back the bark in setting, and a hole may
be made with an old bayonet, or something of the kind, if the
ground is a little hard. They should slope at an angle of 45° to-
_ wards the north.

1138. It is sometimes preferable to set in trenches, and in poor
soils to fertilize with leaf-mold, stable-manure, or bone-dust. The
manure should not be put in contact with the cuttings, but near
them, and it is highly advantageous to irrigate with the soakings of
manure during the summer.

1139. The ground should be kept mellow and free of weeds, and
the first cutting, if delayed till the second year, will give a stronger
growth to the roots. After the first the cutting may be made an-
nually, or on alternate years according to the sizes desired. It

282 The Osier Willow.

should be done with a very sharp knife, bent flatwise to a right an-
gle, with the cutting edge on the inside.

1140. The time of cutting should be always late in fall, or in
winter, but never in leaf-time, nor when in sap. The rods should be
be sorted into sizes, tied in bundles, dried in the sun, and stored in
a dry place till ready for peeling. The rain discolors and injures
them. When peeled, the rods are first set in the water, and where
assisted by a constant and genial temperature this may be done at
any time in the winter. When peeled, they should be dried fora
day or so in the sun, and if properly cared for the wood will be
white and brilliant. If not, they will have a dull yellow tint,
which may be somewhat whitened by sulphur-fumes.

1141. The bark stripped from osiers may be used for tieing bun-
dles, or spread as litter in stables, and to some extent be cut up with
straw and fed to stock. It is used in tanning leather for gloves, and
for the preparation of salicine for medicinal use. In common prac-
tice, from 18 to 20 per cent of willows were damaged, either from
branching, injury to bark, crooked form, or dead tops. They
sell at a discount of sixty to seventy per cent, and are used for in-
ferior work.

1142. When carefully managed, an osier field may last 25 to 30
years, but a single year of neglect will greatly shorten this period.
Something may be done to restore vigor, by letting the shoots re-
main over a year, and by manuring, but as soon as the yield begins
to fail it is best to begin anew. If on the same grounds the roots
should all be taken out, and fresh soil from below be brought to the
surface by spading.

1143. An osier plantation costs about $20 to $30 a year for cul-
tivation, per acre, and will yield from $100 to $125. The cultiva-
tion has its perils, as well as its profits. It may be injured by early
or late frosts, but only to kill the wood that has not ripened. The
willow is sometimes attacked by the saw-fly, the Nematus ventralis,
or nearly allied species, similar to those that attack the currant and
gooseberry, by eating off the foliage. The best remedy is the dust
of white hellebore freely sprinkled upon the leaves just after the
eggs are hatched. This insect produces two broods a year, one in
May and another in September.

1144. Among the other enemies of the willow are a ‘we of fly
(Cecidomya salicina), which stings and lays eggs in the tender sprouts,

The Osier and the Dutch Willows. 283

causing a spongy excrescence and a scrubby growth. These insects
in turn are attacked by the ichneumon insects, and the balance of
nature badly disturbed by the former, has been restored in a single
season by the latter. Another insect (Tipula saliciperda) and sev-
eral small beetles have at times proved injurious.

1145..Among mammals the sheep, goat, rabbit, and mouse are
often destructive, the former by eating the leaves and the latter by
gnawing the bark. The red willow, from the bitterness of its bark,
is less liable to injury than other cultivated kinds. In Europe, wil-
lows sometimes suffer from hail, and insurance against this damage
may be obtained as in other crops.

1146. If exposed to cold and dry winds, the osiery should be pro-
tected by wind-breaks of high trees, and the oaks, ashes, and firs
are recommended for this use. In the cultivation between the rows
when wide apart the first year beets, carrots, cabbages, or potatoes
are employed. The weeding or cultivation should not be done when
the shoots are forming. When done in fall, after the leaves have
fallen, they should be gathered and buried. The bind-weed (Con-
volvulus, several sp.) and the dodder (Ouscata) sometimes infest a
willow plantation, and must be carefully extirpated.

1147. Tue Durca Oster (Salix lanceolata) is much used for
hoops and basket-work, and is best set in spring, in trenches about
four feet apart, and from 30 to 40 inches between, in the rows.
They should be fertilized with stable-manure as above described.
Upon dryer ground the plants may be seta little closer together. The
watering with manure-water is of first importance if the soil is

r.

- 1148. When used to turn the course of rivers from encroaching
upon land, the willow should be cut between October and April, and
should be formed into frames, by interweaving the smaller spray
with larger timber, securing in place by piles, and covering with
sand, gravel, or soil. It is well to load them down also with heavy
stones. In a slight current this will often prove sufficient to form
an artificial cape, and the mud settling above and below this obstruc-
tion will gradually extend out the shore. The willows will push
out fibrous roots into the soil and sand, creating a surface vegeta-
tion, and may be kept in this condition by being cut back from year
to year. If such sloping barriers can form an angle up-stream, the
effect is better. 7

284 . The Poplars and Cottonwoods.

1149. The male plants of the purple, black, :
other willows, form very ornamental small trees,
and rich profusion of early blossoms—the ake ng
and the first food of the bee.

Tur Portars ANd Corronwoops (Genus

1150. Of these there are about twenty species in th
perate zone of the old world and the new. They o
America from the Arctic zone to Mexico, and through

breadth of the country from the Atlantic to the Pac

1151. Tae American AsPEN (Populus irene
extremely wide in its range. It abounds over the w
terior of British Columbia, and towards the north | a
acterizing some of the most fertile lands. In the sou
the Province it is found usually along the borders of
on the higher plateaux. In the Peace river country it ¢ ;
after eae and often grows to a diameter of two feet. j eg

1152. The aspen is common throughout the region
Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, upon the I
upon the slopes of mountains that border the sage plain
courses of what in winter are running streams.

1153. In the mountain regions of the interior it i
called the ‘‘ quaking asp,’ Nail: grows in the upper val.
dense groves, where it shows a tendency to succeed the
woods when they have been destroyed. Its wood is”
burned into charcoal for smelting ores, and it has someti :
used for telegraph-poles and raat ties, but it is too soft :
ishable for any thing more than temporary employment i
uses. .

1154. The aspen is used to a considerable extent for :
facture of paper. The wood makes a very white pulp,
strong as that from spruce. ‘

1155. Tae Warre Portar (Populus alba). Thisisanatu
eign species, sometimes called the ‘‘ abele,” ‘‘ downy poplar,” 6
poplar,” or “‘ Dutch beech.” It is said to be a native of Pales
the timber is by some writers supposed to be the “ shitti
of Scripture, but more probably that was an Acacia.

1156. This is a tree of remarkably rapid growth, and
it shows a strong tendency to send up shoots from the roo

The Poplars. 285

renders it troublesome in cultivated ground, but is a valuable qual-
ity in woodlands. When grown in dense groves it runs up in slen-
_der form, and in a short time it becomes large enough for poles
good for fencing, corn-eribs, and other farm uses. If cut early
in summer it peels very easily, and it is then light but durable and
strong, if not placed in contact with the ground. Michaux recom-
mended it for extensive cultivation as a substitute for the tulip-tree,
and Bryant regards it as superior to any of the native poplars.

1157. It may be propagated by cuttings of the young wood or the
roots, and from layers and grafts, and grows with great certainty in

146. Populus alba.—White Poplar.

a moderately damp soil. The durability of the wood is increased
by painting with coal-tar, which is best applied hot. The stronger
contrasts between the upper and lower sides of the leaf are found
in the tender varieties, while the kind with leaves lobed like the
maple are found to be more hardy.

1158. Tue Lomparpy Portar (Populus dilatata). This tree,
from its tall columnar growth, furnishes an admirable wind-break,
and it is still in France a favorite tree for planting along the road-
side. The fashion in our New England and Northern States was

ok he Seed

286 The Poplars: The Cottonwoods. ,
formerly quite prevalent, but the tree is short-lived, and most ‘ie

these monotonous lines of trees have disappeared. When ae

here and there, so as to be seen rising behind and among rou

headed and coniferous trees, it has a pleasing eflect. The ape: ws

soft, brittle, and of little value except for summer fuel.
1159. This tree bears no pistilate flowers in our country, and-it
can only be propagated from cuttings and sprouts from the roots. —

Its chief value is for screens and wind-breaks, and in rich humid —

soils it grows with great rapidity.

1160. Toe Larce-rooTrHep PorLar (Populus grandidentata),
This tree grows to a large size, and its wood is valuable for framing
and lumber for inside work. It works smoothly, takes a good pol-
ish, and is not liable to shrink. When cut and peeled in summer
it is durable in the open air, if not in contact with the ground.

This tree is very well suited for inside planting in groves. It can —

be readily propagated from seeds and cuttings.

1161. For cultivation in the great open country east of the Cas-
cade Mountains, in Washington Territory, the poplars become es-
pecially important timber trees, both as fuel and for fencing.
The common aspen, as grown there, when peeled and seasoned, may
be used for almost any purpose, if kept from the ground. A tree
24 years old, has been known to measure two feet across the stump,
and to yield two cords of wood.

THE Corronwoops.

1162. Various species of the genus Populus are comprised under
this name, the principal one being the P. monilifera. The common
name is he from the cotton-like tuft attached to the seeds, by

which they are borne to great distances by the winds,
ey yy and the specific name “‘ monilifera” signifies “ neck-—
\WY yj lace-bearing,” from the seeds being formed in a ser-
NY ies of little balls, like a string of beads. This spe-
147. Tuft and Seea Cles occcurs native throughout the Atlantic States
of the Poplar. from New England to Nebraska and Dakota, and
southward to Louisiana. It is not seen in Utah, is less frequent 1 in
Nevada, but occurs in California and Oregon.
1163. It is extremely easy to cultivate in soils that are not to arid,

and may be propagated from the seed, from cuttings, layers, or grafts.
The most convenient way is perhaps from cuttings, but the best is

‘

The Cottonwoods. 287

_ from the young plants that spring up along the sand-bars of rivers,
These natural nurseries are annually renewed by the seeds floated
down by the streams, and furnish, practically, an inexhaustible sup-
ply. In pulling out the young cottonwoods from the sand-bars in
autumn, by selecting a place but little above the level of the
water, they will come out very easily, and more than a thousand
may be pulled up in half an hour, with the fibers of the roots en-
ig j

1164. When these are heeled in during the winter, and plowed
in early in the spring, they take a vigorous growth, and are scarcely
checked by the operation. In setting these young seedlings, they
will be sure to take an upward growth, at any angle they may hap-
pen to be placed. They generally begin with a new bud near the
base of the stock, and the part above soon perishes.

1165. A principal reason for collecting the seedlings of cotton-
woods from river sand-bars in autumn is, that the bottom-lands are
usually flowed in spring at the time when the young trees are needed.
An easy method of securing an abundant supply of plants, is. to
plow in the branches covered with the seed, or by gathering the fertile
catkins when ripe, rubbing them apart, and sowing on mellow, moist
soil, lightly covering the seeds with earth.

1166. The Iowa Forestry Annual of 1879 recommends for cot-
tonwood cuttings, pieces two or three feet long and from one to two
inches in diameter, sawn into uniform lengths, and the lower end
cut in a slope on one side with a very sharp axe. It advises that
poplars and willows should be set deeply and firmly in the fall, and
as soon as may be after they are cut.

1167. As many as 3,000 cottonwoods may be planted in a day,
by two men, a boy, andateam. The ground may be cultivated as
for corn, for two or three years, or until the ground is well-shaded,
when they will need no further care beyond protection from cattle
and from fires.

1168. In deep, rich soils the cottonwood may sometimes do better
at eight feet apart than when set at half this distance at first. This
subject not only in this species, but in all others, should be an ob-
ject of careful observation by the planter, and the conditions best
suited to the locality can never be fully determined excepting by
trial.

1169. A variety known in the Missouri Valley as ‘yellow cot-

288 The Cottonwoods: The Ailanthus.

tonwood,” appears to belong to this species, and the cope
ties claimed for it appear to be due to the soil and to the density of its
growth. Isolated trees are generally more thrifty, and therefore
have more sap-wood, and are more difficult to split. When grown
in the interior of a grove they are often less tough, and the qualiigas
of the wood is generally more dense and durable. ~L peg

1170. Corronwoop or THE Pactric Coast (Populus trichoea a.)
This tree grows to the height of 30 to 50 feet from San Diego seed
ward. In Washington Tervitory it is found from 60 to 100feet
high, and from 2 to 6 feet in diameter. In British Columbia it is
fonsil chiefly in the valleys of streams and on the banks of rivers
throughout the whole Province, and north-eastward in the Peace river _
district.. It is used by the Indians of the interior in making hens e-
canoes.

1171. A variety (P. augustifolia) is found in the Rocky Moline
tains, and the P. balsamifera and P. monilifera, with several varie~
ties somewhat uncertain as to their classification are also found, all
bearing the name of ‘‘ cottonwood.” The Populus Fremontii eras a
to a large tree. ia 9

1172. ANGULAR-STEMMED Corronwoop (Populus angulata). :
This is one of the cottonwoods of the Mississippi river and its trib-
utaries, and is distinguished by its angular stems, and the absence
of resinous and aromatic buds. The wood is soft, but of rapid
growth. It does not extend up the Mississippi river beyond Lake
Pepin. “Nea
1173. Bato or GitEap Porpiar (Populus candicans). This is a
tree of very rapid growth, easily cultivated, and well adapted for
planting as a shade tree. Its leaves give out a slight balsamic odor,
and it has been recommended to plant groves of this tree along the
borders of marshes, to intercept the malaria arising from such local-
ities. A narrow-leaved variety, commonly called “ cottonwood ” or
** willow-leaved poplar,” occurs from Colorado and New Mexico to .
Washington Territory and Oregon, being the prevalent Bi in |
Nevada and Utah.

Tue AILANTHUS.

1174. The Ailanthus glandulosa, or “tree of heaven,” is a native
of China, but has a wide range of adaptation to soils and climates,
enduring heat and drouth very well, and thriving upon soils where.
many other kinds of wood fail. It grows rapidly, and is very. apt

a.

we

The Ailanthus: The Madrona: The Manzanita, etc. 289

to send out tracing roots that sprout at a considerable distance from
the tree.

- 1175. The male flowers have a nauseating odor, that render this
tree undesirable for cultivation near dwellings. It grows very well
in the shade of other trees, and the spreading character of its roots
render it useful in consolidating railroad embankments, and for re-
boisement of mountains. It is grown from the seed, but is most
_ easily propagated by planting sections of its roots, one end being

_exposed to the air.
Tue Arsurus, on Maprona, of the Pacific Coast (Arbutus Men-

ziesii).

1176. This occurs upon Vancouver and the. neighboring islands,
but always near the coast. It is a handsome evergreen, yielding a
closely-grained and heavy wood, much like the box, and grows to
from eighteen inches to two feet in diameter, and to the height of
fifty feet. It extends southward to Mexico and Texas, and, under
favorable conditions, grows to eighty and a hundred feet in height,
and to a diameter of from one to three feet.

Tue MANZANITA.

1177. This is the Arctostaphylos glauca cf Lindley, and the Xero-
botrys glauca of Nuttall. It belongs to the heather family (Ericacee),
and is a large evergreen spreading shrub, with a red exfoliating
bark and pinkish white flowers in a terminal racime. It abounds
in California and Oregon—has great powers of endurance in
drouth, and it is worthy of cultivation for variety in parks and
pleasure grounds. The wood is very dense, reddish, and hard, but
too small for much use. There are over a dozen species of the
Arctostaphylos, mostly humble shrubs. The A. glabra grows to from
8 to 24 feet, and the A. pungens to from 3 to 20 feet in height.

Tue Pawpaw (Asimina triloba).

1178. Some seven or eight species of the Asimina are found in
North America, mostly in the Southern and Southwestern States
and in Mexico, and, excepting the one above named, unimportant
shrubs. The pawpaw grows to some fifteen or twenty feet in height,
generally in thickets, and it is chiefly important for its fruit, which

in form and flavor somewhat resembles a bannana.
19

290 ~ The Catalpas.

- <ogers —

SouTHERN CaTALPA (Catalpa bignonoides). cs inne 4

1179. This tree is found native in Georgia and other Southern —
States, but has been widely cultivated for ornament in the Middle |
States and in Europe, where the climate is not too cold. oie oT
found susceptible to frost, and sometimes, after several years of —
apparent success, it will suffer great injury, or be wholly killed by
a hard winter following a season that favored a late growth,

1180. Under favorable conditions, it grows with great rapidity,
and to a large size, being fifty feet or more in height, and from —
eighteen to twenty inches in diameter. It has large showy blos- _
soms,° broad leaves, a silver-gray bark, which is but slightly far-
rowed, and a wide spreading top. ‘The branches are relatively —
few in number, and the capsules long, cylindrical, and pendant. ~
The wood is grayish-white, of fine texture, and brilliant when pol-
ished, much resembling that of the butternut, but of less reddish _
hue and of greater durability. *

1181. Harpy Caratpa (Catalpa speciosa). For many years
there has been cultivated in Ohio, Indiana, and other Northern and —
Western States a form of catalpa that was long considered a hardy —
variety of the C. bignonoides. It was found to be not only hardy, —
~ but very durable. Its habit was more erect, growing in dense —
groves, with stems 50 feet in height; the bark was more closely ad-
herent and furrowed vertically, much like that of the white ash.
The flowers are larger, nearly pure white, and about three weeks —
earlier than the other species. ;

1182. It is described by Dr. Engelmann (omitting the techni
description of the flowers) as follows:? “A middle-sized tree, with —
grayish-brown, much cracked or furrowed, at last slightly flaky —
bark, and light-yellowish gray wood; leaves large, truneated, or
more or less cordate at base, slender, acuminate, soft, downy on the »
under side, inodorous. . . . Common in the low, rich, some-
‘ times overflowed woodlands near the mouth of the Ohio, along the |
lower course of that river and its confluence, and in the adjoining
lowlands of the Mississippi, in the States of Illinois, Indiana, Ken-

1Thus named by Walther. It is named C. cordifolia by Elliott; C. syr- 4
ingaefolia by Sims, and Bignonia catalpa by Michaux. J

*Botanical Gazette, V. No. 1, January, 1880.

The Catalpas: The Mountain Mahogany. 291

tucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Arkansas. According to Michaux, -
abounding near the borders of all the rivers which empty into the
Mississippi further south. Whether the localities cited by him in
West Florida -produce this or the eastern species is unknown.
Flowers in May.”

1183. The specific name above adopted was given by Dr. John
A. Warder, through whose writings, and those of the late E. E.
Barney, of Dayton, Ohio, and others, the excellence of the tree for
prairie-planting and profitable timber-growth have been chiefly
-made known.

1184. The wood of this catalpa is light, yet strong enough for

__. most purposes of construction. It has been used to advantage in

bridge-timbers, where exposed to the weather; it is a favorite ma-
terial for fences, is easily worked, and durable as shingles, and is
found serviceable as railroad ties.

1185. This tree prefers low rich bottom lands, but is found to
thrive upon a great variety of soils. It has been planted with much
success upon the bluff-formation of Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, and
Nebraska. It is readily propagated from cuttings and layers, but
to best advantage from the seed. These should be started in seed-
beds, and be transplanted either in the fall or in the spring of the fol-
lowing year. In sowing, the seed should be covered a quarter or a
half of an inch deep with fine soil, and they should be well culti-
yated and kept clear of weeds until they shade the ground. The
practice has been adopted, to some extent, of cutting back the
growth of the first year or two, so as to secure a strong, vigorous
sprout from the roots after they have become well established.

Movnrarn Manocany (Genus Cercocarpus ledifolius).

' 1186. This isa shrub or small tree, seldom growing more than
thirty feet high and a foot in diameter, with an excessively hard
close-grained wood. It grows in the most arid and rocky places, not
usually in groves of considerable size, and from its great weight and
hardness, it is most expensive to procure and to work. Its growth
is exceedingly slow, and cultivation is quite out of the question, with
any view of profit. There are about four other species in the
United States and Mexico. They generally occur at from 6,000 to
10,000 feet above tide.

992 The Persimmon: The-Huonymus: The Holly. ae ;
PERsnnton (Diospyros Virgintona).

1187. This tree, sometimes called the ‘‘ date plum,” beloane is a
the Ebony family, and is the only American representative of the

Ebenacee. Several species of this genus furnish the ebony of com- —

merce. They grow chiefly in the torrid zone, and are distinguished
for the hardness of their wood, which is intensely black. 2
1188. The persimmon grows to a tree sixty or seventies eek A in 4

height, from the southern part of New England, westward ‘to Iowa, o

ond southward to Florida and Louisiana. Its fruit is intensely as-
tringent when green, but becomes palatable when frozen. Some —
Asiatic species bear a large edible fruit, and have been introduced in —

California, with fair prospect of success. = |

1189. Tur Mexican Persmmon (D. Texana) is a shrub from a ’

10 to 30 feet in height, and occurs in Southern and Western Texas, g
and in the adjacent parts of Mexico. be.

Tue Burninc-Brusn (Genus Euonymus). |
1190. Of this shrub there are three species native to the United
States. They are sometimes trailing, or climbing by rootlets, and
‘are very ornamental in autumn when their bright red fruit is ripe. —
The Sprnpe Trex (E. atropurpureus) grows in dark, shady woods,

i /

the Atlantic States, from Canada to Florida, and has dark purple |

flowers, and a crimson fruit. The SrrawBerry TREE (EZ, Ameri-
cana) has about the same range of latitude, and extends west to
Iowa and Nebraska. The remaining species (E. augustifolius) is
found in Georgia.

Tue Hotty Fammy (Natural Order Ilicinee).

1191. This includes but three genera, of which the Ilex is the only
one that claims our notice. It embraces about 145 species, mostly
South American and tropical; some of them are, however, widely
scattered through the temperate zones. They are rare in Africa and
Australia, and a dozen or so are natives of the United States.

1192. Taz Common Hoty (llex opaca) is an evergreen tree, —
found growing in the Atlantic States, from Eastern Massachusetts
southward, reaching its greatest development in the Southern States.
In West Virginia it is found along mountain streams and gravelly

The Holly Family: The Laurels. 293

and stony soil, fifteen feet in height. In North Carolina it grows to
thirty and forty feet, with a diameter of twelve to fifteen inches.

~ 1193. It is finely adapted for planting in avenues, and the wood
is remarkably white and fine-grained, and is much used for inlaying,
turning, and the finer grades of cabinet-work. Bird-lime is pre-
pared from the middle-bark of the holly, and its leaves and bark
are reputed to possess medicinal properties. It much resembles the
Europear. holly (Ilex aquifolium), ;

1194, Tur Danoon (Ilex Dahoon) isa small southern tree, found
growing on the borders of pine-barren ponds and swamps in the coast
region of North Carolina and further southward. It sometimes
grows to twenty-five feet in height.

1195. Tae Yavuron (Ilex Cassine), or ‘emetic holly,” is a shrub
growing in the coast-region of the Southern States, sometimes reach-
ing twenty feet or more in height, but generally less. Its leaves act
as a diuretic, and are used medicinally. The Indians used a cold
infusion, that they called ‘‘ black-drink,” at their councils, and it is
said to enliven them in the place of opium. According to some ac-
counts, however, this drink was a compound one, prepared from
various roots.?

1196. Other species of the (Ilex (formerly described under the
genus Prinos) occur as deciduous shrubs in swamps throughout the
Atlantic States, but they present no interest for forest-culture, or
practical use.

1197. The ‘‘ Maté” or Paraguay tea of South America, is made
from a holly closely related to the J. Cassine, and it is not improb-
able that some advantage may be derived from its cultivation in the
Southern States.

Laure (Genus Kalmia).

1198. There are abont half a dozen species of this genus, chiefly
growing in swamps, or upon rocky hill-side, with thick evergreen
leaves and showy red blossoms, Only one of them (K. latifolia) grows
to much size, but this is sometimes found 30 feet high. The wood
is very hard, close-grained, and often twisted into irregular forms,
rendering it available for rustic furniture, for which it is chiefly em-
ployed.

1199. Another species (K. augustifolia), which grows further

1 Procher’s Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, p. 431.

294 The Sweet-Gum: The Magnolias.

northward, is found in swamps, and is reputed to be poisonous to

sheep, when its leaves are eaten. The honey gathered by bees from —

the laurels is also said to be poisonous. A drab-colored. dye is got
from the leaves, using copperas as a mordant. The K. glauea of
California is an humble shrub. i

Tue Sweer-Gum (Genus Liquidambar).

1200. Of this there are two species; one American, the other a —

native of Asia-Minor. The former of these (L. styraciflua) occurs
widely distributed from New England to Mexico, and from the
states bordering upon the Great Lakes to Louisiana and Florida. It
prefers a deep, fertile soil, exposed to temporary inundations, and
attains a large size in the Southern States. A tree is mentioned by
Michaux as found growing in a swamp near Augusta, Ga., that was
fifteen feet and seven inches in circumference at five feet from the
ground.

1201. In very warm climates a balsamic secretion is obtained from
this tree. It comes from Mexico under the name of “ copalm resin.”
It has some use in medicine, and is used as a perfume. The wood
is compact, fine-grained, and susceptible of a bright polish. The
heart-wood is reddish, and marked transversely with blackish belts.
It is used to some extent for cabinet-wares and inside finishing, but
does not bear exposure to the open air. It is cultivated in Eu-
rope, but does not there bear seeds. nj

Tue Macnorias (Genus Magnolia).

1202. There are fourteen species of the magnolia, of which six
occur in Japan, and eight are natives of the United States and Mex-
ico. Our native magnolias chiefly occur eastward of the Alle-
ghenies, and prefer a mild climate and a moist and fertile soil.

1203. Tur “‘CucumBrr TREE” (Magnolia acwminata). This oe-
curs in the states north of the Ohio river in great perfection, and
grows to a large size. It is also found in the western parts of New
York and Pennsylvania, in West Virginia, and the South-western
States. Its leaves are deciduous, and under cultivation they fall
into varieties differing in shades of color, forms of leaf, and tints of
flowers.

1204. It prefers a deep, rather damp and argillaceous soil, and a

climate rather moist and not too cold. The seeds do best:>when

+ i SO

The Magnolias. 295

‘sown in fall, with a covering of straw or litter in the winter, and in

_ the second or third year they may be re-set in the nursery. It is

hard to transplant this tree when it gets of much size. It should be
done in spring, and without cutting back the head. As it tends to
put out lateral branches when young, it should be somewhat crowded
until it gets to sufficient height. If trimmed, it should not be done
in sap-season, and the wounds should be covered with some substance
that will exclude the air.

1205. The “Swamp Lauren,” or ‘“ Beaver TREE” (Magnolia
glauca), has large oval leaves, that remain on in winter, and large
fragrant and showy white blossoms. It is not of much account for
its wood, but is valued as an ornamental shrub. It occurs native
in swamps as far northward as Cape Ann, in Massachusetts, but
thrives best in Southern New Jersey and further south along the
Atlantic Coast.

1206. The ‘‘ Larce-FLowERED Macwno.ta” of the Southern
States (Magnolia grandiflora) is a magnificent evergreen tree, with
oval lanceolate leaves, rusty on the under side. It grows in the
low country of the Southern States, and when in blossom it is un-
questionably the most showy of American trees. The flowers are
very fragrant.

1207. As cultivated in Europe, this tree forms many varieties,
differing in the form and size of the leaves, the earlier or later ap-
pearance of its blossoms, their size, and other peculiarities. The
most esteemed in France are la Maillardiére and la Gelissoniére.
When propagated from seed, they should be sown as soon as ripe,
in a light moist soil, and the young plants require careful nursing
when young. The varieties are multiplied by grafting by approach.

1208. The Umpretia Tree (Magnolia umbrella) grows in the in-
terior, as far north as Pennsylvania, chiefly in moist and wooded
valleys, along and near the mountains.

1209. The Heart-Leavep Macno.ia (Magnolia cordata) has de-
ciduos leaves, which are broad, heart-shaped, and slightly downy
beneath, and flowers that are yellowish and faintly streaked with
red. It occurs sparingly in the interior and mountainous portions
of the Southern States.

1210. The LARGE-LEAVED Macnorta (Magnolia macrophylla) has
a smooth stem, with little branches, whitish bark, large deciduous
leaves, one to three feet long and six to eight inches wide, and large
white fragrant flowers tinged with purple.

296 The Magnolias:, The Iron- Wood: The Mesquit.

1211. The AuRICLE-LEAVED MaGnoxt (Magnolia aurieulata) has
also large broad leaves, eight to twelve inches long, with an ear-

shaped appendage at their base, deciduous and smooth upon both

sides. It grows to a height of 30 to 40 feet in the mountains of the

Southern States, and bears large fragrant white flowers.
1212. The magnolias do not bear transplanting well, and can a

best started in pots, carefully removing all the soil with the roots

when it is placed in the ground.

1213. Tue Pripe-or-Inpra (Melia Azedarach). This is a decals
ous tree, introduced from Asia, but now common as a shade tree ~

_ from cultivation in the Southern States. It grows to i! or ~e
feet in height and often three feet in diameter.

1214, Tue Iron-woop (Genus Ostrya.) Of this genus there are
but two species, and these are scarcely distinct. One is found in
the Old World and one in the New. Our iron-wood (0. Virginiea)
does not grow to a large size, nor does it occur in groves by itself,

but scattered here and there among other hard woods. Its bark —
is thin, brown, and rough, and its wood unusually solid and strong.
It is not often cultivated for ornament, but grows very well when ¢ a ‘

little sheltered by other trees.
1215. The iron-wood otf the Western Territory is of a different
genus (Olneya tesota), and is of considerable value for its wood.

1216. Tur Sorret-TREE oR Sourwoop (Ozxydendrum arboreum).

This is a tree growing in fertile woods in Western Pennsylvania, in
Ohio, and along the Allegheny range southward into the Southern
States. It grows to a hight of 15 to 40 feet, and derives its name
from its acid foliage.

1217. Mesquir (Prosopis glandulosa). This is one of the legu-
minous family that thrives in the southern portion of the territories,
in the hot dry valleys, and on the Mesas. It grows to a foot in di-
ameter, and to thirty feet or more in height. The wood is hard and
durable, and the fruit, a kind of bean, is eaten by animals. In
Western Texas, a gum is collected from this tree much resembling
gum-arabic.

1218. THe Screw-Pop Mesquir (Prosopis pubescens). This is
smaller and less common than the preceding, but of similar qualities.

1219. Tar Bucxruorn (Rhamnus catharticus), This is a Eu-

“2

ee

hedge plants.

The Sumacs. - 297°

‘ropean shrub that is sometimes cultivated as a hedge-plant, and
when alone growing to a small sized tree. About sixty species of

the Rhamnus are described by botanists, occurring as natives of
Europe, Asia, and America. They prefer the warmer parts of the
temperate zone, are rare in the tropics, and do not occur in Austra-

lia or the Pacific islands. About a dozen species occur within the

United States, mostly thorny shrubs, some of them with evergreen

leaves, bui not of much account for cultivation, unless, perhaps, as

Tue Sumacs (Genus Rhus.) .

1220. Of these there are some 120 species, chiefly found in South’
Africa, and the warmer parts of extra-tropical countries in both
hemispheres, a few being found within the tropics. About 14 spe-
cies occur within the United States.

1221. Tue Srac-Horn Sumac (Rhus typhina). This is a small.
tree or more frequently a shrub, growing from Canada southward to
South Carolina and Louisiana, and westward to Iowa. It some-
times is found 25 feet high and one foot in diameter. The wood
when freshly cut has a rich, glossy, golden and brown color, but
this fades when exposed to the sun. The leaves are used for tanning
and dyeing.

1222. Tue Smoorn Sumac (Rhus glabra). This occurs in about
the same range as the preceding, but is smaller. The leaves con-
tain more tannin than the last named, and afford most of the sumac
that comes to market from Virginia, as a tanning material. )

1223. Rhus lauriana. <A large evergreen and leafy shrub, with
an aromatic odor, found in California from Santa Barbara to San
Diego. The pulp of the dry fruit is waxy, and the seeds are said
to contain a pungent oil.

1224. Rhus integrifolia. This is a stout-branching evergreen
shrub, 5 to 10 feet high, occurring along cliffs near the sea, from
Santa Barbara to San Diego, and also in the interior. The bark
exudes an astringent gum resin.

1225. Several of the sumaes (Rhus toxicodendron, R. venenata, R.
pumila, R. diversiloba) are poisonous to some persons, when handled,
causing a painful eruption and swelling that may continue several
days.

THe SassAFrras (Sassafras officinale).
1226. This belongs to the laurel family, and is widely distributed

298 The Sassafras: The Mahogany, ete.

from New England to Iowa, and throughout the Middle and Southern.
States. In Massachusetts it is found thirty feet in heightanda foot
in diameter. In West Virginia it is sometimes seventy or eighty
feet high and three feet in diameter, and in West Tennessee a speci-
men has been measured five feet across the stump within the bark.
In Canada it is only found westward of the Niagara river. The wood
is soft, brittle, close-grained, and sometimes used in ecabinet-work,

when stripped of its bark, and seasoned, it is durable as fence-posts.

1227. An essential, oil having valuable medicinal qualities, is dis-

* tilled from the bark of the roots, and the pith from the young twigs
is mucilaginous and medicinal, being worth from $3 to $4 a pound.
The roots rales yield a drab-colored dye, with copperas as a mordant,
and the leaves when steeped in water afford an agreeable and healthy
mucilaginous drink. The roots of sassafras are very tenacious of
life, and will sprout and grow with a remarkable persistency until
wholly eradicated.

1228. Tue BurraLo Berry (Shepherdia argentea) is a spiny shrub,
growing 5 to 18 feet high, and occurs east of the Sierras and from
New Mexico far into the northern regions of British America. It
has been mentioned as available on account of its fruit, and asa
hedge plant in the west.

1229. Tar Manoaany (Swietenia mahoganii). This highly prised
wood for fine cabinet-work, chiefly comes from the West Indies,

Mexico, and Central America,

sseek Considercd a native of «hat

s25% state. Although an exogenous

“" tree, the lines of growth, us in |

147. Cross-section of Mohogany. many other tropical species,

are seldom sharply defined, as where the growth has been distinctly
interrupted by a cold winter.

1230. Arrow-Woop (‘Tessaria borealis). This is a branching
willow-like shrub several feet high, growing on the sand-banks of
rivers from New Mexico to California. The Indians are said to use
the wood for arrows.

1231. Tae CatirorniA Lauren (Umbrellularia Culiforviteay * This

1 By some botanists called “Oreodaphne Californica.” .

a eee

The California Laurel: The Conifers. 299.

_ tree, sometimes called the ‘‘ mountain laurel” or ‘‘ spire-tree,” grows
to the height ef seventy feet, in favorable locations, but ordinarily-
not more than from 10 to 30 feet. It gets its finest development in
Oregon, but extends southward into Mexico. The wood is well
adapted for cabinet-work, and is sometimes highly ornamental.

SS
148. Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit of the Umbrellularia Californica, of one-half
the Natural Size.

CHAPTER XXIII.

THE CONIFERS.

1232. The Conifere may be undoubtedly regarded as the most
important timber trees known in commerce, and of the greatest
utility to man. They are, for the most part, evergreen, and are
widely scattered in both temperate zones and upon mountains within
_ the tropies, being the last every-where to disappear at the timber-

line. [$$ 107, 108.] In Northern Europe, in Siberia, and upon

300 The Conifers.

the western coast of North America, they form “the propa and
often the only trees over wide areas.

1233. Their wood, under the microscope, shows an abundance 4
of bordered pits [$ 256], by which the smallest fragment may b
identified, even in the fossil form. The sexes of the blossoms are
separate, on the same or on different trees; they have no floral ; en-
velopes, and their pollen is proyided with an arrangement that r
ders it buoyant, so as to be carried unusual distances in the winds,
The ovules or young seeds have no pericarps, and are fertilized by
direct contact of the pollen, without ies stigma or style, and ey .
this reason aby are called gn ymnosperms.” The seeds contain seve

as ——"

Brot ‘this they are also calla polycotyledonous. The number is
usually from six to ten, and hence the germinating seed preecaiee
leaves of corresponding numbers. ee

1234. The seeds of this order are usually placed between hard, —
woody scales, arranged spirally and regularly around an axis, form-—
ing, until ripe, a solid conical or ovoid mass, and they are in many
species provided with a wing that enables them to be wafted by the )
winds, when they are liberated by the opening of the scales. The 4
structure of the blossoms and seeds of one of the most important —
of the genera in this order may be seen in the annexed engraving.

1235. In some cases, the cones that bear the-seed can scarcely
be recognized. The scales become pulpy and the fruit berry-like; )
in many species there is no trace of a wing to the seed, and the
fruit, may be solid and nut-like. Sometimes the seeds are large and 3
edible. In the structure of the cone, and otherwise, the conifers
present analogies to the higher lycopods or club-mosses, and to the =
vegetation that prevailed in the carboniferous period, the remains %
of which form the bulk of our mineral coal. rE

1236. In most of the conifers we find resiniferous cells in the’
wood of the trunk, branches, and roots, the bark, and sometimes, as ~
in the pines, in the leaves. [§ 793.] The leaves in transverse sec: “
tions present a cellular structure, very uniform in the different spe-
cies, and affording characters upon which a classification has been
based. We see an example of this in Fig. 20 of the accom yaaa
engraving.

1A term from the Greek, signifying “naked secds.”

The Conifers. 301

49. Pinus sylvestris: Scotch Pine.—1. A twig with a defected pistilate flower. 2. An older twig,

bearing a cluster of oval staminate flowers. 8. The former enlarged, as it approaches
the period of maturity. 4. The same after the scales have opened to allow the seeds to
escape. 5. The pistilate blossom, somewhat enlarged. 6,7, 8. Scales. 9. The inside of
a scale, with the seedsin place. 10. Back view of a thickened scale. 11, 12. The seed,
with its wing, natnral size, and enlarged 13. Staminate flowers, somewhat’ enlarged.
14, 15. Stamens. 16,17. Pollen-grains inflated, 18. A seedling, showing five seed-leaves,

19. Leaves in as 20. Transverse section of a leaf, showing the structure of cells,
some of them being resiniferous canals,

302 The Conifers.

1237. Although the conifers thrive in a great variety of soils and
situations, it may be said that no soil which is compact, elayey, aud
underlaid by an impervious sub-soil, preventing it from drainage, is
suited to them. But a few will grow in the mud, but with these
exceptions almost every other kind of soil agrees with one or another,
and especially those where the calcareous or the silecious element
predominates.

1238. When young, nearly every species delights in a candy :
loam, although when more advanced they may sometimes require a —

more substantial kind. The seeds should be sown early, and be
covered thin. A mixture of about one-third sand and two-thirds |
mold is generally suitable for the seed-bed. Many kinds do very
well in a dry soil, but they need more humidity in the early years,
which is secured in the natural forests under the shelter of the par-
ent trees. It is more effectual, if accompanied by a high tempera-

ee ae a

ot eae

to-

ture. All of these conditions are best managed in seed-beds and —

nurseries, and hence the advantages generally of starting conifers
‘in nurseries first and of transplanting them while small. Of all
trees the conifers suffer most and soonest from the exposure of their
roots to the air, and the greatest possible care should be taken to
prevent them from drying.

1239. Among the conifers there are many ornamental species and

varieties that can be multiplied and perpetuated by grafting and by
cuttings. These are delicate operations, and require special skill
and convenient arrangements, found only among professional nur-
serymen. We can only here state some of the principal points con-
cerning them.’ Cuttings may be taken from the trees in spring,
before vegetation has started, or in fall, after the growth of the year
has formed. ‘They are set in little pots, filled with light sandy soil,
cr in little beds, under glass, in a multiplying bed, where the tem-
perature is regulated, and they are properly sprinkled.

_ 1240. For grafting, the terminal shoot is taken as a scion, and if
the hardened wood is used, the best time for grafting is in autumn.
By a delicate, but generally certain process, the shoots, while still
herbaceous, may be grafted in the growing season, in the month of
May. In grafting conifers, care must be taken that the stock be as-

*A detailed description of these methods is given in Forestry Report,
Vol. II., p. 75 to 80.

.

The Conifers. 303

nearly related to the scion as may be; as, for example, pines should
both be two-leaved, three-leaved, or five-leaved, and_some, like the
white pine, are very difficult to graft at all. We can not take dif-
ferent genera of conifers, nor those of the same genus and subdi-
vision, unless of equally vigorous growth.

1241. For reasons already stated [§ 299], we can not cultivate
the conifers of the Pacific Coast in the Atlantic States with
success. Those from the mountains can be removed with much
better chances of their living, but to do this with certainty the
greatest care must be taken to keep the roots from the air, and to
bring an abundance of the soil with them.

1242. After excavating around the tree, so as to include as many
of the small roots as possible, and without disturbing them, a sheet
of coarse canvas should be passed under the roots and bound firmly
around them. The trees should not be more than three or four feet
high; they should be selected from open places, and the more un-
disturbed soil that is taken with them the greater will be the
chances of their living.

1248. In planting conifers in the prairie regions west of the Mis-
sissippi, the greatest difficulty has been met with, on account of the
dryness of the climate, and the great and sudden changes of tem-
perature that occur. Indeed, very many have failed altogether;
perhaps after giving some promise of success for a few years, until
overcome by a dry season or other adverse conditions.

1244. The kind of all others most likely to succeed in Iowa and
Southwestern Minnesota, is the native red cedar. According to the
opinion of careful observers those that next after this should have
order of preference would be: 1. Scotch pine; 2. White pine;
8. Austrian pine; and, 4. Red pine.

1245. The conifers embrace about 300 species, which are arranged

by Bentham and Hooker’ into six families, based upon common re-
~ semblances, as follows : ;

I. Tue Cypress Famiry (Cupressine), including seven genera, of
which the California white cedar (Libocedrus), arbor-vitee or common
white cedar ( Thuja), cypress (Cupressus), and junipers (Juniperus), are
native in the United States. The remaining three occur in Asia,

- -1G@enera Plantarum, iii, Part I., p. 420 (1880).

304 The Conifers.

Africa, Australia, and South Amer'ca, but may be cultivated to sah 7

vantage in some parts of the United States.

Il. Tae Batp-Cypress anp ALLIED Faminy (Taxodiec), include
ing the Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria), bald cypress (Taxodium), red-—
wood and giant tree (Sequoia), and two other Australian eas East-—

ern Asiatic genera.
II. Tue Yew Famtiry (Tazee), including the yew (Taaus), Cal-

ifornia nutmeg (Torrega), ginkgo (Salisburia), and three other Aus- ’

tralian and South American genera.

IV. The Podocarpew, of which three genera occur in Ast, Africa,
Australia, and South America. aH
V. Norrork-Istanp Pine Famity (Araucariee), three species
of which are found in Eastern Asia, China, Australia, South Pa-

cific Islands, and South America.

VI. Tue Prine And Fir Famtry ( Abietinew), embracing the mes
(Pinus), cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus), spruce (Pieca), Hemlock

(Tsuga), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga), fir (Abies), and larch (Larix).
1246. In the cypress family we have 14 species of the Callitris or
Atlas cedar, the stump and roots of which afford the costly “ thuja”
of cabinet-makers, and one of the finest of woods. The gum-senegal
of commerce comes from trees of this genus. None of them are
found in North America, but are natives of Africa, Madagascar,
Australia, and New Caledonia. Two other genera, Actinostrobus
and Fitzroya, are also exotic.
1247. Tue CatirorniA Waite Cepar (Libocedrus decurrens).
This is sometimes call«d ‘‘ incense cedar,” and occurs widely distrib-
uted in California and Oregon, chiefly upon the mountains of the
interior, where it sometimes grows to six or seven feet in diameter,
at a yard from the ground, and to a height of 100 to 150 feet.
There are about 8 species known, but this is the only one within our

limits. In general habit and quality of wood, it much resembles the j

common white cedar of the Atlantic States (Thuja occidentalis), and
it thrives very well in the east, where it forms a fine ornamental
evergreen.

Tue Arsor-viras on Wut Cepars (Genus Thuja).

1248. These as now arranged by the authors above’cited, embrace
under this genusa dozen species, of which five occur within the United
States. The cones consist of scales, from eight to twelve in number,
which have a pair of ovules at the base of each. The seeds ripen

The White Cedars. 305

the first year, and when ripe the scales become strongly reflexed.
In the Atlantic States and Canada, we find two species, viz.:

~ 1249. Tue Arpor-Vitx (Thuja occidentalis) is found in swamps,
and upon rocky bluffs, throughout the inland portions of the North-
ern and Northwestern States, extending far northward in British
America, but not into the Southern States.’ The wood is soft and
easily split, has an agreeable balsamic odor, and is very durable. It
is made into shingles, pails, churns, buckets, and other hollow-ware,
is durable, and much prized for fence-posts, and is largely used
for telegraph-poles, and in late years for railroad ties. It grows well
under cultivation, and makes one of the most excellent of screens
and wind-breaks. Nothing would prove more effectual than this
_ for preventing drifting snows, in exposed places along the public
roads.

1250. -It is best propagated from seeds in nurseries, and then
transplanted in spring. It should have some shelter on the south
side, as every one must have noticed, who has attempted to plant on
both sides of a board fence running east and west. It would be
well to provide a row of some other trees for this use, two or three
years before the cedar is set, and take it away when no longer
needed. This tree when eut back will thicken up very well at the
bottom. Wher set it should be well watered, and if followed by
a dry summer, the watering should be repeated till the plants get
well rooted.

1251. This cedar will endure burying in the sand to a remark-
able degree. In one instance on the shore of Lake Michigan, one
of these trees had been gradually buried to a great depth, and after-
wards left bare by the drifting away of the sands. It was found that
roots had been successfully put out from the trunk, to the height
of more than thirty feet. This quality renders it valuable in fixing
drifting sands, wherever it can be made to grow.

1252. Tue ‘“ Warre Cepar” (Thuja sphaeredalis—formerly
known as ‘‘Cypressus thyoides,” or later ‘‘Chamaecyparis thyoides”) is
the common white cedar of the Atlantic Coast. It also occurs, but
less frequently, in swamps along rivers in the interior. It extends
from Massachusetts to Texas, and occurs abundantly in New Jer-

sey, growing in dense masses in swampy ground. In some places
along the southern coast it is called the “juniper.” It prefers the
lowlands along rivers and the forest swamps of the low pine barrens,

306 Buried White Cedar.

and grows sometimes to 70 or 80 feet in height, with a diameter of —

two feet.

oot eRe

4

1253. This is one of the most valuable timber trees of the coun- —

try, the wood being fine-grained, soft, light, and easily worked, with
a strong aromatic odor. It is used for frames of buildings, shingles,
and coopers’ wares, and its charcoal for gunpowder. Be
of the best quality is made from its smoke.

1254. ‘Enormous quantities of this wood are found buried in salt —

marshes in Southern New Jersey, where no timber now grows. In ~

searching for it, the marshes are probed with iron rods, and when a ©

\,

tree is found, its size, direction, and quality are ascertained. By —

tearing off a piece of wood, it may be known by the odor, whether

it fell from age, or was blown down by the winds. If the latter, it —

is more valuable, and after cutting away the turf at the top, the
wood is. sawn off in two places, when it will rise and float, always

bottom upwards, because the lower side is soundest, and the upper.
side may have been long exposed to the weather. The wood has all

the buoyancy of fresh cedar, not being in the least water-logged,
and the under bark is still fresh.

1255. ‘Occasionally a log will be got out that is thirty feet long.

It is generally shorter, and is worked up into shingles of the very

best quality. Tree after tree, from 200 to 1,000 years old, may be ~

found lying across one another, some partly decayed, as if they had
stood a long period after they were dead. The larger oem are some-
times sawn into boards.

1256. ‘ From $9,000 to $10,000 worth of shingles, valued at $15
per M., have been made in a single year from this buried cedar in
the vicinity of Dennisville. The occurrence of this cedar on a level
now below that of the sea, is deemed ccnelusive evidence of the sub-
sidence of this coast; but this timber must have grown many thou-
sand of years ago, and must have been growing for a long period to
accumulate so great a quantity.” *

1257. Toe Giant Arpor-ViTx (Thaya gigantea) is by far the
finest of the cedars, and grows to’ a size scarcely inferior to that of
the Douglas fir and the sugar-pine. The branches are drooping
and the tree more symmetrical than the common white cedar, and

the wood is white and easily worked. It grows to great perfection —

1Forestry Report, 1877, p. 459, and authorities there cited, i

Western Cedars: Cypresses. 807

‘in Oregon, Washington Territory, and northward to Alaska, being
especially well developed upon the Coast and Cascade Ranges, where
it grows from 100 to 250 feet high, and from 8 to 12 feet in diam-
eter. When free to develop itself, it takes a narrow pyramidal
form, with somewhat drooping branches and a light green foliage.
‘Tt is not common in California, but is found as far south as San
- 1258. In British Columbia, this is called the “‘ yellow cypress” or
** yellow cedar,” and is limited to the coast and islands. It often
exceeds six feet in diameter, and the wood is strong, free, and of fine
grain, with a pale golden yellow tint, and a slight peculiar resinous
smell. It is very durable, and has been used to some extent for
boat-building and for various ornamental uses. The giant-cedar is
an important timber tree in British America, and on the coast it
often exceeds fifteen feet in diameter, with a height of 100 to 150
feet, but such trees are invariably hollow. The Indians use this
tree for making their large and elegant canoes, and from the fiber
of the inner bark they make ropes.

1259. Tar Noorxa Cepar (Thuja excelsa), heretofore known as .
the ‘‘Curpessus Nutkanus,” is found from Alaska southward to the
Columbia river, and grows to the height of 80 to 100 feet, with a
soft white and valuable wood. It is sometimes known as the ‘ Or-
egon cedar,” the ‘‘ white cedar,” the “ ginger pine,” etc.

1260. Lawson’s Cepar (Thuja Lawsoniana) is a handsome tree,
growing in the Shasta mountains and northward, in the Cascade
range. ‘This species is often cultivated for ornament, and it runs
into varieties, which are often very beautiful.

Tuer CyPrREssEs PROPER. (Genus Cupressus.)

1261. These differ from Thuja, in being of stiffer and stronger
growth, having larger cones, with thick scales, and ripening the sec-
ond year. Abouta dozen species are known, of which four are found
in the United States, chiefly upon the Pacific Coast.

1262. Tae Monterey Cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) grows in
a very limited region, near Monterey, and is a tree 40 to 50 feet
high, with a diameter of two to four feet. It is quite ornamental.
Three other species, the C. Goveniana, C. Maenabiana, and C. Arizo-
nica, have been described, but are of slight importance as timber

308 The Ji wnipers : Red Cedars.

trees. The first grows to the height of seventy feet, and is said to
be a beautiful tree.

Tue Junrrers. (Genus Juniperus.)
1263. Of these there are about twenty-five species, widely dis-

tributed over the northern hemisphere, in temperate and cold cli-

mates, but in the tropics only on high mountains. They are mostly
small trees, thick at the base, as compared with their height, and a
few of them growing to a large size. The bark is generally thin
and fibrous, and the wood fine and compact (but not hard), durable,
and exceedingly slow of growth. The outer layer of wood and the
inner bark are resinous. The fruit ripens the second year, and is

commonly called a berry, which, in the common juniper, is em- —
ployed medicinally. There are some eight other species of the —

juniper in North America, and most of them occur within the
United States. The principal of these are as follows:

Sey) ee eee

1264. Tue Rep Cepar (Juniperus Virginiana). This is the

largest and most widely spread of the junipers, extending from

_about latitude 45° in Canada, to the Gulf States, and from the At- —

lantic to the mountains that border the Pacific States. Between the
Sierras and the Wahsatch Mountains it occurs at an elevation of
5,000 to 7,000 feet above tide, and is there a small tree, usually not
over a dozen feet high, and of low, compact form, scattered over
the dry slopes, but nowhere in groves of much density.

1265. In Tennessee, this tree occurs native to greatest perfection
along the out-crop of the ‘‘ glady limestone” forming an irregular
belt, somewhat circular in outline, extending quite across the cen-
tral part of the State. It has there been found three feet in diame-
ter, near the ground, and sixty feet to the branches. It is being
rapidly worked up, and in many counties, where once abundant,
it is now exhausted.

1266. The red cedar occurs along rocky ravines, in the region
bordering upon the Great Plains, where it is the principal conifer
found native, and the one most capable of cultivation for ornamental
and useful purposes.

1267. It is propagated from the seeds, and for planting, the ber-
ries should be bruised and mixed with an equal or greater bulk of
wet wood ashes. In three weeks the alkali will have cut the resin-
ous gum, when the seeds can be washed clean from the pulp. This

The Western Junipers. 309

should be done in March. In preparing the ground for seed-beds,
it should be spaded to a foot or more in depth, and three or four
inches at the surface should be covered with a mixture of well
rotted leaf-mold' (or wood soil) and sharp sand.

- 1268. The beds should be shaded, as is common with ever-
greens, and should be watered occasionally in the evening in case
_ of drouth. They may be transplanted to nursery rows the second
spring, and three years after, the alternate rows should be taken out.
Screens of this evergreen are generally to be preferred to all others
for orchards and buildings in the Northwestern and Western States.

1269. Tne WestERN JUNIPER (Juniperus occidentalis). This
species in Oregon grows to a tree sometimes three feet in diameter and
forty feet high, but is more commonly a much smaller tree, and
often bushy. It much resembles the red cedar, but it has larger
berries, more glandular and resinous leaves, a loose reddish bark,
and a white wood. It grows east of the Sierra Nevada and Cas-
cade Mountains in Oregon and Washington Territory, and varieties
often with excentric layers of wood and scraggy growth occur in
Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. In Western Texas it
forms an.important timber-tree, but not so large or useful as the
red cedar.

1270. Tue CaLirorniA JUNIPER (Juniperus Californica) is a stout
shrub or small tree, rarely 50 feet high, found growing from San Fran-
cisco southward, chiefly along the Coast Range and the islands. A
variety of smaller size extends over the southern parts of Utah into
Arizona and Nevada, forming a small tree 20. feet high, that fur-
nishes fire-wood to some extent in these regions.

1271. Another juniper (the J. pachyphlea) occurs as a middle-
sized tree, with a spreading rounded top, thick and much cracked
bark, and pale reddish wood, is found in the interior of Arizona
and New Mexico. It is probable that some of the junipers now
regarded as Mexican species may be found across our border, but .
they are of limited and altogether local importance. ;

1272. Tue Savin (J. Sabina) is a prostrate shrub found in high
northern latitudes, in both Europe and America, and occurs in the
northern border of the United States, and upon mountains from the
Atlantic coast to the great lakes, and in British Columbia on the Pa-
cific coast. It spreads in dense masses over the rocks and sand,

310 The Bald Cypress, ete:

; 4

and it has a red heart-wood like the red cedar, but is too small for
any use. - _

Tue BALD-cypreEss, RED-wooD, AND ALLIED FAMILY.

1273. These are included in the tribe Tawodiew, and are distin-
guished by the arrangement of the scales of the aments, which are
thickened, woody, close, and spirally placed. The ovules, instead _
of being in twos, are from two to six on each scale. The leayesare
two-ranked or imbricated and alternate.

1274. Tur JAPANESE CEDAR (Cryptomeria Japonica) deserves no-_
tice in this connection as an easily-cultivated ornamental tree, a na-
tive of China and Japan, and suited to the climate of the bests:
and Southern States.

1275. Tue Baip-cypress (Taxodicum distichum). This ‘iti
is deciduous, and a native of the Middle and Southern Atlantic

150. Leaves and Cones of the Taxodium distichwm.

coast. It also occurs in Southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and
in the States southward, preferring a rich swampy soil, but growing
very well on dryer land. The trunk of the tree widens out towards

The Bald Cypriss: The Sequoias. 311

the roots, and excrescences called ‘‘ cypress-knees” are thrown up
from the root where the growth is luxuriant and the soil damp.
These do not bear leaves, and often resemble bottles. The larger
ones ure conical and hollow, and are used for bee-hives, tar-buckets,
and other purposes.

1276. The wood of the bald-cypress is reddish, soft, and easily
split, but it works smoothly and is very durable. It is largely
used for shingles, and is a valuable material for building, where
great solidity is not required. In the swamps along the southern coast
this timber is found buried, but still of excellent quality after thus
lying for an unknown period. -

1277. This tree, when young, has a regular pyramidal form, but
when older, a broad spreading top. It is easily cultivated, and
much esteemed on account of its delicate and elegantly pinnate
leaves, its slender spray, and bright green foliage, which becomes
red in autumn. In the Bartram garden, near Philadelphia, there is
a tree, planted by its founder, that is 130 feet high and beautifully
proportioned.

1278. There are three grades of lumber from this tree known in
the timber trade—the red, black, and white cypress, differing in the
color of the heart-wood. The red is most valued, is less liable to
split, and grows with a straight trunk, swollen at the base, the
top is small, and the wounded bark reddish. The others can scarcely
be distinguished from it until cut. There are two other species of
this genus, one in Mexico, and besides these others now found only
in fossil remains.

1279. The bald-cypress, besides being exported in large quantities
as planks and shingles, is much used in the manufacture of doors,
window-sashes, and other building purposes. It scarcely has an
equal in durability when set as posts.

Tue Sequoras."
1280. There are but two living species of this genus—the S. gi-

1 Sequoia, known by the English name of George Guess, was a quarter-
breed Cherokee Indian, wholly illiterate, and without any knowledge of the
English or of the sound of any letter in written language. Having heard
of writing, he applied himself to the construction of a syllabie alphabet,
which, when once construed, became in a short time in common use among
his people, and so simple that it could be learned in aday. It consisted of
86 characters, each representing one syllable. Sequoia was forced to emi- .

312 The Red- Wood.

gantea, oe giant-tree of California, and the S.

S|
iS Pers

=e ~~

151. Leaves, Cone, and Seeds of the Sequoia gigantea.

sempervirens, or red-

wood. The former _

grow inlimitedquan-—

tities, in groves
known as those of
Calaveras, Tuolum-

ne,Merced, and Mar- —

iposa. In Fresno
county, Cal., there
have been found oth-

ers In recent years,

in one place scatter-
ed overa region forty
miles in length by
six or eight in width,
and the tree is now
raised from seed in
various parts of the
world. It has been
tried many times in
the Atlantic States,
but from differences
of climate it has al-
most uniformly fail-
ed, perhaps after: a
few years of appar-
ent success. In Eng-
land, it has been

found to do best in|

a heavy clay soil,
a damp climate, a
moist sub-soil, but
prefers high lands
to low, and is likely

to be injured by severe frosts and by east winds.

grate with his tribe to beyond the Mississippi, and died in New Mexico in
1845. One’ of his grandfathers was a white man, but in appearance and

habits he was wholly Indian. The name was applied by Endlicher, and has *

preference over “ Wellingtonia,” as used by some English botanists,

a a oo

The Giant Trees of California. 313

1281. In its native region, it is considerably elevated above the
sea level, and in summer it is warm and dry, with scarcely any rain.
_ In winter the snows fall six feet or more in depth, and remain on
till May. ;
1282. The “ big trees” range from 250 to 360 feet in height, and
from 40 to 64 feet in circumference. The bark is reddish-brown,
- and about two feet thick, and the wood soft, and much like that of
the common white cedar in quality.

¥

152, Sequoia sempervirens: Leaves, Cone, and Male Flowers of the
natural size. Both forms of the leaves are shown in this
engraving.

1283. The red-wood, although second in size, is first in value, be-
cause more abundant and of exceedingly fine quality for joinery and

all other uses for which the pine is commonly employed. The wood
is not strong, but is durable, and has a reddish tint like red cedar ;

314 The Red- Wood: The Yews.

but this fades when exposed to light. It grows to ten and fifteen
feet in diameter, and in extreme cases it has been seen over twenty
feet in diameter and three hundred feet high. The range of this
tree is limited to the western slopes of the Coast Range, and upon

er

the metamorphic sandstones, which seem to be almost as Caeaiag to

their welfare as the ocean fogs.
1284. The scene presented by a red-wood forest is. one of the most

impressive kind. ‘‘ Let one imagine an entire forest, extending as —

far as the eye can reach, the trees from eight to twelve feet in

diameter and from two hundred to three hundred feet in height,
thickly grouped, their trunks marvelously straight, not branching
till they reach a hundred or a hundred and fifty feet, and then
forming a dense canopy that shuts out the view of the sky; the

contrast of the bright cinnamon-colored trunks with the somber, —

deep, yet brilliant green of the boughs; the utter silence of these for-

ests, where often no sound can be heard except the low thunder of —

the distant ocean,” * and one finds a combination of the sublime and

the beautiful that woodland scenery nowhere else presents.

1285. This tree never extends far inland, nor beyond the fogs
and rains of the Pacific coast, and it scarcely reaches the line of
Oregon on the north. The red-wood has the property not common

among the conifers, of sprouting from the stump, and its specific —

name is derived from this tenacity to life that it shows when cut.

Tue Yew Fammny (Taxacee).

1286. This differs: greatly from the other conifers in its fruit,
which is reduced to a single ovule, which, when ripe, is a hard
seed surrounded by a pulpy covering. The leaves are linear, flat,
arranged in two rows, and the blossoms are dicecious, solitary,
and axillary. There are but two native genera to be noticed in
this family.

1287. Toe American Yew (Taxus Canadensis) is a prostrate
spreading shrub, common throughout the Northern States, and often
known as ‘‘ ground hemlock.” It is of no account for its wood, but

might be made ornamental in covering rock in parks and other

places.
1288. Tue Western Yew (Tacus brevifolia). This is an upright

1 Whitney's Yosemite Book, p. 106.

The Torreyas: The Ginkgo. 315

tree, growing to the height of from 50 to 80 feet, with a thin and
rather light yellowish green foliage, much resembling the common
' yew of the Atlantic States in its blossom and fruit, but with
shorter leaves, and an upright habit. This tree occurs on Van-
couver’s Island and the main shore opposite, in British Columbia,
sometimes reaching a diameter of two feet. It is found southward
across the whole Pacific coast, to or near the Mexican line. The
‘wood of this tree is very tough, hard, and of beautiful rose color,
and is used for various ornamental purposes. It was formerly used
by the Indians in making bows, spear-handles, fish-hooks, ete.

_ 1289. Tae Evropean Yew (Tazusbaccata). This is readily cul-
tivated for ornament, and there are many varieties. The “ Trish
juniper,” one or these, has a tall, narrow growth. Other varieties
form excellent screens in ornamental pianting.

Tne CarirorntA Nutmec Tree (Torreya Californica).
1290. This is a rare tree, growing along the Coast Range and the

Sierras, to the height
ox

of from 50 to 75 feet, \ \ ff
and closely resem- NN \f \\\' NIRS
bling the yew in its INS AWK YY WN
foliage and general SX . CWS \ \\ WN
appearance. It de- ——fYy IAAF
rives its name from YY ff, Yj Yj YY 7
the fruit, which has tipo LF; WY)lh
the texture and ap- ‘
eparance of a nut- 153. The Fruit and Leaf of the Torreya Californica.
meg, but is strongly charged with turpentine, and of no available
use.

1291. Another species, the “‘ stinking yew” (T. tazifolia), occurs
within a narrow range in North-western Florida, where it is a small

tree of from twenty to forty feet in height. It derives its name
from the feetid odor of the leaves when bruised.

Tue Ginxeo (Salisburia adiantifolia).

1292. This remarkable “ conifer ” is introduced from China and
Japan, and is easily cultivated. Although belonging to the coni-
fers, its single seed is imbedded in a pulp; although associated with
the evergreens, it sheds its leaves promptly in autumn, and it has

816 The Ginkgo: The Pine Tribe.

no resin in its wood, as most of the ‘‘resinous species” haye with which
it isclassed. Itsleaves are broad and wedge-shaped, usually two-lobed,
and as unlike the usual form of coniferous leaves as can well be im-
agined. . Its wood is soft and spongy, and its bark smooth and ash-
colored. It has borne fruit in the United States, and in China it
grows to enormous size.
1293. It does not thrive in a frosty climate, but will live and bear
leaves, without gaining in size, in Northern New York and in cor-
responding latitudes. Near Philadelphia trees have grown to 60
feet or more in height. This tree shows in its mode of branching
some relationship to the spruce, and is most interesting from the
exceptional character of its leaves, and its general habit of growth.
The remaining genera of the yew family are all exotic, and will
not be noticed. The same remark applies to the families Podocarpee
and Araucariew, which present many interesting species, of great
value in their native countries for their timber, and of interest with -
us only where they may be used in ornamental planting.

Tue Pine FAMILY.

1294. The sixth and last family of the conifers—the Abietinee—
includes seven genera, viz.: Pinus, the pines; Cedrus, the cedar of
Lebanon; Picea, the spruces; Tsuga, the hemlocks; Pseudotsuga,
the Douglas fir; Abies, the firs; and Larix, the larches. All of
these but the second are natives of the United States, and find
within our limits their grandest development. Their commercial
importance demands a special notice. .

Tue Pines. (Genus Pinus.)

1295. Botanists describe about seventy species of the pine, chiefly
in the northern hemisphere, and of these about twenty-four belong
to the old world. In the United States we have about thirty species,
of which a dozen occur in the Atlantic States, and the remainder in
the Rocky Mountain region, and upon the Pacific Coast. Some six-
teen or seventeen are found in Mexico and the West Indies. They
are divided into groups, depending upon the number of leayes in a
common bundle, the form of the seed-scales, and other charac-
ters.

1296. The pines bear their seeds in pairs, between the scales, of

The Pines. 317

the cones, and usually ripen in the autumn of the next year after
they blossom. Occasionally the cones remain closed for several
_ years, and in these cases the seeds retain their vitality a long time.
The leaves come out from a sheath, in groups of two, three or five,
except in one species, where they are single. They are linear, and
from one to sixteen inches in length, and remain on two or three
years, or even longer. In transverse section, they show resin-ducts
and air-cells that are symmetrical, and, in a given species, very con-
stant in their arrangement. The seeds of the pines are generally
winged, and in some species they are large and edible. The num-
ber of cotyledons varies from 4 or 5 to 15 or 18, and is nearly con-
stant in a given species.

1297. In some species, as in the sugar-pine, and the heavy yellow
pine of the Pacific States, they grow to a size surpassed only by the
Sequoias, and sometimes they live to a great age. A section of
white pine, from Canada, was shown atthe Centennial Exhibition
at Philadelphia, that was 664 years old, and a plank, without waney
edges, was eight feet four inches wide, and nine inches thick. The
growth of the pines is most rapid in early years, the annual rings
being generally narrower as the trees approach maturity.

- 1298. The sap-wood does not. change to heart-wood until after
many years—in some cases 100 or over, and on an average about
20 years. This sap-wood is white, but is generally perishable,
especially’ when exposed to the weather. It is owing to this quality,
that second-growth pines have a poor reputation for lumber, and
are actually worth but little, except for the coarser uses.

1299. Commercially, the pines afford the most important timber
of the American markets, and immense quantities are used every
‘year in building, fencing, and for exportation. Our space will not
admit of a detailed description of all the species found native in the
country, which could not be done without involving technical de-
scriptions that properly belong to special botanical works.’

1300. The pines are divided into two sections, viz.: Strobus and
Pinaster. In the first of these, or the ‘‘ white pines,” the scales of
the cones are thin and smooth, and the leaves occur in fives. The

1 One of the latest revisions of the Pines is given by Dr. George Engel-
mann, in the Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, Vol IV.,
No. 1. (1880).

318

species in this section are Pinus strobus, P. monticola, P. Lambertiana, —

The Pines.

P. flewilis, and P. deflexa.

1301. In the section Pinaster, the scales are thickened at the apex,
and often bear a point or hook. They embrace by far the greater
number of species, which may be enumerated as follows—the num-
ber of leaves in a group being prefixed to each:

3 to 5. Pinus Parryana—Parry’s Pine.

3:
1 or 2.
5;

a
8 to 5.
2 to 3.

‘6

edulis—Pifion or Nut Pine.
monophylla—One-leaved Pine.
Balfowriana—Balfour’s Pine. -

a1 var. aristata—bristled var.
resinosa—Red or Norway Pine.
Torreyana—Torrey’s Pine.
Arizonica—Arizona Pine.
ponderosa—Western Yellow Pine.

“var. Jeffreyi. .

“« var. scopulorum.
Chihuahuana.
contorta—Twisted-branch Pine.

‘var. Murrayana. ©
Sabiniana —Hard-nut Pine, or Digger-Pine.
Coulteri—Coulter’s Pine.
insignis—Monterey Pine.
tuberculata. *
teda—Old-field, or Loblolly Pine.

“rigida—Pitch Pine.

“var. serotina—Pond Pine.
inops—Spruce, or Jersey Pine.

** var. clausa.
pungens—Prickly Pine.
muricata. | /
mitis—Short-leaved Yellow Pine.
glabra—Spruce Pine.
Banksiana—Gray, or Scrub Pine.
australis—Long-leaved Pine.
Elliotivi—*‘ Old-field,” or Elliott’s Pine.

1302. Tar Wurre Prive (Pinus strobus). This is the most valu-
able of all the native pines of the Atlantic States, and the one that

vy * sleep

The Pines. 319 :

has furnished by far the greatest amount of lumber and timber for
domestic use and the foreign trade. It is sometimes known in Eng-

land as the “‘ Weymouth Pine,” and by the French as “Pin du
Lord,” from Lord Weymouth, an English nobleman, whose name
is associated with the early settlement of New England.

154. Pinus strobus. The White Pine: Cone and Leaves.

1303. The great bodies of this timber, when lumbering began,
were found around the upper waters of the rivers in Maine, in
Northern New Hampshire, in Northern and Southwestern New
York, in Central and Northwestern Pennsylvania, in Central Michi-
gan, and along both sides, but not the northern part of the lower
peninsula, in the upper peninsula of that State, in Northern Wis-

320 The Pines.

consin and in Eastern Minnesota. This species extends along the
mountains into the Southern States, and in Western North Carolina
it grows to from 60 to 70 feet in height, but is not accessible to mar-
kets, and is only of Jocal use. This, and the red pine, in Canada,
do not extend much north of a line running from north shore of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, at first S. W. and then N. W., passing a
little north of Lake Nipigon, north of Lake Superior. South of
the St. Lawrence the pine has been mostly worked out in Canada,
and the supplies now come from the upper waters of the St. ae
and the rivers flowing southward into the Ottawa.

1304. The white pine thrives best in a light sand, with a lie
subsoil, and it prefers plains and broad river valleys to higher lands..
It can scarcely be made to grow upon a limestone soil, and has not.
answered expectations in some places abroad. In the plantation of
M. Vilmorin, at Barrés, France, it was found that ‘‘ the wood is
soft, light and worthless, even for firewood. It is of no use but for
ornament. Although it grows well with, its own se it has no
chances when planted with other species.”

1305. According to Lorentz & Parade,’ it is found to cee in-
France, excepting in the south, and it has a very rapid growth;
but time had not yet been allowed for it to ripen, and the best qual-
ity of wood had not yet been produced.

1306. WerstErN WurreE Pixr (Pinus monticola). This pine oe-
curs in Oregon and Washington Territory, growing from 7,000 to
10,000 feet above tide, and to a height of 60 to 70 feet, with a
diameter of three feet. It is the western representative of the com-
mon white pine of the Atlantic States, which it most resembles in
habit of growth and texture of wood, but it is not equal to it in
quality. In British Columbia this is known as “ white pine,” and it
is common in the interior of Vancouver Island, and along the
Southern Coast Range. The Indians collect the seeds of this tree
for food. ;

1307. Tar Sucar Pine (Pinus Lambertiana). This is the most
magnificent of pines in dimension, and among the choicest in the
quality of its wood. It occurs between the Rocky Mountains and ~
the Pacific, and from Mexico to near the Columbia River, growing

1Culture des Bois, 5th ed., p. 158.

The Pines. 821

‘great perfection upon the slopes of the Sierras and the transverse
that connect the Cascade and
Ranges. It does not generally
form separate forests, but towers here
and there above other and more com-
mon kinds, with a symmetry and vigor
that has been admired by all travelers. (2
It grows to 300 feet in height and 20 \\{-"
feet in diameter, although the more \
common sizes are 200 and 10 feet re-
spectively. The branches appear thin
and sparse, as compared with the
trunk. The leaves are of a dark blue-
green. ‘The cones are from 12 to 18
inches long, and proportioned as in our
cut (p. 322). The lumber much resem-
bles the best of white pine. The resin-
ous exudation from partly-burned
trees has a sweetish taste, like manna, 155. Weslo: B40 Reeds Of ithe, Suger
and from this the tree derives its name.

1308. The lumber is a favorite material for doors, sash, and
blinds, and for finishing-lumber generally. The species is named
from Aylmer Bourke Lambert, an English botanist, who died in —
1842. He was the author of several works of merit, and among
them one on the pines. The last edition of the latter, in three
volumes, atlas folio (1828-37), ranks among the most costly and
elaborate botanical publications ever issued. His herbarium, which
was considered among the best of its kind in Europe, he bequeathed
to the British Museum.

/ 1309. Tue Fiexipste Pine (Pinus flevilis). This is a middle-
sized tree, with warty horizontal branches, found growing in the
Rocky Mountains and from New Mexico to Washington Territory.
It is the prevailing pine east of the Humboldt Mountains, in Ne-
vada, and is frequent in the Wahsatch and Unita Mountains, from
6,500 to 11,000 feet above tide. It grows to a great age, and when_
from 250 to 500 years old, becomes 2 to 3 feet in diameter, and
rarely over 50 feet in height. It is coarse, cross-grained, and too
knotty for good lumber. The wood is pliable, and from this quality

822

156. Pinus Lambertiana:

, The Pines. .

The Sugar Pine
Leaves, on a reduced scale.

, Cone, and

the common name is

given. In British Co-

lumbia it is known as
the ‘‘ White Pine,” or
‘*White-barked Pine,”
and the seeds are col-
lected by the Indians
for food. A variety,

albicaulis, ( described

by Professor Newber-
ry as the Pinus cem-
broides), grows on the
Cascade Mountains,
up to the timber-line,
with a height of fifty
feet and a diameter

of two feet. The bark —

is thin, milk-white,
and in appearance
something like that
of white oak. The
wood is tough, and
the leaves near the
ends of the branches.

1310. The Pinus

related to the preced-
ing species. ae

1311. The Pinus
Parryana is a small
tree, growing upon
the Mexican border,
in California and Ar-
izona, bearing edible
seeds. It is closely
related-to the follow-
ing species: =

AE Ea oma

The Pines. | 323

1812. Tue Pinon Prive (Pinus edulis). This abounds in the
mountains of Arizona and New Mexico, occupying the lower ridges
and the swells of land on the ‘‘divides” between the headwaters of
these regions. The seeds are sweetish and edible, when roasted, and
are kept for sale in the markets. The tree itself is of a crabbed
shrubby growth, spreading out like an old neglected apple tree,
and usually does not grow more than 25 to 30 feet high.” The
wood is excellent for fuel, ‘but too small and poor for lumber or
other uses.

1313. Onr-LEeAven Pine (Pinus monophylla). This occurs as a
low tree, from 20 to 25 feet high, with an open rigid habit, and
branches spreading or sub-deflexed. It grows from the eastern
slope of the Sierras, and from thence eastward, in Nevada, Ar-
izona, and Utah. It also occurs in Oregon, at an elevation of
from 4,500 to 5,000 feet above tide. It has large edible seeds,
and is nearly allied to the pifion pine of Southern Colorado and
New Mexico. From the Sierras to the Wahsatch, this pine occurs
scattered over the dry slopes, and seldom more than 15 feet in
height.

1314. Pinus Balfouriana. This is a middle-sized tree, growing
in Northern California and on the summits of the mountains east
of the Humboldt range, in Nevada.

1315. Tae Norway or Rep Pre (Pinus resinosa). This is a
northern species, growing in Canada and New Brunswick, and along
the northern border of the United States, from Maine to Minnesota.
It does not generally form large bodies of timber, but occurs in de-
tached clumps. The wood is coarser than that of the white pine,
but is stronger, and much used for bridges and other timbers, where
strength and elasticity are required. It grows to the height of sixty
to seventy feet.

1316. The Pinus Torreyana is a small tree on the southern
coast of California, bearing large, thick, heavy cones with edible
seeds.

1317. The Pinus Arizonica grows on the Santa Rita Mountains in
Arizona, and is nearly related to the following species :

1318. Tar Heavy or WesTERN YELLOW Pre (Pinus ponderosa).
This species is widely scattered throughout the Rocky Mountain
region, in the Western Territories, and the Pacific States. It

324 | The Pines.

covers large areas/as
the only tree, and: it
is mixed in places:
with the sugar and,
other pines. It grows
to magnificent dimen-
sions, and thrives
upon arid mountain
slopes, and to an
elevation of 11,000
feet, or quite up to
the ‘‘ timber-line.”
It is found from 5 to
8 fect, and even 12
feet in diameter, and
from 200 to 250 feet —
high, in favored lo-
calities. The leaves
of this species are of .
a dark yellowish
green, differing in
this from the deep
157. Cone, Scales, and Leaves of the Pinus ponder- blue-green of the su-
osa, of two-thirds the Natural Size. gar pine, and the light
blue-green of Sabine’s pine, with which it is often associated. The bark
is of a light red, but yellowish brown within, and divided into large
plates, four, six, or eight inches in breadth, and flat and smooth,
affording a characteristic appearance to the trunk of the tree at a
considerable distance. .
1319. The timber of the yellow pine is heavy and highly resinous,
but is not as strong as in some other-conifers. In recent years it
has been used in immense quantities for railroad ties, and it is also
much used for mining timbers. The grain is often twisted, and
sometimes into the closest spiral. 7
1320. In general habit it most resembles the pitch pine (P. rigida)
of the Atlantic States, but it grows immensely larger, the bark is
smoother, and the wood less resinous. The latter quality appears
to depend upon the soil and exposure, and differs considerably in
different places. i

The Pines. 825

1321. This pine is known in British Columbia as the ‘‘ Yellow
Pine,” ‘‘ Red Pine,” and “‘ Pitch Pine,” and in that Provinceitis found
only in the central dry region, between the Coast Ranges and Selkirk
and Gold Ranges, northward, from 49° to 51°, and sparingly on the
east side of the Rocky Mountains. It is there sawn into lumber,
but is rather brittle, and not durable where exposed to the weather.
In that Province it does not generally exceed four feet in diameter,
and at 3,000 feet above tide, it is replaced by the Douglas fir and
twisted-branch pine.

1322. Tax Twisrep-Brancu Pre (Pinus contorta).. This tree is
found in the region of the Rocky Mountains, and in the Pacific
States, growing to a moderate
sized tree, from 50 to 60 feet
in height, and a foot in diam-
eter ata yard from the ground.
It derives its name from the
curving downward and in-
ward of the dead branches in
the lower part, as the foliage
drops off. This peculiarity is’
noticed to less extent in other
pines. The cones remain on
for several years, which gives
the tree a peculiar appear-
ance, In the Cascade Moun-
tains it forms large forests in
the lower valleys, and it
thrives best in moist valleys 158. Cone, Leaves, Scales, and Seed of the
and plains, although found ~ eg contorta, of two-thirds the Natural
at 6,000 feet above tide. It much resembles the Pinus inops, or
spruce-pine of New Jersey and Maryland, but is more slender, and
grows to a larger size. It is sometimes locally known as the ‘‘ Red
Pine.”

1323. The “‘ Western Scrub-Pine,” ‘‘ Bull-Pine,” or ‘‘ Black-Pine,”
as this is variously called in British America, extends from the coast
to the Rocky Mountains, forming a characteristic tree over the
northern part of the interior plateau, ‘and densely covering large
areas. On the coast it grows small and gnarled, upon the dunes
and exposed rocky coast. In the interior it is found from 60 to 100

826 The Pines.

feet in height, but usually not more than two feet in diameter. In —

Alaska it extends as far as the Yokun river, ond over large areas in-
to the Peace-river region. The wood is seldom used for timber, ow-
ing to its small size, but is white and fairly durable. The cambium
layer contains much sugar, is eaten by the Indians in the spring,
and in some instances large quantities of it are collected and dried
for winter use.’

1324. Tae HArp-nur Pine or DiccEr-Prve (Pinus Sabiniana).

This pine so notable on account of the great size and solidity of its

cones, does not form dense forests, but is widely disseminated in
California and Oregon, being generally scattered sparsely over the

most rocky surfaces not occupied by other trees. The seeds afford

subsistence to the Indians in many places.
1325. Dr. Douglas describes this tree as of Alpine habit, but
Prof. Newberry’s observations disprove this.? The tree spreads out

more like an oak or a maple than a conifer as it usually grows; its

foliage is a pale bluish-green, and thin, and the whole aspect of the
tree is light and airy. The author last quoted describes the cones as
solitary, ovid, sometimes as large as one’s head, and very ponderous,
being covered with spurs or strong curved spires an inch or more
long, of which the broad bases cover all the exposed portion of the
scales. The seeds are as large as beans, and very palatable, having,
however, a slight terebinthine taste. The leaves are in threes, from
eight to ten inches long. The timber is of little value, on ac-
count of its irregular and spreading form.

1526. The Pinus Coulteri much resembles the above, and has a
very thick, rough, blackish bark. The leaves are in threes, six to
ten inches long, stiff, erect, and crowded at the ends of the branches.
Its cones are as large, but the seeds are smaller. They are both
found on the Coast Range, where we also find two unimportant spe-
cies, the P. tuberculata and P. muricata.

1327. Tue Monterey Prine (Pinus insignis), grows upon a
very restricted area, to the height of 80 to 100 feet, in the vicinity
of Monterey. Its cones are one-sided and in clusters, of rather
large size; but it is too limited in amount to be of interest as a tim-
ber tree.
1328. LOBLOLLY, oR OLD-FIELD Prye (Pinus teda). This pine

1G. M. Dawson's “Trees of British Columbia,” p. 8.
*Pacyfic Railway Laplorations, Vol. VI1., Part iii., p. 40.

The Pines. 827

159, Pinus Sabiniana,—Cone one-third Pee Sekorel Size; Leaves and Seed of Natural
eC.

.
y

828 The Pincs.

derives its common name from coming up spontaneously in aban-
doned fields. It grows from 50 to 70 feet in height, with a diame- —
er of two to three feet, and a spreading top. The wood is sappy
and coarse, liable to warp and shrink, and is not durable on expo-
sure. It issometimes tapped for turpentine, but yields less Stic the
long-leaved pine.

1329. Varieties are known in North Carolina as “‘ Swamp Pine,”
‘* Slash Pine,” and about Wilmington as the ‘‘ Rosemary Pine.” In
the West-Roanoke Swamps, it has been found 5 feet in diameter,
and 150 to 170 feet in height. .

1330. Pircu Pine (Pinus rigida). This pine grows to great ad-
vantage upon sandy soils in New England and New York, and ex-
tends into the Western and Southern States. It has been seen in
Maine and Massachusetts, four to five feet in diameter and 100 feet
high, but its usual size is from 40 to 50 feet and its diameter from
one to two feet. It grows very rapidly in early life, and on account -
of its deeply penetrating roots it is difficult to plant, and is usually —
sown in the place where it is to grow. It has been found peculiarly
well adapted to the sandy soil upon Cape Cod, and in other light
soils near the sea coast.

1331. The custom of planting there is as follows: In the latter
part of October the cones are gathered, put up in boxes or barrels,
and kept in-a cool place. Before spring they will have mostly
opened, and the seeds will readily come out. Sometimes they are
heated a little, but this is liable to injure the vitality of the seed.
From a half to three-fourths of a pound will plant an acre of land,
and the seed‘is worth from $1.25 to $1.50 per pound. ~A bushel of
cones will produce about a pound of seed.

1332. They may be planted at any time of the year, but best in
early spring, as soon as the frost is out of the ground. The custom
generally is, to run a series of furrows 5 or 6 feet apart over the
land, but some plant in rows only 4 feet apart, while others allow a
space of 8 to 10 feet. ‘The seeds are dropped in by hand, three or
four in a place, and about three feet apart, and are very slightly
covered with a hoe. Sometimes a seed-planter is used, and at much
less cost of labor, with good success. A boy should follow to cover
up the seeds not covered.

1333. The cost of planting varies from $3 to $5 per acre. Gen-
erally no further care is taken, the trees coming up of themselves.

The Pines. 329.

_ They bear fruit early and show a tendency to self seeding. Upon
Nantucket, we have noticed that they spread most toward the east
or southeast under the effects of prevailing winds, and this will
generally be found the case elsewhere. These plantations are liable
_ to suffer from fire, and occasionally from insect ravages.

1334. In Virginia this species is sometimes called the ‘ Black
Pine.” It grows from 30 to 50 feet in height. The wood of the
pitch pine, is coarse, resinous, and heavy, and generally very
knotty. It is sometimes used in making tar, but is not of value
in commerce, although from its resinous properties it makes an ex-
cellent firewood.

1335. The variety serotina, known as “‘ Pond Pine,” is a southern

species, growing in swamps to a height of 40 to 50 feet. It has
sometimes been used for the masts of small vessels.
_ 1336. Sprucr, or Jersey-Pine (Pinus inops). This pine, in
New Jersey, Maryland, and southward to Florida, shows a tendency
to spread and occupy-vacant lands. It is variously known as ‘Ce-
dar-Pine,” “‘ River-Pine,” and ‘‘ Scrub-Pine,” and grows to from 20
to 40 feet in height and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter. It is
chiefly valuable for firewood.

1337. Prickiy Pine (Pinus pungens). This is sometimes called
the ‘‘Table-Mountain Pine.” It grows from Pennsylvania south-
ward, but to best advantage in North Carolina. It is common on
the eastern spurs of the Blue Ridge, but not further west. It
grows from 30 to 50 feet in height, and from 12 to 20 inches in di-
ameter.

1338. Suort-LeAvep YELLOW Pine (Pinus mitis). This pine is
widely diffused, but grows to best size and quality in the South-
western and Southern States, where it is used for lumber. It usually
grows from 40 to 60 feet in height, and from 15 inches to 2 feet in
diameter. The heart-wood is fine grained, but moderately resinous,
but the sap-wood is perishable.

1339. Tue Spruce-Pine (Pinus glabra) is a southern species,
found in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida.

1340. Gray or Scrus-Prve: Banx’s Pine (Pinus Banksiana).
This is a northern species, occurring from Maine westward to North-
ern Wisconsin and the upper peninsula of Michigan. It is found in
Canada and far northward in British America, growing from fifteen
to thirty feet in height, but nowhere of size to make it suitable for

8380 The Pines.

lumber. Its leaves are in pairs, short and rigid, and its cones are
slightly curved and with pointless scales. They sometimes remain

on for many years.

1341. Tur Lone-Leavep or SourHerN YELLOW Prine (Pinus —
australis). This is by far the most important of the southern pines, —
and extends from Virginia around into Texas. It usually grows to —
the height of 60 to 70 feet, with a diameter of 15 to 20 inches, but —

in favorable conditions to a larger size. In richer soils it is less
resinous, and from a reddish tinge to the wood is called ‘‘ Red Pine.”
A tree with a small top is said to indicate the best heart-wood.

This species furnishes most of the resinous products of the Southern”

States, as already described. [§ 795.]
1342. Asa timber, it is scarcely rivaled by any of the pines for

durability. and strength, and large quantities are exported annually —

to foreign markets and to the Northern States. Trees that haye
been worked for turpentine are less valued as timber, and such are
sometimes excluded in contracts for supplies.

1348. The long-leaved pine was noticed by Michaux as a poor

seeder, and in unfruitful years a cone can not be found within hun- —
dreds of miles. A correspondent remarks: “According to my ob- —

servation, these unfruitful years are far more common than the
fruitful ones. In its struggle for existence in our days, the odds of

a survival of its kind among the arborescent vegetation that disputes —

its ground are greatly against it. Taken from the flat moist lands,
it is replaced almost exclusively by the Pond and Old-field Pine; the
hilly, broken, dry upland, denuded of the grand old pine forest, is

with surprising rapidity covered by a dense and shrubby growth of — |

black-jack, turkey-oak, scarlet and upland oak, above which seldom

a young pine raises its head, crowned with its large white-fringed ~

terminal bud.

1344. ‘‘ Full of resinous juices through a!l stages of its life, the

young trees are not as able to withstand the raging fires that an-
nually devastate the woods as the less resinous species and the de-
ciduous-leaved trees; besides that, being of much slower growth,

this noble tree is doomed to extinction, if not protected by man. —

On tracts sheltered from the invasion of fire, groves of young trees
from 15 to 25 feet can be observed around Mobile, testifying that
its existence for the future can in some measure be secured, if pro-

ab

Se ee

The Pines. 331

tected from these destructive influences, unnecessarily caused
by man.” *

1345. Ex.iort’s Prve (Pinus Elliottii). This is a southern-coast
pine, growing in light damp sandy soils, along marshes, and near
the mouths of rivers, never far inland, and showing a tendency to
form a second growth where other timber has been cut away. It
generally bears fruit every year, while the long-leaved and other
pines in that region generally are fertile on alternate years. It
blossoms early, and has adense heavy head, dark foliage, and larger
and heavier branches than most other southern pines. The leaves
are generally in threes. The timber is heavy, very tough, and more
resinous than that of the long-leaved pine. It grows rapidly while
young, and from the facility with which it may be propagated, it
may become an important RN.
tree in forest-culture in the
future.

1346. This has formerly
been considered a variety
of the Old-field Pine (P.
taeda), but it appears to
present distinct specific
characters, that have led
Dr. Engelmann to recently
describe it as a separate
species.

1347. Scorcn Pre (Pi-
nus sylvestris). This foreign
species is here mentioned,
because it has been intro-
duced for cultivation, and
has been found exceedingly
well adapted to certain light
sandy soils, where it grows
with great luxuriance. It
is the principal pine of Cen-
tral and Northern Europe,

; . Pi ylvestris: Scotch Pine—Leayes and
and is spread overall North- Fe ee eon

1Dr. Charles Mohr. Forestry Report, ii., 36.

332 The Spruces.

ern Asia, wherever pines grow. It has been found to grow very —

well in Iowa, and has been planted with good success upon Cape
Cod, in Massachusetts. Between these regions it can be planted
almost anywhere, if the soilis sandy and somewhat fertile.

1348. The Scotch pine comes to maturity and greatest value in —

Northern Europe in 60 to 80 years ; after which its growth in eubie

contents is slow. At Balmoral, Scotland, a crop, under fayorable —

conditions, at 60 years, averaged 60 cubic feet to a tree, arid at 200
years 25 cubic feet, and 90 to 100 trees to the acre. The choicest

moor-pan soil, at 60 years, they yielded but 8 cubie feet each, and

at 100 years but 10 cubic feet. In Prussia this tree constitutes

over half of the public forests. In Europe it is known under a
great variety of names, as ‘‘ Riga Pine,” ‘‘ Haguenau Pine,” ete.,

and it differs very greatly under cultivation, as well in the form and —

habit of its growth as in the quality of its wood, as variously modi-
fied by climate, soil, and other influences.

THE Spruces. (Genus Picea.)

1349. Of this genus there are about a dozen species, of which two
are found in Europe, five in Asia, and five in North America. © Of

the latter, two are found on the eastern and three on the western —

side. The spruces have pendulous cones, with the bracts shorter
than the scales, and both persistent. The cones ripen in the fall of
the same year that they form, but do not open to disperse their seeds
till the spring following. The engraving (page 333) represents
a twig of the common European spruce, now widely introduced as
an ornamental tree, and when young quite a beautiful object, the
branches coming out symmetrically from the ground upward, and
the whole taking a dense and compact pyramidal form. It does
not grow with us to as great a size or age as in Northern Europe,
nor is it an object inviting to notice for forest culture, but exceed-
ingly well adapted to the formation of screens and wind-breaks.
1350. The two eastern species in the United States are thé Picea
alba, or WutrE Spruce, and the P. nigra, or Buack Spruce. They
are found most common along the northern border of the United
States, from Maine to Northern Minnesota. The former extends
further northward, being found as an important timber tree only in

portions of the forest yielded 30 to 35 feet to the tree, and 120 to —
130 trees to the acre. The height ranged from 70 to 80 feet. On

wee see ee ee

The Spruces. 333

the northern part of Maine and further north in Canada. The latter
forms extensive forests in Northern New England and New York,
and both extend along the mountains southward to North Carolina,
but do not occur as important timber trees in that region.

161. Picea excelsa: Common European or Norway Spruce, Leaves,
Blossoms, and a False Cone formed from Insect Injuries.

1851. The wood of both the white and the black spruce is white,
strong, and elastic, but rather coarse-grained. It is much prized for
flooring, and for building-timber, but is not durable when exposed
to the weather, excepting when laid with the grain of the wood
vertical. Shingles made of spruce are sometimes very good, but are
inferior to those of white pine, cypress, Cedar, red-wood, and many:
other kinds.

1352. From its lightness and strength, this wood is valued for
yard-arms and small masts in vessels. The roots and base of the
trunk are used for knees for canal-boats, barges, etc. The spruce
best adapted for working, and the strongest, most elastic, and most
durable, comes from elevated regions, a dry soil, and a southern ex-

834: The Spruces.

posure. It is from such localities that the best .material for sound-
ing-boards of pianos is derived, and it would be useless to seek this —
wood of best quality for this use in trees grown upon low swampy
grounds. When sawn for this purpose, the logs are first quartered, —
and then sawn as near as may be vertically to the lines of growth. —

1353. The black spruce, when grown in dense masses, makes a j
tall and slender tree, very strong and elastic, and well suited for —
poles for scaffolding, flag-staffs, and the like, and for rafters and ;
sleepers in buildings. In dry situations, as hewn timber, it is strong —
and durable, but light, and for this reason easier to place than most —
of the hard-woods, while it surpasses the most of them in strength. —

1354. The growth of the spruce is remarkably rapid, and under
careful management it is much less liable to be run out by other trees X
than most other species. A spruce forest carefully protected against
fires, and the cutting limited to trees that are large enough for saw-
ing into boards, may be cut over at intervals of ten or fifteen years
to great profit. The young shoots of the spruce are used in mak-
ing beer; an essential oil is distilled from the leaves, and a gum
having a market value exudes from the trunk.

1355. ENGELMANN’s Spruce (Picea Engelmannii). ‘This much
resembles the black spruce of the Northern States and Canada, but —
grows to greater size. It is found upon the interior plateau from —
British Columbia southward to California, and in Montana and New —
Mexico. Its northern and north-eastern limits are not definitely as- _
certained. It has been found on Peace river in British America. —
It forms a superior timber, and is very durable. :

1356. This is a tall pyramidal tree, with a thin scaly bark of a
reddish or purplish brown color, and white soft wood.. East of the
Humboldt Mountains, in Nevada, and on the Wahsatch and Unita —
Mountains, it grows to an elevation of 8,000 to 10, 000 feet. In f
these regions it is known as the ‘‘ White Pine.”

1357. Tur Bur Rocky-Mountatn Sprvce (Picea pungens). This
is a Rocky Mountain species, extending from New Mexico through
Colorado and Utah to Idaho and Oregon. It grows to a large size, —
and at elevations of 7,000 to 10,000 feet above tide.’ This is found —
to be well adapted to the Northern and New England States, being
hardy, of rapid growth and of remarkable beauty of foliage, the
color being a bluish green. It has long been known under the
name of the Abies, or Picea Menziesii, but the ‘“‘ Menzies Spruce” of

SS SE ES

The Spruces: The Hemlocks 935"

the coast belongs to the following species, and is now known under
the name by which it was deseribed at an earlier period: . ;
1358. Tur Menzies Spruce (Picea Sitchensis) is found from Men-

docino Co., California, to Alaska, and is strictly a coast species. It

seldom grows at an elevation of
more than 500 feet, but in Ore-
gon, Washington Territory, and
British Columbia, it attains a (¢
large size, being sometimes 150 /
to 200 feet in height, with a di- (sw
ameter of six to nine feet. It is (\
exported as a timber, and is (\
coarse but strong. It grows to
best advantage on a damp sandy
soil. The common name is given
in honor of Dr. Archibald Men-
zies, who was surgeon and botan-
ist in Vancouyer’s exploring ex- : ;
pedition, about the end of the 162. Leaves and Cone of the Menzies
last century, and died in 1842. Bpmee, of two-thirds the Natural

Tae Hemiocxs. (Genus Tsuga.)

1359. There have usually been described under the genus Abies,
but are now classified separately. The cones are usually small and -
pendant at the ends of the twigs, the bracts shorter than the scales,
and both remain adherent to the axis. The leaves are flat or angled,
in two. rows, and with a very short petiole. There are five species,
of which one is found in Asia, and four in North America. Of the
latter, two are found on the eastern and two on the western side.

1360. Tae Hemiock (Tsuga Canadensis). This is one of the
most widely diffused and most useful of the conifers in the Northern
States, extending from Maine to Wisconsin, and along the Alle-
ghenies southward to North Carolina. It is abundant in New Bruns-
wick, and in Ontario and Quebec. In North Carolina, where it oc-
curs on the borders of mountain ravines and in cold swamps, it is
known as ‘‘ Spruce-Pine.” It is sometimes called the ‘‘ Hemlock-
Spruce,” and by the French of Canada “‘ Peruche.”

1361. In the Northern States, and especially in New York and
Pennsylvania, its bark is used to an immense extent for the tanning

-

336° The Hemlocks.

of sole-leather, and in some regions where the trees have been cut
and peeled for their bark, the lumber is still allowed to rot upon the
ground. | : a.

1362. It sometimes occurs of immense size, and in considerable
bodies by itself, but is very often intermixed with deciduous kinds. _
The wood of the hemlock is coarse, but strong, and is largely used
in the form of planks and scantling for building purposes, bridges, —
and the like, or as boards for fences, roof-boards, the siding of barns
and other coarse purposes. When the grain is placed vertical, it —
endures exposure to the weather for along period. The young wood —
is much used for railway ties, but is not as durable as many other —
kinds. a

1363. This is one of the most beautiful of our native species,
when planted in parks among deciduous kinds, or singly, and is less
liable to injury from insects than the spruces and the pines.

1364. The Tsuga Caroliniana is a southern species, océurring on
the mountains of Western North Carolina, and much resembling —
the one above described. f

1365. The Tsuga Pattoniana grows in the upper timber-region of —
the Sierras, from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above tide, but at this ele-—
vation it is only a shrub. In lower localities it is found from 100 —
to’ 150 feet high, and from 2 to 4
feet in diameter. It is a large, —
graceful, and slender tree, with bright —
green foliage, and purple cones, from —
an inch and a half to two inches in~
length. It has formerly been known —
as the ‘‘ Abies Williamsoniana.” — F

1366. THE OrEecon HEMLOCK ~
(Tsuga Mertensiana). This is a tree
found native upon the Pacific Coast —
from California to Alaska, being often
found from 100 to 200 feet high, and 6 —
to 8 feet in diameter. The wood is
finer than our common hemlock, and —
the bark is more red, and is used for

i . It does not ex-
163. View of the Side and use of an tanning PUR : : a

old cone of Williamsoa’s Spruce,tend beyond the region of abundant
with Seale, Seeds. and Leaf, of two- , : - 7
thirds the Natural Size. rainfall. j

The Douglas Fir. 337

Tur Doveras Fir. (Pseudotsuga Douglasii.)'

1367. This is incomparably the finest of the firs, surpassing them
all in size, and equaling the best in value
asa timber tree. It extends from Mex-
ico, New Mexico, and Colorado, through
the mountain regions of the Pacific Coast,
occurring in Oregon to the enormous size
of 200 to 300 feet in height, and from
15 to 20 feet in diameter. It is more
commonly about 150 feet high, and from
4 to 8 feet in diameter.

1368. This tree has a tall pyramidal
growth, with horizontal and drooping
branches. The bark is rather thin, of an
ash or reddish color, and the wood is
coarse-grained, but tough and hard. It
extends northward into Alaska, and
is largely developed in British Colum-

bia. Professor Newberry in describing y)
. this tree as it grows in Oregon, 164. Cone and. Leaves of the
i osgias Fir, of two-thirds

Says: the Natural Size.

1369. ‘The trees stand relatively as near each other, and the
trunks are as tall and slender, as the canes in a canebrake. In this
case, the foliage is confined to the tuft at the top of the tree, the
trunk forming a cylindrical column as straight as an arrow, and
almost without branches for two hundred feet. The amount of
timber on an acre of this forest very much exceeds that on a simi-
lar area in the tropics or in any part of the world I have visited.”

1370. The Douglas fir, in British Columbia, forms the principal
lumber yet exported from that Province. It forms dark and dense
forests of considerable extent, the wood being, for the most part,
of excellent quality for ship-building, but varying considerably in
strength and texture, according to the conditions under which it

1Commonly described as the “Abies Douglasii,” and known by a great va-
riety of common names, such as “ Red” or “ Black” Fir, “« Red” or “ Black”
Spruce, “ Hemlock,” “Oregon Pine,” “Western Pitch Pine,” etc. In the
Uinto Mountains, it is known as the “ Bear River Pine,” or “Swamp Pine.”

22

338 — The Douglas Fir: The Firs, Proper.

has grown. It is shipped for masts and spars to Great Britain,
South America, Australia, India, China, and the Sandwich Islands.
1371. This tree is very accommodating as to soil, but prefers that
which is deep and damp, with a stiff subsoil, provided that it is”
wel drained. It has been introduced into Scotland with m
success, and is there a favorite tree for planting, both for ornament
and for timber. It is found to withstand the drouth better than m Fr
conifers, while it equals or surpasses most of them in growth. —
was first introduced into that country in 1826, and a tree planted
the next year is now 100 feet or more in height, and in 1873 had a
girth of 9 feet 7 inches at 3 feet from the ground. a
1372. It is found, from observation, that in the colony of Viet
ria, this tree will not flourish in exposed situations or near the s
but it is admirably adapted to form large bodies of forests in Alpi
glens, and in the cooler climate of the mountain regions. i
1373. The specific name of this splendid tree was given by Pro-
fessor Lindley in honor of Dr. David Douglas, who was sent by the
Horticultuial Society of London, in 1825, to study the flora a
collect seeds and specimens upon the Pacific Coast. He réturall
in 1827, and in a subsequent journey lost his life, by an accident,
in the Sandwich Islands, in July, 1834. Ss

Tue Firs. (Genus Abies.) i:

1374. Of these there are about eighteen species, of which: age
are found in the United States—two in the Atlantic States, and t b
remainder among the Rocky Mountaius and upon the Pacific Coas .
-The firs have the bracts of the cones longer than the scales—some-
times conspicuously long, and when ripe they fall to pieces, The
cones are erect. THe leaves are in two ranks on the twigs, and rel-
atively short and rigid. The details of inflorescence in this genus
as they are found in the silver fir, will be seen upon a subsequent
page.

1375. Toe Batsam Fir or Nortrn Carouina (Abies Frasereya
much resembles the silver fir of Europe, but seldom grows more
than 40 feet high and 12 to 15 inches in diameter. It is found o1 on
the western mountains over 4,000 feet above tide, sometimes form-
ing forests of itself, and. giving name, from its dark foliage, to the
‘¢ Black Mountains.” Mas q

1376. Tue Batsam Fir (Abies balsamea). . This is common in

The Firs, Proper. 3389

Canada and in swamps and damp soils in the Northern States, ex-
tending southward into Virginia, and westward beyond the Missis-
sippi. It has a very symmetrical growth, and its regular conic
form gives a characteristic aspect to the forests where it occurs. It
grows to 50 or 60 feet in height, and its wood is coarse and white,
but not strong. It is used however for lumber, but should be
protected from the weather. This tree grows well under cultivation
in a humid soil, and it may be used with success, in wet place, i in ;
planting wind-breaks) ‘The “ Canada Balsam” of druggists is ob-
tained from blisters in the bark of this tree.

1377. Tue Batsam Spruce (Abies subalpina), much einbling
the Northern Balsam Fir, grows in Colorado and northward into
British North America, occurring on the highest mountains and
quite up to the timber-line. It grows to a tree two feet in diameter
and a hundred feet or more in height, in sheltered places, but the
wood is soft and poor. This species, in British Columbia, appears
to take the place of the A. grandis in the region east of the Coast
Range. It extends into the Peace River district, and occurs in cold,
damp situations in the country between Lesser Slave Lake and the
Athabasca River. The tree often exceeds two. feet in diameter, but
the wood is said to be almost worthless.

1378. Abies concolor. This is the ‘‘ White Balsam,” or ‘‘White Fir,”

of South Colorado, Utah, and Arizona, and is found westward in
the Sierras and northward to Southern Oregon. It grows at an el-
evation of 3,000 to 8,000 feet, and to a height of 100 to 150 feet,
and a diameter of two to four feet. It derives its common: name
from the light color of its foliage, both of the under and the upper
sides of its leaves.
' 1379. Rep Fir (Abies magnifica). This species grows on the high
Sierras of California and northward, at an elevation of 7,000 to
10,000 feet, and sometimes to a height of 200 feet and a diameter
of eight to ten feet. The wood is of a reddish color, from whence
its name, and it is strong and durable. This species bears larger
‘cones than any other of the genus.

1380. Tue Western Sitver Fre (Abies amabilis), This tree
occurs among the Cascade Mountains. It grows with remarkable
symmetry of form, and in favorable situations, to more than a hun-
_ dred feet in height, forming a slender spire of dark green, and when
occurring with other kinds sometimes presenting groups of remarka-

340 The Firs, Proper.

ble beauty. Itsrange extends —
from Washington Territory to
Wyoming and New Mexico.
1381. Toe Nosre Fir
(Abies nobilis). In general —
aspect, this resembles the
Western Silver Fir (A. ama-
bilis), but the foliage is of
lighter green, and the branch-
es more rigid. It grows toa
height of 200 feet, with a di-
ameter of six to ten feet, and
it has a thick cinnamon-col-—
ored bark, which is red on
the inside. This tree is known
also as the ‘‘ Red Fir,” and
15, Copo and, Tones of whe dius anabilts, forms forests in Norther
California. It is fouud on

Mount Shasta, at from 6,000
to 8,000 feet above tide; on
the Cascade Mountains, and
on the Columbia River. Its
wood is said to be superior to
that of any other of the firs.
1382. Tar WestTERN BaL-
SAM Fir (Abies grandis). This
is a large tree, nearly resem-
bling the Western Silver Fir.
It occurs in Oregon and Cali-
fornia, upon. the Sierra Ne-—
vada and Cascade Mountains,
Z é along with the sugar and the
166. Cone and Leaves of the Abies nobilis, of yellow pines, which are at
two-thirds the natural size. times scarcely superior to it

in size. ‘On the Columbia and the Willamette, it is known as the
‘White Spruce,” to distinguish it from the Douglas Spruce. Most
of the lumber exported from Oregon is from these two trees. This
tree grows to the height of 200 to 300 feet, and a diameter of four
to six feet. In British Columbia it is limited to the coast, and its

ce ee ee RE ee

The Firs, Proper. 341

wood is soft, white, brittle,
and not durable. The growth
_of this species is more rapid )
than that of most of the firs.
It prefers a rich and somewhat
humid soil, and river flats are

particularly favorable to its |

success. Itis not as liable to
suffer from late spring frosts,
as most other firs.

1383. The Abies bracteata
is a tall, slender, and strictly Wray
pyramidal tree, growing to Yip)
the height of 100 to 150 feet ) LL Lselee

a
-—

and a diameter of two feet.

Tt oceurs on Santa Lucia 17,fepesndLenverof the Abie grandis of
Mountains, upon the Califor-

nia coast, along a narrow belt, perhaps a hundred miles in length, and
at an elevation of 3,000 feet and upwards above sea level. The long
bracts of the cones give them a bristly appearance, and suggest the
specific name. These bracts are, in fact, a modified form of leaves,
and somewhat resemble them in appearance.

1384. We will conclude our notice of the firs by adding the most
important of the European species, it being convenient, in connec-
tion therewith, to present an engraving from Rossmassler, illustrating.
the inflorescence, germination, and foliage of the species.

1385. Tae Evropean Sitver Fir (Abies pectinata). This is an
important timber tree, and grows to a large size in the Pyrénées, the
Cévennes, the Alps, the Jura, and the Vdsges, and some fine forests
are found in Northern Italy and in Normandy. The timber is softer
and less durable than that of the pine and larch, and it is much
used for shingles, cabinet-work, boat-building, and constructions
generally, and is not liable to warp or shrink. When young, the
tree is very tender, and easily injured by frost, which it seldom es-
capes many years together; but when it gets larger it becomes
hardy and thrives at high altitudes. It comes to a size profitable
for working in about seventy years, but lives to twice this age. The
Strasburg turpentine of druggists is obtained from this tree. The

342 The Silver Fir.

168, Abies pectinata: The Silver Fir. 1. A twig, with staminate catkins. 2. The pis- —
tilate flowers. 3,4. Scales of the pistilate flower, with the two seeds still mi-
nute on the inner side. 5 (and the figure aboye). The seed-scale separate -
the two sides, as shown in the preceding figures. 6, 7. Staminate catkins as @
bud, and fully open; and of twice the natural size. 8. Anthers. 9. Leaf of
twice the natural size. 10, Transverse section of the leaf, also magnified.
ll. Germ of a young plant. 12. Germ-bud of the latter, with the leaves re-
moved, greatly enlarged.

The Larches. 343

details of its inflorescence, etc., are shown in the accompanying en-,

graving.
THe Larca. (Genus Lariz.)

_ 1886. Of this there are 8 species, native of the North Temper-

ate and Arctic Zone of Europe, Asia, and America. We have

_ three native species, of which one grows in Canada and the Atlantic
_ States, and two upou the western coast. The larches have decidu-
_ ous leaves, that are collected in fascicles of from ten to twenty in a

group, and small cones, with the bracts usually shorter than the
scales. The foliage takes a bright yellow color in autumn a little
before the fall of the Jeaves.

1387. Toe Tamarack (Larix Americana). This is in some
regions called ‘‘ Hackmatack,” and in commerce in ‘Maine and New
Brunswick it is sometimes known as “ Juniper.” The tamarac
grows in swamps in Canada and the Northern States, from Maine
to Wisconsin. It can be cultivated in humid soils, but does not
thrive well upon dry grounds. It grows to the height of thirty to
forty feet, and comes to largest development in Canada. Exten-
sive swamps are sometimes almost exclusively occupied by this tree.

1388. Toe Western Larcu (Larix occidentalis). This is a tall
slender tree, with short, thick, and small branches, thin, light, and
yellowish-green leaves. It grows to a hundred and fifty feet in

height, with a diameter of two to three feet. It extends northward

in British Columbia, in the valleys of the Selkirk and Gold Ranges,
within the limits of abundant rain-fall. It is not found on the
coast. The timber is said to be strong and durable, but coarse.

1389. The Larix Lyallii is a little known species, found growing
at high elevations upon the Caseade Range in Oregon.

1390. Tue Evropran Larcn (Larix Europea). This tree has
been found in Scotland the most profitable that can be grown. Al-
though not adapted to such valuable uses as the oak, it will mature
two crops while the oak is bearing one. It comes to maturity there
in about 60 years, in which time it has eight or nine thinnings,
at from 5 to 10 years. An acre has been known to yield over
$2,464 at the end of 60 years, or over $40 a year above the cost of
management.

1391. In recent years it has suffered from a disease that has
rendered success less certain, and led to the substitution of other
species of conifers, and especially the Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris),

344 The Larches.

fir (Picea excelsa), and some of the California species, especially the ;
Douglas fir.

1392. Experience in the North-western States has Pee dis-
appointed expectations with reference to the European larch; not —
as to the rapidity of its growth, but as to the durability of its —
timber. As a general rule the solidity, strength, and durability —
of the wood in any given species, is in inverse proportion to the

169. Larix Europea.—European Larch, Blossoms, Leaves, and Fruit.

rapidity of its grown, and it is not until the light and porous sap-
wood has had an opportunity to change by time into the mature
and more solid heart-wood, that it acquires those qualities that give
it greatest: value.

1393. It is not improbable that the larch of rapid growth might
in time acquire these qualities of excellence, but it is hopeless to

The Larches. 845

expect them at once. Thesé considerations should in no way dis-
courage from plantation, as the young wood, in dry situations, still
has great value, and it may be found suited for some of the pro-
cesses of injection that would give it durability in exposed places.
__-1394. The larch in France, prospers most on northern or eastern
slopes. At greater elevations it was found on southerly and west-
erly aspects, but not of so goud growth.

1395. The larch at high elevations is more solid than on low lands,
although the amount of ashes in the latter is greater. It requires
more than double the amount of alkali and of phosphoric acid than
the pine, and three times as much as the beech.

1396. In planting the European larch, only such trees should be
set out as have been once transplanted. Their growth the first
year or two is very slow, and in exposed situations they are liable
to suffer from the winds. As the leaves appear early, it must be
planted as soon as the ground can be prepared, and great care
should be taken to protect the roots from the air. They may be
dipped to advantage in a mud composed of a rich mellow soil and
water of about the thickness of white-wash. The tops should re-
main dry, and the roots damp, till they are finally set.

1397. Where the larch is cultivated in masses, and kept of one
age, it is not injurious to pasture with cattle after a certain time.
A woodland of this timber will in some regions pasture one cow to,
a hectare (about 24 acres) through the summer: -In a genial soil
and climate the larch is aggressive, and tends continually to spread
oyer the neighboring fields, especially on the side opposite to that
of the prevailing winds. From this tendency to seeding, it is
easy to re-stock a forest, by leaving here and there a sufficient num-
ber. of seed-trees, and by raking the surface here and there so that
the seeds can find fresh soil to sprout in.

1398. It is sometimes tried in Europe to get a resinous product
from the larch, but it leads to a very thin profit, at a great loss.
The bark is in some countries used for tanning leather.

846 Planting in Kansas.

CHAPTER XXIV.
TREE-PLANTING IN KANSAS AND NEBRASKA. E

1399. The Kansas State Horticultural Society began, in 1880, the _
publication of an annual Report upon Forestry, as an extract fro
its general report for the preceding year. In the second of these —
there is given a summary of replies to circulars from its correspond ‘
ents, in which they mention their preference for kinds of trees that
have been cultivated with success. They may be condensed as fol-
lows, but to save repetition they will be referred to by numbers, :
corresponding with those in the following list :

Gan tS 4

1400. Names of Trees that are successfully cultivated in Kansas,

COMMON NAMES. BOTANICAL NAMES, . |

1. Ailanthus. ’ Ailanthus glandulosa. ,

2. Ash— Frazxinus— a

3. Blue. quadrangulata.

4, Green. ; viridis,

5 White. Americana.

6. Box Elder, or Ash- ated

Maple. Negundo aceroides.
7. Catalpa. Catalpa speciosa.
8. Cherry, wild. Prunus serotina.
9. Chestnut. Castanea vesca, var. Americana,
10. Coffee-bean. Gymnocladus Canadensis.
11. Cottonwood. Populus monilifera.
12. Elm— Ulmus—
13. Red (Slippery Elm). fulva. -
14. White. _ Americana. ° “et
15. Hackberry. Celtis occidentalis, 7
16. Hickory. Carya
17. Honey Locust. Gleditschia tricanthos.
18. Locust— Robinia—
19. Black. pseudo-acacia. 3

20. Yellow. var. (?)
21. Maple— Acer—
22. Soft (Silver-leaf Maple). dasycarpum.

23. Sugar. saccharinum.

Planting in Kansas.

COMMON NAMES.
24. Mulberry—
25. Red.
26. Russian.
, White.
28. Oak—
29. Burr.
30. Osage Orange (Bois d’arc).
31. Peach.
82. Pecan.
33. Pine—
34. Black, or Austrian.
35. Scotch.
36. White.
37. Poplar—
38. Balm of Gilead.
39. Lombardy.
Silver-leaf.
Red Cedar.
42. Sycamore.
. Walnut—
Black.
45. Willow—
46. Gray or White.

347

BOTANiCAL NAMES,
Morus—
rubra.

alba.
Quercus—
macrocarpa.
Maclura awrantiaca.
Amygdalus persica.
Carya oliveformis.
Pinus— ;
Austriaca.
sylvestris.
strobus.
Populus—
candicans.
dilatata.
alba.
Juniperus Virginiana,
Platanus occidentalis,
Juglans—
Salix—
alba.

1401. Trees reported as grown successfully in the several Counties of
Kansas, arranged in order of preference,

| Where two or more series of numbers are given, they show returns from different
correspondents.

Allen, 44, 7, 17, 30, 5, 42, 12,11, 22. Davis 44, 6, 45, 22.

ed 2 F; 12, 22,6.
Atchison, 22, 11, 44, 39.
Barton, 44, 11, 6, 46
Butler, 11, 39, 30, 44, 6, 41, 2, 12,

45.
Chautauqua, 11, 43, 39, 6, 22, 5.
“ 11, 22, 44, 12, 6,
Cherokee, 44, 11, 21, 39, 32.
Cloud, 11, 6.
Cowley, 44, 7, 6, 22.
Crawford, 11, 21, 43, 7, 6, 23.

ae ee 2 Re

Dickinson, 6, 14, 13, 44, 4, 15, 11.

Edwards, 11, 6, 44.

Ellis, 11, 6, 17, 30, 12, 44,8, 2.
ett, 44, 6, 1, 17,7; 12, 22,2380.
S43, 41.6; 2. 7,

«11, 44, 6, 15, 2; 30.

Elk, 43, 11, 21, 7, 6, 39.

Franklin, 43, 11, 21, 2, 12, 42.

Harper, 11.

Harvey, 11, 6, 43, 13, 15, 5, 22, 39.

348 Planting in Kansas.

Jackson, 11, 6, 43, 37, 46. Pottawatomie, 11, 22, 6, 44, 17.
Jefferson, 11, 22, 43, 14. Pratt, 11, 6, 44.
Jewell, 11, 6, 48, 2, 22. Reno, 11, 6, 5, 7, 447 12, 46.
Johnson, 11, 48, 37, 21, 2, 6, 7. Rice, 6, 2, 44, for uplands; 11, 44, —
Kingman, 44, 7, 17, 6, 2, 21. for lowlands. ae
Labette, 11, 22, 39, 43. “ 43,6, 7, 22,19, 17, 12 1a
Leavenworth, 11, 22, 43, 42, 23. Rush, 11, 6, 43, for lowlands; 11,
Lincoln, 11, 6, 5, 13, 14,-44. for uplands.
Lyon, 11, 43, 12, 6; 2, 45, 17, 10, 30. Russell, 2, 6, 44, 30, 22, 11, 7.
Marshall, 11, 6, 45, 22, 2, 18, 43,24, Saline, 11, 6,44,5,19,17. >

16, 28. Sedgwick, 11, 19, 46, 6, 7.
Miami, 11, 22, 14, 44, 7, 23, 5, 6,41, Shawnee, 44, 11, 22, 7.

36. Sumner, 44, 22, 12, 6, 11.
Mitchell, 17, 11, 44, 6, 13, 14, 30. e 11, 6, 43.
McPherson, 7, 44, 11, 46, 30, 6. Wallace, 11, 6, for lowlands; 5, 43,
Montgomery, 11, 22, 7, 2, 43. 22, for uplands.
Morris, 11, 44. Wabunsee, 11, 6, 44, 22, 13.
Ness, 11, 6, 12, 2, 43, 10, 1. x 1], 44, 6, 18, 14, 41, 17,
Nemeha, 11, 22, 6, 17, 43, 12. 2; 7: ‘
Neosho, 11, 22, 39, 45, 14, 13. Washington, 11, 6, 43.
Ottawa, 11, 43, 6, 2, 22. Woodson, 22, 1, 44, 11.

Pawnee, 1, 17, 6, 11, 44, 12, 46.

1402. It appears from the above, that the cottonwood is found
successful in 56 reports out of 60; the walnut, or black walnut
(probably intended to be the same), in 56; the box-elder in 48; the —
maples (probably the soft maples only) in 37; the elms in 29; the
ash in 25; the catalpa in 18; the honey-locust and willows each in
13; the poplars (besides cottonwoods) in 10; the osage orange in
10; the ailanthus in 5; the red cedar in 4; the hackberry, locust,
and sycamore, each in 3; the coffee-bean tree and wild cherry each
in 2; and the hickory, pecan, mulberry, oak, and white pine, each —
in 1.
1403. As first on the list, we find the cottonwood in 37 reports;
the walnut or black-walnut in 12; the soft maple and the box-elder
each in 2, and the ailanthus, ash, catalpa, and honey-locust each i
in 1.

1404. In 1878, a list of preferences was published by this same
society, in which the cottonwood is mentioned by 40 correspond-
ents; black-walnut by 33; box-elder by 30; white-maple by 29;
white and red elm by 22; oaks and catalpa by 14; mulberry by 11;

Planting in Kansas. 349

ailanthus by 9, and the Lombardy and abele poplars and hackberry
each 7.

1405. Of evergreens, 30 had succeeded with the red cedar; 26
with the black Austrian pine ; 22 with Scotch pine; 16 with white
pine; 10 with Norway spruce, and 6 with arbor-vite.

1406. The “Forestry Manual” of this society, published in 1882,
reports the black-walnut as cultivated successfully in 57 counties ;
the catalpa in 45; the osage orange in 39; the honey-locust in 34,
and the mulberry in 30.

1407. The experience of planters in Kansas and Nebraska has
been hitherto adverse to the cultivation of the beech, birch, chest-
nut, hard or sugar-maple, and most of the conifers. The white wil-
low, that succeeds admirably further north, in Iowa and Minne-
sota, and in states further east, does not succeed in many parts of
Kansas. It has suffered badly from the locusts.

Propagation from Cuttings and Native Seedlings.

1408. The cottonwoods and other poplars were almost invariably
reported as easy to propagate by cuttings. The willows, and less
frequently the catalpa, are also mentioned as easy to propagate in
this manner.

1409. As to the time of procuring cuttings, opinions varied, the
greater number advising that they should be cut late in fall or early
in winter, when the wood was not frozen, and that they should be
buried below the reach of frost, to be set as soon as possible upon
ground previously prepared, in the spring. When thus preserved the
lower end would have a callus just ready to put forth roots, and
- they would get an early start. The last season’s growth should be
taken, and in pieces ten inches or a footin length. They were found
to do best when set deep (some mentioned a sloping position as best),
but so that only a small part—one or two buds—should be above
the ground. The earth should be pressed down firmly upon them
at the time of setting.

1410. Seedlings, plowed up along the sand-bars of rivers, should
be gathered in the fall, tied in bundles, and buried upright in
trenches until spring. They are generally more sure to get a start
than cuttings. If cut back to near the ground when set they will
often take a more vigorous growth. The soil should be firmly
pressed down around them at the time of planting, as in the case of

350 Planting in Kansas. — .

cuttings. The lowlands in Kansas and Nebraska are rather more

favorable for the growth of timber than the uplands, although the
cottonwood, box-elder, soft maple, walnut, catalpa, osage orange,
Lombardy poplar, and other trees are cultivated upon the latter
with success, when well cared for.

1411. The ailanthus has been found well adapted for resisting the
drouth in Kansas as far west as the 100th meridian, and it is read-
ily reproduced from sprouts and cuttings from the roots. .

_

Distance between Trees.

1312. It is almost the universal experience of correspondents, that
trees do best when planted close, and generally in rows 4 feet apart
and three or four feet between. If at equal distances each way and
set upon land marked both ways, they can be cultivated by cross-
plowing very conveniently. In planting it is well to put in several
seeds, and when cultivating the plants afterwards, pull up all but
one, leaving the most thrifty. The plants thus taken out may be
lifted with the soil still upon the roots, and set into vacant places.

1413. The frequent stirring of the soil with a cultivator, by pre-
venting the surface from becoming packed or crusted over, is found
most beneficial in a dry time, and should not be omitted, whether
there are weeds to kill or not. —

Effect of Shelter-Belts.

1414. With scarcely an exception, the opinion was expressed by
correspondents of the Kansas Society, that trees planted in belts
in that state had afforded protection to fields of grain, or orchards,
gardens, and stock-yards. As to the width at which they should be
planted, opinions varied from four or five to twenty-or thirty rods.
As a screen around buildings, the red cedar was much recommended,
and for success the plants should be started from seeds in seed-beds,
and be set when small. It was not fully settled by experience as
to whether a shelter-belt should run east and west, or north and
south, in order to afford the most protection. This would probably
depend somewhat upon the general slope of the surface.

1415. Since trees: have been planted in groves in the prairie
region, it is noticed that insectivorous birds have become more com-
mon. They should be protected by a law a Be by strong pub-
lic sentiment.

‘Planting in. Kansas. “B51

The Locust-T; ie in Central Kansas.

1416. A correspondent in Central Kansas,’ reports to the State
Horticultural Society unexpected success in planting the black ]o-
eust. It had escaped the borers, and had lived through severe
drouth. Trees planted in 1873 were in eight years large enough
for two fence-posts, and produced an abundance of material for vine-
stakes and other uses. He estimates that 2,000 trees can be grown
on an acre, and that by extreme care and cultivation they would in
seven years produce 4,000 posts worth at 20 cents each the sum of
$800. Allowing a broad margin for casualties, there would still be
a strong motive for planting this tree, should it hereafter be found
that it is not there liable to the insect injuries that have proved so
disastrous in Illinois, or if more effectual means for preventing
these injuries should be hereafter discovered.

Gathering and Preservation of Seeds.

1417. Nuts with a hard shell like the black-walnut must be
gathered as soon as ripe, and may generally be planted the same
fall. It is commonly preferred, however, to spread them upon the
ground, with a light covering of litter and soil, or ina box mixed
with earth and moistened from time to time. They should be ex-
posed to frost, and in the spring should be planted for permanence, as
they will not bear transplanting.

1418. We advise that generally every alternate tree be a walnut,
and the remainder a cottonwood, white willow, or box-elder, where
it is intended that a fine, high, and regularly formed grove of the
walnut is finally desired. The nurses may be taken out as the trees
begin to crowd one another. A little mixture of other kinds, such
as ‘the ash, oak, catalpa, elm, and perhaps of red cedar might be
desirable, and of more profit than all of one kind.
| 1419. Seeds of the Osage orange, ash, box-elder, sycamore, ca-
talpa, and honey-locust may be put away in a cool, dry place, and
kept till spring. They generally do best when planted early. In
Kansas they do best as forest trees when planted where th-y
are to grow. The seeds of the honey locust must be scalded before
planting.

1J. B. Schlichter, of Sterling, Rice Co.

852 Planting in Kansas.

Preparation of the Ground. ~

1420. This is uniformly necessary in a prairie country, and can —

best be done by thoroughly plowing and harrowing, after raising
one or two crops of grain. For early planting or setting of cut-
tings or young seedlings pulled up along the sand-bars of rivers, the

plowing may best be done the fall before, and the markings when —

ready to plant or set.

1421. The weeds must be kept down by passing between the rows
with a cultivator, and afterward by hoeing, as with corn. This
should be done only in the early part of summer, (never later than the’
middle of July), and should be repeated three or four years, until
the ground is well shaded, after which the trees will:need only
thinning out from time to time, and protection from cattle and from

fires. It is not until the trees get so large that their foliage isabove _

the reach of stock, that cattle may be admitted safely to a planta-
tion.

1422. The rubbish from fallen leaves, etc., should always be left
to decay on the ground. A bed of leaves tends to hinder eyapora-
tion from the soil, and to keep the ground moist longer after a rain.

1423. In setting any of the evergreens, we would decidedly
recommend their purchase from nurseries, as they are difficult to get
started from the seed without careful management. They will be
best likely to succeed where sheltered in the south side by a grove
or hedge. They will also need a heavy mulching in dry seasons.

Tree-culture in Places well advanced upon the Plains.

1424. The plantation of cottonwoods for temporary use, ma, some-
times be practiced in places well advance upon the plains, where in
very dry seasons they may sometimes fail when six or eight inches in
diameter. Such failures may cause disappointment, but are by no
means a total loss. The wood is still available for firewood, and the
trees while they lived, proved a shelter to fields and orchards, and
perhaps may have protected the slower growing kinds that survived
the drouth. This should not discourage from renewed attempts in
planting, with the view of securing these temporary benefits, even
if the trees grow no larger than poles. In such case, it would

be worth while to plant a certain portion of land every year, ex- —

pecting perhaps only a crop of firewood and poles. They will be

Planting in Nebraska and Kansas. 353

worth what they cost, although it might not be expected that they
would become larger trees.

1425. In river valleys upon the plains, where the water disap-
pears wholly from the surface in summer, and the channels appear
to be utterly arid, the water may still, in many places, be found by
digging to a distance not greater than that which may be reached
by the roots of trees.

1426. The black walnut appears to be the best adapted to these
situations, and although not so rapid in growth as some other trees, it
makes a success where the sub-soil is not too firm and moisture is
within reach. In such localities, transplanting is impossible, and
the nuts previously sprouted must be planted where the trees are to
grow.

1427. The general statements in this chapter, drawn chiefly from
the experience of Kansas, will apply, with some modification, to
Nebraska. The soil is very nearly the same; in both States the
surface rises at about the same grade as we go west, and the differ-

ence in latitude would scarcely be felt, except in a very few species. —

The Osage-orange would be found less hardy in Nebraska, and the
white willow probably more thrifty.

1428. In both States, we can not too strongly urge the importance
of the cottonwoods and other rapidly growing kinds as nurses for
the more valuable, which can not be started without shelter when
young. It is also found that fall planting has many advantages
not formerly realized, and in some situations a decided preference.
It is an excellent practice, in new and untried locations, to multiply
experiments in the small way, before investing largely in any thing
in the way of tree-planting. These experiments may apply to dif-
ferent species—to different times and methods of sowing or plant-
ing—different soils, and various modes of management. By these
means alone can one depend upon the particular course best adapted
to his location, and the manner of obtaining the best results.

—854. = Recent Decision under the Timber- Culture

RECENT DECISION UNDER THE TIMBER-
TURE ACT.

ee

Since printing Chapter IX., in this sid (pages 91 to e
following decisions have been made: vi

‘In timber-culture entry, there is no restriction upon
man as to the time when the work must be done, prov
done within the time required by law. The work can be ¢
. the entryman, his agent, or his vendor.

‘* Tf one purchase land which has been in whole or in Be):
planted, or cultivated by another, the spirit of the law is as
met as if he had personally performed the work.”

Abele poplar, 284, 349.

Abies (genus), 41, 304, 338.

— amabilis, 339.

— bracteata, 341.

— concolor, 339.

— Douglasii, 337.

—_ Fraserii, 338.

— grandis, 339, 340, 341.

— magnifica, 339.

— Menziesii, 334.

—— nobilis, 340

—— pectinata, 42, 151, 341, 342.

—— subalpina, 339.

— Williamsoniana, 336.

Abietinea, 304, 316.

Absolute humidity, 12, 15.

Absorption by vita! process, 194.

Acucia (genus), 259. ,

— dealbata, 259.

— Greggii, 259.

— homalophylla, 260.

—— melanoxylon, 260.

—— pyenantha, 259.

Acer (genus), 234, 346.

— compestre, seed of, 32.

— circinatum, 239.

—— dasycarpum, 237, 346.

—— glabrum, 239.

— macrophyllum, 238.

—— negundo, 239.

—— nigrum, 237.

—— Pennsylvanicum, 238.

—— pseudo-platanus, 33, 146.

—— rubrum, 146, 288.

—— saccharinum, 146, 236,346.

spicatum, 238,

a urtaricum, as a hedge plant,
146.

Acetates, prepared from smoke, 158.

Acorn-worms, 180.

Acorns, mode of keeping, 34.

Acre, number of trees on an, 50.

Acres of forest in European coun-
tries, 83.

Actinostrobus, 304.

Adaptation of species to conditions, 90

Addison, quotation from, 114.

INDEX.

Adornment, planting for, 115.

Esculus (genus), 253.

— Californica, 255, 256.

—— flava, 255.

— glabra, 254.

—— hippocestanam, 254,

arviflora, 255.

Age for transplanting, 43.

Agency of birds and animals in
planting, 31.

Aggsbach, school of Forestry at, 107.

Ailanthus glandulosa, 98, 288, 346.

Air, expansion and contraction of, 15,

—— exposure of roots to, 43.

Alabama, pine belt in, 200.

dying off of chestnut trees in,
223.

Albumen of seeds, 35.

Alder, 84, 210, 231.

blossoms of, 30.

—— percentage of charcoal in, 151.

Aleppo pine, period of fall growth,
105.

Algorobis glandulosa, 129, 130, 131.

Alkalies in wood, 152.

Alkaline soils, 6.

Alnus (genus), 231.

glutinosa, 231, 232.

incana, 233.

oblongifolia, 233,

Oregona, 233.

rhombifolia, 233.

rubra, 233.

Alps, timber-line on, 25. -

Alsace, chestnut grown in, 222.

Alternations in forest growth, 90.

Alucitae, or feather-winged moths,
179.

Alum, preserving properties of, 193.

Amelanchier (genus), 264.

alnifolia, 264.

Canadensis, 146, 264.

Aments, flowers so called, 29.

American alder, 233.

aspen, 284.

— white oak, 216. @

yew, 314.
355

356 Index.
Americans, instability of, 116. Austria, forests in, 88. a:
Amherst Agricul. Col., experiments Austrian pine in Kansas, 349.

at, 78. Autumnal colors, 79, 234, i
Amygdalus Persica in Kansas, 347. -—— layer, so called, 69. a
Animals, agency of in planting, 81, 32. sowing, 41. —,

Annular budding, 46.
Antiseptic processes, 187.
Ant-lion, 174.
Ants, 179.
Apelt cited, 194.
Apples (genus Pirus), 260.
Apple trees, 93, 121, 146.
Aqueous vapor in atmosphere, 12.
Araucaries, 41, 304, 316.
Arboriculture defined, 1.
Arbor days, 62.
Arboretums, should be labeled, 125.
Arbor-vite, 84, 803, 304, 805.
giant, 306.
in Kansas, 849.
Arbors for sheltering seed-beds, 40,
Arbutus Menziesii, 289.
Areachon, dunes of, 109.
Arctostaphylos, glauca, 289.
pungens, 289.
Argillaeeous soils, 6.
Arizona, privileges of citizens of, 95.
white oak, 213.
Arrow-wood, 269, 298.
Artemisia tridentata, Is
Arthrotaxis, vitality of seeds of, 41.
Aschaffenburg, school of Forestry
at, 108.
Ash, percentage of in burned wouds,
152.
Ash (trees), 270, 346, 348.
grown as coppices, 98.
— grown as high forests, 102.
leaved maple, 93, 239.
period of full erowth, 105.
—— white, heating qualities of, 146.
Asia Minor, timber of, 84.
valonia from, 206.
Asimina triloba, 289.
Aspect, or direction of slope, 9.
Aspen, quaking, 85, 289.
Associutions, Village-improvement,
122.
Atlantic States, timber of, 84.
range of humidity in, 15.
Atlas-cedar, 304.
Atmometer, Lamont’s, 19.
Atmosphere, composition of, 11.
_Audobon’s Peak, timber-line on, 26.
Auricle-leavéd magnolia, 296.
Austria, forest administration in, 106.

‘Barney, E. E., on Catalpa, 291.

Avalanches of snow, 25.
Avenues of approach, 117.
Back-firing to stop forest fires, 158.
Bacteria, a cause of decay, 188.
Baden- Powell, H. B, cited, 27;
Bald-cy press, 84, 304, 310.
Balivecau, reserves so ‘culled, 101.
Ball of earth, freezing of ar
roots, 54.
Balm-of-Gilead poplar, 2887) =saam
Balsam-fir, 338, i
insects injurious to, 187.
Balsam-spruce, 33%),
Barnboo shells, transplanting in, 54. |
Banks, consolidation of, 57, 281, 283, =
Bank’s pine, 329.
Barberry, not found in California, 88.
Bark-boring insects, 163, 164, 165,
166, 168, 170,171, oh 180,182,
185, 187. BB).
Bark, grafting of, 46.
if loosened, ‘kills the wood » un-
der it, 144.
lice, 174,
of reota, 76. i
of trunk and branches, 67, 72, 73.
—— removal of, in part, 62.
tanning, 325.

Barrens of West, cause of, 87.

Barren serub- oak, 218.

Barrés, school of ‘guards at, 108,

—— plantation of pines at, 320. j

Barriers for checking torrents, 110,

Bartram oak, 213. r-

Basins of water-supply should
wooded, 18.

Baskets, transplanting in, 54.

Basket-willow, 280, 281. ~

Basswood family, 88, 240.

—— grows from sprouts, 98.

insects injurious to, 184,

Beach-grass, planted on dunes, 109, 4

Bear-oak, 213. : re.

Bear-river pine, 337.

Beaver-meadows, cause of overflow,
22.

Beaver-tree, 295.

Bedford-willow, 279.

— Be a Tagus), 89,93, 146,225,

Index.

*

Beech, classification of, 210.

— does not reproduce from sprouts,

—— grown as high-forests, 102.

— insects injurious to, 184.

—— leaf, structure of, 64, 65,

-—— northern range of, 89,

—— percentage of charcoal in, 151.

—— period of full growth, 105.

—— sports of, 227.

— weight lost in drying, 139.

—— wood, structure of, 68.

Bees, 179.

— agency of in fertilizing blos-
somes, 29.

Beetles, general notice of, 169.

Behlen, Stephen, on effect of moon’s
age in cutting timber, 138.

Belgium, forests in, 83. '

Bentham & Hooker, classification of
conifers by, 803,

Benzoin, not found in California, 89.

Bergentz, school of Forestry. at, 107.

Bermuda-grass, planted on dunes,109,

Bethell process of wood-preservation,
194.

Betula (genus), 146, 228.

—— a)bu, 146, 229.

— excelsa, 230.

— glandulosa, 230.

—— lenta, 146, 230.

—— nigra, 230.

—— occidentalis, 230.

—— papyracea, 230.

Betula, 210.

Bignonia catalpa (see Oatalpa), 290.

Birch (genus Betula), 84, 89, 98, 210,
228, 349.

— black, 102, 146.

grown in high-forests, 102.

—— insects injurious to, 184,

—— northern limit of, 89.

—— percentage of charcoal in, 151.

—— period of full growth, 105,

saup-pressure in, 79.

—— seeds, described, 31.

—— weight lost in drying, 139.

—— white, 146, 229.

Birds, agency of in planting, 31.

——. encouraged by shelter-belts, 350.

insectivorous, 167.

— must be kept from pine-seed-
beds, 167.

Birdseye maple, 237.

Bitter-hiekory, 279.

Black ash, 272.

357

Black birch, 230. :
(Fagus fusca), 228.
oo ey 262.
—— drink, made from a holl
293. . ©
fir, 337.
jack oak, 213, 214.
succeeds pine, 90.
—— locust, under timber-claim act,

—— maple, 237.

— oaks, 211, 214.

—— pine, 325.

—— spruce, 352, 333, 334.

—— walnut, 98, 146, 275, 276, 348,
349.

—— —— insects injurious to, 182.

on the plains, 353.

Blackwood, 260.

Blizzards, winter storms:so ca!led, 22.

Blossoms, essential parts of, 28.

Blue asb, 272. :

beech, 233.

—— berries, not found in California,
8

Rocky Mountain spruce, 334,

Bohl, cited, 194.

Bombyces, or spinning moths, 176.

Bombyx neustria, 176.

pini, 176.

processionea, 162.

Borax, preserving properties of, 193.

Borers, locust, 257.

— (See Bark borers; Wood bor-
ers.)

Bore-spade, 38, 53.

Bostrichus, 166, 167, 171, 172, 187.

Botany, province of, 3.

Boucherie, preserving process of,
194, 195.

Boundary street in parks, 124.

Bowlders, how concealed by plant-
ing, 118.

Box-elder, 84, 93.

—— (genus Negundo), 239.

in Kansas, 346, 348, 350.

range of, 87.

sugar from, 240.

Boxes, transplanting from, 54.

Bracing of trees in planting, 55. —--

Brakes, R. R., made of willow, 280.

Brambles, clearing out of, 104,

Branches, growth of, 74.

mode of cutting off, 59.

Bread, from chestnuts,:222.

Breaking of prairie soils, 8. .

358

Bréant, apparatus of, 191.

Breathing-pores i in insects, 65.

Brémontier, N., planting of dunes
by, 109.

Brewer, Prof. W. H., cited, 85.

Brewer’s oak, 2138.

Bridger’s Peak, timber-line on, 25.

Broadcast sowing, 37.

Broillard, cited, 222.

Broom-hickory, 275,

Bryant, Arthur, cited, 285.

Bucharia, recent injuries from clear-
ing in, 26.

Buckeyes, 84, 253, 254, 255.

* Buckthorn, 129, 296,

Buds, how furmed, 638,

when formed on roots, 77.

Budding, process of, 3, 46.

Buffalo-berry, 129, 130, 131, 298.

Bull, Mareus, experiments of, 139,
145, 146,

Bull-pine,-325.

Bunch-grasses of plains, 88.

Bupestride, or saw-horned beetles,
169.

Burgundy pitch, 204.

Buried cedar, 86, 306.

Burls, ash, 271.

black-walnut, 276.

-—— walnut, 76.

Burnett, process for preserving wood,
196,

Burning-bush, 292.

Burning of coal-pits, 147-149.
Burr-oak, 213.

Bush, definition of, 2.
Butterflies, 174.

Butternut, 84, 89, 98, 146, 277.
Button-bush, 269.

Buttonwood, 98, 251.
Calamagrostis arenaria on dunes, 109.
Caleareous soils, 6.

California black-oak, 214.
box-elder, 240,
chestnut-oak, 214, 218.
eucalyptus in, 265.
forest-flora of, 88:

injuries from clearing in, 28.
juniper, 309.

laurel, 298.

—— live-oak, 214.

— nutmeg, 304, 315.
peculiarities of fiora of, 88.
— sale of timber lands in, 95.
—— white-cedar, 128, 303, 304.
—— white-oak, 213.

Index.

Callitris, 41, 804.
quadrivalvis, 76.
Calosoma, a carnivorous insect, 1
Cambium-layer, 67,
Camel-cricket, preys on other in
sects, 173. a
Canada balsam, 203, 339.
—— black walnut in, 277.
—— button wooed in, 252. |
chestnut in, 219, 220.
— forest-trees i in, 85
-—— Kentucky coffee-tree in, 258.
maple-leaf the emblem ‘of, 236
—— pitch, 204. wt
remarkable size of pine in, 316,
—— timber resources of, 84. 89.
white pine region in, 820.
Canals, supply of water for, 18,
Canker-worms, 177, 180.
Canoe-bireh, 280.
ee Cod, pine plantations on, 3
$32
Capital, investment of in forests, 79, —
80

Capricorn-beetles, 166, 173.
Caprifoliaceze, 269.
Caragana arborescens, 129, 130,
136.
Carbon in wood, source of, 11, 65.
Carbonic acid gas in atmosphere,
Carboniferous period, gases in, 11.
Carey’s preserving process, 196. a
Carlsruhe, school of Forestry
108.
Carnivorous insects, 162, 165, 187.
Carpenter-moth, 180. we
Carpinus (genus), 233. |
Americana, 146, 233.
betulus, 82, 234, 235.
Carriére, on vitality ‘of seeds, 41.
Carving, wood must be seasoned fe
142.
Carya alba, 146, 275. »
amara, 274,
aquatica, 275.
—— glabra, 275.
— oliveformis, 274, 847.
porcina, 146, 275.
— tomentosa, 275, 346.
Cascade range, timber-lize on, 25. —
Case, Leonard, planting begun by,
123. bs
Caspian-willow, 280, 281. a
Castagno di Cento Cavalli, 221-9 aa
Castanea pumila, 224. a
vesca, 146, 219, 220, 221, 346, _

Index.

_ Castanopsis chrysophylla, 224.
Catal bi facades: 4, 88, 290.
— cordifolia, 290.
-—— speciosa, 290, 346.
—— syringefolia, 290.

—— in Kansas, 346, 348, 349, 350.
-—— in ornamental planting, 121.
Catesby’s onk, 214.

Catkins, pedant tree blossoms, 29.
Cato, cited, 138.

Ceeidomya salicina (on willows), 282.

ydiadw, 179.

Cedar, buried, 86, 306.

—— cutting off by selection, 96.
—— of Lebanon, 304, 316.

—— oil, 204.

Cedrus (cedar of Lebanon), 304, 316.

Ceilular tissue of wood, 67.

Cellulose, 71.

Celtis (genus), 250. «

— occidentalis, 150, 346.

—— orientalis, 250.

Cemeteries, planting in, 126.

Cephalanthus, occidentalis, 269.

Cephalotaxis, vitality of seeds, 41.

Cerambycidew, notice of, 173.

Cerambyx carcharias, 173.

—— heros (wood bored by), 165, 166.

Cerassus. (See Prunus.)

Cercis Canadensis, 259.

—— siliquastrum, 259.

Cereoearpus ledifolius, 291.

Changes in forest growths, 90.

Charcoal, 144, 147.

—— absorbing power of, 147.

— chief uses of, 147.

—— percentage of to wood, 146, 167.

—— physical properties of, 147.

—— red, 153.

— used as land-marks, 145.

—— value of in different woods, 146.

— weight of, 139.

Charring promotes durability of
wood, 189.

_ Charter-Oak, historical interest of,
|

Chemical process for wood pulp, 206.

Chemistry, relation to Forestry, 1.

Cherries (genus Prunus), 262.

Cherry-birch, 93, 230.

Cherry, in Kansas, 146, 346, 348. -

Chestnut, 89, 146, 219, 220, 221, 346,
349. -

359

Chestnut, as food, 222.

classification of, 210.

—— disease of rvots of, 78.

—— dying off of, 223.

extract of, 223.

—— grows from sprouts, 98.

—— insects injurious to, 182.

-oak, 93, 212, 214.

—— California, 218,

—— period of full growth, 105.

oa white-oak, heating qualities of,
146,

—— wood for coopers’ use, 223.

Chickasaw plum, 262.

China, timber of, 84.

Chinese cedar, for hedges, 128.

Chinguapin, 224.

oak, 212.

Chips of elm, with buds, will grow,
46

Chisels, pruning, 60.

Chlorophyll, 64, 65.

Chrysobcthris femorata, 183.

Cicida septemdecem, 180.

Cinchonas, transplanting of, 54.

Citizens of certain states, rights of,
95.

City-of-Elms, New Haven so-called,
123.

City parks, planting of, 123.

Cladrastis tinctoria, 260.

Clammy locust, 258.

Clark, W.S., experiments by, 78,
193, 198.

Classification of oaks, 212.

of pines, 318.

Clearing, effects of, 22, 26.

Clethra, not found in California, 88.

Cleveland, O., called the “ Forest
City,” 123.

Cliff-dweilings of New Mexico, 26.

Climate, definition of, 10.

Climatie changes affect insect life,
167.

Close planting, necessity of, 50.

Clouds, formation of, 16, 17.

prevent the formation of dew,

16.
Coal-pits, construction of, 147-149.
Coal-tar, application to wounds in
trees, 101.
preservation by aid of, 189, 190.
Coast region of Southern States, 86.
Cockroaches, 173.
Coffee-tree (genus Gymnocladus), 88,
258, 546, 348.

360

Coffee-tree, how transplanted, 54.

Cold, forests killed by, 23.

Coleoptera, general notice of, 169.

College-class trees, 114.

parks, 125.

Colonial supplies of timber, 82.

Color, given by absorption, 195.

of soil, effect of, 7.

Colors, autumnal, 79, 234.

—— of wood, causes of difference,
144.

Colorado, cliff-dwellings in, 27.

growth of wood on irrigated

lands in, 70.

injuries that must result from

clearings in, 28.

privilege of citizens of, 95.

timber-line in, 26.

Columella, cited, 138,

Commemorative planting, 115.

Commercial facilities for supply of
timber, 82.

Common names of trees uncertain, 4.

Compost for seed-beds, 40.

Condensation, effect of, 16.

Conifers, an example of a nat. order,
3.

Coniferin, how prepared, 204.

Conifers, classification of, 303.

—— decay of in mountains, 88.

—— general notice of, 299.

grafting of, 302.

immense size of on Pacific

coast, 89.

in New England, 86.

—— in Rocky Mountain Region, 87,

—— may be planted closely, 50.

— of Pacific coast, 24, 89.

—— particularly liable to insect rav-
ages, 163.

—— peculiarity of leaves of, 65.

—— planting of, 308.

—— quality of wood of, 71.

—— resinous products of, 199.

seeds have several "cotyledons,

385.

— soils suitable to, 302.

structure of wood of, 72.

—— suitable for screens, 128.

—— symmetry of growth, 75.

—— tuken from native forest, 51.

Coniferous trees, insects injurious to,
185.

— woods, injectien of, 192.

— peeling of, 187.

Index.

Coniferous woods, seasoning of 140.

Connecticut, sumae gathered in,

— ate snurle: Schoolot Forestry es

Contests: of timber-culture claims,

~ 94,

Contorted grain of wood, 76.

Contraction from cooling, 15. s

Contrasts of timber growth, 84.

of abundance and scarcity, 89. —

Control of forest fires, 158. ia

Convolvulus, troublesome to willowar 3
283.

Cooling tends to contract bodies, 15.

Copalm resin, 294. :

Copenhagen, gardens in, 125.

School of Forestry in, 107.

Coppice, for firewood, 144, 145.

—— for tanning barks, 207.

— -growth, management of, 97.

quality of wood in, 71.

when to be cut, 98.

Cornacese, 267. »

Cornel family, 267,

Cornus (genus), 268.

florida, 146, 268.

Nuttalii, 268.

Coryllex, 210,

Cork oak, 62, 212. ‘

Corporations, management of forests
by, 105.

Corrosive sublimate, a preservative,
197. i

Corrosion of lime by smoke, 151.

Corsican pine, period of full crowed
105.

Cotton wood, 284, 286, 346, 348, 350. .

as a nurse to other trees, 38.

extraordinary growth of, 70,

in village planting, 120.

—— insects injurious to, 1838.

of Pacific coast, 288.

on the plains, 852.

—— pollards, 60.

seeds of, 31, 33.

— self.sown, 37,

—— should not be planted too iol
56.

_—_— under timber-cnlture act, 93.

—-— yeilow, so called, 287,

Cotyledons of seeds, 34,

Counties in Kansas; list of trees pres
ferred in, 346-348.

Covert, definition of, 101.

Crab-apple i in hedges, 129.

tree, in Oregon, 262.

iene
ay TEs

Index.

Crab-apple, sweet-scented, 261.

Cracks from seasoning, how pre-
vented, 141.

—— in timber, from frost, 24.

| Cratesus (genus), 264.

—— coccinea, 264.

—— oxycanthus, 129, 136.

—— paniculata, 264.

— rivularis, 264.

Creosote, preserving properties of,
194.

Crickets, 173.

Cryptomeria Japonica, 41, 310.

Crypturgus, 187.

Cucumber-tree, 294.

Cultivation between trees, 350.

— of hedges, 130.

—— preparation by, 8.

—— in timber-culture claims, 91, 92,
354.

Cunninghamia, vitality of seeds of,
41

Cupressinex, 303.

Cupressus (genus), 303, 307.

—— Arizonica, 307.

Goveniana, 307.

in cemeteries, 126,

—— Maenabiana, 307.

—— mucrocarpa, 807.

—— Nutkanus, 307.

Cup-shake, in timber, 143.

Cupuliferz, 210.

Curl-maple, 238.

Currant-bush borers, 184.

- Currants, cuttings set in fall, 45.

Curves iliustrating humidity, 15, 14.

Curved walks, when not admi sible,
125.

—— wood, how produced, 6), 61,
102.

Cuseata, troublesome on willows, 283.

Custom, influence of, 114.

Cutting-back of oaks, ete., 52.

—— of wood, time for, 98, 137, 138.

Cuttings of willows, when made, 181,
182.

Cuttings, propagation by, 44, 349.
—- very large, should not be used,
«66

Cylindrical bark-beetles, 187.

Cyllene picta, 182.

Cynodon dactylon, planted on dunes,
1

09.
Cypress, 303, 307
—— differences in leaves of, 66. ~
Dacrydium, vitality of seeds of, 111.

361

Dahoon, 293.

Dakota, privileges of citizens of, 95:

Dammara australis, 204.

Damp climates, favorable to coppices,
100

ae Sir Humphrey, process by,

197.

Dead wood, removal of, 103.

Deciduous leaves, 64.

Decisions under timber-culture acts,
92-95, 354.

Decline in fruit production, 26.

De en method of pruning by,
60.

Deepening of channels of streams,
19.

Defects of timber, 143.

Definitions, 1.

Degrees of slopes, 9.

De Ju Blanchére cited, 161.

Denmark, forests in, 83.

Dennisville, N. J., buried cedar at,

806.

Density of cultivated forests, 104,

Des Cars, method of pruning by, 60.

De Saussure, on absorption of gases
by charcoal, 147.

Devoid of timber, term defined, 94.

Dew, when formed, 16.

Dew-point, 12.

rain falls when the air is
cooled to, 16.

Decay of wood, preventions of, 187.

Deer, injury to trees from, 161,

Dibble, not to be used in planting
seeds, 38.

Diervilla, not found in California, 88.

Digger-pine, 326.

Divecious blossoms, 29.

Diospyros Texana, 292.

—— Virginiana, 146, 292.

Diptera, general notice of, 179.

Disintegration of rocks, aided by
roots, 7.

Distance between plants, 49, 50, 850.

Disinfecting properties of charcoal,
147.

Distillation of turpentine, 199.

Distilled products of wood, 153.

Distortion from seasoning, 141.

Divides, timber on western, 88.

Division of the soil and its defects, 6.

Day-flies, 174.

Dogwood, American and Asiatic, 84,
146.

—— maple, 288.

862

Douglas, Dr. David, notice of, 338.

fir, 90, 304, 337.

Downy poplar, 28.

Dragon-flies, 174.

Drains, filled by roots, 119.

Drawing and resetting of trees, 42.

Drift, transportation of soil by, 4

Drifting of snow prevented by plant-
ing, 23.

sands, how fixed, 108.

Dromart, process of charcoal making,
152.

Drouth, effect of on wood growth, 69.

how caused, 18.

—— turning point of, 17.

Druid-City, Tuskuloosa so called, 123.

Drying effet of winds, 22.

-houses for forest seeds, 34.

Dry-rot, in timber, 189.

Ducts in wood-structure, 67, 68.

Duhamel, method for checking tap-
roots, 43.

on seasoning of wood, 140.

Durability of Wee how produced,
141, 187.

Dunes, planting of, 108.

Dutch- “beech, 284.

Dwarf-oak, 914,

Dying-off of chestnuts, 223,

Karle, cited, 194.

Earth, how ‘warmed by snow, 23.

— thermometers, 21.

Eastern aspect, 9.

Eberswalde, School of Forestry at,
108.

Egleston, N. H., cited, 123.

Kgypt. injuries from clearing i in, 26.

Eisnach, School of Foresty at, 108.

Elastic force of vapor, 12.

Elateridesx, notice of, 170.

Elders, 269.

Elliott’s pine, 331.

Elm (genus "lmus), 248.

cork, 245.

grown in high-forests, 102.

-—— in Kansas, 346, 348.

red, 244, 245, 246.

rock, 244.

slippery, 244, 245.

— small-leaved, 245.

— white, 243, 346.

— wych, 247.

insect injuries to, 180.

not found in California, 89

period of full growth, 105

—— ripens seeds in spring, 83.

Index.

Elm, seeds described, 31. ae
—- soil having potash, ee 5
under timber. culture act, es :
—— white, 146, 243.
Embryo of seeds, 35. 4
Emerson, Geo. B., cited, 146, 250, ra -f
Emery’s oak, 214. File
Endogenous growth, 2, F
Endosmose, 78.
Engelmann, Dr. Geo., clasitication
of oaks by, 2138. .
—— classification of pines by, 817.
on catalpa, 290.
Engelmann’s spruce, 384.
England, forests in, 83.
English elm, 127, 245,246,
hawthorn, 129. a
maple, seed of, 32. a7
oak, 215.
Entry of timber claims, 91.
Epidermis of bark, 67. 2
Epigea, not found in California,
Kquilateral triangles, planting zo
Erosions, effect of aspect on, 10.
prevented by willows, ete., ‘
iscorial, School of Forestry at, 108,
Essential oils, from conifers, 204,
Eucalyptus (genus), 264.
cornuta, 265,
— gigantea, 265.
globulus, 66, 265, 266,
-—— marginata, 265,
—— rostrata, 265,
—— transplanting of, 54.
viminalis, 265,
Eugenias, 267.
Euonymus Americana, 292.
angustifolia, 292.
atropurpurea, 292.
Europe, forest-areas in, 83.
European forest administrations, 05.
schools, 107.
larch, 343, 344, 345.
oak, 212. af
—— plans of forest-management, 96, q
silver-fir, 341.
Evaporation, 2. i
a cooling process, 16,17. + _
from leaves, 65,
from soils, 20.
how measured, 19, 20. _
Evergreen-oak, Californian, 219.
Evergreens, in ornamental planta-
tions, 117, 119.
must be started in nurseries, —
351.

Index.

Evergreens, should not be placed in

. front, 118. ~

—— transplanting of large, 55.

Evois, School of Forestry at, 107.

_ Example, influence of, 114.

Excentrie growth, 75.

Exchange of homestead-entry to
timber-purchase, 96.

—— of timber-culture claims not al-

* lowed, 94.

Excursions of Forest Societies, 107.

Exfoliation of bark of Scotch pine,
73

Exogenous growth defined, 2.

— wood, structure of, 66.

Exotic species, where desirable, 127.

Expansion from heat, 15.

Experiments advised, 44, 128, 353.

— should precede extensive plant-
-ing, 85.

Explosion of coal-pits, 148.

Extract of chestnut, 223.

wae tanning, 207.

‘ 8 (genus), 225.

See--dachinghamtl; 228.

—— ferruginea, 227.

—— fusca, 228.

—— Menziesii, 227.

— Solandri, 228.

—— sylvatica, 225, 226.

Fall, cuttings set in, 45.

transplanting, 44.

Farm-houses, location of, 116.

Fees, of timber-culture act, 91.

Fertility, how given to soil by trees,
66

—— how maintained, 91.
Fertilization of blossoms, 28, 29.
—— of soil in planting, 8, 9.
Fertilizers, use of, 56.
Fibers of roots, 52, 53, 76, 77.
Field-oak, 214,
Fields, proportion to woodlands, 82.
Filaments, of stamens, 28.
Finland, forests in, 83.
Fir, Douglas, 98, 8387.
—— family, 338.
salina of full maturity, 105.

— weight lost in drying, 139,
Firs grown as high-forests, 102.
Fire, coal-pits liable to cause, 148.
— -guards, 100, 156, 157.
——-wood, qualities required for

best, 144.
Fires, causes of, 155.
—— cause oak openings, etc., 86, 87.

Fires, forest, 154+159.
— prevention of, 156.
Fish, intoxication ‘of, 255.
Fissures, soil in, reached by roots; 5.
Fitzroya, 304.
Flexible pine, 321.
Flies, 179.
Floated wood, drying of, 140.
Floods, effect of woodlands on, 18.
Flovd-wood, loses much of its weight,
140.
Florida, alternation of growth in, 90.
pine-belt in, 200.
Flowering dogwood, 268.
Fogs, how caused, 16.
Forest administrations, 105, 106.
-City,Cleveland,0., so called, 123.
-fires, 154, 159.
—— growth, alternations in, 90.
guards, 106.
—— -management, plans of, 96.
—— planting in Scotland, 112.
Forestry Associations, 107, 108.
definition of term, 1.
‘schools of, 107.
sciences involved, 1,
what it teaches, 2.
Forests, effect on melting snows, 23,
how they may cause rain, 17,
relation vo rainfall, 21.
Forfeiture of timber-claims, 92.
Forsythias, 270.
Fortifications, line of changed to
gardens, 124.
Fountains in parks, 124.
in rural plantations, 117.
France, care of birds taught in
schools, 167.
chestnnt as food in, 222.
—— disease of chestnut trees in, 78,
224.
forest-administration in, 106.
forests in, 83.
forests killed by frost in, 23.
—— planting of dunes in, 108, 109.
reboisement in, 111.
roadside planting in, 121.
time of transplanting in, 44.
turpentine-production in, 201,
Fraxinus (genus), 270.
Americana, 146, 271.
anomala, 272.
—— cuspidata, 272.
— dipetala, 272.
excelsior, 270.
Greggii, 272.

564

Fraxinus Oregona, 272.

pistacivfolia, 272.

—— platycarpa, 272.

—— pubescens, 272.

—— quadrangulata, 272.

sambucifolia, 272.

-— viridis, 272.

Frenela, vitality of seeds of, 41.

Fringe-tree, 270.

Frost, injuries of, 7, 23, 24, 41.

Froth- insects, 174.

Fruit, decline in production, 25.

-flies, 179.

— killed by unseasonable frost, 24.

Fry-process, paper making, 206.

Fuel, experiments of Marcus Bull,
145.

qualities requisite in, 144.

Fuertage, so called, 96.

Full-growth of forests, 102.

Fungi, a cause of disease in wood,
188.

upon roots, 77, 224.

Futaie (high- forest), 102.

Gaining rates of wood-growth, 81.

Galissoniére, la, 295,

Gall flies, 180, 183, 185.

Game-laws, utility of, 167.

Gardens, on line of old fortifications,
124.

Gases, absorbed by charcoal, 147.

formed in meilers, 149.

—— from smoke, 153.

Gathering and keeping of seeds, 33,
351.

General views upon Forestry, 79.

Genus, definition of term, 3.

— name often from Greek, 4.

Geology, relations to Forestry, 1.

Geometer-moths, 180.

Geometra brumata, 179.

Geometre, or span-worms, 177.

Georgia, pine-belt in, 200.

mortality among chestnut trees
in, 228, 224.

Germany, Schools of Forestry in,
107.

forest-administrations in, 106.

forests in, 88.

roadside planting i in, 121.

Germination of seeds, 35.

Giant arbor-vite, 306.

-tree of California, 312, 313.

Giessen, School of Forestry in, 108,

Gilbert’s Peak, timber-line on, 26.

Ginger-pine, 307.

Index.

Grafting, 8, 45, 46. aa

. Green, the color of foresters, 106. ag

Ginkgo, 65, 804, 815... 5 june
Glady limestone, red-cedar grows ‘i
308. a
Glauber, preserving process of, 190., "
Gleditschia tricantbos, 129, Ri
Gluten of seeds, 35. ie
Glycobus speciosa, 183. ioe
Gnats, 179. ‘
Gnetam, vitality of pers of, 41. am
Goats, pasturage of injurious, ee F:
Goat-willow, 29s e:
Gouseberries, cuttings may be aatil ge
fall, 45. —— 3
Gormand branches of oak, 101. = +
Gopher, injuries from, 131, 160. |
Grades of forest-service, 106.

of conifers, 302. oe

Grain of wood, contorted, Bt) ae ag

sown with forest-tree seeds, 41. _

Grand Haven, Mich., dunes at, 108, >

ony. -cuttings, “se be set in fall,
5

Grass-hoppers, 173. $2

Gratings in pavements over roots of
trees, 121.

Gratz, School of Forestry at, 107. 208

Gray, Dr. Asa, cited, 88. : a
Gray-ouk, 213. d 4
-pine, 329. ee
-willow, 279. i.

Gray's Peak, timber-line on, 26.
Grease-wood, on alkaline soils, 7,
Great Britain, forests in, 88,89.
rains in, 23.

Greece, forests in, 83.

injuries from clearing in, 26,
valonia produced in, 206. ves
Greek origin of generic names, 4.
Grven-ash, 272.

Grigor, J., cited, 278. =
Grinding of wood for paper, 205.
Ground fires, how stopped, 157, 158.
hemlock, 318.
Groves, coolness of, 16. g
favor insectivorous birds, 167. wa
ascending currents, 17.
Growth of wood, 66, 69, 70, 71, <—
81.
—— process of, 63. =
—— rates of, 75.
stimulated by removing outer —
bark, 62.
Grub-prairies, 52.
Guano, as a fertilizer, 56..

Index.

Guess, George (Sequoia), 311.

Guyot, Prof., tables by, 14.

Gum-senegal, 304. e

—— -trees not found in California,

— formerly not allowed in
timber-claims, 93.

Gunpowder, charcoal used in, 152.

Gymnodadus Canadensis, 258, 346.

—— monosperma, 258.

Gymnosperms, 800.

Hackberry, 93, 250, 846, 348.

Hackmatack, 343.

Haguenau pine, 334.

Hales, Rey, Stephen, experiments by,
78.

-Halesia (genus), 270.

—— diptera, 270.

—— parviflora, 270.

—— tetraptera, 270.

Hamamelis Virginica, heating qual-
ities of, 146. :

Hand-shears for pruning, 60.

Hard-nut pine, 326.

—— -woods, how planted in Scot-
land, 113.

Hardy catalpa, 290.

Hartig, cited, 105.

Hartmann process in paper-making,
205.

Hatzfieid preserving process, 196.

Haw, 269.

Hawthorn, 129, 136,

Hazel-nut, 84, 210.

Hearths for tar-pits, 203.

Heart-leaved magnolia, 295,

—— -shake in timber, 143.

—— -wood, no circulation in, 188.

Heat, different effects of upon soils, 7.

—— expanding power of, 15.

passage of, through snow, 22,

—— peeling of oak by aid of, 208.

Heating qualities of various woods,
146.

Heavy yellow pine, 823,

Hedges, 127.

Hellebore for killing insects, 167, 282.

Hemiptera, general notice of, 174,

Hemlock, 84. 304, 835.

insects injurious to, 187.

—— oil, 204.

—— pitch from, 204.

—— suitable for screens, 128.

—— tan-bark from, 207.

Henry’s Lake, timber-line at, 25.

Herbaceous grafting of conifers, 302.

365

Herculaneum, charcoal found at, 145.

Hesse-Darmstadt, School of Forestry
in, 108.

Hessian flies, 179.

Heyer, Dr, instrument invented by,
53

Tlickories, 93, 274, 275, 346, 348,

follows where pine is cut, 90.

—— insects injurious to, 181.

—— loss of weight in drying, 139. .

—— not found in California, 89.

—— pig-nut, heating qualities of,
146.

red-heart, 146.

—— shell-bark, 146.

High-eranberry, 269.

forests, management of, 102.

Himalayas, timber of, 84, 127.

—— timber-line on, 25.

Hitching-posts in villages, 120,

Hoar-frost, 12, 16.

Hochwaid, term defined, 102.

Hoeing of seed-beds and narseries,
40.

Holes for planting preparation of,
»)

Holland, forests in, 83.

Hollow cottonwoods, cause of, 56.

Holly family, 84, 88, 146, 292.

differences in leaves of, 66.

in hedges, 129.

Home-adornment, 115,

Homestead, attachment to, 115.

—— -entry act, 44, 94, 96,

Honey locust, 84, 88, 93, 258, 346,
348, 349.

—— in hedyes, 129.

Hooker, Bentham and, classification
of conifers by, 303.

Hoop-poles, season for cutting, 99,
137.

Hop-hornbeam, 233.

Hornbeam (Ostrya), 89,146, 210, 233,
234, 235.

—— blossom of, 29.

grown as high forest, 102.

weight Jost in drying, 39.

winged seed of, 382.

( Nyssa), 268.

Horse-chestnut, 253, 254.

in ornamental planting, 121.

Houtin and Boutigny, preserving
process, 197.

Hubs, excellence of sour-gum for,
268.

—— elm, 244..

366

Huckleberries, not found in Califor-
nia, 88.

TLugon, preserving process of, 190.

Humic acid, composition of, 4.

Humus, definition of term, 4.

Huntingdon willow, 279.

Hybrids, among oaks, 214.

willows, 3.

how formed, 3.

Hydraulic power, supply of water
for, 18.

Hylesinus piniperda, 164.

Hylobus (pine weevil), 185.

Hylurgus, 187.

Hymenoptera, general notice of, 179.

Ichneumon flies, 179, 187.

Idaho, privilege of citizens of, 93.

Ilex aquifolium, 292.

—— Cassine, 292

Dahoon, 293.

—— opacea, 129, 146, 292.

Tlicines, 292.

Tllinvis, ‘change of climate i in, 18.

—— forests of, 87.

—— timber in, 87.

Illuminating gas from wood, 154.

Improved methods of working tur-
pentine, 201.

Incombustible wood, 193.

India, injuries from clearing i in, .27,

Indiana, forests of, 87.

Injection of timber, apparatus for,
191.

Injuries to bark of trees, how treat-
ed, 46, 149.

Insects, how they affect wood-growth,
168.

Insect-poisons, 167.

-ravages, 69, 70, 161.

Insectivorous birds, 167, 350

Inspection of forests, 106.

Institut agnonomique, 108.

Intervals between trees in rows, 47.

of time between thinnings, 58.

Intoxication of fish, 255.

Investments in forestry, 79, 116.

Towa, evergreen hedges in, 129.

Treland, forests in, 83.

rains in, 22.

Ironwood, 89, 210, 296.

—— formerly excluded from timber-
claims, 93,

Italy, chestnuts as food in, 222,

—— disease of chestnut trees in, 78,
224.

—— forests in, 83, 106..

f

Index.

Italy, injuries from clearing i Be 26.

olives, how trimmed in, ;

Japan, timber of, 84, 127.

Japanese cedar, 310.

Jardinage (cutting by selection), 96.

Jars, transplanting from, 54. 00

Jersey pine, 329. ‘oa

Jettys, willows used for, 280.

Jones, Dr, process of, 198.

J udas-tree, 259.

Juglandes, 273, 275.

Juglans Californiea, 277.

cinerea, 146, 277.

—— nigra, 146, 276, 347.

—— rupestris, 277.

June, best month for breaking |
prairies, 8.

Juniper, 303, 308.

insects injurious to, 187.

oil of, 204.

—— (Larix Americana), so called,
394.

Juniperus (genus), 303, 308.

—— Californica, 309. +a

—— communis, 128. el

occidentalis, 809.

pachyphlaea, 309,

—— Virginiana, 128, 146, 308, 347.

—— Sabina, 309.

Jura, destruction of spruces in, 172.

Kalmia augustifolia, 293.

=== glauca, 294,

—— latifolia, 88, 146, 298.

Kaltenbach, cited, 168.

Kansas, tree-planting in, 8346-352.

Karsten, cited, 145.

Kauri-gum, 204.

Keller, F. G., invention of, 205. ~

Kentucky coffee- tree, 54, 88, 258, 846,
348.

Kilns for making charcoal, 149, 150.

tar, 208.

Knees, timber for, in ship-building, _
102.

Knowles, process proposed by, 197.

Kyanizing process, 197.

Labels, in arboretums, 125, 126.

Labidardiére, discovers Eucalyptus,
265. ;

T.ace-winged flies, 174.

Lake Superior, forests south: of, 87.

—— rainy region south of, 21.

Lambert, A. B., notice of, 321.

Lambert’s Pine, 321.

Lamont’s atmometer, 19.

— earth-thermometer, 21.

Index.

—

Lampblack, how made, 203.

Landes in France, trees in, 5.

Lands, timber, sule of, 95.

Lansing, Mich., meteorological rec-
ords at, 15.

Lapparent, M. de, method of, 190.

Larch, 30}, 343.

—— how planted in Scotland, 112.

—— in Grent Britain, 90.

—— percentage of charcoal in, 151.

— period of full growth, 105.

— under timber-culture act, 93.

Large cuttings, not desirable, 56.

—— -flowered magnolia, 295.

——-leaved magnolia, 295.

—— -toothed poplar, 286.

—— trees, transplanting of, 55.

Larix (genus), 304, 343.

— Americana, 343.

—— Europea, 112, 343.

—— Lyaliii, 343.

occidentalis, 343.

Latent heat, 15.

Lateral roots of oak, 43.

La Teste, dunes of, 109.

Latin origin of specific names, 4.

Laurel (genus Kalmia), 293.

/ —— Ualifornia, 298.

—-— -oak, 212.

Lawson’s cedar, 307.

Layers of growth, in reference to
strength of timber, 142.

Layers, propagation by, 45, 99.

Leaf-buds, how formed, 63.

—— -like appendages to seeds, 31.

—— -mining insects, 180, 188, 184.

-mold, best fertilizer of trees, 8.

-rolling insects, 177, 183.

Leaves, differences in form and size,
66.

evaporation from, 16.

gathering of, for fodder, 99.

structure of, 64.

Lee, process in paper making, 206.

Leguminose, 3.

Leipzig, gardens in, 125.

Lemburg, School of Forestry in, 107.

Lepidoptera, general notice of, 174.

Letellier, process proposed by, 197.

Lucobalanus (division of oaks), 213.

Levant, valonia from, 207.

Leveret, H., methods proposed by,
43. ;

Libocedras decurrens, 128, 303.

—— vitality of seeds of, 41.

Ligustrum vulgare, in hedges, 129.

Lilac, 273.

Lime, preserving properties of, 193.

Limestones, carbonic acid in, 11.

Lincoln, Neb., experience in plant-
ing, 51,58.

Linden, 84, 240.

—— bark of, 73.

—— grow from sprouts, 98.

—— insects injurious to, 184.

— — wood, structure of, 72.

Linseed-oil, preserving qualities of,
190, 192.

Liquidamber styraciflua, 294.

—— heating qualities of, 146.

Lirivdendron tulipifera, 250.

heating qualities of, 196.

Lisbon, School of Forestry at, 108.

Lissino, 108.

Literature of Forestry, 107.

Litter, effect of upon water from
rain, 18.

should not be removed, 90, 103,

Live-oak, 212, 213, 217, 218.

Loam, definition of, 5.

Loblolly pine, 336.

Locusts (insects), 174, 180, 182.

—— (trees), 88, 102, 105, 256, 257,
258, 346, 348, 351.

—— black, 346.

—— — yellow, 846.

Locut, honey. (See Honey locust.)

Lombardy poplar, 46, 118, 121, 190,
285, 350.

London-purple, as an insect-poison,
167.

Long-acorned oak, 218.

-leaved pine, &6, 330.

Long’s Peak, timber-line on, 26.

Lorentz & Parade, cited, 146.

Lostal, M., process of, 193.

Louisiana, pine: belt in, 200.

Lucanidew (stag-beatles), 169.

Lymexylon,, 1 wood-boring insect,
164.

Lysimeters, 20, 21.

McCorquodale, Wm.,
planting by, 112.

Maclura aurantiaca, 247, 248, 347.

Madrona, 289.

Magnolia (genus), 84, 88, 294.

acuminata, 294.

—— auricutata, 296.

cordata, 295.

—— glauea, 295.

grandiflora, 146, 295.

—— macrophylla, 296.

account of

om
363 Index. ;
Magnolia, umbrella, 295. Meteorological influences, 10. _ , 7
Mabogany, 298. relations to Forestry, 2. ‘ae
Maillardiére, la, 295. Mexican persimmon, 292, i |
Malte-Brun, ‘cited, 26. —— plane-tree, 252. a
Manitoba, trees of, 89. ; Mexico, copalm resin from, 294, yt,
Mantcburia, timber of, 84. Michaux, gited, 285. oe

Manure, how best applied, 8.

Maples (genus Ace), 234.

ut Lincoln, Neb., 58.

—— black, 237.

—— do not grow well from sprouts,
* 98.

grown in high-forests, 102.

—— in Kansas, 846, 848, 849, 350.

inseets injurious to, 188.

—— red, 146, 238.

—— smooth, 239.

soft, 83, 146, 346,

striped, 238.

sugar, 93, 146, 236, 346.

vine, 239.

weight lost in drying, 139.

Margary process, 197.

Maritime pine, fails in Massachu-
setts, 109.

period of full maturity, 105.

—— planted on dunes, 109.

—— suggested for Pacific States, 84.

turpentine from, 201.

Marking-hammer, a symbol of for-
ester’s profession, 106.

Marsh, George P., cited, 26.

Matches, danger from careless use
of, 156.

Maté (Paraguay-tea), 293.

Mathematics, relation of to For-
estry, 1.

Maxwell, Thomas, cited, 123.

May-flies, 174.

Meal-worms, 174, 178.

Mechanics, relation of to Forestry, 2

Medulla, or pith, 66.

Medullary rays, 67, 68.

—— do not shrink, 142.

Meilers, (ccal-pits), construction of,
147-149.

Melanobulanus (division of oaks, 214.

Melia Azedurach, 296.

Melolontha, vulgaris, 170.

Melting of snow, 23.

Memorial trees, 114.

Mennonites, mulberry planted by,
249.

Menzies, Dr. Archibald, 535,

Menzies’ spruce, 334, 330.

Mesquit, 296.

_ Modernes, reserves so called, 101.

—— classification of oaks by, 212,
Michigan, arbor-day in, 62.
exportation of oak from; Uae
—— fires, 155. — a
—— forests of, 87. —.
—— timber in, 87. 7
Middle States, injuries from cering
in, 27.
—— trees of, 86. H
Military parade, squares for, 126,
Mineralogy, relations of to For-
estry, 1.
Ministries in charge of forests, 106,
Minnesota, arbor-days i in, 62. |
—— forests of, 87.
grub-prairies in, 52.
—— pine-region of, 320.
timber in, 87. .
Mirimachi fire of 1825, 15d. ee
Mississippi, jetties of, 280. ‘
—— pine-belt in state of, 200.
Mixture of species, 50, 76, 100.
Mocker-nut, 275.

Mobr, Dr. Chas., cited, 331. h

Moisture, may ‘be present without
rain, 12.

precipitated i in crossing mounts E
ains, 22.

—— retained by muck and peat, 5. —

Mole cricket, 173, 174.

Money value of farms increased by
planting, 119. ;

Monoecious blossoms, 29, ia

Monohammus confusor, 187.

Montana, privilege of citizens of, 95.

Monterey cypress, 307.

pine, 326.

Monuments, in parks, 125, 126.

Moon’s age, superstition in cutting
trees, 138.

Moose- wood, 238. 3

Moreau process for charring wood, —
152.

Mortar, corroded by smoke, 151.

Morus (genus), 248, 347.

alba, 248, 347,

—— nigra, 249,

—--— rubra, 248.

—— tartarica, 249.

Index.

Moscow, School of Forestry at, 108.

Mosses, absence of in Manitoba, 89.

Mossy-cup ouk, 212. .

Moths, 174, 175.

Mountain ash, 93, 261.

—— laurel, 146, 299.

—— mahogany, 291.

maple, 238, -

Mountains, deplete the winds of
moisture, 22.

—— erosions, how prevented, 110.

—— frosts upon, 24.

lanting of, 57.

ete neeinenn, timber-line on,

—— Shasta, timber-line on, 25.

Muck, how formed, 4.

Mulberry, 89, 348, 349.

— leaf, 64. .

—— red, 347

—— Russian, 249, 348, 349.

—— white, 248, 347.

Mulching, importance of, 56, 58, 122.

Miinden, School of Forestry at, 108,

Munich, School of Forestry at, 108.

Mosquitoes, 179.

Myall ( Victorian acacia), 260.

Myrtacesw (natural order), 264, 267.

Myrtle ( Fagus Cunninghamii), 228.

Names, common and scientific, 4.

Nancy, School of Forestry at, 108.

Nanquette, H., cited, 138.

Napoleon L., fixes time for cutting
trees, 138.

Narrow-leaved willow, 280.

Native growth, an indication to be
noticed, 85.

forest resources of U_ 8., 85.

Natural History, relations to For-
estry, 1

Natural order, definition of term, 3.

Naval stores, 199

Nebraska, arbor-day in, 62.

planting in, 346, 353.

Necessity of close planting, 50.

Negundo acervides, 87, 239, 346.

Californiensis, 240.

Nematus ventralis, on willows, 282.

Neuroptera, general notice of, 174.

Nevada, privilege of citizens of, 95.

—— sule of timber-land in, 95.

Newberry, Prof. J. 8., cited, 337.

New England, injuries from clearing
in, 27.

—— trees of, 85.

New Haven, the “City of Elms,” 123.

369

New Jersey, buried cedar in, 306,

New Mexico, cliff-dwellings in, 27.

pollards in, 60.

—— privilege of citizens, 95.

Night-moths, 175.

Nitrate of soda, 56.

Nitrogen in the atmosphere, 11.

Noble fir, 340.

Noctuzx, or owlet-moths, 177.

pomovet process for peeling bark,

08.

Nootka cedar, 307.

Norfolk-Island pine, 804.

North America, general view of tim-
ber of, 84.

North Carolina, chestnut failing in,
223,

—— pine-belt in, 200.

Northern aspect, 9.

balsam.tir, 339,

Northrup, B. G., cited, 123.

Norway, forests in, 83.

—— forest-schools in, 108.

pine, 323.

rains in, 22.

spruce, 128, 333, 349.

—-- pitch from, 204. _

Nova Alexandria (Poland), School
of Forestry in, 108.

Number of trees on a given acre, 49,
50.

Nurseries, 5, 39, 42.

Nurses, trees planted for, 88, 50, 51.

Nuts, how planted, 34, 35, 88.

Nyssa (genus), 268,

—— multiflora, 46, 268.

Oak, azrees with beech and pine, 51,
104, 216.

bark, obtained by

' growth, 100,

—— barren, heating qualities of, 146.

scrub, heating qualities of, 146.

—— blossom of, 29,

—— burr, 347.

—— chestnut-white, heating qualities
of, 146.

exportation of, 217.

grown as high-forests, 102.

grows readily from sprouts, 98.

—— hybrids of, 8, 214, 215.

—— openings, how caused, 87.

—— peeling of, by heat, 208.

—— period of fall growth of, 105.

—— pin, heating qualities of, 146.

—— qualities, how affected, 216.

—— red, heating qualities of. 146.

coppice-

370

Oak, rock-chestnut, heating qualities
of, 146.

—— roots, mode of securing lateral,
4

serub black, heating qualities of,

146,

seasoned by peeling, 140.

—— shell-bark white, heating qual-
ities of, 146. '

—— Spanish, heating qualities of, 146.

structure of wood of, 66, 67.

tan. bark of, 207, 208.

‘under timber-culture act, 93.

weight lost in drying, 139.

—— white, heating qualities of, 146.

me yellow, heating qualities of, 146.

Oak-leaf-and-acorn, a. symbol with
foresters, 106.

Oaks, and their related species, 210.

—— classifications of, 210, 212.

grown with other species, 51,
104, 216.

—— how planted in Scotland, 112.

—— in Canada, 89.

in Kansas, 347, 348.

—— insects that injure, 180.

—-- range of growth, 211.

transplanting of, 43, 52, 215.

Objects of forestry, 101.

Oblong-leaved oak, 213.

Ocean winds, 22.

Odors, introduced by absorption, 195.

Ohio, arbor day in, 62.

buckeye, 254.

—— forests of, 87.

Oil from Eucalyptus, 266.

of turpentine, 199.

Oils, essential, from conifers, 204.

impregnation of wood with, 192.

Old-field pine, 326.

Ulea Europea, 273.

Nlive, 60, 273.

Olneya tesota, 296.

One-leaved pine, 828.

Orchards, benefitted by shelter-belts,
132.

Ordinances for protection, in villages,
120.

Oregon alder, 238.

-—— ash, 272.

cedar, 807.

—— crab-apple, 262.

—— hemlock, 336.

maple, 238.

—— pine, 337.

— sale of timber in, 95.

Index.

Oreodaphne Californica, 298, 299,
Organic materials in the soil, 4. ee

Oriental plane-tree, 252.

Ornamental planting, 113.
Orono, the range of humidity at, 15.
Orthoptera, general notice of, 173.
Osage-orange, 84, 93, 247, 248,

—— as a hedge plant, 129, 130, 181.

—— in Kansus, 247, 248, 249, 250.

—— limits of, 131.
Osier- Willows, 280, 281, 282.
Osmanthus Americana, 278.
Ostrya Virginica, 296.
Outcrop of rock formations, 7.
Overcup white-oak, 212.
Overflow kills trees, 22.
Oxydendrum arboreum, 296.
Oxygen in atmosphere, 11.
Pacific coast, injury to mountains in,
111.

\

oaks of, 218.

rains upon, 21, 22.

—— timber of, 88.

—— trees from,
United States, 84.

Packard, A.S., Jr. , report on. nee
by, 169,

Painting, a preserving process, 190.

—— of wounds, 101,

Palmer’s dwarf-oak, 214.

Palmetto, 2.

Paper baskets for transplanting, 54, —

from wood, 205,

Paraguay tea, 293.

Paris-green as insect-poison, 167.
—— Institut agronomique at, 108.
Parks in cities, planting of, 128.

Parry, C. C., timber-line as given by, —
25. +

Pasturage, i injuries from, 96, 99, 110.

of woodlands, 159.

Patents for hedges, 131,

Pavements, guards around trees tay
120.

Paving-stones under oak seed-beds,
43

Pawpaw, 88, 289.
ga process for preserving wood,
198.

Peach, in Kansas, 347.

formerly excluded from timber-
claims, 93.

Pear (genus Pirus), 84, 260.

Peat, composition and uses of, 5

Pecan-nut, 274, 347, 348.

Peeling of oak by heat, 208.

4

+

not adapted to {

Soir)?

Index.

.

Peeling of wood hastens drying, 140.
Pegs should not be left in trimming,

P ridge { Nyssa), 268.
Beppoidge (Nyon), 28 illustrated,
13, 14.
Percolation of water, how measured,
20, 21.
Perfume from Eucalyptus, 267.
pine sap, 204.
Period for cutting coppice-wood, 99.
Periodical literature of forestry, 107.
Perishable baskets for transplanting,

Persimmon, 84, 88, 140, 142.
Peruche (hemlock), 335.
Peshtigo, fire of, 1871, 155.
Petioles of leaves, 64.
Petrifaction, artificial, 195.
Petroleum, preserving properties of,
192.
Phosphate of lime, use of, 56.
Physics, relation to forestry, 2
Picea (genus), 304, 382.
alba, 128, 332.
—— Mapetaiannil, 334,
—— excelsa, 128, 332.
—— Menziesii, 334, 335.
—— nigra, 128, 332.
— SW id cee 334.
itchensis, 335.
Piche’ s evaporator, 20.
Pigeons, nesting of in beech woods,
227.

Pig-nut, 275.

Pike’s Peak, timber-line on, 26.

Piles, durability of increased by
charring, 189.

Pinaster (section of pines), 318.

Pin-du-lord, 319.

Pine and fir family, 304, (pines) 316.

—— Balfour's, 323.

—— -belt, of Southern States, 200.
—— blaek, or Austrian, 347.
—— cutting by selection, 96
flexible, 821.

forests in Canada, 89.

—— heavy, or western yellow, oe.
Jersey, 146, 329.

—— leaves, 64.

long-leaved, 330.

—— Norway, or red, 323.

—— one-leaved, 323.

—— Parry’s, 322.

—— percentage of charcoal i in, 161.
—— pifion, 823.

371

Pine, pitch, 318, 328.

regions of United States, 819.
-sup, perfume from, 204.
Scotch, 801, 331, 347.

—— seeds, described, 31.

—— —— must be protected, 161.
southern yellow, 830.

sugar, 320.

—— Torrey’s, 323.

—— under timber-culture act, 98.
weevil, 185.

—— weight lost in drying, 1389.
— white, 518, 320, 822.

—— —— heuting qualities of, 146.
—— —— remarkably large, 316.
—— white-barked, 322.

white and yellow, Am. and
Asiatic, 84.

yellow, heating qualities of, 146.
Pines as wind-breaks, 134.

benefit the oaks when young, 51.
—— classification of, 317.
commercial importance of, 317.
—— description of, 316, 317.

in Kansas, 347.

—— insects injurious to, 185.
northern range of, 89.
Pin-ouk, 213, 214.

Pifion pine, 323.

Pinus (genus), 304, 316.

—— Arizonica, 323.

—— australis, 86, 200, 330.
Austriaca, 347.

Balfouriana, 323.

— Banksiana, 329.

cembroides, 323.

—— Chihuahuana, 318.

contorta, 325.

Coulteri, 326.

edulis, 323.

—— Elliottii, 321.

—— flexilis, 320.

var. albicaulis, 322.
glabra, 329.

inops, 829.

insignis, 326.

—— Lambertiana, 320.

—— mitis, 146, 329.

—— monticola, 320.

monophylia. 323.

muricata, 326.

Parryana, 322.

pinaster, 109, 201, 202.

—— ponderosa, 3238.

—— reflexa, 322.

—— resinosa, 200, 323.

872

Pinus rigida, 97,109, 146, 200, 828,
829.

—— Sabiniana, 326, 327.

—— strobus, 146, 318, 347.

—— teeda, 326.

-—— Torreyana, 323,

—-— tuberculata, 318, 326.

Pirus (genus), 261.

Americana, 261.

— aucuparia, 261.

—— coronaria, 129, 261.

—— malus, 146.

—— rivularis, 262.

sambucifolia, 262.

Pissodes notatus, 186.

strobi, 186.

Pistils, functions of the, 28.

Pitch, how made, 208.

—— -pine, 109, 325, 326.

Pith of wood, 66.

Plains, cultivation on the, 352.

Planera, American and Asiatic, 84.

—— aquatica, 247.

Plane-tree, 98, 251, 252.

Planks, strongest way of placing,
142. °

Plant-lice, 174.

Planting, in Kansas and Nebraska,
346.

—— mode of, 86, 37, 88, 47, 52, 108,
112, 122, 328,

—— on stony surfaces, 57.

ornamental, 113.

pleasure from, 82.

—— preparation of ground for, 8.

—— should be close, in certuin cases,
50.

—— species allowed under former
timber-culture rules, 93,

—--— under homestead and timber-
culture acts, 91, 94.

Planting, would prevent deepening
of streams, 19.

Tlatunez (order), 251.

Piatanus orientalis, 252.

——- occidentalis, 251, 347.

—— racemosa, 252, 253.

Pliny, cited, 138.

Plum (genus Prunus), 262.

—— formerly not allowed in timber
claim, 93.

Plumule, 35.

Podocarpex, 304, 316.

Podocarpus, vitality of seeds of, 41.

Poetry of Forestry, 114.

sylvestris, 73, 112, 801, 321, 347.

Indcx.

Points of compass in setting tee
122, hl
Poisoning of gophers, 131, 160. OR
Polenta, from chestnuts, 222. a
Political economy, relation of For
estry to, 2. :
Pollurds, treatment of, 60. —.

Pollen, functions of, 28, Ar
Polyeotyledonous plants, 300:° = am
Poly technie schools, Forestry a
in, 108. Pe
Pond- dogwood, 270. a

7

—— pine, 829. <a Ps

Ponds, ornamental, 117. ;
Poplar family, 277, *
abele, 284, 249. 2
—— Balm of Gilead, 288. Bae.
Lombardy, 146, 285, 847. -Nehe

-~ —seed of, 33. 4
a silver-leaf, 347. °C
tulip, 250 are
—— weight Jost in drying, 1389.
—— wood, ornamental, 60. of

yellow, 146.

Poplars, general notice of, 284.
growth for paper making, 206.
grow readily trom sprouts, 98,
in Kansas, 847, 848.

—— insects injurious te, 183.

— northern range of, ’39.

—— planted on dunes, 109.

—— ripen seed in spring, 33. ee
roots seek the water, 75, 77, 119.
used for paper making, 205, 206, —
284. _
village planting of, 120. .
Populus (genus), 284, —
alba, 284, 847.
angulata, 288.
angustifolia, 288, a
—— balsamifera, 288. vik
— candicans, 288, 347. ’
—— dilatata, 146, 285, 347.

—— Fremontii, .88.

—— grandidentata, 286.

—— monilifera, 186, 288, 346.
tremuloides, 85, 284.
trichocarpa, 288,

Portsgal, forests in, 83.

School of Forestry in, 108,
Post-oak, 212, 213.

Posts, season for cutting, 100.
Potash, in wood, 188.

Prairies, causes of, 87.

soil how prepared for <—
‘ing, 8.”

Index.

Prechtel’s process. of preservation,
198.

Preferences of trees in Kansas, 246-
348.

Preparation of large trees for plant-
ing, 55.

of soil for planting, 8, 852.

Preservation of seeds, 351.

— of wood, 187.

Pressure of sup, 78.

Prices of timber in Scotland, 113.

—— probable increase of, 82.

Prickly-ash, not found in California,
38.

— pine, 329.
Pride-of-India, 296.
Prinos (see Ilex), 293.
Privet, 129, 270.
Privileges of citizens
states, 95.
Processionary caterpillar, 161, 162.
Profit, questions of, 79, 80.
—— from increased value of land,
2

in certain

82.
apapeention by cuttings, ete. 44,
9.

—— in grafting, 45.

—— layers, 45.

—— various modes of, 37,

Proportion of woodlands to fields, 82.

Prosopis glandulosa, 296.

—— pubescens, 296.

Protection other than against fires,
159.

Proteine in the seed, 35.

Proving of timber-claims, 92, 93.

Pruning of gormand branches, 101.

— when advisable, 59.

Prunus (genus), 262.

— Caroliniana, 263.

— Chicasa, 263.

—— Pennsylvaniea, 263.

— serotina, 262.

—— Virginiana, 263, 346.

Prussian schools of Forestry, 108.

Pseudotsuga Douglasii, 304, 337.

Psychrometer, construction and use
of, 12.

Pubiic health, promotion of by plant-
ing, 82.

—— institutions, by whom founded,

16

116.
Pulp, paper from wood, 205.
Pulpy fruits of conifers, 41.
—— seed how saved, 34.
Purchase of public timber-lands, 95.

373

Pyralides, or delta-moths, 178.

Pyrolignite of iron, as a preserya-
tive, 195.

Quauking aspen, 87, 284.

Quercinex, 210.

Quercitron, 218.

Quercus (genus), 211.

— egilops, 206.

alba, 146, 216.

Banisterii, 146.

— Catesbei, 146.

—— falcata, 146.

macrocarpa, 347.

—— ferruginea, 146.

obtusitoba, 146.

palustris, 146.

—— pedunculata, 146, 215.

bark for tanning, 207.

prinos, heating qualities of, 146.

—— rubra, 146.

sessilifolia, bark for tanning

from, 207.

virens, 217, 218.

Quinecunx, order of planting, 47.

Rabbits, injurious, 160.

Radiation of heat, 7, 16.

Radicle, of roots, 35, 77.

Railroad companies, right of way of,
94.

Railroads, fires set by, 156.

—— planting along, 134.

Russian, planting by, 135.

—— ties for, how preserved, 189, 190.

—— when allowed to use timber, 94.

Rain, falling upon woodlands, 18.

filaments of, dry up over dry

fields, 17.

freezing, effects of, 24.

how caused, 17.

— ocean winds cause, 22.

Rainfall, relation of to forests, 21.

Raingauges, at different elevations.
17. ;

Rainy and dry seasons, 24.

Rake for forest-planting, 38.

Ramel, P., introduces Eucalyptus in
France, 265.

Rates of growth of wood, 81.

Reboisement, defined and described,
110.

Recipes for preservation of wood,
198, 199.

Recent decisions under timber-cult-
ure acts, 354.

Recession of woodlands, in West,
88.

874

Red alder, 238.

ash, 272.

beech, 227.

—— birch, 230.

( KF aaa Menziesii), 228.

—— -bud, 2

— cedar, 4 308.

best. ever green hedge in

Iowa, 128, 129.

—— in Kansas, 347, 348, 349.

insects injurious to, 187.

—— —— planting of, 308.

saw-dust, 206.

—— charcoal, 153.

—— fir, 337, 839, 340.

—— maple. 238.

oak, 2138,

pine, 823, 325, 330.

—— spruce, 337.

— willow, 279, 280, 283.

Redwood, 97, 310, 811, 312, 818, 814.

Regularity in former seasons, 26.

Relative humidity of atmosphere, 13,
15.

Reproduction of high-forests, 104.

from seeds, 28.

Resemblances of flora of Eastern
Asia and America, 84.

Reserves in coppice-woods, 101.

Resinous products, 199.

apaciek, do not usually sprout,

Respiratory organs of plants, 64, 65.
Revenue from planting, 82.
Revolution, period of, 99, 102, 105.
Rhamnus eatharticus, 129, 296.
frangula, charcoal of, 152.
Rhododendrons, 84.

Khus (genus), 297.

—— coriaria, 209.

—— diversiloba, 297.

glabra, 209, 297.

integrifolia, 297.

— lauriana, 297.

— pumila, 297.

toxicodendron, 297.

— typhina, 209, 297.

venenata, 297.

Rhynchophoridex, 171.

Riga pine, 832.

Rights of usage, 106.

of way to railroads, 94.

Rio Grande valley, cottonwoods in,
60.

Ripening of wood, 23, 70.

Index.

River maple, 237.

pine, 829.

Reads in woodlands, importance ie
100.

157.

planting by side of, 119-123.

Robbins’ process for preserving wood, —
198.

Robert, Dr. E. , preservation of elms,

62, 181.
Robinia hispida, 258.
pseudacacia, 136, 257, 346,
viscosa, 258. .
Rock-chestnut oak, 213,
-formations, give character to
sil, 4.
-work, how adorned, 117.
Rocks, underlying effect on soil, 7.
Rocky areas, effect of clearing, 18.
Mountains region, 87.
forests of, 87.
snow-slides on, 24.
—— timber-line in, 25.
white oak, 213.
surfaces, planting of, 57.
Rome, planting of Eucalyptus near,

55, 267.
Roots, buds when formed on, 77.
consolidate the soil, 8.
derive support from sub-soil, 5.
—— fill drains and wells, 75, 77, 119.
form and structure of, 76.
from hedges, 131.
—— growing together, 77.
how they disintegrate the soil, 7.
—— may injure walls, 118.
must not be exposed to air, 43.
radicles of, 77.

_

—— transportation without disturb. 4

ing, 52.
Rosa levigata, in hedges, 129.
Rose-locust, 258,
Rosemary-pine, 326.

Rosin, 200. =

Rotation of crops in timber, 90.

Roumania, forests in, 83.

Round-leaved willow, 279.

Rows, planting in, 87, 47.

on hill-sides,.57.

Royal-oak, historical interestin, 114,

Rubiacex, 269.

Ruin from destruction of woodlands,
26.

Rules for street-planting, 120.

Running oak, 212.

lines of defense against fire,

+

Index.

Rural cemeteries, planting in, 126.

Russia, forest administration in, 106.

—— forests in, 83.

—— leather, tanned with birch, 229.

Russian mulberry, 249.

—— railways, planting on, 135, 136.

Sabal palmetto, 2.

Sabine’s pine, 826.

Sage-bush on alkaline soils, 7.

Saginaw Bay, timber region of, 87.

St. Petersburg, School of Forestry
at, 108.

Sale of timber lands, 95.

Salicines, 277, 282.

— adiantifolia, 41, 65,7804,

15. i

Salix (genus), 278.

—— ucutifolia; 280.

—— alba, 347.

—— cuprea, 279.

—— fragilis, 279.

lanceolata, 283.

—— mollissima, 280.

—— pruinosa, 280.

—— purpurea, 280.

—— rubra, 280.

— Russelliana, 279.

Uralensis, 280,

viminalis, 280.

Salt, a preserving agent, 192.

Sambucus (genus), 269.

—— Canadensis, 269.

—— glauca, 269,

—— nigra, 269.

—— pubens, 269.

—— racemosa, 269,

Sand-wasps, 179.

Sands, planting upon, 108, 109.

—— growth of trees upon, 87.

Ranlary advantages from planting,

Sap of maple, 236.

-—— mineral substances in, 65.

— 5 eran 78, 79.

Saperda carcharias, 184.

tridentata, 180.

Sapindus saponaria, 255.

Sarcobatus vermicularis, 7.

Sassafras, officinale, 84, 89, 146, 297,

—— oil from, 298.

Saturation of air with vapor, 13.

Savin, 309.

—— oil of, 204.

Saw-flies, 179.

core a School of Forestry in,
1

3875

Saxony, 108.

Scandinavian forest administration,
106.

Scarabeide, notice of, 169.

Scarlet oak, 213, 214, 218.

Schemnitz, School of Forestry at,
107.

Sciapteron, larva of, 184,

Scientific names of trees, certainty
of, 4.

Schools of Forestry, 107.

—— some ideas of forestry should
be taught in, 123.

Scolytus (various species), 181, 182,
186.

Scotch pine, 331.

—— agrees with the oak, 104.

in Kansas, 349.

—— period of full growth, 105.

—— planted on dunes, 109.

Scotland, Douglas fir in, 90, 338.

—— forests in, 83.

injuries from snows in, 24.

—— planting in, 112.

prices of timber in, 113.

Screens, use of, 40, 117, 118.

planting of, 127, 129,

Screw-pod mesquit, 296.

Scrub-pine, 329,

Season for breaking prairie soil, 8.

for eutting wood, 98, 137, 138,

Seasoning, distortion from, 141.

—— mode of piling for, 140, 244.

—— of ship-timber, 142,

——- of wood, 138, 139, 140.

Seasons, changes in, 24, 25, 26.

Sebricht process in puper-making,
205.

Security of landed property, 80.

Seed, germination of, 34, .

reproduction from, 28.

—-— -years, 30.

Seed-beds, formation of, 37, 39.

—— time of sowing, 41.

Seeding, easier on a northern slope,
9

—— of a high-forest, 104.

Seedlings, crushed by snow, 25.

need shade, 105.

propagation by, 349.

Seeds, gathering and keeping of, 33,
34, 351.

—— natural distribution of, 30.

soaking of, 35, 39, 81.

—— that ripen in early summer, 33.

—— vitality of, 41,

376

Seeds will not germinate under water,

Selection, mode of cutting by, 96.

Sequoia (George Guess, notice of,
311.

—— gigantea, 312, 313.

—— sempervirens, 41, 97, 812, 318.

Serpe, a tool so called, 60.

Service-tree, 93, 146, 264.

Sesia (one of the hawk-moths), 175.

Sessile leaves, 64.

Seventeen-year locust, 180.

Sex of blossoms, 28.

Shad-bush, 84.

Shade, how different from covert,
101,

Shading of seedlings, 40, 105.

Shag-tree, 268.

Shapes for ship- ee 102.

Shears for pruning, 60

Sheep, pasturage of in woodlands,
160.

Shell-bark hickory, 146, 275.

Shelter-belts, 132, 183, 134.

Shepardea argentea, 298.

—— eleagnoides, 129, 180, 131.

Shingle-ouk, 214.

Shingles, from buried cedar, 306, _

Ship-building, curved timbers for,
102.

live-oak reserved for, 218.

seasoning of, 142.

timber sometimes charred, 189.

Short-leaved yellow pine, 329.

Shrinkage from seasoning, 141.

Shrub, definition of, 2.

Shrubbery around dwellings, 28, 117
118.

Sicily, sumac of, 209.

Signals in case of fires, 159.

Silecious ‘soils, 6.

Silk-worms, 180, 299.

Siiver-bell tree, 270.

—— -fir, 42, 151, 341, 342.

-erain of wood, 67.

—— -leaf maple, 237.

-poplar, 284.

Sinclair process, in paper-making,
206.

Slash-pine, 328.

Sliding banks, how held, 111.

Sloe, 269,

Slope, angles of, 8, 9.

effect of upon tree-growth, 9.

Smoke of birch, used in curing hams,
229.

Index.

Smoke, products condensed from, 158,
—— seasoning by, 141. >
—— when formed into ee 17. -+@
Smooth-maple, 239. a
-sumac, 297. =
Snow-ball bush, 269.
-drop, 270.
a slow conductor of ‘ieee 22,00
74 drifting of, how prevented, 182, — :
3.
—— injuries from, 24, —
on northern slopes, 9 . }
-slides in Rocky mountains, 24,
Soaking of seeds before pay 36,
39,

Soap-berry, 255.

Societies of Foresters, 107.
Sod, planting on the, 62.
Soda in alkaline soils, 6 a -
Soft-leaved willow, 280. ~ a
Soft-woods, so called, 69, 104. Sai
Soil, and its properties, 4,
see te > and radiation of
heat by, 7

classification of, 6.

color, an1 its effeet, 7. :
combination that secures fer
tility, 5. “a
deeper at foot of hills, 7. ~
effect of underlying rock, 7.
—— evaporation from, 20. a
fertility, how maintained, ol;
how it influences the growth bl
trees, 5.

how placed in planting, 8.
—— preparation for planting, 8. — -
—— state of division, and its effects, 6.

Solar. heat, supposed cause of, 16, 4
Solutions for preserving timber, 101. .
Sorrel-tree, 296.

Sour-gum, 146, 268.

Sour-wood, 296.

South. Carolina, pine belt in, 200
Southern aspect, 10.

catalpa, 290.

over-cup ouk, 213.

—— States, hedges i in; 129;

injuries from clearings i in, 27.
trees of, 86.

Sowing of tree-seeds, 37.

season for, 41.

sree frame for transplanting with,

Spain, the chestnut i in, 78, 222, ise
forests in, 83.
—— forest administration i in, 106. —

Index.

Spain, injuries from clearing in, 26.
~—— School of Forestry in, 108.
Spanish-oak, 213, 214.

Span-worms, 183, 187.

Species, definition of term, 2.

-—— namés derived chiefly from

‘

Latin, 4.
Specific gravity of woods, 146.
Sphinges, or hawk-moths, 174, 175.
Spice-tree, 299.
Spindle tree, 292.
Spirits of turpentine, 199.

rts, varieties in trees so called, 3.

Spring, effect of frosts in, 24.
— sowing, 41, 44.
—— transplanting, 44.
—— -layer of wood growth, 69.
Springs, effect of woodlands upon,

1

Sprouting of seeds, 35.

Sprout-lands, chestnut, 221. °

Sprouts, reproduction of trees from,
97.

Spruce, cutting by selection, 96.

— European, 382.

—— injuries to from insects, 168,
172, 186.

—— percentage of charcoal in, 151.

—— period of full growth, 102, 105.

— -pine, 329, 335.

—— suitable for hedges, 128.

Squares, planting in, 47.

Stag-horn sumac, 297.

Stamens, function of, 28, 29.

Star-anise tree, not found in Califor-

_ nia, 88.

Starch in winter-cut wood, 137.

Star-shake in timber, 145.

Stearns, R. E. C., cited, 266.

Stimulation of growth by removing
outer bark, 62.

Stinking yew, 315.

Stipe, part of the pistil, 28.

Stockholm, School of Forestry at,
108.

Stomata of leaves, 65.

Strawberry tree, 292.

Streets, rules for planting, 120.

Strength of timber, 142,

Striped-maple, 238.

Structure of bark, 66, 73.

—— of parts of the tree, 63, 64, 66.

Stumps, preparation of for coppice
growth, 98, 99.

Styrucez, 270.

877
Sub-soil, effect of on growth of trees,
5

Suburban plantations, 124.

Sugar, formed in germination, 35,

—— in box-elder, 240.

—— -maple, 236.

—— -pine, 320.

Sulphate of barytes in wood-preser-
vation, 198.

—— of copper, 195-198.

—— of iron, 193.

Sumac (genus Aus), 84, 88, 297.

—— production of, 46, 208, 209.

Summer, cutting of wood in, 137,
138.

Swamp-laurel, 295.

— -pine, 328, 337.

-white-oak, 212.

Swamps, effect of upon water flow,
18.

Sweden, forests in, 83.

Sweet-birch, 230.

—— -buckeye, 254.

—— -gum, 146, 294.

-scented crab-tree, 261.

Swietenia mahagonii, 298.

Swine, fattening of in woodlands,
104, 224.

Switzerland, forests in, 183.

Sycamore (genus Platanus), 93, 102,
146, 251, 347.

-maple, seeds of, 33.

Sylviculture, defined, 1.

promotion of a taste for, 114.

Symbols of the forester, 106.

Syringa (genus), 278.

Table-mountain pine, 329

Tait, process for wood-preservation,
198.

Tamarack (Larix Americana), 844.

northern limit of, 89.

Tamarisk, planted on dunes, 109.

planted in hedges, 129.

Tan-barks, 100, 206, 207, 208

—— alder, 231.

hemlock, 335.

Tanning, chestnut wood used in,
223.

—— cf ‘Russia leather with birch,
229.

Tap-roots, 43, 76.

Tar-manufacture, 203.

preserving qualities of, 190.

“Taxacem, 314.

Taxew, Taxodier, 804.

878

Taxodium distichum, 41, 310.

Taxus (genus), 41, 303.

baccata, 315.

—— brevifolia, 314.

Canadensis, 314.

Teak, rapidly grown, 71.

Telea polyphemus, 180, 183.

Telegraph poles, turned to trees, 56.

Tension of vapor (absolute humidity),
12.

Terminal buds, 63.

Terraces for planting slopes, 110, 111.

Territories, privileges of inhabitants,
95.

Tessaria borealis, 298.

Tests of vitality of seeds, 36.

Texas buckeye, 255.

Tharand, School of Forestry at, 108.

Thermometers, earth, 21.

Thick-shell-bark hickory, 275.

Thilmany, process for preserving,
198.

Thinning of woodlands, 50, 58, 97,
103.

as practiced in Scotland, 112.

Thoreau, Henry D., cited, 32.

Thorn-tree, 264.

Thoroughfares in parks, 125, 126.

Thuja (genus), 41, 803-307.

excelsa, 807.

gigantea, 806.

Lawsoniana, 307.

occidentalis, 128, 303, 305.

orientalis (hedge plant), 128.

sphaereedalis, 305.

wood (Callitris), 76, 304.

Ties for railroads, season for cutting,
100.

Tiliacez (natural order), 240.

Tilia (genus), 240.

—— alba, 241. -

—— Americana, 241.

Europea, 241.

grandifolia, 241.

heterophylla, 241. .

—— parvifolia, 241, 242.

‘pubescens, 241.

Timber-beetles, 171.

Timber-culture acts, 91, 354.

— defects of, 143.

-—— -lands, sale of, 95.

—-line, 25.

—— -marks, scars of, 74.

Time for cutting wood, 98, 187, 188.
Tinex, or clothing-moths, 178.

railroad companies may use, 94.

Index.

Tipula saliciperda, on willows, 283,

Tomicus (a spruce insect), 187.

Toronto, humidity of air at, 15.

Torrents, restoration of injuries from,
110.

Torreya (genus), 41, 304,

Californica, 315,

taxifolia, 315.

Torrified wood, 153.

Tortrices, Tortrix, (leaf-rollers), 111,
178.

Tracing roots, 76.

Transient persuns build no monu-
ments, 116.

Transplanting, 42.

from forests, 51.

—— from seed-beds, 42.

—— of large trees, 55.

—— spring or fall, 44.

without disturbing. the roots,

52, 54.

Treaty- tree, historical interest of, —

115.
Tree, definition of, 2.
"culture, entry of land for, 91.
— hoppers 174,
288.

— ccdanting in Kansas and Ne.
braska, 846.

on timber-claims, 91, 354, ,

railroad, 134.

Trees, allowed under timber-culture
acts, 93.

effect of upon dew, 16.

—— large, transplanting of, 55,

mode of growth, 2.

number on a given. area, 49,
50.

Triangular order of planting, 48,

Trimming, when advisable, 59.

of stumps, to favor sprouts, 98,

_ Trois Fontaines, Eucalyptus planta-

tion at, 267.
Tropics, height of timber-line in, 25,
Tropical woods, eccentric growth of,
75.

—— —— layers of growth obscure,
69.

Truffle, growth of over-oak roots, 78,

Trunk and branches, growth of, 74,

Tsuga (genus), 41, 804, 335. —

Canadensis, 128, 207, 335.

Caroliniana, 8386,

— Mertensiana, 336.

— Pattoniana, 336.

Tubingen, School of Forestry at, 108.

ee

:
;

Index.

—

-Tulip-trec, 88, 89, 93, 250.

Tungstate of lime. ete., 193,

Tupelo (Nyssa), 268.

Turkey, forests in, 83.

—— injuries from clearings in, 26.
Turpentine, from pines, 109, 199, 201,

Tuskaloosa, called the “ Druid City,”
23

123. ;
Tussock-caterpillar, 180.
Twisted-branch pine, 325.

Ulmus (genus), 243, 346.

—— alata, 245.

— Americana, 146, 243.

—— campestris, 46, 127, 245.

— effusa, 136.

— fulva, 244, 245.
Montana, 247.

— suberosa, 136.
.Umbrellaria Californica, 298, 299,
Ungnadia speciosa, 255,

Uniforms worn by forest-agents, 106.
Universities, Forestry taught in, 108.
Upland-willow-oak, 212, 214.

Ural willow, 280.

Utah, privilege of citizens of, 95.
Vaccinium corymbosum, heating

ualities of, 146.
Valley-Forge, succession of timber

at, 90.
Vallombrosa, School of Forestry at,
108

Valonia, 206.

Value of farms increased by plant-
ing, 119.

— of woods for heating, 146.

Vanilla, artificial, from pine sap, 204.

Varieties, perpetuated by grafting,

— ete., 46.

Vegetable soil, 4.

Vegetation, agency of water in, 22.

Venice, piles charred in, 189.

Ventilation hindered by close plant-
ing, 118.

Vessels, salt used for preserving,
192.

—— sunk to preserve them, 191.

Viburnum (genus), 88, 269,

— lentago, 269.

—— opulus, 269.

—— prunifolium, 269.

Victoria, Douglas fir in, 338.

— myall, 260.

Vielles écorces (reserves so called),
101. ;

379

Vigilance alone can prevent fires,
156

Vienna, Ringbahn at, 125.

—— School of Forestry at, 107.

Village-improvement, 119, 122.

bay i plantation of pines by,

Vinegar from maple sap, 237.

Vine-maple, 239.

Vines, growth of how influenced by
soil, 7.

Virgila lutea, 260.

Virginia, sumac in, 209,

Vitality of seeds, 36, 41.

Vitruvius, cited, 188, 140.

Mri products of combustion, 151,

53.

Vdlter, process for wood-pulp, 205.

Vosges, summer the season for cut-
ting in, 1387.

Walnut family, 273.

trees, 88, 51, 84, 89, 347, 348,

350.

Ward’s Peak, timber-line on, 25.

bad ra Dr. John A., on catal
i. P

Warping from seasoning, 141.

Warring, Geo. E., jr., cited, 128.

oe Ter., sale of timber in,

5.

Wasps, 179.

Waste of timber, 88, 89.

Water, agency of in vegetation, 22.

-ash, 272.

—— -beech, 233.

—— -bitternut-hickory, 275.

composition of, 23.

distribution of seeds by, 82.

—— in newly-cut wood, 138, 139.

—— -locust, 259.

—— -ouk, 213, 214.

—— -pipes filled with roots, 76, 77,

119.

. sour-gum used for, 268.
—— supplies aliment to roots, 23,
-supply of cities, 18.
—— wood submerged in, 191.
Watering of seed-beds, 40.
Wattles (Acacias), 259, 260.
Wayside planting, 119.
Web-worms, 181,
Weeding, necessity of, 40, 56,
Weevils, 171, 183, 185, 186.
Weight lost in drying, 189. .
—— of charcoal to a cord, 151.

580

Weight of woods, 146.

Weisswasser, School of Forestry at,
107.

Wellingtonia (see Sequoia), 312.

Wells, filled with roots, 76, 77, 119.

woodlands affect depths of
water in, 18.

Western aspect, 10.

balsam fir, 340.

—— birch, 280.

—— chinquapin, 224.

—— juniper, 309.

—— larch, 343.

—— mountain ash, 262,

—— pitch-tree, 337.

scrub-pine, 325.

silver-fir 339, 340.

—— States, trees of, 86.

yellow pine, 823.

yew, 314.

Wet and dry bulb thermometer, 12,
13, 14.

Weymouth pine, 319.

W heat-flies, 179.

White alder, 233.

ants, 174.

—— ash, 271.

balsam, 339.

—— -bark pine, 322.

beech, 227.

birch (Betula), 229.

(Fagus Solandri), 228.

cedars, 128, 308, 304, 307.

— elm, 248.

fir, 339.

-heart hickory, 275,

oaks, 90, 211, 212, 218, 216.
—— pines (general group of), 317.
pine, 86, 87 318, 320, 348, 349.
— —— (Picea Engelmannii), 334.
—. region of N. W., 87.
— weevil, 186.

—— poplar, 284.

spruce, 332, 340.
walnut, 93.
— willow, 93, 279, 280.
—— -wood, 93, 250
Whortleberries, heating qualities of
wood, 146.
Wild animals, injuries to trees by,
160.
— olive, 278.
—— trees, transplanting of, 51.
Willow family, 277, 278, 347-349.
— as nurses for other trees, 38.

Index.

Willow, Bedford, 279.
—— Dutch, 283.

gray or white, 347, wins
grows from sprouts, 98. ©
—— hybrid, 8. = inion
—— ‘insects injurious to, 185.
-leaved poplar, 288.

— -oak, 212, 214.

—— osier 280.

—— pistilate flower of, 31.
planted on dunes, 109,

—— —— with walnuts, 61.

roots seek water, 75, 77, 119.
—— white, 000.

Winding paths i in parks, 125.
Wind-breaks, 22.

dispersion of seeds by, 31.
—— effect in fertilizing blossoms; 29.
on different aspects, 9, 10.
-river mountains, timber-line
on, 26. “

Wine from birch sap, 229,
“Wings upon seeds, 81,

Winter, cutting of wood in, 98.
severe cold of and effect, 238.
Wire for bracing trees, 55,

for hedges, 131. >

Wisconsin, forests of, 87.

grub-prairies in, 52.

—— timber in, 87.

Witch-hazel, 88, 146.

Wood. boring insects, 164, 165, 166,
167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 178, 180,
182, 187.

chips for mulching, 56. ;

drying and seasoning of, 189,

140.

gas, preparation of, 154,

Woodlands, areas of in Europe, 83.

effect of upon rain, 17, 18.

—— —— temperature, 21.

—— proportion to fields, 82.

—— ruin caused by cutting, 26.

paper manufacture, cultivation
for, 205.

Wood-lice, 174.

-peckers, useful labors of, 187.

—— -spirits from smoke, 153.

structure, 66, 67, 68, 69, 74.

texture when grown in wet

places, 22.

wasps, 174.

Wounds of trees, 59, 74

Wrecks preserved in water, 191.

Wych elm, 247,

Index. 381

*

se Sapih privilege of citizens of, Yellow oak, 212.

—— pine, 825.
Xerobotrys glauca, 289. —— —— heavy, 823, 825.
Xyloborus, 187. —— poplar, 250.
Xyloterus, 187. —— -wood, 87, 88, 260.
Yaupon, 293, Yew family, 84, 804, 314.
Yellow birch, 230. Young trees from forests, 51.
—- cedar, 307. Zeuzera esculi, 175.

—— cypress, 307. Zurich, School of Forestry at, 108.

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