SERIES

FIEST BO; KS OF NATUKAL HT*

ELEMENTS OF MAMMALOGY

TIiE USE OF

S AND COLLEGES,

BY

W. S. W. RUSCHENBt 'GER, M.D.

FROM THE TEXT OF

MILNE EDWARDS, AND ACHILLE COMTE

TORY IN THE COLLECrES
.'HARLEMAGNE.

PL ATJE S,

>ELPH

ELLIOT,

NORTi TH STREE

IS ••

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

•«*

BIG-ELK. — CHIEF OP THE OMAWHAWS.
( Type -of the American Race.)

RUSCHENBERGER'S SERIES.

FIKST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ELEMENTS OF MAMMALOGY:

PREPARED FOR THE USE OF

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES,

BY

W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D.

Surgeon in the U. S. Navy; Fellow of the College of Physicians; Hon.

Member of the Philadelphia Medical Society ; Member of the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, &o. &c.

FROM THE TEXT OF

MILNE EDWARDS, AND ACHILLE COMTE,

PROFESSORS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE COLLEGES
OF HENRI IV, AND CHARLEMAGNE.

WITH PLATES.

PHILADELPHIA:
GRIGG & ELLIOT,

NO. 9 NORTH FOURTH STREET.

1845.

Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by
W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D.,

in the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States in and tor the
Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

T. K. AND P. Q. COLLINS, PRINTERS.

(4)

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

The " First Book of Natural History," has been received with so much
favour, as to induce me to prepare the second of the series, which embraces
the study of mammiferous animals. Although, like " Physiology and Ani-
mal Mechanism," this is a Primer, or First-Book, I have named it, " Second
Book of Natural History," with the view of designating the series numeri-
cally, and thereby obviating confusion on this point.

As in many instances, the same animal is known by different common
names in different places, (the Rock-Jish of Philadelphia, for example, is a
Striped-Bass, at Boston), I have added the systematic names, which are
generally derived from the Greek or other languages, and presented in a
Latin dress. To facilitate the labours of the student, all these names have
been given in a glossary with their respective definitions, and etymologies
The Greek words have been printed in italics, and where it occurs, the
omega has been designated by a mark over the o, thus ; (d.) It is be-
lieved that a knowledge of the etymology of systematic names materially
assists the student in understanding and recollecting the things they desig-
nate : it is therefore respectfully suggested, that teachers should require their
pupils, when reciting their lessons, to explain all the uncommon words con-
tained in it, or even commit the whole glossary to memory in successive
lessons.

It is not designed that the questions at the foot of the page shall be an-
swered by repeating the text from memory ; but the pupil should be able to
give the facts in his own language, and show he understands the subject.

The plates were engraved by Mr. G. Thomas, (No. 37 South Third Street,
Philadelphia.) The frontispiece is a faithful copy, though reduced in size, of
a portrait of Ongpatonga, (Big Elk,) Chief of the Omawhaws, drawn for
Morton's Crania Americana, by M. S. Weaver, from the original painting
by J. Neagle. For a lithographic copy of this drawing, I am indebted to my
friend, Professor S. G. Morton.

In preparing this little volume I have endeavored to avoid errors, and I
should be very glad to feel sure that I have been successful in my attempt ;
and though men of greater information may detect faults, I still hope the
book may be found adequate to its object. I beg critics to bear in mind that
it is merely a Primer, and not presented as a perfect system of Mammalogy
for the use of naturalists. It is designed solely to facilitate the primary
studies of those who desire to become acquainted with that branch of natural
history, which treats of mammiferous animals.

PHILADELPHIA, December , 1841.

TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS.

There is no royal or privileged road to knowledge. For the prince and
the peasant, the rich and the poor, there is one common way alone, and it
leads up a laborious steep. And though there be on this republican pathway,
many a flower, and many a sweet resting place, all who enter upon it are
doomed to incessant toil : for, those who loiter on the way side, instead of
reaching the temple, fall behind and are lost to those who began the journey
with them.

There is no easy method of acquiring knowledge. It is only to be ob-
tained by close attention and unceasing labour. No matter what may be
the quality of his faculties, the brilliance of his talents, to become usefully
learned in any branch of human knowledge, every man must toil and take
advantage of all the means within his reach.

It has been asserted that, to become familiar with any branch of physical
science, it is only necessary to see with the eyes and hear with the ears,
without resorting to other means. It is contended, for example, that Natural
History is best studied without " the use of any books whatever, except the
book of nature and its visible illustrations." This notion is entertained by
persons of so much learning and influence that it is worth our time to in-
quire briefly, whether the plan has pretensions that should lead to its general
adoption.

He who reads only and draws all his knowledge from books, may perhaps
become very learned, a skilful rhetorician, a formidable critic, the author of
brilliant theories, the inventor of some ingenious system, but he will never,
by this means alone, be able to praciice usefully, what he has thus learned,
and in most instances, it will be found, that instead of having acquired ideas
of practical application, the memory has been filled only with words.

The student who is content to follow lectures, will not be more successful.
One learns less in this way than by reading good authors. By reading, we
may comprehend the thoughts and opinions of an author, without making
him say, or attributing to him the reverse of wh.it he has written or
wished to express. If there is any uncertainty as to having rightly under,
stood the text, before confiding it to the memory, we have it in our power to
review those passages which seem to us, either obscure or extravagant; the

TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. v

book is still there, opening its leaves to whomsoever would consult it again,
patiently submitting to all kinds of questions that may bethought necessary
to propound. But the lecture is fugitive and instantaneous. In reading, on
the contrary, nothing hinders comparison, or prevents the judgment, from
being exercised almost at the same time with the memory; for we have here,
immoveable under our eyes, the expressions of the author. In a lecture, of
all the faculties of the mind, scarcely any other than that of memory is in
active play, for, it is absolutely necessary, first to catch the words of the
professor ; and then, how is one to be certain that he has not misunderstood
what he believed he heard ? A word, a phrase, which escape?, a parenthesis
badly placed in the discourse, a second of inattention, are enough to lead the
auditor into gross mistakes. To what individual has it not happened, in a
simple conversation, to be under the necessity, before clearly comprehending
to require the repetition of the same thing once or even oflener by his in-
terlocutor 1

How then is it possible not to be mistaken in simply listening to a lecture,
in which all cannot be clear, where the thoughts and phrases succeed each
other with such rapidity, where the words require, as it were, to be seized
upon at the moment of utterance and placed in reserve, by the memory, and
not to be submitted, until after a lapse of time, by the pupil, to all the intel-
lectual operations necessary for judgment or deduction of opinion. If it
is sometimes difficult and even impossible for grave and intelligent men to
agree upon the sense which it is proper to attribute to the written phrases of
an author, that are under their eyes, how can you expect students to be more
successful when they acton words which have passed them, scarcely striking
upon their ears? Who has not witnessed amongst young people, between
fellow students, disputes about what the professor has said, or has not said,
upon what was, or was not the opinion of this one or that, although all of
them may have listened to the lecture which gave rise to the dispute 7 How
many errors have been propagated in this way; what baseless controversies
have thus arisen ; how many men have, in this manner, been even brought
to hate each other !

He who listens to a lecture without reading afterwards, may be compared
to a painter who, having fixed his eye upon a passing object, retires to draw
its portrait without having the original before him.

There is nothing in this, however, which argues against oral teaching.
This mode of instruction has the advantage of bringing forward strong
images, of keeping the attention awake, of rendering descriptions more clear,
if not more correct than those given in books, by mingling gesture with
vocal intonation. In a lecture, the professor can watch the eyes of his audi-
tors, and pass at once that which a word has sufficed to render intelligible
or repeat the same thing when he perceives it was not at first under-

vi TO STUDENTS AND TEACHERS.

stood. Writings carry with them only to a small extent this sort of license i
in a lecture the eye and ear work together. — The eye is the only sense that
acts in reading ; the memory retains more readily what it receives from
oral lessons than what it gets by simple reading. In listening, the impres-
sions are more numerous, more vivid, more agreeable, more natural perhaps ,
but they are less complete, less exact, less pure, less clear than those received
from reading : therefore, if one is wrong in listening without reading, he
would be equally wrong to read and not listen. These two modes of in-
struction mutually assist each other, and are not reciprocally exclusive. If
you would profit by them, listen, and retain as much as you can, and then
study the subject in those books that treat it best. By reading, you rectify
the errors of the ear, and listening clears up what may have been obscuro
in reading. If you would clearly understand what you hear, read before or
after, or both before and after the lecture what has been published about its
subject.

No one would expect to become a poet or tragedian by simply listening to
recitations or witnessing the representations at a theatre. Nor could any
one acquire the information necessary to be a painter, by simply walking-
through galleries of pictures. He must resort to books and study their con-
tents with care and attention.

In all times, and in all places, all men have felt the necessity of going
from spoken to written language. Formerly, pupils drew the lessons of their
masters on the leaves of trees, to meditate on them afterwards at leisure.
Professors now, very generally, have their respective courses printed, that
the student may have the text always at hand for reference and study.

An individual entering a city for the first time, will make less progress
and become less perfectly acquainted with it, if he depend altogether upon
his own observation and verbal directions, than one who joins to these means
of information, guide books and maps. To become acquainted with anatomy
l»y merely listening to lectures, or by reading only, or by dissecting alone,
unaided either by oral lessons or books, would be the labour of a life time,
even if it be possible at all ; but by joining all these means, by listening to
lectures, by reading, and by dissection, he will lessen the labour, abbreviate
the time to a few years at most, and attain a perfect and exact knowledge
of the science.

To read, to see, to hear, to study, to observe, and to listen are not too
many means of acquiring solid information of any physical subject. Who-
ever confines himself to one of these means alone, to the exclusion of all
the rest, will never acquire complete knowledge of any physical science.

To study natural history then with entire success, the student should listen
to lectures, read and study in books, visit museums and collections ; and in
order to join the observation of material things with reading and lectures,

TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. vii

every school, if possible, should be furnished with a museum of instruction,
that is, a collection containing the types of all the genera, that the student
may have the opportuity of comparing them with their oral and written de-
scriptions. In this way only can one become a thorough naturalist. Though
this is not the object of every one, still all should possess sufficient know-
ledge of the subject, to understand the principles upon which the objects of
nature are arranged for the purpose of convenient and advantageous study.

If the reader of these observations will reflect upon them, and decide for
himself upon their general truth, he will not think it expedient or profitable
to withhold books even from those students of physical science who have ^he
opportunity of listening to the most accomplished lecturers, nor will he, I
think, be of opinion, that Natural History can be best taught, and to " begin-
ners especially," " without the use of any book, whatever, except the book
of nature and its visible illustrations."

MAMMALOGY.
CONTENTS.

LESSON I.

Classification of the Animal Kingdom. — Comparison of Animals. — Their
Division into four Branches. — Characters of each of these Branches. —
Division of the Vertebrata into four Classes. •

LESSON II.

Mammalia. — Peculiarities of the organization of animals of this Class. —
Division into Orders.

LESSON III.

Order of Bimana. — The only Species, Man. — Anatomical characters which
distinguish the body of man from that of the other Mammalia. — Hands
— Feet — Station — Brain — Human Races.

LESSON IV.

Order of Quadrumana. — Zoological Characters. — Peculiarities of their
organization compared to their habits. — Division into three families ;
their Zoological characters.

Family of Monkeys. — Division into Monkeys of the old and new Continent.—
Description and habits of the principal genera, (Ourangs, Gibbons,
Guenons, Magots, Cynocephalus. — Howling Monkey.)

Family of Ouistitis. — Manners.

Family of Makis. — Description and habits.

LESSON V.

Order of Carnaria. — Zoological characters. — Peculiarities of their organi-
zation.— Division into families, — Family of Cheiroptera. — Zoological
characters. — Tribe of Bats —Peculiarities of Organization. — Habits. —
Frugivorous Bats (example, the Roussette). — Insectivorous Bats (exam-
ple, Vespertilio, Oreillard). — Tribe of Galeopithecus.

Family of Insectivora. — Zoological characters. — Organization and habits of
the Hedgehog, the Shrew, and the Mole.

LESSON VI.

Family of the Carnivora. — Zoological characters. — Peculiarities of organi-
zation — Division into three tribes.

Tribe of Plantigrada.— Zoological characters. — Organization and habits of
Bears (Brown Bear, White Bear, Black Bear). — Badgers. — Use of their
hair.

Tribe of Digitigrada. — Zoological characters — Group of vermiform digiti-
grades. — History of the Polecats — (Common Polecat, Ferret, Weasel,
Ermine). — The Martens — (Common Marten, Beech Marten, Sable). —
The Otters, (Common Otter, Sea Otter). — Genus of Dogs.— History
and habits of some races, (Wolves, Foxes). — Genus of Civets (Civet,
Common Wildcat, Mangouste of Egypt) — Genus of Hyenas. — Genus
of Cats. — Habits (Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Couguar, Lynx, Cat.)

Tribe of Amphibia. — Zoological characters. — Habits (The Seal, the Morse.)

Order of Marsupialia. — Zoological characters. — Peculiarities of organiza-
tion.—Habits (Opossums, Phalangers, Kangaroos).

* MAMMALOGY.

LESSON VII.

Order of Rodentia. — Zoological characters. — Peculiarities of their organiza
tion. — Organization and habits of the" genus Squirrel. — Squirrels pro-
perly so called, (Common Squirrel, Flying Squirrel). — Organization
and habits of the genus Rat. — Marmots. — Habits. — Hibernation.—
Dormouse. — Rats properly so called, (Mouse, Rat). — Hamsters. — Field-
mice. — Jerboa. — Genus of Castors. — Organization and habits of Cas-
tors properly so called. — Genus of Porcupines — Organization and habits
of Porcupines properly so called. — Genus Hare. — Organization and
habits of Hares properly so called, (Common Hare, Rabbit). —Genus of
Guinea-pigs— Chinchilla. — General remarks on peltries. — The use of
hair in the manufacture of Felt — Glue.

LESSON VIII.

Order of Edentata. — Zoological characters. — Division into three families.

Family of Tardigrada. — Organization. — Habits (AY or Sloth.)

Family of Ordinary Edentata (Armadillos, Ant-eaters, Manis.)

Family of Monotremata. — Peculiarities of their organization (Ornitho-

rynchus, Echidna.)
Order of Pachydermata — Zoological characters. — Peculiarities of their

organization. — Division into three families.
Family of Proboscidiana. — Genus Elephant. — Organization. — Habits. — Use,

— Ivory, (Elephants of Asia, Africa, and Siberia.)

LESSON IX.

Family of Pachydermata Ordinaria. — Genus Hippopotamus. — Genus Hog

(Wild Hog, Domestic Hog). — Genus Rhinoceros.
Family of Solipedes. — Horse. — Habits. — Signs of the age of Horses. —

Principal Races. — Ass. — Zebra. — Couagga. — Onagga.

LESSON X.

Order of Ruminantia. — Zoological characters. — Peculiarities of their organi-
zation.— Rumination .

Ruminants without Horns. — Genus of Camels. — Camels properly so called.—
Peculiarities of organization. — Habits and uses, (Camel with one hump,
Camel with two humps). — Lamas, Guanaco, Vicunia). — Genus of
Musks.

Ruminants with Horns. — Genus of Stags — Deer — Habits, (Fallow-Deer,
Common Stag, Roebuck, Rein-Deer, Elk) — Genus of Giraffes. — Genus
of Antelopes (Gazelle, Chamois).— Genus of Goats, (Wild Goats,
Bouquetin or Ibex, Domestic Gout.)

LESSON XI.

Genus of Sheep, (Argali, Mouflon, Domestic Sheep). — Wool. — Merinos.—
Genus of the Ox (Common Ox, Auroch, Buffalo, Bison, Yack).—
Use of Oxen— Milk— Butter— Cheese— Leather.

Order of Cetacea. — Zoological characters. — Peculiarities of organization.—
Habits — Division into two families. — Herbivorous Cetacea. — Manati.
— Common Cetacea. — Apparatus of the Blowers. — Genus of Dolphins,
(Dolphin, Porpoise) — Genus of Narwhals. — Genus of Cachalots. —
Organization. — Habits — Spermaceti. — Genus of Whales. — Organiza-
tion and Habits.— Whalebone.— Fat.— Uses.— Whale-fishing.

MAMMALOGY:

THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF MAMMIFEROUS ANIMALS.

LESSON I.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — Comparison of Ani-
mals— Their division into four BRANCHES — Characters of each of
these Branches — Division of the VERTEBRATA into four Classes.

OF CLASSIFICATION IN GENERAL.

As we have seen, when considering the subject of "Physiology
and Animal Mechanism," The Natural History of Animals is
termed Zoology.

For the convenience of study, Zoology has been divided into
several branches, the highest of which is termed Mammalogy.
This embraces the study of the Natural History of all Mam-
imiferous Animals, man included, and is to engage our attention
at present.

1. The number of different animals inhabiting the surface of
the globe, is so great, that in order to study them with ease, it is
necessary to establish amongst them, divisions, and sub-divisions.
Each of the groups thus formed should be characterised in such
a manner as to enable us always to recognise, with certainty, the
individuals which belong to it, and the group should be designated
by a particular name.

The assemblage of these divisions and sub-divisions constitutes
what is termed a CLASSIFICATION.

2. In the classification of animals, the name Species is applied
to an assemblage of individuals which bear a strong resemblance
to each other, and which are perpetuated with the same essential
qualities. Thus, man, the dog, the horse constitute, to the eye of
the zoologist, so many distinct species.

3. Sometimes one species differs considerably from all the
others ; but, in general, there is a number of them, greater or
less, which very much resemble each other, being distinguished
only by some unimportant differences ; the horse and the ass, the

1. What must be done to enable us to study the animal kingdom with
ease? What is meant by a classification?

2. What is the meaning of the term species?

2

12 OF CLASSIFICATION IN GENERAL.

dog and the wolf, are examples. In the natural classifications,
the species which resemble each other, we unite into groups,
called genera, and add to their peculiar or specific name a
generic name which is common to them : thus, we say, to desig-
nate the different species of bears, URSUS arctos, (the brown
bear of Europe); URSUS Americanus, (the North American black
bear); URSUS maritimus, (the polar bear, &c.); and LACERTA
agilis, LACERTA ocellata, LACERTA viridis, &c., to designate the
various species of the genus LACERTA or lizard.

4. Each animal has, as is seen above, two names, which may
be compared to the family and baptismal names of men, with the
difference that they are inverted in the order in which they are
placed ; the name of the genus always precedes the name of the
species.

5. Those genera which resemble each other most, are united
into TRIBES, and the tribes into FAMILIES.

6. The families are distributed on the same principle, into
groups, of a higher rank to which the name of ORDER is applied.

7. Finally, the orders are, in turn, united into CLASSES, and the
classes themselves are the divisions of the great BRANCHES of which
the animal kingdom is composed.

8. Thus, to class the various animals, the animal kingdom is
divided into

Branches; the branches into
Classes; the classes into
Orders; the orders into

Families ; the families into

Tribes; the tribes into
Genera ; the genera into

Species, which designate
assemblages of individuals.

The following table shows still better the manner in which the
animal kingdom is divided into groups, which in turn are sub-di-
vided farther and farther, until all the individuals belonging to the
different species are separated from each other.

" 3. What is meant by the term genera 1

4. What is the number of names given to each animal ? What is the
character of these two names ? Is the generic or specific name placed first
ih order?

5. What constitutes a tribe? What is included in the term family ?
6 How is the term order applied ?

7. When several orders are united together, what do they constitute ?
What do the classes form?

8. To enable us to study it with greater facility, how is the animal king-
dom divided ?

14 CLASSIFICATION.

9. Each one of these divisions and sub-divisions of the animal
kingdom has a particular name. For example; — one of the
branches is called the branch of the vertebrata, (or vertebrated
animals,) another the branch of the molluscous animals, or
mollusca, &c.; the first of these branches is divided into many
classes, one of which is known as the class of birds, another as
the class of reptiles, &j"c.

10. To enable the naturalist to know whether the animal
which he studies, belongs to this or that branch or family, &c.,
it is necessary that each of the divisions and sub-divisions, under
consideration, should be established by characters, easily recog-
nised, and derived from the conformation of the animals themselves.

1 1. Therefore, each branch, each class, each family &c., should
comprise all animals which possess certain peculiarities of organi-
zation which are not found in animals belonging to other branches
or other divisions. The BRANCH of VERTEBRATED ANIMALS, for
example, comprises every animal whose body is sustained by an
internal skeleton; the CLASS OF FISHES comprises all vertebrated
animals which, in place of lungs, have branchiae. To know
whether an animal belongs to the branch of vertebrata, it is suffi-
cient to examine whether it has an internal skeleton, and this
character once ascertained, it cannot possibly be confounded
with any animal belonging to the other branches. To know
whether a vertebrated animal belongs to the class of fishes or to
another class, we must ascertain whether it be provided with
branchiae or lungs.

12. [To illustrate the utility of classification, a few examples
will suffice: if one would, without resorting to some such means,
ascertain the name of an animal that he had killed in the chase,
it would be necessary to compare it with a detailed description of
all other animals ; for if, even when at the very beginning of
this inquiry, we should meet with a description which seemed
to correspond to the object in question, we could not be sure,
until we had run over all the other descriptions, that we should
not find one still more exactly applicable to this being ; the labor
would be consequently almost interminable. But if we employ

9. How are the divisions and sub-divisions of ihe animal kingdom designa-
ted ? What are the examples ?

10. By what means is a naturalist enabled to know whether an animal
belongs to this or that branch, or family ?

11. What is the distinguishing character of those animals which belong
to the branch of vertebrated animals? What is the distinguishing character-
istic of fishes ? How do you recognise an animal that belongs to the branch
of the vertebrata ? How do we know whether a vertebrated animal belongs
to the class of fishes ?

12. Give an illustration of the utility of classification ?

CLASSIFICATION, 15

the method of classification, we shall arrive almost at once, and
without difficulty, at the end of our search. I will suppose that
the animal in question is an eagle ; I find at first that it has a
skeleton, and hence I know that it belongs to the branch of ver-
tebrala^ and it is not necessary to compare it with animals of the
other branches ; I next look for the characters which distinguish
the different classes of vertebrata from each other, and when it is
determined in this way, that it is an animal of the class of birds, I
exclude from the comparison which remains yet to be made, all
the mammalia, all the reptiles, and all the fishes; I next inquire
whether it presents the characters proper to this or that order of
the class of birds, this or that family ; and when I have ascer-
tained the genus to which it belongs I have only to compare it
with a very small number of animals from which it differs only
in some few, not very important particulars.]

1 3. [The use of classification permits the abbreviation, to a con-
siderable extent, of the description otherwise necessary to make
another recognise any particular animal ; for if we say that an
animal is a vertebrata of the class of reptiles, of the order of
sauria, of the family of crocodiles, it requiresj in order to dis-
tinguish it, only to point out the characters by which it differs
from a very small number of other animals, which possess, in
common with it, characters peculiar to the order and family of
which it also forms a part. There exists here the same difference
as would be found in seeking, by his description and number, a
soldier in an army in which all the ranks were mingled, or in a
well-regulated army where each division, each brigade, each
regiment, each battalion, each company, would be found in the
place belonging to them, and carrying with them their distinctive
signs.]

14. [By the assistance of zoological classification we are enabled
to assign to an animal the name which belongs to it, in the same
manner as we are enabled to find a person we seek by knowing
the direction of his residence ; in the latter case we first inquire
his country, then the state, the county, the town, the street, the
house, and finally the room in which he dwells ; and in the first
case we ask to what grand division of the animal kingdom does
the species under consideration belong, then to what class, what
order, what family, and to what genus it must be assigned ; these
questions being solved the work is almost finished.]

15. As we have seen, it is by the differences existing between

13. What is the striking use of classification? Illustrate its use?

14. What does zoological classification enable us to do ?

15. By what means are we able to classify animals ? On what principle

16 THE GREAT DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

animals that we are enabled to classify them, and to distinguish
them with certainty ; but in order that a classification may be as
useful as possible, it must serve to point out the resemblances,
greater or less, which are remarked amongst them. Also, in the
classifications called the natural methods or orders, the only really
good ones, the characters upon which the divisions and sub-di-
visions of the animal kingdom are based, are selected in such a
manner that each group includes only such species as resemble
each other the more in proportion as this group itself is of a less
elevated rank in the classification. The animals of the same
genus, for example, will differ much less from each other than
those of two genera of the same family, and these latter will re-
semble each other much more than those belonging to different
orders, and in a still stronger degree, than those of different
classes.

The natural classification is, in a manner, a synoptical view of
all the variations met with in the organization of animals, and in
knowing the place which any animal occupies in such a method or
classification, we know by it alone the most remarkable features
of its organization, and the manner in which its most important
functions are performed, that is to say, the most important part
of its history, because its habits are always correspondent with
its conformation.

DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM INTO BRANCHES.

16. In ranging animals according to their different degrees of
resemblance and according to the differences more or less con-
siderable which distinguish them, we first remark, that there
exists in the animal kingdom, four principal types according to
which nature seems to have constructed all these beings ; they
are divided into four great divisions or BRANCHES, namely :

1st. Animalia vertebrata — vertebrated animals.

2nd. Animalia mollusca — molluscous animals.

3rd. Animalia articulata — articulated animals.

4th. Animalia radiata— radiated or rayed animals or zoophytes.

17. The following table presents the principal characters which
distinguish these great divisions of the animal kingdom :

are the characters of animals selected in the classifications according to tho
natural methods ? What does natural classification enable us to know ?
Do the habits of an animal correspond to its organization and conformation ?

16. In classifying animals what do we first observe? What arethegrcat
divisions of the animal kingdom?

17 (O" The folio icing questions ore answered in the table.) What are the
leading characters of animals belonging to the branch of vertebrated animals?
How is this branch divided ? What sort of blood have these animals ?

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18 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATEP ANIMALS.
FIRST BRANCH

OF THE

ANIMAL KINGDOM.

ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS.

18. The vertebrated animals are, of all animated beings, those
whose faculties are most various and most perfect ; whose organs
are most numerous and most complicated.

19. The existence of a solid frame in the interior of the body
enables them to attain a size which the articulated animals, mol-
lusca and zoophytes never reach ; and this skeleton, all the parts
of which are united one to the other so as to allow of motion,
gives to their movements a precision and a vigour which are
rarely seen in other animals.

20. The portion of the skeleton which is never wanting, which
varies least, and which is, at the same time, the most important of
all, is the bony stem that encloses the encephalon, and which is
formed by the cranium and vertebral column.

21. The external senses are always five in number, and the
organs which are the seat of them, present with slight variation,
the same disposition as in man.

What are the characters which distinguish animals belonging to the
branch of molluscous animals? How is this branch divided ? Have animals
of this branch a brain or spinal marrow ? What is the nature of their nervous
system? Do animals of this branch possess an internal skeleton ?

What are the characters which distinguish animals belonging to the branch
of articulated animals? What is the character of the nervous system of this
branch? Has this branch an internal skeleton ? What kind of blood do
animals of this branch possess ? What classes of animals are included in
this branch?

What are the characters which distinguish animals of the branch of radiated
animals? What is the form of the bodies of animals of this branch?
What is the character of their nervous system ? Have these animals a
heart? What is the color of their blood ? What classes does this branch
include ?

18. What branch of the animal kingdom includes the most perfectly or-
ganised animals ?

19. What are the chief advantages derived from an internal skeleton by
animals of the branch of vertebrata?

20. What part of the skeleton is never absent in the vertebrated animals ?

21. What is the number of the senses in the vertebrata? What is their
disposition ? [See Physiology and Animal Mechanism — Lesson viii. and is..

DIVISION OF THE VERTEBRATA INTO CLASSES. 19

22. The apparatus of digestion, in this great division of the
animal kingdom, offers but very slight differences.

23. The blood is always red, and circulates in vessels called
arteries and veins. It is always set in motion by a fleshy heart;
but the conformation of this last organ, as well as the route of
the blood in the circulatory system, varies in the different classes
of this branch.

24. Respiration always takes place in an apparatus situated
in an internal cavity of the body, but it is not always aerial as in
man ; it is sometimes aquatic, and then the lungs are replaced
by branchiae.

DIVISION OF THE BRANCH OF THE VERTEBRATED
ANIMALS INTO CLASSES.

25. Nature seems to have followed the same general plan in
the creation of all vertebrated animals, but nevertheless, these
beings differ from each other, and some of the differences which
they present, are of great importance in the exercise of life.

26. Therefore, that the classification of the vertebrated ani-
mals may be, in a manner, a picture of the modification of their
organization, it becomes necessary to establish amongst them,
four grand divisions, called classes, which are named as follows :

MAMMALIA,
BIRDS,
REPTILES,
FISHES.

27. The following table presents at a view, the principal
characters of these classes :

22. What is remarked of the apparatus of digestion in this great division
of the animal kingdom ?

23. What is the color of the blood in the vertebra ta ? How does it circu-
late ? How is the blood set in motion ? Is the conformation of the heart
and the route of the blood in the circulatory system always the same in the
different classes of the branch of vertebrata ?

24. How does respiration take place in the vertebrata? Is it always
aerial as in man ? When respiration is aquatic, is it effected through the
medium of lungs?

25. In what respect are the differences presented by vertebrated animals
important ?

26. How many classes compose the branch of vertebrata ? What are
these classes called?

27. (KTQuestions answered by the table.') What are the characters of ani-
mals of the class mammalia? How many cavities-has the heart? Is the
blood warm or cold in animals of this class ?

What is the character of the respiration in the class of birds ? Is the
blood cold in this class of animals ? How many cavities has the heart ?

20 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA.

Viviparous, and provided with teats, to suckle "] (Classes.)
their young.

Lungs; respiration simple ; blood warm ; circu- }- Mammalia.
lation double and complete ; heart with four dis-

" ' --- J

tmct cavities.

Oviparous, and
without teats.

f Respiration double;
blood warm ; circula-
tion double and com- }• Birds.

Respiration '™* heart with four
aerial; with J ^tirict cavities.

lungs. ' Respiration simple; .
I blood cold ; circulation \

incomplete; heart ge. \-Reptiles.
I nerally with but th:ee I
L cavities, j

Respiration aquatic ; with branchia; > „. ,
.blood cold; heart wilh but two cavities. \ *lsfte8'

LESSON II.

MAMMALIA — Peculiarities of organization of Animals of this
Class. — Division into orders.

CLASS OF MAMMALIA.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE MAMMALIA.

1. The class of mammalia is composed of man, and all ani-
mals which resemble him in the most important parts of their
organization ; this class is naturally placed at the head of the
animal kingdom as comprising those beings whose movements
are most varied, whose sensations are most delicate, faculties
most numerous, and intelligence most developed ; it interests us
more than any other class, because it includes the most useful
animals, either in affording us nourishment, assisting in our
labors, or contributing towards our manufactures.

2. The mammalia are born alive, and in the early period of
life, are nourished by the mother with milk, which is formed in
glands called mammce, or teats; animals of this class alone are
provided with these organs, and for this reason they are called
mammalia, or mammiferous animals.

What is the character of the respiration in Reptiles ? What is the char-
acter of the blood of Reptiles ? Is the circulation complete ? How many
cavities has the heart in the class of Reptiles ?

What is the character of the respiration of fishes ? How many cavities
has the heart ? Is the blood of fishes warm or cold ?

1. What animals are included in the class of mammalia? Why is this
class placed at the head of the animal kingdom ?

2. How are animals of the class mammalia nourished ? Why are they
called mammalia or mammiferous 1

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA. 21

3. Circulation and respiration are carried on in the same man-
ner as in man. In all the mammalia the blood is warm, and the
heart has four distinct cavities ; two ventricles and two auricles.
The lungs are always composed of a great number of very small
cells, and do not permit the air to pass from them into different
parts of the body, as is the case in birds.

4. In general, it is easy to distinguish at first sight, one of the
mammalia from a bird, a reptile, a fish, or any other animal, by
simply considering its external form, and the nature of its integu-
ments ; the mammalia are in fact, the only animals whose bodies
are covered with hair ; ordinarily their general form does not
widely differ from that of the quadrupeds which are constantly
before our eyes, and which we naturally take as the type of the
group; but sometimes they are not recognised by so superficial
an examination ; for there are some whose skirts are completely
bare, and whose bodies, instead of resembling that of a horse,
a dog, or any other one of the ordinary mammalia, possess forms
proper to fishes : the dolphin and whale are examples of this
kind.— (Plate 6, fig. 6, 7, and 9.)

5. The hairs of the mammalia are very analogous to the
feathers of birds, and serve in the same manner to protect the
skin, and preserve the heat developed in the interior of the body;
in reptiles, fishes and other cold blooded animals which do not
manifestly produce internal heat, there does not exist any similar
envelope.

6. The hairs are produced like the teeth, by small secreting
organs, lodged in the thickness of the derma, or immediately be-
neath it. Each hair is formed in a little pouch or bulb, which
communicates externally by a narrow opening. They grow,
like the teeth, at the base, or new matter is added beneath that
which is already formed.

7. On examining the hairs with a microscope, we sometimes
perceive, very distinctly, that they are formed of a number of
little horns received one into the other, (like a nest of boxes,) but
in general, they have the appearance of a simple horny tube, the

3. How is the circulation of the blood carried on in the class mammalia?
Is their blood warm or cold ? How many cavities has the heart? What is
the character of the lungs of these animals ? Does the air pass from the
lungs to different parts of the body ?

4. What general characters enable us to distinguish animals of the class
mammalia from those of any other class ? Do all animals of the class
mammalia bear a general resemblance to common quadrupeds?

5. What is the use of the hairs on the bodies of the mammalia ?

6. How are the hairs produced ? How do they grow?

7. What is the structure of hairs ?

22 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA.

interior of which seems to be filled with a pulpy matter. With
most animals they are cylindrical and larger at the base than at
the summit; they are often more or less flattened; there are
some which are lamellar and similar to a slip of grass ; some-
times their surface seems to be perfectly smooth, at others
channelled, or armed with slight asperities, or even presenting a
necklace-like (moniliform) aspect ; finally, their size, form and
elasticity vary very much in different animals and in the different
hairs of the same individual.

8. The names by which the different varieties of hairs are
distinguished, differ according to the nature of these horny fila-
ments, and according to the parts whereon they grow. They
are called quills or spines, when they are very thick, pointed, and
stiff, and when they resemble thorns, (as in the porcupine) ;
bristles, when not so thick and less resisting, but still, very stiff,
except towards their extremities; hairs do not differ much from
bristles except in being somewhat longer and not so thick ; like
bristles, they are generally straight, though they are sometimes
curly, particularly when very long. Wool is a species of long
hair, very fine, and contorted in every direction : and down or
fur is composed of hairs of extreme fineness and softness, and
is generally found beneath a layer or covering of stouter hairs.

9. All the mammalia, except the cetacea, (that is, dolphins,
porpoises, &c.) have two pairs of extremities or members,
namely ; one pair of thoracic or anterior, or upper extremi-
ties, and one pair of posterior (inferior) or abdominal extremi-
ties; but in the cetacea this latter pair is absent, and conse-
quently, there only exists the thoracic members. The structure
of all these animals is nearly the same as that of man, and the
differences observed, principally depend upon the relative length
of the different bones, and the number of fingers, which never ex-
ceeds five.

10. The conformation of the extremities varies somewhat ac-
cording to the uses for which they are designed. They may serve
1. For walking, leaping, &c.; 2. For prehension and touch;
3. For burrowing in the earth ; 4. For swimming ; and 5. For
flying; and when they are best adapted to the performance of
one of these functions, they are in a very slight degree, or not
at all suited to the others.

8. WheYi do hairs take the name of quills or spines ? What are bristles '{
What is wool ? What is fur ? What is down ?

9. How many extremities have the mammalia ?

10. Is the conformation of the extremities the sawe in all the mammalia?

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA. 23

11. When the extremities are designed only to sustain the
body and to move it over the surface of the ground, they
should possess great solidity, and be at the same time slender
towards the end, that they may be the lighter ; now, long and
flexible fingers or toes would be injurious to this solidity, and a
considerable number of these organs would augment the weight
of the foot without any advantage; therefore, with those animals
whose four feet only serve them in moving, (walking or run-
ning) the fingers or toes are generally but two or three in num-
ber, short, slightly flexible, and completely enveloped at their ex-
tremity, by nails, which protect them.

12. When the extremities are designed chiefly for touch, and
the prehension of objects, it is altogether different ; they are then
very flexible, terminated by five fingers which are long, well
separated from each other, and so moveable that one of them, at
will, can change position, and apply itself against the others, like
a pair of plyers or pincers ; the nail is in this case flat, and only
covers the back of the end of the fingers, the lower surface of
which resembles a soft cushion ; and the whole hand can move
upon the fore-arm, to direct itself inwardly or outwardly, as
occasion may require.

13. The hoofs of the horse may be taken as an example of
the mode of conformation of extremities, which are designed
only for moving the animal ; and the hand of man, as an example
of the conformation of these same organs when they are designed
for prehension and touch. But between these extremes there are
a great many intermediate degrees, and with a great many of the
mammalia, the paws serve at once the purposes of progression,
prehension, and touch, and discharge best, either one or other of
these functions, according as their conformation most approaches
to one or the other of the two modes of structure, just spoken of.

14. The mammalia that climb best, generally have paws more
or less like our hand, and suited for seizing hold of objects ; there
are some, however, that by the assistance of very sharp nails,

11. What are the characters of the extremiiios when they are designed
merely to sustain the animal in walking? Have they many long flexible
toes? How imny toes has an animal that usually goes on all fours?

12. What are the characters of the extremities when designed for touch
or prehension ?

13. Give examples of the different conformation of extremities according
to their uses ?

14. What are the means or instruments provided for those mammalia that
climb? Do any of this cla-s ever assist themselves in climbing by any
other means than their hands or feet?

24 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA.

can climb trees simply grappling them, although their fingers are
neither long, veiy flexible, nor opposable one to the other. Most
animals of this kind have a long tail which serves them as a
balance-pole, and sometimes this organ is so flexible as to be
twisted around branches, and take the place of a species of hand,

1 5. Differences are also observed in the conformation of the
extremities, according as the animal is designed to run or leap ;
in the latter case, the posterior extremities are generally much
longer than the anterior — for example, the rabbit and particularly
the kangaroo. (Plate 3,jtf</. 11, and plate 4, jig. 11.)

16. When the paws are to be used by the animal for burrow-
ing in the earth, they are short, (which gives them greater
strength,) stout, of a particular form, and armed with strong
nails. Of all the mammalia, the thoracic extremities of the mole
possess the best conformation for this purpose. (Plate 2, /?#. 10.)

17. In order that the extremities be formed in the most favor-
able manner for swimming, they must be short and broad so as
to strike the water with the greater force and act upon a large
surface. With those mammalia whose lives are entirely aquatic,
these organs are formed like great battledoors, closely resembling
the fins of fishes ; the arm and fore-arm become so short that the
paw seems to be attached immediately to the body ; and the
fingers are all concealed beneath a common skin. (Plate 6, /?</. 6.)
When an animal has to make use of these fins to drag itself on
shore, their conformation approaches nearer to that of the paw of
an ordinary quadruped, ( Plate 3, /?//. 7,) and when the extremi-
ties are to be chiefly used in running, without ceasing to be
appropriate for swimming, the fingers (toes) are simply united
by a loose fold of skin, called web, which is stretched when they
are separated, and thus affords the requisite breadth to the paw.

18. When the extremities of the mammalia are formed for
flying, they also present a peculiar disposition ; the thoracic ex-
tremities become very long, and the fingers especially are elon-
gated out of proportion, and sustain a fold of skin from the sides,
as the whale-bones of an umbrella stretch the silk or cloth.
Bats afford us an example of this kind of organization ; their

f hands are in a manner transformed into true wings, (Plate 2,/fyr 1.)

15. What is the character of the extremities of those animals that run or
leap?

] 6. What is the conformation of the extremities of burrowing animals ?
What animal has extremities best adapted for burrowing ?

17. What is the form of the extremities of swimming animals ? What is
the form of the extremities of aquatic mammalia ?

18. What is the form of the extremities of those mammalia that fly ?

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA. . 25

There are too, some mammalia, having extremities formed for
running, or for climbing solely, that can also sustain themselves
for a short time in the air by the assistance of a fold of skin
which extends between the posterior and anterior paws, consti-
tuting a sort of parachute; (Plate 4, Jig. 8.) but this mode of
organization does not give them the power of actually flying, like
those above described.

19. Of all animals, the mammalia have most intelligence,
and they also possess the most voluminous brains. But in this
respect they present very striking differences amongst themselves,
and it is generally remarked, they are less favored in this parti-
cular, in proportion as they depart in resemblance from man, as
their forehead is more retreating, and the face or snout, more
projecting.

20. There also exists, very great differences among the mam-
malia as respects their teeth; and as the conformation of these
organs is always in relation to the kind of food upon which the
animal is destined to feed, we will say a few words about them.

2 1 . Some mammalia that feed upon soft insects, (as ants,) or
on very small fishes which they can swallow whole, are desti-
tute of teeth; but almost all animals of this class possess teeth
designed for the division of food. The molar teeth are gene-
rally the most useful, and their presence is more constant than that
of the incisor or canine teeth ; the latter are necessary to seize
and divide a living prey, and consequently are not wanting in
any carnivorous animal ; but they are less useful to herbivorous
animals, and the one or the other kind is absent in most mammalia
that live upon vegetable diet. Sometimes, too, they afford no
assistance in mastication, though very much developed, and con-
stitute a more or less powerful means of defence. The form of
the molar teeth varies according to the food of the animal.

22. In those animals that live upon flesh, the molars are com-
pressed and cutting, and so arranged as to act one against the other
like the blades of a pair of scissors; (Plate 2, fig. 12.) in those
which feed upon insects, these teeth are studded with contig-

19. What class of animals possc.-s the largest brains ? Is the brain of the
same size in all the mammalia?

20. Are the teeth of all the mammalia the same ?

21. Are any of the mammalia destitute of teeth ? What kind of teeth is
most generally present in the mammalia ? In what family of animals are
the incisor and canine teeth always present ? Does the form of the molar
teeth depend upon the kind of food upon which the animal feeds?

22. What is the form of the molar teeth in tho-e animals that feed on flesh/
What are the peculiarities of the teeth of animals that feed on insects ? What
are the peculiarities of the teeth of animals that feed on vegetables and
fruits ?

26 DIVISION OF MAMMALIA INTO ORDERS.

nous points which correspond in a manner, and are received
into the vacuities left between them, on the opposing teeth ;
(Plate 2, fig. 5.) and when the food of the animal consists prin-
cipally of the tender fruits, these teeth are simply armed with
blunt tubercles, (Plate 2, fig. 6. ) and when destined to grind
vegetable substances which are more or less hard, they are termi-
nated by a broad surface flattened and rough like that of a mill-
stone.

DIVISION OF THE CLASS OF MAMMALIA INTO ORDERS.

23. The class of mammalia is divided into nine orders, which
are easily distinguished one from the other, by the differences
observable in the conformation of their extremities, of their teeth
and some other organs. The chief characteristics of these
groups are indicated, in the following synoptical table of the
classification of the mammalia : —

23. How is the class of mammalia divided? How are these orders dis-
tinguished from each other ?

O" (Questions answered in the table.} What are the characters of the
order Bimana? What characterises the Quadrumana ? What ia the num-
ber of their hands 1

What characterises the order Carnaria ? Have they any hands ?

What characterises the order Rodentia ?

What characterises the order Edentata ?

By what part of the animal is the order Marsupialia distinguished ?

What characterises the order of Pachydermata ?

What characterises the order of Ruminantia ?

What is the conformation of the stomach in animals of the two last orders ?

What characterises the order Cetacea ?

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28 NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN.

LESSON III.

ORDER OP BIMANA. — The only species, man, — Anatomical
characters which distinguish the body of man fiom that of the
other mammalia. — Hands. — Feet. — Station. — Brain. — Human
Races.

ORDER OF BIMANA.

1. The order of Bimana — two-handed — easily distinguished
from the rest of the class of mammalia, by the existence of hands,
on the thoracic extremities only, and by many other anatomical
characters, is composed of but one genus embracing one species
only:

MAN.— HOMO.

2. Our organization differs very little from that of a great num-
ber of other mammalia; the functions of the life of nutrition are
carried on in the same manner in them as with us, and the struc-
ture of the organs of our senses presents only a few peculiarities ;
but still man is placed at an immense distance from all other
animals, and what especially distinguishes him, is that wonderful
intelligence with which he is endowed, and the possession of an
immortal soul.

The principal physical differences which distinguish man, are:

3. 1. The great devel)f>ernent of his bram, which produces
the prominence of his forehead.

4. 2. The conformation of his hands. The thoracic extremi-
ties of man are disposed in the most favourable manner for the
exercise of their functions as organs of prehension and touch : the
lingers are long and flexible ; they all have the power of moving
separately and distinctly one from the other, which is not the
case in other animals, not even with those that possess hands.
The thumb, which is opposable to them, is much longer in pro-
portion than in monkeys, and, consequently, more readily ap-
plied to the extremity of the palmar face of the other fingers,
.and better enabled to take hold of small objects. The nails only
cover the dorsal faces of the extremities of the fingers, and they

1. What is the meaning of the word Bimana? How are the Bimana
•distinguished ? How many genera and species compose the order Bimana?

2. Does the organization of the Bimana essentially differ from that of the
mammalia ? What especially distinguishes man from all other animals ?

3. How does the brain of man differ from that of the other mammalia?

4. What are the peculiarities of the hand of man ?

NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 29

are wide and flat, thus affording a support to the touch, without
in the least interfering with its delicacy; finally, the whole hand
is capable of performing extensive rotatory movements.

5. His vertical and biped position. In all the mammalia, with
the exception of man, the superior (anterior) extremities are ap-
plied to the same uses as the lower (or posterior; extremities, and
are always employed in locomotion, even when they are formed so
as to be used also as organs .of prehension ; in man, on the con-
trary, the lower extremities serve exclusively for station, (the
act of standing) and for locomotion, while the superior extremi-
ties remain free to act as the organs or instruments of prehen-
sion and of touch, a difference in itself sufficient to render them
fit to discharge their function with a degree of perfection far above
any thing seen in the monkey tribes and other mammalia. The
vertical position, which under every circumstance, is so very
favourable to man, has been considered by some authors, as not
being natural to him, and as being solely the effect of education ;
but this is an error. Even if he should wish to do so, man could
not habitually walk on his four extremities; of all the mammalia
the lower extremities of man are most favourably formed for sus-
taining the body, and every thing, in his whole organization, is
disposed for the vertical position. The foot is very large and so
fashioned as to rest nearly the whole of its lower surface upon
the ground ; the different bones of which it is formed are solidly
united one to the other, and the leg rests vertically upon it ; the
heel projects considerably behind this articulation ; the knee can
be completely extended, so that the weight of the body is trans-
mitted directly from the femur to the tibia; the muscles which
extend the foot and the thigh are remarkable for their volume
and strength ; the pelvis is much larger than in other animals,
which by separating the legs and feet from each other, increases
the extent of the base of support ; finally, the head is nearly
balanced on the trunk, because its articulation is placed beneath
the centre of its mass, and the eyes are directed forward, precisely
in the direction to be most useful to him.

6. The horizontal position, on the contrary, would be extremely
inconvenient for man, for then his (hind) feet, short and almost
inflexible, and his very short thigh, would bring his knee against
the earth, while his anterior (superior) extremities would be too
flexible and too widely separated to afford him a solid support ;

5. What is the position of man ? Could man sustain with ease, for any
considerable Itnjjth of time, any other than the vertical position? Why can
he not £0 on all fours?

6. Why would the horizontal position be inconvenient for man?

30 NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN.

the position of the head, its weight, and the absence of the cer-
vical ligament, which in quadrupeds serves to sustain this part of
the body, would not permit him to keep it elevated, and his eyes
being directed downwards to the ground, he would not be able to
see before him. But this position would not be one of restraint
only, it would be impossible to maintain it for any length of time,
because the arteries which go to the brain, are not sub-divided in
man, as they are in many quadrupeds ; and their size being very
considerable, the blood would be carried to this delicate organ
with so much force that apoplexy would frequently result.

7. Man is the only one of the mammalia that is truly bimana and
biped — (two-handed, and two-footed.) The monkey which re-
sembles him iii many respects, has the superior extremities dis-
posed like his, but the foot is very different ; it is strictly a true
hand fitted for seizing and climbing, while our foot can in no
manner, serve as an organ of prehension, because the toes have
but little flexibility, and the great toe, (answering to the thumb,) is
larger than the other toes (which correspond to the fingers of the
hand,) and being placed upon the same line, is not opposable to
them.

8. 4th. The perfection of his vocal apparatus. He is the only
animal of this class that can articulate sounds, and it is to this
faculty that he is indebted for language.

9. But man who is so much favoured in regard to his intelligence
and skill, has not the advantage as regards strength. His swift-
ness in the race is much less than that of animals of his stature,
and Nature has not endowed him with arms either for defence or
attack. The greater part of his body is unprotected, even by
hair, from the inclemencies of the weather, and he is of all animals,
the longest in acquiring the strength necessary to enable him to
supply his own wants.

10. If God had not given to man a social instinct, a love for
society, and the powerful intelligence which distinguishes him,
he would have been one of the most miserable beings that in-
habit the surface of the earth, and probably his race would have soon
disappeared ; but this instinctive impulse, joined to a sense of
his weakness, has brought him to living in society with his fellow-
men, and now, his intellectual faculties have enabled him to derive
something from all that surrounds him, towards insuring his sub-
sistence and happiness.

7. In what particulars do monkeys differ from man?

8. To what faculty is man indebted for language ?

9. In what respect is man superior to other animals ? In what is he in-
ferior to them ?

10. What circumstances render man able to secure his subsistence and
happiness 1 £

VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 31

The detail into which we entered, relative to the structure
of man, in treating on Physiology and Anatomy, in the first of
this series, (See " Physiology and Animal Mechanism,") renders it
unnecessary to speak of his organization in this place.

THE HUMAN RACE.

1 1 . In the human race, as we have said, there is but a single
species ; nevertheless, all men are far from being alike, and the
principal differences which they present, are transmitted, uninter-
ruptedly, from generation to generation ; so that we must admit,
into this single species, several very distinctly marked varieties.

12. The people who inhabit the old world appear to belong to
three principal varieties, designated by naturalists under the names
of Caucasian Race, Mongolian Race, and Ethiopian Race.

13. The CAUCASIAN VARIETY, (Plate \,fiy. !•) is distinguished
by the beauty of the oval formed by the head, by the develope-
ment of the forehead, the horizontal position of the eyes, the
slight projection of the cheek bones and jaws, the smooth hair,
and white, or at. least, whitish color of the skin ; it is also remark-
able for its perfectibility, for it has given origin to all the most
civilized people on earth. It occupies all Europe, the western
part of Asia, and the most northern part of Africa ; but it is be- •
lieved to have come first from the mountains of Caucasia, situate
between the Caspian and Black Seas, and for this reason it has
been called Caucasian.

14. The MONGOLIAN VARIETY, (Plate 1, fig. 2.) differs in many
respects from the Caucasian variety ; here the face is flattened ;
the forehead low, retreating and square ; the cheek bones project-
ing ; the eyes narrow and oblique ; the chin slightly projecting ;
the beard thin, the hair straight and black, and the skin of an
olive color. The languages proper to the Mongolian races pos-
sess characteristics common to them all, which clearly separate
them from people of Caucasian origin : the words of which the
Mongolian languages are composed are all monosyllabic.

15. This variety of the human race is found to the ea^t of those
regions which are inhabited by the Caucasian race?; we first

11. Are all the races of men like e ch other?

12. Into what varieties have the people of the old world been distinguished ?

13. What are the peculiarities of the Caucasian variety ? How is the
term Caucasian derived ?

14. What are the peculiarities of the Mongolian variety ? What is the
character of the languages of the Mongolian race ?

15. In what parts of the world is the Mongolian variety found ? What
remarkable nation is composed of the Mongolian variety ? To what variety
of the human race do the inhabitants of Japan, Corea, and the Caroline
Islands belong ?

32 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES.

meet them in the great desert of central Asia, where are found
the Calmuck and other Mongolian tribes that are still wanderers :
almost all the tribes of the eastern part of Siberia belong to them ;
but the most remarkable nation composed of men of this race, is
the Chinese, whose vast empire claims to have been civilized be-
fore the rest of the world. Corea, Japan, the Marian Isles, the
Caroline Isles, and all other lands which extend to the north of
the equator, from the first named of these archipelagos to about
the 180th degree of east longitude, are also peopled by the Mon-
golian races. Also, the inhabitants of the Aleutian Isles, and
of the neighbouring part of the west coast of America, belong
to this great division of the human species.

16. The Malays, who occupy India beyond the Ganges, and a
great part of the Asiatic archipelago, constitute, according to some
naturalists, a variety distinct from the Mongolian and Caucasian ;
but most authors regard them as the offspring of the two races.

17. Finally, the Mongolian races appear to be spread through
the northern region of the two hemispheres, for all the mixed or
mongrel tribes met with from North Cape, in Europe, to Greenland,
who are known under the name of Laplanders, Samoides, Esqui-
maux, &c., bear a strong resemblance to them.

18. A third, and very distinct branch of the human race, is
the ETHIOPIAN, or NEGRO VARIETY, (I'latc 1,/fy. 3.) characterised
by the compressed skull, the flattened nose, the projecting muzzle,
thick lips, crisped hair, and skin more or less black. It is confined
to the south of mount Atlas, and appears to be composed of
several very distinct races or tribes, such as the Mozambique, the
Bocbisman and Hottentot.

19. The primitive population of Australia, and of the numer-
ous archipelagos of Oceanic'a or Polynesia, is also a black race,
which bears a considerable resemblance to the negroes of Mozam-
bique, but their hair, although coarse, is straight ; of the barba-
rous and miserable people to whom the name of Alforians, or
Alfores has been given, we- have very little knowledge.

20. Finally, the aborigines of America are regarded by some
naturalists, as belonging to neither of the three varieties of the

1C. What parts of the world are inhabited by Malays ? To what variety
do they belong ?

17. To what variety do the La panders, Samoides and Esquimaux belong1 ?

18. How is the Ethiopian variety characterised ? What are the principal
tribes of this variety ?

19. In what respect do the primitive inhabitants of Australia and Polynesia
differ from the Ethiopian variety ? What is known of the Alforians ?

20. Do the inhabitants of America form a distinct variety or race of the
human family? What are the characteristics of Americans ?

THE AMERICAN RACE. 33

human race inhabiting the old world. Some bear a strong re-
semblance to the Mongolian races of Asia ; others on the con-
trary, approach somewhat to the European form.

'« The American Race," according to Professor Morton, — the
highest authority on this subject, — " is marked by a brown com-
plexion, long, black, lank hair, and deficient beard. The eyes
are black arid deep set, the brow low, the cheek bones high, the
nose large and aquiline, the mouth large, and the lips tumid and
compressed. The skull is small, wide between the parietal pro-
tuberances, prominent at the vertex, and flat on the occiput. In
their mental character, the Americans are averse to cultivation,
and slow in acquiring knowledge ; restless, revengeful, and fond
of war, and wholly destitute of maritime adventure." — CRANIA
AMERICANA.

The American Race is divided into two families :

The American Family. | The Toltecan Family.
(£/~ For the type of this race, see frontispiece.

LESSON IV.

ORDER OF QUADRUMANA. — Zoological characters. — Peculiarities
of their organization compared to their habits. — Division into
three families. — Their Zoological characters.

FAMILY OP MONKEYS. — Dwisioh into monkeys of the old and new
continent. — Description and habits of the principal genera —
(Ourangs, Gibbons, Gucnons, Magots, Cynocephalus, — Howl-
ing Monkey.}

FAMILY OP OUISTITIS. — Manners.

FAMILY OP MAKIS, — Description, and Habits.

ORDER OP THE QUAPRUMANA.

1. The order of quadrumana is composed of a considerable
number of animals which resemble man more than any other of
the mammalia, and which are chiefly characterised by their
having both the thoracic and abdominal extremities terminated
by hands. (Plate I, fig. 4, to 12.)

2. Like the Bimana, the quadrumana have incisor, canine and
molar teeth. Their eyes are directed forward, or at least, ob-

1. What chiefly characterises animals of the order Quadrumana? What
is the meaning of the term Quadrumana?

2. What kinds of teeth have the Quadrumana ? In what particulars do
the Quadrumana resemble man ?

34

MONKEY FAMILY.

liquely and their mamma are situated on the chest. We may
also add that their brain resembles that of man very much, and
each hemisphere consists of three lobes, the posterior of which
covers the cerebellum; and their abdominal viscera scarcely
differ from ours.

3. The order of Quadrumana is divided into three families :
Monkeys, Ouistitis, and Makis. The following table exhibits a
synopsis of the most prominent distinctive characters of these
three groups.

Families.

Nails
sed, arched

and

QUADRUMANA. <|

Ouistitis.

Having four incisor teeth

in each jaw, placed very ^ pointed like claws,
nearly in a vertical position, on all the fingers,
except the poste-
rior thumbs, or
t great toes.

Having the incisor teeth more numerous than
the Monkey or Ouistitis, or at least differently
disposed. Nails flat, except that of the first, or }• Makis.
j of the two first fingers (or toes) posteriorly, j
L which is pointed and raised. J

MONKEY FAMILY.-SIMIA.

4. Monkeys are animals of middle or small stature, whose
heads are almost always rounded, the muzzle moderately elon-
gated, the neck short, the body light, and extremities slim,
(Plate 1, fig. 4. to 9.) They are covered with long silky hair;
nevertheless, their resemblance to man is very considerable, and
there are some, which when very young, have the facial angle
not much more oblique than that of negroes ; but as they advance
in age the muzzle always becomes much more projecting, and
with some monkeys, this part of the face is so much developed
as to resemble that of the dog. The actions and behaviour of
these animals bear a strong analogy to our own. Many of
them assume with ease an almost vertical position, particularly
when aided by a stick, as we use a cane, and some walk in this
way, but never so firmly as man ; on the contrary they are admi-
rably organized for climbing from branch to branch. The length
and flexibility of their limbs, having hands on all four extremities,

3. Into how many families is the order Quadrumana divided ? What are
they? What number of incisor teeth have monkeys? How many incisors
have the Ouistitis ? What kind of nails have monkeys ? What sort of nails
have Ouistitis ? How are the nails characterised ?

4. What are monkeys? How are they characterised?

•

MONKEY FAMILY.

35

and the great strength of their muscular system, permit them to
display an astonishing agility, and nature has moreover, supplied
many of these animals with a long prehensile tail, which serves
them as a fifth hand, in suspending themselves from branches,
to balance themselves in the air, and make their spring when they
wish to leap from one tree to another.

5. Monkeys are essentially frugivorous, and their teeth bear a
great similitude to those of man. Their molar teeth are tuber-
culated like ours, but their canine are much longer.

6. Monkeys belong to warm countries ; a single species lives
wild in Europe, on the rock of Gibraltar, and what is very re-
markable, all those of the new world possess characters which
distinguish them from those of the old continent.

7. These zoological, characteristics, so strictly in harmony with
the geographical distribution of monkeys, have caused them to be
divided into two tribes: monkeys of the old world, and monkeys
of America. They may be distinguished by the following char-
acteristics :

Molar teeth ; five on each side, in each jaw,

(as in man.)

Almost always possess ischiatic callosities,
OF THE species of fleshy cushions placed beneath

OLD CONTINENT. the pelvis.

Tail never prehensile.

Nares open beneath the nose, and separated

by a narrow partition,

Che.ks often hollowed into pouches called

SIMIA. cheek pouches, which communicate with

the mouth, and serve as reservoirs of food
MONKEYS. I obtained by the animal.

Molar teeth ; six on each side, and in each

jaw.

Ischialic callosities never present.
OF THE ^ Tail, often prehensile.

NEW CONTINENT. Nares, almost always separated by a broad
partition, and open at the sides of the

5. On what substances do monkeys feed ? What is the character of their
molar teeth ?

6. In what pirts of the word are monkeys found? Are the monkeys of
the old and new world alike ?

7. How are monkeys divided ? How. are monkeys of the old world dis-
tinguished from those of the new ? What is the character of the tail ? How
do the nares open ? How do the nares of the monkeys of the new conti
nent open ?

4

36 MONKEY FAMILY.

MONKEYS OF THE OLD CONTINENT.

8. These animals are quite numerous, and, in their organiza-
tion, seem to form a series, which leads by degrees from man to
common quadrupeds : the position of their bodies, almost verti-
cal in some, becomes in others entirely horizontal, their muzzle is
elongated, and we remark at the same time, their passions be-
come, proportionably, more and more violent and brutal.

9. The principal genera, composing the tribe of monkeys of
the old world, may be recognised by the following characters.

MONKEYS OF THE OLD CONTINENT.

Et o OB p a. cr^r g- o> oq o P jr. o

:3

111

t

1

!f MM t

§-"82- 5'^^i^ r<;

2 S 1 B-gs'w'O -O^

Iir« P

3

*s >
S O

s a

P CO

JOPJTHECUS.

GUENONS.

GIBBONS.

OURANGS.

(Genera.)

8. What is remarked of monkeys of the old continent ?

9. What are the principal genera of the monkeys of the old continent?
What are ihe chief distinguishing characters of the Ourangs ? How do the
Gibbons differ from the Ourangs ? What are the distinguishing characters
of the Guenons ? How does the Semnopithecus differ from them ? Whai
characterises the Macacus ? How do you distinguish the Cynocephalus from
other monkeys ?

MONKEY FAMILY. 37

10. The OuRANcsare the only monkeys of the old continent des-
titute of ischiatic callosities. The most remarkable species of this
genus the OURANG-OUTANG, which inhabits the interior of Borneo,
and other large islands of the Indian Ocean, when young1, is said,
to resemble man more than any other animal. (Plate I- Jig. 4.)

11. The body is covered with coarse reddish hair, and the face
is smooth and bluish ; he sometimes attains the height of seven
feet, and possesses great strength and agility; he dwells in the
wildest forests and habitually keeps himself upon the trees; he
climbs with the greatest rapidity and springs from branch to
branch with as much facility and skill as the little monkeys of
America, which are often seen in our streets. On the ground,
on the contrary, Ourang Outangs walk with difficulty, and are fre-
quently obliged to place their hands upon the earth ; we see them,
using their long arms to raise themselves up, and throw them-
selves forward, very much as a man would use a pair of crutches.
It has been ascertained that these animals build themselves huts
in lofty trees. It is very difficult to capture them when they have
attained adult age, as they defend themselves in the most cou-
rageous manner ; but when young they are easily taken ; they
then show a good deal of intelligence, attach themselves to those
who have care of them, and readily learn to imitate a great many
of our actions.

12. Another species of the genus Ourang, is the Chimpanzee,
(Plate \,fig. 5.) which inhabits the interior of Africa, and is also
named Jocko. Its arms are not so long as those of the Ourang-
Outang, and its forehead is very retreating ; its stature is less
than that of man. It lives in troops.

13. The GIBBONS resemble the Ourang-Outangs in the length
of their arms, but their forehead is very receding. They live in the
most distant parts of the continent, and archipelago of India, and
like the Ourangs inhabit the densest forests. They are not very
susceptible of education, and domesticating them seems to make
them lose their faculties

14. The Siamang differs from the other Gibbons in the man-
ner in which the first phalanges of the second and third toes are

10. Have the Ourangs ischiatic callosities or not? When do Ourangs most
resemble man? In what part of the world are they found?

11. What is the size of the Ourang? Does the Ourang-Outang walk with
ease in the erect position ? How do they live ?

12. How is the Chimpanzee distinguished from the Ourang-Outang ?

13. In what particulars do the Gibbons resemble the Ourang-Oulangs ?
In what part of , the world are they found? Are they readily educated ?

14. How does the Siamang differ from other Gibbons ? What are the habits
of the Siamang ? Is the Siamang remarkable for the acuteness of any paj
ticular sense ?

38 MONKEY FAMILY.

united to each other by a membrane ; it merits notice from the
singularity of its habits. These monkeys live in numerous
troops, which seem to be under the direction of chiefs, more
active and more robust than other individuals of the community ;
during the day they preserve silence, concealed in the foliage,
but at sunrise and sunset, they raise the most frightful cries.
When on the ground, they can scarcely drag themselves along;
and they climb slowly and with difficulty ; but they possess a
vigilance which is rarely at fault. It is asserted that any sound,
not understood by them, which is heard even at the distance of a
mile, no matter how slight it may be, is sufficient, to put them to
immediate flight.

15. The SEMNOPITHECUS closely resembles the Gibbon, and in-
habits India. One of these monkeys, called the Entellus, (Plate
l,Jry. 6.) is held in veneration by the Brahmins.

lo. The GUENONS, commonly known under the name of long-
tailed monkeys, inhabit all Africa. They acquire a middle stature,
and in leaping from tree to tree display great agility, but they
walk very little and with difficulty.

17. The MACACUS, — the Macaque resembles ordinary quad-
rupeds in form, and generally has a short tail. It inhabits the
southern parts of Asia.

18. The MAGOT (Inuus of Cuvier) differs from the Macaque
only in the tail, which is reduced to a mere tubercle. This
monkey inhabits Africa; but is found throughout the southern
parts of Spain, and has become naturalized on the least accessi-
ble parts of the Rock of Gibraltar. It is the only animal of the
order quadrumana that inhabits Europe. When young, it is
easily taught through fear of chastisement, to perform various
tricks, and jugglers avail themselves of this fact to excite the curi-
osity of the public; but like the Macaque, this monkey is very
capricious and deceitful, and when old, it becomes mischievous
and taciturn.

19. TheCvNOCEPHALUs, (Plate 1. Jig. 7.) or dog-head monkey, is
the most brutal and fierce animal of this family, and next after the
Ourang and Gibbon, it is the largest and strongest. Its extremi-
ties are short, and its habitual mode of progression is on all fours.
In leaping, it displays great agility, and habitually frequents the
wildest mountains or wooded coasts. It feeds on fruits and
vegetables ; and like the Guenons, the dog-head monkeys aid

15. What monkey is worshipped by the Brahmins?

16. What are the Guenons commonly called?

17. Describe the Macacus ?

18. How does the Magot differ from the Macacus ? Has it a long tail ?
In what parts of the world is it found ?

19. What are the characters of the Cynocephalus ? What does it feed on ?

MONKEY FAMILY. 39

each other in pillaging gardens and cultivated fields. Their
strength and ferocity render them dangerous, even to man.
They nearly all inhabit Africa.

MONKEYS OF THE NEW CONTINENT.

20. The monkeys of the new world are distinguished from
those of the old, by the characters which we have already pointed
out ; but their habits are essentially the same. They inhabit the
dense forests of this vast continent, and climb the highest trees
with the most surprising agility. They all have a very long tail,
which sometimes serves them as a balance-pole in maintaining
their equilibrium, and some possess the power of wrapping the
tail round objects and seizing them with so much strength that
the animal can, in this manner, suspend itself from branches,
as it would do with a fifth hand. (Plate I, fig- 8, and 9.) Accord-
ing to the difference in the conformation of the tail, the monkeys
of America are divided into two groups, namely ;

21. The SAPAJOUS, whose tails are prehensile, and for a part
of their length without hair, or naked on the inferior surface.

22. The SAGOUINS, or SAKIS, in which the tail is not prehen-
sile, and never naked on the inferior surface.

23. The SAPAJOUS are more agile than the Sakis, and almost
always live upon trees ; this group is divided into many genera,
one of which, designated by the name of SAJOU, or Sapajou,
properly so called, is recognised by its tail being entirely covered
with hair ; it is a species of this genus, very common in Guiana
and Brazil, which is so frequently brought to Europe and this
country, to amuse the public by its tricks and agility.

24. Other Sapajous known under the name of Alouattes, or
howling monkeys, (Plate 1, fig. 9.) are equally worthy of our
attention on account of their cries and the form of their muzzle;
they have a pyramidal head, and an oblique visage, the lower
jaw is extremely large, and the Os hyoides (hyoid bone) is formed
in the most singular manner ; the body of this bone is very large,
and consists of an osseous case with thin and elastic parietes,
which contains two membranous pouches that communicate

20. Do the monkeys of the new continent differ in all respects from those
of the old continent? What are the general characters of monkeys of
America ? Upon the difference in the conformation of what part are the
monkeys of America divided ?

21. What are the characters of the tails of the Sapajous ?

22. What are the characters of the tails of the Sagouins ?

23. Which are most active, the Sapajous or Sakis ? What are the char-
acters of the Sajou ?

24. What are the peculiarities of the Alouattes ? Why are they called
howling monkeys ?

4*

40 MONKEY FAMILY.

with the larynx. The air finds its way into these cavities, and
gives to the hoarse and disagreeable voice of these animals, a
tone which has rendered them celebrated, and obtained for them
the name of howling monkeys. Their howling, as travellers tell
us, may be heard for more than a half a league around, and has
something so fearful in it, that it may be mistaken for the noise oc-
casioned by the sliding away of mountains. It is particularly at
the rising or setting of the sun, or the approach of a storm that
they make the forest echo to their frightful cries, and it appears
they sometimes have recourse to this howling to alarm their ene-
mies. These monkeys are very common in the great forests of
Brazil.

25. The ATELES, (Plate. I, fig. 8.) are the Sapajous in which
the thumbs are wanting on the anterior extremities.

26. Most of the SAKIS or Sagouins live in shrubberies, and are
less active than the preceding.

Some species never quit their retreat except about twilight,
and there are some that are altogether nocturnal in their habits.

FAMILY OF OUISTITIS.

27. This little group which is nearly related to the family of
monkeys, and which for a long time was confounded with it, is
peculiar to the new world, and yet, the Ouistitis differ less from
the monkeys of the old continent than from those of America :
in fact, like these last, they have but twenty molar teeth. The
Ouistitis are small, agreeable looking animals, wi^h a round head,
flat face, lateral nostrils, without either callosities or cheek-pouches,
and a bushy tail which is not prehensile. (Plate \,fig. 10.) On the
anterior extremities their thumbs are scarcely opposable to the
other fingers ; and all their fingers, except the thumb of the
posterior extremities, are armed with compressed nails which are
pointed like claws ; by the aid of these nails they climb trees
like squirrels, for, the conformation of their hands does not per-
mit them to seize hold of branches like monkeys, to which the
name of duadrumana is much more applicable. They live upon
trees and are reputed to be gay, capricious, irascible and always
in motion.

FAMILY OF MAKIS.

28. The animals which belong to this family have the four
thumbs well developed and opposable to the other fingers ; but,

25. What are the peculiarities of the Ateles ?

26. What are the habits of the Sakis ?

27. What peculiarities characterise the Ouistitis ? Have they callosities?
What is the position of their nostrils? What is the character of their nails?

28. How arc the Makis distinguished from other monkeys ?

ORDER CARNARIA. 41

generally they differ from the monkeys and the Ouistitis in their
form, which more resembles that of the carnaria, and in the dis-
position or number of their teeth. They are readily distinguished
by the presence of a pointed or raised nail on the first or two
first toes, or fingers of the posterior extremities, while the nails
of the rest of the fingers are flat. (Plate \.-fig. 12 )

29. This family is composed of several genera designated under
the names of Maids properly so called (Lemur of Cuvier,) Loris,
Tarsius, &c.

30. The Makis properly so called, ( Plate l,fiy. II.) exclusively
inhabit the island of Madagascar, where they seem in a manner
to take the place of monkeys. They are called, on account
of the pointed shape of their heads, fox- headed, or fox-nosed
monkeys. The inhabitants of the southern parts of Madagascar
tame and train them for hunting, as we do the dog.

LESSON V.

ORDER CARNARIA. — Zoological characters. — Peculiarities of their
organization. — Division into families. — Family of Cheirop-
tera.— Zoological characters. — Tribe of Dais. — Peculiarities
of organization.. — Habits.—- Frugivorous Bats, (example, the
Rons»ctte} —Insectivorous Bats, (example, Vespertilio,0reillard)
— Tribe, of Galeopitliecus.

FAMILY OP INSECTIVORA. — Zoological characters. — Organization
and habits of the Hedge-hog. — The Shrew, and the Mole.

ORDER CARNARIA.

1. This great division of the class of mammalia is chiefly com-
posed of predatory animals. Bears and other mammals which
possess nearly the same organisation, are ranged under this head.

2. The characters which distinguish the Carnaria, are, being
unguiculated like the Bimana and Quadrumana, having the mouth
armed with three kinds of teeth, and like them, being born in the
ordinary way, and in not having a pouch for the lodgement of
their young, and not having the thumb opposable to the other
fingers as in the two preceding orders.

29. Does the family of Makis contain more than one genus?

30. In what part of the world are the Makis, properly so called, found f
Can tin Makis be trained for any purpose ?

1. What kind of animals compose the order Carnaria ?

2. What are the characters which distinguish the Carnaria ?

42 ORDER CARNARIA.

3. From the mode of life followed by most of these animals,
it might be anticipated that their intestinal canal would be less
voluminous and shorter than it is in those mammiferous animals
which- are nourished by vegetable substances exclusively. The
Carnaria, to seize and devour their prey, which generally strug-
gles against them, require considerable strength in their jaws ;
therefore, the muscles which bring them together are very volum-
inous, giving to the heads of these animals very considerable size.
In general, these organs are very short, and the manner of articu-
lation of their lower jaw bone with the cranium, shows that their
teeth are designed either to cut flesh or to crush insects, but not
to grind herbs or roots : the articulation is transverse in its direc-
tion, and is as compact as a hinge, so as to prevent lateral motion,
and only permits the mouth to open and shut, like a pair of scissors.

4. These animals differ very much from each other in their
forms and in their mode of living. They are divided into three
great families, to wit ; the Cheiroptera, the Insectivora and the
Carnivora, the distinctive characters of which are set down in the
following table :

(Families.)

Having a species of wings, formed by a fold'
of skin, which commencing from the sides of the
neck, extends between their four extremities, and ^Cheiroptera.

their fingers. Molar teeth, either flat on the
crown, or armed with points.

Order

of
CARNARIA tir:^ _..*_: I moiar ieein, armeu wim cum- Insectivora.

Carnivora.

the by?*58 ° 1 Molar teeth,' trenchant or cut-

FAMILY OF CHEIROPTERA.

5. Most of the Cheiroptera are organized for flying rather than
walking; indeed, in these mammiferous animals, and even in
those that have not true wings, there exists, on each side of the
body, a species of great sail formed by a fold of the skin, which
extends from the neck to the hind-feet, and which extended and set

3. In what respect does the intestinal canal of the Carnaria differ from
the intestinal canal of animals that live exclusively on vegetables ? Why
are the jaws and teeth of the Carnariu very strong ? What is the charac-
ter of the articulation of the jaw ?

4. Do animals which belong to the order Carnaria differ much from each
other ? Into what f unilies is the orter Carnaria divided ? What are the
peculiarities of the Cheiroptera? What is the character of their molar
teeth ?

What are the characters of the Insectivora? What is the character of
their molar teeth ?

What is the character of the molar teeth of the Carnivora?

5. For what kind of progression is the organization of the Cheiroptera
best adapted ? Do all the Cheiroptera possess wings 7

TRIBE OF BATS. 43

in motion by the limbs of the animal, performs the office of a para-
chute, by the help of \vhich he is enabled to sustain himself in the
air, when he springs from an elevated point (Plate 2,/fy. l,and 7.)

6. All these animals are not equally well organized for flight,
and on this account, they may be divided into tribes, as follows :

(Tribes.,—

/" Having wings, (formed by a mem-^
I brane which is sustained by excessively ^ Bat.

Family | long fingers.) J

of •{ Having parachutes, (formed by a fold ~\

CHEIROPTERA, I of skin on the sides which extends between I ~ 7 . ,

the limbs, but a very little amongst the ( ' *«******•
[jingers, (toes) which are short, J

Tribe of Bats.

7. These singular animals, (Plate 2, fig. 1, and 2.) seem at
first sight, to partake as much of the bird as of the mammiferous
animal, for, like the first, they are provided with strong wings,
and are organised for flying in the air, rather than walking on
the ground ; but if we examine the structure of their body with
more attention, we perceive that, in reality, it differs only in a
very slight degree from that of the ordinary mammalia, and these
anomalies chiefly depend upon the extreme elongation of all parts
of their anterior extremities. The wings of the Bats are in fact,
nothing else than these extremities, in which all the bones,
those of the fingers particularly, have become very long, and serve
to sustain a prolongation of the skin of the flanks, just as the
whale-bones of an umbrella serve to sustain the silk or cotton
of which it is made. (Plate 2. fig. 3. — a. the humerus, — b. the

fore arm. — c. the thumb. — d. the other fingers.}

8. These organs are not designed for aerial locomotion alone,
like the wings of birds : when folded, they also serve the animal
for creeping or suspending itself from some projecting body,
(Plate %,fig. 2 ) and, for this purpose, they have a free thumb,
which is short and armed with a hooked nail, like that of most
other mammals, while the rest of their fingers, which are
elongated beyond measure, lose their last phalanges as well as
the nails, and are enveloped in a fold of skin, which extends
from the sides of the neck to the posterior extremities, or even to

6. AreTHl the QMjiroptera equally well organised for flight? How is this
family divided? -"IRniat are the organic characters of the tribe of Bats ?
What are the characters of the tribe Galeopithecus ?

7. In what do Bats resemble birds ? In what do the Bats differ from other
mammalia ? How do the wings of Bats differ from the anterior extremities
of the mammalia?

8. Do the wings of Bats serve any other purpose than that of locomotion?

44 TRIBE OF BATS.

9. The posterior or abdominal extremities preserve their ordi-
nary dimensions, and are very feeble : the hind feet are free and
provided with rive small toes of equal size, terminated with hooked
nails.

10. The progression or walk of these animals is extremely
laborious, and is effected by a series of oblique tumbles, which
fatigues them very much ; they never have recourse to this mode
of progression, except when they are forced. When they wish,
to change place, they effect it by flying, and when they wish to
repose, they hook themselves to some projecting body from which
they can readily make their spring.

11. Bats belong to those nocturnal animals that avoid the
light; during the day they sleep concealed in caverns, or
some other obscure place, and do not sally forth till the dusk of
the evening. In winter they fall into a lethargic sleep, which often
lasts during the cold season. Their eyes are exceedingly small,
but their ears are often very large, and the species of tact
which they exercise through the medium of the membranous sur-
face of their wings, is so exquisite, that they can direct their
course through all the nooks of their labyrinths, even after their
eyes have been removed, and simply by the different impressions
received from the air.

12. The diet of these animals is various ; all do not feed on
animal substances, as might be believed, from the name of the
class to which they belong. Some are frugivorous, and others
insectivorous.

13. The FRDGIVOROUS BATS, have molar teeth with flat crowns,
(Plate 2, fiy. 6.) and the second finger of the fore- paw armed
with a nail, like the thumb ; as yet they have been only found in
India, and are designated under the generic name of Roussettes.
One species of these Bats, (the black Roussette,) has wings which,
when expanded, extend about four feet, and, to protect the fruits
from its devastations, they are sometimes obliged to cover the
trees with nets.

1 4. The INSECTIVOROUS BATS, on the contrary, have the crown of
the molar teeth studded with conical points which dovetail into
each other. (Plate 2. fiy. 5.) They also differ from the preced-

9. What are the characters of the abdominal extremities of Bats ?

10. What is the mode of progression of Bats? Jj

11. Are Bats fond of light ? Are their eyes large? Have they very
email ears ? What are the peculiarities oi the surface of their wings ?

12. What is the general diet of Bats ?

13. What are the characters of the frueivorous Bats? In what part of the
world are these Bats found ? What is the Roussette ?

14. What are the characters of the molar teeth of the Insectivorous Bats ? In
what respect do these Bats differ from others 7

•

INSECTIVOROUS MAMMALS. 45

ing in many other characteristic particulars, such as the absence
of the nail on the index finger. Of these animals a great many
species are known.

15. Among those of France, we may cite; 1st the Vesperti^
lios, or ordinary bats, which have the ears separated, and of
moderate size, and the nose without foliaceous, or leaf appendix,
(by which several species are distinguished, namely, the common
bat, the Serotinus, Pipistrellus, fyc.)

16. 2nd. The Long-eared Bats, (Oreil]ards)—VespcrtilioAuri~
tus — (Plate 2, fig. I, and 2.) whose immense ears are united
together upon the cranium, (the common species found in kitchens,
houses, &c., in France.)

!/• 3d. The Rhinolophus, or Horse-shoe Bats, which may be
easily distinguished by the foliaceous membranes and crests
which are fixed on the nose, altogether presenting the figure of
a horse-shoe, are found in quarries.

18. In South America there is a Bat, a foot long, which has
the habit of sucking the blood of other animals while they are
asleep ; it is known under the name of Vampire, (Plate 2, fig. 4.)
and placed in the genus Phyllostoma.

.There are also several species in the United States.

Tribe of Galeopithecus.

19. These animals are mentioned by travellers, under the
names of flying monkeys, and flying foxes, flying cats, &c. They
inhabit the Indian archipelago, and have the four extremities
formed in the ordinary manner, but united by a prolongation of
skin, which extends from the sides of the neck to the tail, form-
ing a great parachute, by the assistance of which these Cheirop-
tera sustain themselves for a short time in the air, when they
spring from one branch to another. (Plate 2. fig. 7.) They live
upon trees and feed upon fruits.

FAMILY OF INSECTIVORA.

20. This family is composed of Carnaria, whose molar teeth
are studded with conical points like those of most of the
Cheiroptera, but the skin of their flanks is not prolonged so as
to form either wings or parachutes. These are feeble animals of

J5. What are the characters of the Vespertilios ?

J6. How are the long-eared B.ts characterised ?

IQ wru characters distinguish the Rhinolophus?

10 rr ls the VamP"e ? Are there any Bats in the United States ?

19. How are animals of the tribe Galeopithecus distinguished? Have

on aw? WmgS ? What is their diet ?

on w

-JU. What are the characters of the molar teeth of the insectivora ? Have

? J Wi"gS? ^^ "* lhe habUs of these animals ? Wha'

46 INSECTIVOROUS MAMMALS.

small stature, which, during the day, conceal themselves in bur-
rows or holes, from which they sally forth only at night. Many
of them pass the winter in a state of lethargy ; as their name in-
dicates, they live chiefly upon insects.

21. The principal genera composing this family are the hedge-
hogs, shrews, and moles which are recognisable by the following
characters :

_ _ (Genera.)

Family
of

paws of the ordinary

±,an±rmedWith I Body covered
J with hair.

Shrew*.

Diggers, (posterior paws of a peculiar i
form, and armed with very long nails, [ ,, ,

suitable for excavating, or digging the f
Dearth. J

22. The HEDGEHOGS, — Erinaceus, — are small animals, which,
without having the instinct to excavate burrows inaccessible J;o
their enemies, without the activity necessary to escape their pur-
suit, or strength to contend against them, are nevertheless capa-
ble of advantageously protecting themselves and punishing any
imprudent attack of their adversaries ; but to give them this power,
nature has formed for them no new organs, but has merely modi-
fied the hairs with which their backs are covered, and given a
greater extent to certain of their movements, than is common in
other quadrupeds. By flexing the head and paws beneath the
belly, the Hedgehog can roll itself into a ball, and it also has the
faculty of drawing the skin of the back in such a manner as to
envelope itself, as in a purse ; now, the hairs with which this part
of the tegumentary envelope is furnished, in stead of being flexible
and silky, are stout, stiff, and sharp, and, when the skin is thus
drawn, the spines are raised up, crossing each other in every direc-
tion, bristling all parts of the animal's surface like so many spines or
spears ready to lacerate and tear the mouth and paws of the
aggressor. This powerfully defensive armour protects the Hedge-
hogs from the attacks of most of the Carnaria, of which, with-
out it, they would become the ready victims ; foxes however, are
not deterred by these obstacles, and are often successful in
seizing this dangerous prey. Their mouth is armed with twenty

21. What are the principal genera composing this family ? What are the
organic characters of the genus Hedgehog ? What are the characters of
the Shrews? How are the Moles distinguished ?

22. What are the peculiarities of the Hedgehog ? What is the number of
their teeth ? How are they arranged ? What are their habits ?

CARNIVOROUS MAMMALS. 47

teeth in the upper jaw, and sixteen in the lower jaw. They live
in the woods and keep themselves concealed during the day
amongst the roots of old trees. They are frequently met with in
France, and in various parts of the world. It is said they mouse
like a cat.

23. Shrews — Sorex — (Plate 2, fig 9.) are very small animals
whose appearance reminds us of the mouse ; their body is covered
with hairs, and on each flank there is found a small strip of stiff
bristles between which there exudes an odorous humor. They
have eighteen teeth in the upper, and twelve in the lower jaw.
They keep themselves in holes which they excavate in the earth,
and feed on worms and insects. The common Shrew, (sorcx
araneus) has been accused, but very wrongfully, of causing a
disease in horses and mules by its bite. Shrews are found in
Asia, the north of Europe, &c.

24. The MOLES,— Taipei,— (Mate 2, fig. 10.) are essentially
subterraneous, and burrowing animals; their body is squat,
their muzzle elongated and terminated by a moveable snout,
serving to penetrate the earth, and their anterior extremities,
very short, but extremely strong and thick, are directed out-
wardly, and terminate by enormous nails, suitable for digging.
(IJlate 2, fig. 11 ) By the assistance of these organs, moles dig
•with great rapidity and admirable sWl, long galleries in the
soil in the midst of which they establish their abode. The small
elevations we often see upon the surface of the soil, called
mole hills, are formed by the riddance which these animals throw
out when executing their subterranean labors. They very rarely
leave their labyrinths, and feed on the worms and larvae of in-
sects found there. They are destined, as we have seen, to live
in total darkness; hence, their eyes are scarcely perceptible, and
there is one species of mole which is entirely blind. They have
twenty-two teeth in each jaw. The common mole of the fields of
France, which is of a beautiful black, is found in all the fertile
countries of Europe. It is said, they do not exist in Ireland, and
are rarely met with in Greece. There are varieties of moles
which are brown, white, ash-colored and spotted.

23. What are Shrews ? What is the number and disposition of their teeth?
What are their habits ? In what parts of the world are they found ? What
is their food ?

24. What are Moles? What are the peculiarities of their organization?
What are their habits ? Have moles very large eyes ? Is there any species
of Mole that is blind ? What is the number and arrangement of their teeth ?
In what countries are they found ?

5

48 CARNIVOROUg^MAMMALS. __ _

LESSON VI.

FAMILY OP CARNIVORA.— Zoological char acters.— Peculiarities of

organization.— Division into three tribes.

TRIBE OF PLANTIGRADA.— Zoological characters.— Organization
and Habits of Bears, (Brown Bear, White Bear, Black
Bear.}— Badgers.— Use of their hair.

TRIBE OP DIGITIGRADAS.— Zoological characters.— Group of Ver-

miform Digitigradas.—Hi*toty of the Pole-cat,( common Pole-

cat, Ferret, Weasel, Ermine.-)— The Martens, (common Mai-

ten, the Beech Marten, Sable.}— The Otters, (common Otter,

Sea Otters-Genus of Dogs-History and Habits of some

races, ( Wolws, Foxes.)-Genm of Civets (Civet, Common

Wild-cat, Mangomte of Egypt.) -Genus of Hyenas.- Genus 4

of Cats.— Habits, (Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Couguar,Lynx, Lat)

TRIBE OP AMPHIBIA.— Zoological characters.— Habits, (beal, the

Morse.)

CONTINUATION OP THE ORDER CARNARIA.
FAMILY OF CARNIVORA.

1 In its most general acceptation, the word Carnivorous belongs
to all animals that feed upon flesh, but naturalists give to this
word, a more limited sigirfncation, and only apply it to this family
of mammalia of the order Carnaria, which includes Bats, Hyenas,
Martens, Dogs, &c., and which is easily distinguished by the ex-
istence of teeth for tearing and cutting flesh.

2 In these animals, which generally possess great strength, a
laws are stout, and each one is armed with two long, stout, se]
rated canine teeth, and between these are placed six incisors.
Sometimes the molar teeth are all trenchant ; sometimes they a
mingled, some having blunt tubercles, but they never have com.
cal points as in the insectivora. (Plate 2, fig. 12.) One of the
great molars is ordinarily much larger and more penchant than
the others, and bears the name of carnivorous tooth, (Mate *,pg.
12, ca.) behind it are one or two, almost flat, which are call<
Ubtrculo**, (Hate 2, Jig. 12, «.) and between it and the cu ^

f a variable number of /«/«? molars. The form and disposition of
these teeth are in relation to the more or less carnivorous Jiabits
i. How i« the term Carnivorous applied? By what means can we re-

whason of the canine teeth in the Carnivora ? What is
the number of their incisor teeth ? What is the character of their n

''mat is the carnivorous tooth? What is meant by tuberculous tooth?
What is the form and disposition of these teeth? Can we judge ot
nature of the diet of a carnivorous animal by the teeth !

PLANTIGRADE MAMMALS. 49

of these animals. Those that live most exclusively on prey have
the teeth most trenchant and the jaws shortest, (which increases
their power,) while those that feed on vegetable substances as
well as on flesh, have the molars for the most part tuberculous ; by
the proportion of these trenchant and tuberculous teeth, we can
judge of the more or less carnivorous nature of their diet.

3. Animals of this family generally have the paws armed with
hooked nails, suitable for holding or even tearing their prey ; it
is to be remarked also, that they are almost entirely without
clavicles ; but the form of their extremities varies a great deal,
and is in relation to the difference in their mode of progression,
which is not less great. According to these characters the car-
nivora are divided into the three following tribes ; Plantigrada,
Digitigrada, and Jlmpkibia.

(Tribes.)

C Feet resting their whole ~)
Having feet I length on the earth, the i p
formed specially | soles of which are free (
for progression. J from hair. J

| Feet not touching the 1
earth except by the ends of

CARNIVORA. •{ the toes ; the tarsus being j

(^elevated in progression. J
Having feet in the form of paddles, so 1
short and so enveloped in the skin, that on ! A

land, they can only crawl j but they are f AMP
excellent swimmers. J

Tribe of Plantigrada.

4. It is the zoological character of this tribe to have five toes
on all the feet, and, when the animal walks or stands, to rest
the entire sole upon the earth, (I'late 2, fig 13, and 14.) which
affords him a broad base of support, and greater facility of stand-
ing up on his hind feet.

5. All the motions of the Plantigrades are dull. Like the in-
sectivora, they are subterraneous and nocturnal in their habits,
and in cold countries pass the winter in a state of lethargy, or
hibernation. The most remarkable genera of this tribe are the
Bears, Rackoons, Badgers, and Gluttons, which may be recog-
nised by the following characters :

3. What kind of nails have the carnivora ? What kind of clavicles have
animals of this family? Is the form of their extremities the same in all
animals of this class ? Flow is this family divided ?

KT(Answered in the table.) What are the organic characters that distin-
guish animals of the tribe of Plantigrada ? What distinguishes the Digiti.
grada ? What is the form of the extremities of the Amphibia?

4. What is the zoological character of the Plantigrada 't

5. What are the habits of the Plantigrada ? What are the most remarka-
ble genera of this tribe ?

50 _ GENUS OF BEARS. _ _

(Genera.)

No well characterised carnivorous tooth in the upper")
jaw, but a small one in the lower ja\v ; three larije !
tuberculous molars on each side, in each jaw ; tail }
very short. J

Two tuberculous teeth, pre- ^
ceded by three false molars; ± Rackoons.
muzzle bhorl ; toes not palm

ii

rs; ±
ate. J

Very large in the "|
upper, and small

One large trenchant j in the lower jaw; „ ,

carnivorous tooth in j tail short; toes j 1!aager*'

each jaw, followed by One tuber- -{ united by

culous tooth

row membrane. J

Small in both

jaws ; tail of me- \- Gluttons.
Indium length. J

6. BEARS are large animals with stout bodies, thick extremi-
ties and short tail; their gait is very dull, but they possess pro-
digious strength and considerable intelligence. The formation of
their extremities, little adapted for running, enables them to keep
erect on their hind feet, and quickly climb trees, which they
embrace between their paws. Some of them are also very good
swimmers, and they are indebted for this quality, in a measure, to
the quantity of fat with which their bodies are loaded. Of all
the carnivora, their organization least requires them to feed on
flesh, and their diet is least carnivorous ; in fact, the structure of
their teeth, almost entirely tuberculous, is more favourable for
grinding roots and fruits than for tearing and cutting flesh ; hence,
they are omnivorous. They eat both animal and vegetable sub-
stances ; but the last constitute their habitual food. They love
roots and fruits, but have a most decided preference for honey,
which they will seek in the midst of a hive without much regard-
ing the sting of the bees, being protected by the hard skin and
thick hair with which they are covered.

7. Most of the bears live in great forests, but there is one
species that inhabits the coasts and ice of the polar seas. The

ftjT( Answered in the table.) What is the arrangement of the teeth in the
genus of Bears? What is the number of their molar teeth ? Are their car-
nivorous teeth large?

How are the teeth of Rackoons arranged ? Are their toes united by a
membrane ? How many carnivorous teeth have they in each jaw ?

How are the teeth of Badgers arranged ? Have they carnivorous teeth ?
How many .tuberculous teeth have they ? Have they long tails ? Are they
palmate ?

In what respect do the t-eth of Gluttons differ from those of Badgers?
Have Gluttons any tail ?

6. What are bears? Are they swift runners ? Do they swim well ? Can
they climb? What do they feed on? What are they particularly fond of?
7. What are the habits of Bears ? How do they pass the winter ?

GENUS OF BEARS. 51

first establish their abodes in caverns or in dens, which they dig
with their strong and hooked nails ; in winter they sleep in their
retreats, and when the cold is severe, pass the whole of this
season in a profound lethargy. During the period of hibernation
they take no nourishment, but seem to depend upon the fat, with
which they abound in the autumn, for their existence ; so that
when they leave their retreats they are extremely thin.

Prudence is the chief feature in the character of the bear.
Whenever he can, he retires from what he is unacquainted with,
and when forced to approach it, he does so very slowly, and with
great circumspection; yet he does not want courage, and does
not seem to be susceptible of fear. He is never known to run;
he opposes strength to strength, and when his life is threatened,
or his young in danger, his fury and his efforts become terrible.

The fur of these animals is thick and composed of long shining
hair ; it is much sought, and forms an important article of com-
merce. In the winter and in the coldest countries, it is most
beautiful ; therefore, it is at this season they are most actively
hunted. Most of the bear skins used are from the north of Russia
and America. Since they have been employed- for making or
adorning military caps, three or four thousand are annually con-
sumed in France.

Bears are found in all parts of the world, and in every latitude,
except South Africa and Australia. There are several species,
the chief of which are :

8. 1st. The Brown Bear — Ursus Arctos; it is this species that
the mountebanks in France train for their exhibitions. This
animal may attain a length of four or five feet ; his height, when
standing on all his feet, does not exceed three feet : his hair, thick
and tufted, except on the muzzle and paws where it is black, is
chestnut brown on the shoulders, back, thighs, and legs; yellowish
on the sides of the head, ears, and flanks. It is common in the
Alps, and is found in all the high mountains and great forests of
Europe ; it lives solitary, and ordinarily does not attack man ex-
cept when provoked ; but then he becomes very formidable, and
strives to crush his antagonist beneath his feet, or strangle him in
the embrace of his paws.

9. 2d. The White Bear— Ursus Maritimus— (Plate 2. fig. 12.)
is easily distinguished by his form and by the colour of his coat.

8. Describe the Brown Bear ? In what parts of the world is it found ?
What are its habits ?

9. How do you distinguish the White Bear ? In what parts of the world
is he found ? Upon what does he feed ? In what particular does the White
Bear differ in his habits from all other bears ? How does the White Bear
pass the winter ?

5*

52 R ACKQONS.— BADG ERS.

He is low on his legs ; his body, his neck, and especially his head,
are more elongated than in any other species of this genus ; lastly,
the interior of his mouth is entirely black. This animal inhabits
the glacial regions of the northern hemisphere ; it feeds on fishes,
young amphibia, and young cetacea ; nevertheless, he is not essen-
tially carnivorous, and can very well be brought to live on bread
alone. He swims and dives with astonishing facility. White bears
are sometimes met in numerous troops, which also distinguishes
them from the other bears which are always solitary; but these
animals resemble each other in requiring a retreat in winter. For
this purpose they content themselves with some cleft in the rocks or
even in a mass of ice ; and without preparing any bed, they there
lie down, and permit themselves to be buried under enormous
masses of ice ; they pass in this way the months of January and
February in a true lethargy.

10. 3d. The Black Bear — Ursits Jlmericanus — lives in forests,
feeds on fruits and flesh, is skilful in fishing, and dwells in
the hollows of living trees. It is found in all the northern parts
of America. In the Rocky Mountains and elevated regions of
the Missouri, there is another species which is much larger,
stronger, and fiercer : it is called the Grizzly Bear, and its fur
which is greyish, is much esteemed.

11. The RACKOONS — Procyon, — very much resemble bears, ex-
cept that they have a long tail ; they have very nearly the same
habits as those animals, but are better climbers and more carnivo-
rous ; they are of moderate size, and inhabit the forests of America.
There is one species which is curious from its singular habit of
never eating anything without previously plunging it into water.

12. The BADGERS — Meles — are nocturnal animals, having a
cringing gait, a very short tail, the toes very much enveloped in
the skin, and are particularly distinguished by having a pouch
situate beneath the tail, from which exudes a fatty, fcetid oil.
The nails on their fore paws being very long, enables them to dig
with great effect. Their hair is long and silky.

13. The common Badyer, — /)/</<« Europea— which inhabits the
temperate regions of Europe and Asia, and keeps at the bottom
of an oblique, tortuous hole, is of the stature of a middle sized
dog. The length of its hair veils its legs, so that its body seems
to be raised but little above the earth. Formerly, the hunting of

10. What are the habits of the BLck Bear ? Where is it found ?

11. What are Rackcons ?

12. What are Badgers?

13. What are the habits of the common Badger f What parts of the
world docs it inhabit ? Does this animal live in Jicles? IB it much hunted f
What is the use of its hair ? s

DIGITIGRADE MAMMALS. 53

this animal was more followed than in the present day, and now
it has become very rare in France. It was pursued by terrier
dogs; but its jaws, armed with very strong teeth, and its long power-
ful nails enabled it to resist their attacks ; it inflicted deep wounds,
and defended itself with all its arms, lying on its back. Its skin
is employed as coarse fur, and its hair, which cannot be used in
the manufacture of felt, is employed for making shaving and other
brushes

14. The Gluttons— Guh— (Plate 2,/#. 15.) resemble the Bad-
gers very much, but are more carnivorous : their name has been
derived from an exaggerated notion of the voracity of one species
of this genus, the Glutton of the North — Ursus Gulo — which is
said to be very cruel, and to lie in ambush upon a tree, to leap
on the backs of large animals upon which it preys.

Tribe of Digiligrada.

15. The animals of this tribe are distinguished by the confor-
mation of their paws. In place of resting the entire sole of the
foot on the ground and consequently having this part free of hair,
they walk on the ends of their toes with the tarsus raised, and
hence their gait is lighter, and their speed greater. They are
more exclusively carnivorous than the Plantigrades, and their
taste for flesh joined with their fleetness makes them essentially
hunting animals; their paws are almost always armed with power-
ful nails or talons, and their jaws are stout and their molar teeth
almost entirely trenchant. The number of small tuberculous teeth
which are found in the back of the mouth, varies, and as these
differences correspond with their more or less sanguinary disposi-
tion, they are taken as the basis- of the classification of the
Digitigrada :

14. What are Gluttons ? What is the origin of their name ?

15. How are the Digitigrade animals characterised ? How are they
classed?

ICT (Questions answered by the table.') What are the kinds and number of
teeth of the Martens?

What is th" character of their nails? What are the kinds and number of
teeth of the Polecat? What is remarked of their toes?

How does the Skunk differ from the Polecat and Marten ?

What are the peculiarities of the Otter 'f

What are the generic characters of the genus Dog ?

In what does the organization of the Civet differ from that of the Dog ?

What are the organic characters of the Hyena ?

What are the organic characters of the genus, Cat?

How many tuberculous teeth has the Marten ? Polecat ? Skunk ? and
Otter? What number of tuberculous teeth have Cats and Hyenas behind
the carnivorous teeth ?

•VdVHDIAIDIQ VHOAINHYQ

DIGITIGRADE MAMMALS. 55

16. These different genera maybe distinguished from each other
by other characters, which are less important than those furnished
by the teeth, but which are more easily remembered. The fol
lowing table contains a synopsis of these secondary characters :

DlGITIGRADA.

Having the nails

f **.

2!>

<

Sir?

fa
» S

S. S3 J

P n

flu

si-S-?

3 <
0. «
V3

16. Are there any other characters by which the genera of the Digiti-
grade animals may be distinguished 1

56 POLECATS.

17. The Digitigrades provided with a single tuberculous tooth
in each'jaw, form A SMALL NATURAL GROUP, designated under the
name of Vermiform Carnivora, on account of their long, lank
body, and short legs. They have five toes on all the feet, and
exhale an odour more or less strong, caused by a liquid which is
secreted by two glands situated near the anus. Although of small
stature, these animals are very sanguinary ; and from their lank
form, they can pass through the smallest apertures ; they are
divided, as we have already seen, into Polecats, Mullens, Skunks,
and Otters.

18. The POLECATS, — Putorhis, — are the most sanguinary
of all. Their head is round and the short muzzle extends be-
yond the mouth ; the ears are rounded, and much wider than
long ; the tongue is covered with rough papillae ; the coat is well
furnished, shining and soft; their tail is long, and they have
glands on each side of the anus which secrete a viscid and foetid
matter. Their mode of life is solitary and nocturnal. They are
found in both the old and new world.

19. The common Polecat, — Mustela Putorivs, — is brown with
yellowish flanks and white spots on the head, and is from fifteen
to eighteen inches in length, without including the tail, which is
six inches long. It is the terror of hen-roosts and rabbit warrens.
It approaches dwellings, mounts on the roofs, and establishes it-
self in hay-lofts, in barns, and in places seldom visited, from which
it goes forth only at night in search of its prey. It glides into
poultry yards, mounts into dove-cots, where, without making as
much noise as the Beech Marten, (Weasel,) it commits more
havoc ; it cuts or crushes the heads of all the poultry, then carries
them off one by one, and stores them away. If, as it often hap-
pens, the animal cannot carry them off entire, on account of the
hole by which he entered, being too small, he eats the brains and
bears off the heads. It is also very fond of honey ; it attacks
hives in winter, and forces the bees to abandon them. Pole-
cats live on prey in towns, and on game in the country ; they
establish themselves in rabbit-burrows, in clefts of rocks, in the
trunks of hollow trees, from which they sally only at night to
spread over the fields ; in the woods, they seek the nests of par-
tridges, of larks, and quails ; they also climb trees to prey ; they

17. What is meant by vermiform carnivora? By what characters is this
group distinguished ?

18. What is the character of the Polecats ? What is their mode of life?
In what parts of the world are they found ?

19. What are the specific characters of the common Polecat? What are
its habits ? On what does the common polecat feed ?

FERRET.— WEASEL. 57

watch for rats, moles, and field-mice, and they wage a continual
war against rabbits, who cannot escape, because they can readily
enter their holes. The Polecat is found in all the temperate parts
of Europe.

20. The Ferret — Mustela Furo — also belongs to the genus of
the Polecats, and very much resembles the common polecat. Its
coat is clear brown or yellowish ; its body is more elongated,
more delicate, its head narrower, its muzzle more pointed than
the polecat ; the female is smaller than the male. It is origin-
ally from Barbary ; it is naturalized in Spain, but in France it is
only met with domesticated, and is employed to hunt rabbits in
their burrows. This animal, says Buffon, is naturally, the mortal
enemy of the rabbit : when a rabbit, even dead, is shown to a
young ferret that has never seen one, he throws himself upon it,
and bites with fury ; if living, he seizes it by the neck or the nose
and sucks its blood. When let into a rabbit-hole, it is muzzled,
that it may not kill the rabbits at the bottom of the burrow, but
only compel them to sally forth and be caught in a net with which
it is usual to cover the entrance.

21. The Weasel — MrtslelaVulyaris, — is another species of the
genus Polecat ; it is of a chestnut colour above, white below, in length
about six inches, with an addition of fifteen or eighteen lines ior
the tail. This animal is very common in temperate climates, and
is terrible to hen-roosts, into which its small size enables it to in-
sinuate itself through very narrow openings. When a Weasel
enters a hen-roost, it does not attack the cocks or old hens, but
selects the young hens and chicks, kills them by a simple wound
inflicted on the head, and then carries them off one after the other ;
it also breaks the eggs and sucks their contents with incredible
avidity. In winter, it generally dwells in granaries or in barns,
frequently remaining there till the spring, to give birth to its young,
on the hay or straw ; during all this time it wages war, more suc-
cessfully than a cat, against rats and mice, because they cannot
escape, as it follows them into their holes ; it climbs, into dove-
cots, and destroys pigeons, sparrows, &c. In the spring, it goes
to some distance from habitations, particularly into low places,
about mills, along the banks of streams and rivers, and conceals
itself in thickets to surprise birds, and often establishes itself in
the hollow of an old willow to bring forth its young.

20. What are the specific characters of the Ferret? To what part of the
world did the Ferret originally belong? What are its habits?

21. What are the specific characters of the Weasel ? What are its
habits ? In what part of the world is it found ?

58 MARTENS.

22. We will mention still another species of the genus Polecat,
called the Ermine, — Mustela Erminea. Its body is about nine
inches in length, and the tail about four. This little animal has
two coats ; in winter, it is white with the tail tipped with black,
and bears the name of Ermine ; during the spring, it is of a beau-
tiful brown above, and yellowish white below, with the end of
the tail always black: it is then the Roselet. It is found in the
northern parts both of 'the old and new continent ; and though
not so common as the Weasel in France, it is not rare. It seeks
stony countries, and avoids the neighbourhood of habitations.
The winter skins of this species are very much sought as fur,
and form a very considerable article of commerce; but the
Ermine of the most northern countries is most esteemed, because
it is so brilliantly white, while that of temperate climates always
retains a yellowish tint

23. The MARTENS, — Mu&tela, (the true Weasel) — properly so
called, resemble the Polecats very much, but differ from them in
having a muzzle more elongated, and a tongue covered with soft
papillae. The numerous species of this genus are scattered over
both continents ; among them we will mention :

24. The Commntt IMarteii, — Mustela Martex, — brown, with a
yellow spot on the throat, and of a stature rather larger than that
of the Beech Marten. It lives in the woods of northern Europe,
avoiding inhabited places and the open fields ; it destroys a great
many small quadrupeds and birds ; it takes possession of eggs,
and climbs to the highest branches of trees to dislodge them. It
is said to be found also in South America.

25. The Beech Marten,— Mmtela Foina— (Plate 2, fig. 16.)
brown, with all the under part of the throat and neck whitish,
about sixteen inches in length, besides the tail which measures
eight. It is found in European forests, and often approaches
habitations, where it even establishes its abode. But it is a dan-
gerous guest : when it succeeds in obtaining an entrance into a
hen-roost, or a pheasant- walk, it commences by putting every
thing to death in its reach, and then bearing all off, piece by piece,
to its retreat ; it is also voraciously fond of eggs ; it seizes rats, mice,
moles and birds in their nests. It is also fond of honey and
hempseed.

22. What is the Ermine? Where is it found? What are its habits?
Of what colour is it ? Has climate any influence on the colour of its coat ?

23. How does the genus Marten differ from that of Polecats ?

24. What are the specific characters of the common Marten? What are
its habits ?

25. What are the specific characters of the Beech Marten ? Where is it
found ? What are its habits ?

OTTERS. 59

26. The Sable Marten — Mmtcla Zibelina — resembles the pre-
ceding species in size and colour. It differs from the other
Martens in having hair growing on the under surface of the toes,
which protects them from the cold. Its fur is a valuable article
of commerce. It inhabits the most northern parts of Europe
and Asia ; and abounds most in the mountains of frozen countries,
the intense cold of which, renders them uninhabitable : as it is
the winter coat that is most highly appreciated, the pursuit of the
Sable is of all kinds of hunting the most arduous and perilous.

27. The Skunks — Mephitis — are celebrated for the intolerable
stench which they diffuse to a great distance. Most of them in-
habit America.

28. The OTTERS, — Lutra,— possess a peculiar physiognomy,
which prevents them from, being confounded with any of the
neighbouring genera. The head is large and compressed, the
body squat, and tongue semi-aspirate ; their toes are armed with
short nails, and are united in their whole length, by a wide and
strong membrane, which renders these animals good swimmers ;
the tail is flattened horizontally ; their coat is very thick, formed
by two kinds of hairs, the silky quite long, stout, hard, shining,
and thicker at the point than at the base ; the woolly, which are
shorter, and generally more numerous, forming a thick and ex-
tremely soft fur. These animals live chiefly upon fish, and in-
habit bye places, or nooks, which they line with dry grass, on the
banks, or in the neighbourhood of water ; they remain concealed
during the day, and sally in search of food only at night. Some
species are known in almost all parts of the world.

29. The Common Otter, — Lutra Vttlgaris, — about two feet
long, tail about one foot in length, brown above, greyish below,
and sometimes marked with white spots, lives on the margins of
ponds and rivers, in different parts of Europe.

30. The Sea Otter — Mustria Lulris — is twice the size of the
common Otter, and its black coat of the vivid brightness of velvet,
forms one of the most precious of the furs. The English and the
Russians hunt this animal in all the northern parts of the Pacific

26. How does the Sable differ from other Martens? Where is it found ?

27. For wh.it particular quality are Skunks distinguished? In what part
of the world are they found ?

28. Wh it are the characters of the genus Otter ? What are the habits of
animals of this genus ?

29. What are the specific characters of the common Otter ?

30. What are the specific characters of the Sea Otter? Where is the
Sea Otter found? Does this animal contribute any thing to commerce?
In what respect do the habits of this animal differ from those
species of Ott rs ?

6

60 DOGS.

Ocean, and annually convey a great number of skins to China
and Japan. This species inhabits Kamtschatka, the most
northern parts of America, and the neighbouring islands ; most
generally it keeps on the sea coast, and not within reach of fresh
water, like the other species. It is said to live in couples.

31. The SECOND GROUP OF DIGITIGRADE CARNIVORA, characterised
by the existence of two tuberculous teeth behind the carnivorous
tooth of the upper jaw, is composed of the least sanguinary ani-
mals of this tribe ; they are of pretty large stature, but their
courage does not correspond to their strength, and they most
generally feed on carrion.

32. Amongst the genera of this group, the first that will be
the object of our study, is the genus of Docs : it is composed
of species which resemble each other in the principal parts of
their organization, which, nevertheless, are separated into two
very distinct sub-genera; DOGS and FOXES.

33. All these animals have three false molars above, and four
below, and two tuberculous teeth behind each carnivorous tooth;
their tongue is soft ; their fore-feet have five toes, and the hind
ones, four; their nails are adapted for digging; their vision is
excellent, their hearing fine and their sense of smell prodigious;
they mix vegetable with their animal food, and are fond of putrid
meat. Generally, they are animals of moderate stature, and their
proportions are indicative of their strength and activity.

34. The sub-genus of DOGS PROPERLY so CALLED, is composed
of common dogs, and different species of wolves ; it is distin-
guished from that of the foxes by the tail, which in the latter is
longer and more tufted ; by the form of the muzzle, and particu-
larly by the disposition of the pupil. In dogs, as well as in other
diurnal animals, this opening is circular, while in foxes it takes,
when contracting under the influence of light, the form of a slit, a
peculiarity which is characteristic of nocturnal animals.

35. The Domestic Doy, — Canis Famiiiaris — is. distinguished
from other species of this genus by his recurved tail, otherwise
varying infinitely in size, form, colour, and quality of hair. This

31. How are animals of the second group of Digitigrade Carnivora dLtin«
guished? Are animals of this group vt ry courageous?

32. Do the species of the genus Dog resemble each other in their organi-
zation ? How is this genus divided ?

33. Wh.it are the general characteristics of the genus Dog?

34. What animals compose the sub-genus of Dogs properly so called?
How is this sub-genus distinguished from that of Foxes ? What peculiarity
characterises noctuinal animals?

35. What are the specific characters of the Domestic Dog ? What signs
indicate its age /

DOGS. 61

animal is born with his eyes closed, and does not open them till
the tenth or twelfth day. The female brings forth from six to
seven, and sometimes twelve young at a birth. The life of the
dog is commonly limited to fourteen or fifteen years ; though
some have been known to live twenty years. Its age is known
by the teeth becoming blunt, unequal and dark coloured, as the
animal grows old ; when young, they are white, trenchant and
pointed.

36. Dogs are voracious and gluttonous ; nevertheless, they can
fast for a long time ; they readily accustom themselves to all
kinds of food, although, they have a special fondness for meat,
and particularly for carrion. Their stomach, which is endowed
with great energy, digests very readily the hardest and most com-
pact bones.

37. The dog runs with great rapidity for a long distance. The
pores of his skin being very much closed, he never sweats, even
in the very hottest weather ; but when he is very warm, he lolls
out his tongue, and frequently draws it in ; he plunges into the
water without being incommoded. He drinks by lapping, so that
with his tongue, he lifts the water, which, being in this way in-
troduced little by little, into the stomach, is gradually warmed,
and he therefore experiences no inconvenience, by the sudden
cold that a considerable quantity of water, swallowed at once,
produces in the interior of the body when very warm.

38. The acuteness of the sense of smell, in some races of dogs,
gives them a perception that is not to be found in any other species
of animals, not even excepting man. This sagacity is par-
ticularly manifested in the discovery and pursuit of game. The
dog perceives the odorous traces with which the soil is impreg-
nated, for twenty-four hours after game has passed over it, and
in this way, guides himself to the cover where the animal hides.
There are two principal races of dogs suited for- hunting, one of
which is trained to pursue animals, and the other to stand at the
place where they are discovered.

39. The dog is the most complete, and one of the most useful
conquests that man has achieved over nature ; the whole species
has become our property, and even the trace of his primitive state
has been lost. Wild dogs, which are found in many countries,
belong to the domestic races that have regained their indepen-

36. What is the food of dogs ? Have Dogs good digestive powers ?

37. Do Dogs perspire freely? Why do Dogs suffer no inconvenience from
drinking cold water ?

38. Have Dogs a keen sense of smell ? How is this fact manifested ?

39. Is there any primitive race of Dogs ?

62 DOGS.

dence, after having lost it for a certain number of generations, and
in this way have resumed some of the traits of the primitive
species. Causes as powerful as those which result from the in-
fluence of difference of climate, of food, &c., are not enough to
explain the numerous modifications that the domestic dog has
undergone, giving rise to his different races. It has been sup-
posed that our dogs have not been derived from a single species,
but that they came from different species, which cannot now be
recognised, on account of the mixture of their races. Some think
the dog is a wolf, and others again, that he is a tamed Jackal ; dogs
that have become wild, on desert islands, do not however, resem-
ble either one or the other. Wild dogs, and those belonging to demi-
civilized people, such as the nations of New Holland, have straight
ears, which has led to the belief that the European races which
approach nearest to the original type, are the Shepherd's Dog and
Wolf-Dog. ,

40. We will now mention the principal races of dogs that are
scattered over the surface of the earth. Their almost infinite
mixture, joined to the influence of climate, of food and education,
has produced very many varieties in their species.

41. 1st. The Shepherd 's Dog, — Cauis Domestic***, — is of
moderate size, the ears short and straight ; his whole body, with
the exception of the muzzle, is covered with long hairs ; his
colour is black, or dark brown. Of all the species of dogs, this
one possesses most instinct for guarding flocks.

42. 2d. The L'ipland Dog, — Dog of the Esquimau?, — Canis
Borealis, — resembles the Shepherd's dog, and inhabits the most
northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, where he is
employed as a beast of burthen : they are geared from five to
ten together, (sometimes more) to very light sledges, constructed
of osier, and forced to run so rapidly, that they sometimes accom-
plish in a single day, a journey on the ice of twenty-five leagues.

43. 3d. The Newfoundland Doa, — Cants Terra Naca::— The
proportions of his body are nearly the same as those of the
Shepherds Dog. His body is thickly covered with long soft
hair, and his tail recurved and tufted. His colour is ordinarily
white, with patches of black ; he is tall, and has an elongated body.
He is very active and possesses strength superior to that of
any other dogs of the same size. He attaches himself strongly
to his master, but is shy of strangers. He is remarkable for

40. How do you account for the numerous varieties of Dogs?

41. What are the specific characters of the Shepherds Dog ?

42. How is the Lapland Dog employed ?

43. What a re the specific characters of the New foundland Dog ? For what
is this Dog remarkable ?

DOGS. • 63

his toes being united, for about one half their length by a mem-
brane, and fdfr the facility with which he takes to the water,
which seems to him a second element. This quality has caused
him to be taken to places where men are in danger of being
drowned, in order to rescue them.

44. 4th. The Wolf- Dog, — Cam's Pomeranus, — is distinguished
from the Shepherd's Doy by the hairs that cover all parts of the
head, and by his highly raised tail ; his colour is generally white,
or black, or pale red : in some countries he is employed to watch
the flocks.

45. 5th. The Hound, — Canis Gallicus: — There are several
varieties remarkable for the length of their pendant ears ; they
have strong limbs, short hair, taU recurved ; they are white, or
black, or pale red, (fawn,) or spotted with these different colours.
It is the best race for pursuing game, such as the hare, deer, or
wild boar, £c. The Spanish pointer and setter belong to this
variety.

46. 6th. The Turnspit,— Canis Vertagm: — In this race the
legs are always very short, sometimes straight, and often crooked ;
the ears are large, long and pendant. The Turnspits are prized
for hunting in company with the Hound.

47. 7th. The Setting-Dog, — Canis Avicularis, — differs little
from the preceding and the ordinary hound ; the muzzle is not so
long, the ears are shorter, the limbs longer, and the body thicker.

48. 8th. The Terrier,— Canis 7 "errarius :— This race, of which
they form packs in England for chasing the fox, hare, and rabbits,
is black, having the eyes, the lower part of the body, and the
paws of a deep yellowish red. It possesses a great deal of viva-
city and intelligence, and great ardour in the chase ; it watches
for mice, and catches them with as much adroitness as a cat.

49. 9th. The Spaniel, — Canis Extrarius, — is covered with
long silky hair ; his ears are pendant like those of the hound, and
his limbs short ; he is white or chestnut, or marked with these
two colours, or black. It varies in size, and is valued in hunting ;
as a watch dog, and as a companion.

50. 10th. The Grey-hound, — Cam'« Grains;— This animal
possesses an elegant form, and was so much esteemed formerly,

44. How is the Wolf-Dog distinguished from the Shepherd's Dog ?

45. What are ihe specific characters of the Hound ?

46. For w>at is the Turnspit valued?

47. How does the Setting-Dog differ from the common Hound ?

48. What are the specific characters of the Terrier ?

49. What are the specific characters of the Spaniel ? For what is it
valued ?

50. What are the specific characters of the Greyhound? Does the Grey-
hound hunt, by the sense of smell like the common Hound?

6*

64 DOGS.

that he was the ordinary companion of gentlemen, who in those
days were distinguished by their charger, their falcon, and grey-
hound. It has a long body, a long delicate head, large eyes, a
long mouth, teeth sharp and very white, and a deep chest. Both
his fore and hind legs are long and straight, his haunches round
and strong, his loins brawny and his belly thin. He is the most
nimble of all the dogs, and is fit for the chase from twelve months
old. He hunts by the eye and not by the sense of smell, and it
is pretended that he surpasses them all.

51. llth. The Danish Dog, — Canis Danicus, — This dog pos-
sesses great beauty ; he is white and spotted with an elegant pro-
fusion of small, round, black spots. His sense of smell is not
acute.

52. 1 2th. The Mastiff,— Canis Mastivm ;— Dogs of this race
are large, vigorous, and nimble ; their ears are demi-pendant.
They are gray, white, brown and black. They carry the tail
high. They are chiefly employed as watch-dogs.

53. 13th. The Water- Dog, — Canis rfqnaticus, — (Water
Spaniel). This variety is one of the most intelligent and one of
the most common in France. It is remarkable for its long curly
hair ; its colour is black, or white, or mixed. These animals are
strongly attached to their masters, and perform many curious
tricks. They are very fond of going into the water.

54. 14th. The Bull- Dog, -Canis Moto<sus :— The dogs of this
race are characterised by a short muzzle, and by a stout body.
Of all the races, this is the least intelligent. It is divided into :

55. The English Bull- Dog, — Canis rfnglicus, — is easily recog-
nised by the large head and body. The ears are small and demi-
pendant ; his thick lips fall on each side of his mouth ; his legs
are short and strong ; his coat is smooth, white and black. This
dog is employed in preference to others tor baiting bulls and
wild beasts.

56. The Common Eull-Dog — resembles the last and differs
from it, in being smaller ; it often has the nostrils separated by a
deep fissure or cleft.

57. The Ijiig-Dog, -Canis Fricawr, — resembles the two
last, but the lips are less pendant and it is smaller. Its coat is

51. What is the Danish dog?

52. How is the Mastiff described ?

53. Whafis the character of the Water-dog?

54. What are the characters of the Bull-dog?

55. By what characters is the English Bull-dog recognised ?

56. In what respect does the common Buli-dog differ from the English
Bull dog?

57. What is the Pug-dog ?

WOLF.— JACKAL.— FOX. 65

smooth and generally light coloured, except the face which is
black. It does not possess much intelligence and is very heed-
less.

58. The Common Wolf, — Canis Lupus, — is another species of
the sub-genus dog ; it is easily distinguished from the domestic
dog by its tail, which is straight, in place of being recurved, as
in the last. Its ears are also straight, (Plate 3, Jig. 2.) audits
coat is of a pale red or fawn colour. This animal is the size o*
a large dog, and it has the physiognomy of a mastiff'; but far
from being like the dog, eminently social, he lives almost entirely
solitary, in great forests, nor does he unite with his fellows to
form troops, except when pressed by hunger. He is very strong,
active, adroit, and provided with every thing that is necessary to
fit him for the pursuit, attack, and conquest of his prey ; never-
theless, he is naturally sluggish and cowardly, and it is only when
pressed by hunger, that he braves danger, and dares to attack
animals which are under the protection of man, as lambs, sheep,
and even dogs. Under the influence of excessive hunger, he
commits great ravages. He attacks women and children, and
sometimes he is bold enough to fall upon man. He inhabits all
Europe.

59. The Jackal, or Golden Wolf, — Canis Marcus, — which is
found in the hot parts of Asia and Africa, in its habits and con-
formation, more strongly resembles the domestic dog than the
common wolf It permits itself to be tamed. Many naturalists
consider the Jackal as the original stock of the dog ; and many
commentators suppose that it is the fox of Sampson.

69. The second group of the genus Dog includes the FOXES.
These animals have the same dental system as the dog ; but
possess a larger head, a more pointed muzzle, a longer and
more bushy tail, and by day their pupils present the form of a
vertical slit. They are nocturnal, burrow in the earth, exhale a
foetid odour, and only attack feeble animals. Species are found in
all parts of the world. Those of cold countries afford a valuable
fur.

61. The Common Fox, — Canis Vvlpes, — which is spread over
all Europe, has a red coat. Every body knows this famous ani-
mal through his tricks and cunning. He generally establishes
his abode in the edge of a wood, in the neighbourhood of a
farm. If he gains entrance into a poultry yard, he slaughters

58. What are the characters of the common Wolf?

59. What is the Jackal ?

60. In what particulars do Foxes differ from Dogs?

6J. What are the habits of the common Fox ? On what does it feed?

CIVET.— GENET.

all the poultry, and loading himself with a part of the spoils, he
hastens to deposite it at some distance, then returns, and carries
off another part, which he disposes of in the same way, taking
the precaution however to change the place of deposite. This he
repeats several times. When he finds birds caught in a snare,
he adroitly frees them from their bonds and carries them off to
his hole. His gluttony accommodates itself to everything. When
pressed by hunger, he eats rats, mice, snakes, toads, lizards, in-
sects, and even contents himself with vegetables. Foxes that
live near sea coasts feed upon all kinds of shell-fish.

62. The genus CIVET, — Viverra, — includes not only the Civet
properly so called, but also the Genet, or wild cat, the Mangouste
and several other carnaria, which seem to fill up the chain of re-
lationship between the dogs and cats. — (Plate 2, fig. 17, and
Plate 3, Jig. I.) Like the last, their tongue is rough, and their
nails are more or less retracted when walking, so that their ex-
tremities are always kept very sharp. All of them have a pouch
placed more or less deeply under the tail, containing a greasy
matter which frequently exhales a very strong odour.

63. The Civet properly so called, — Civetta, — has been im-
properly called the musk cat. It is ordinarily of an ash colour,
spotted white, sometimes striped like certain species of cats. Its
perfume, which consists of the greasy matter formed in the pouch
we have just mentioned, is so strong that it penetrates all parts
of the body, and the skin preserves the odour for a long time
after it has been stripped from the animal. Although originally
from hot countries, Guinea and the central parts of Africa, the
Civet can live in temperate and in cold climates, if protected from
the injurious influences of the air. It has been acclimated in Hol-
land, where the inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in its
perfume. The quantity afforded by each animal depends upon
its keeping; and diet ; the more abundant its food, the more per-
fume it yields. It is said to be most abundant after the animal
has been irritated.

64. The Genet,— Genetta,— (Plate 2. fig. 17.) bears consider-
able resemblance to the Civet ; its colour is gray, spotted brown
and black with a blackish muzzle, white spots on the brow, on
the cheek, and on each side of the end of the nose ; the tail is

62. What are the characters of the genus Civet? What is the source of
the odour which animals of this genus exhale ? t

63. What are the specific characters of the Civet properly so called?
What is the source of its perfume ? To what use is this animal applied in
Holland ?

C4. What are the specific characters of the Genet ?

MANGQUSTK.— HYENAS. 67

ringed white and black. It is met with from the south of France
to the Cape of Good Hope. It frequents along brooks, near
springs, &c. Its skin is an important article of peltry. Like the
Civet, it has a pouch, containing a species of perfume. It clears
the houses of rats and mice, which cannot endure its odour.

65. The Mnngou.\te of Eg y /if, or Pharaoh'1 s Rat, — Ichneumon
Pftarannis — Viverra Ichneun on — {Plate 3, fiy. l.)also belongs to
the genus of Cioets. It resembles the Civet, but is distinguished
by its large eyes, with the pupils elongated transversely ; which
are susceptible of being almost entirely covered by a large wink-
ing eyelid, called membraua nictitans. It is larger than our cats,
slender like the weasel, and of a grayish colour. This animal is
the famous Ichneumon of the ancients, which was worshipped by
the Egyptians All that the ancients have said in relation to
its fights with the crocodile is fabulous. The Mangouste is
naturally mild and timid, and renders very important service to
Egypt, for it destroys a great number of crocodile eggs ; it also
feeds on small animals of all kinds. When domesticated it hunts
mice and the small reptiles which are so common in that country.

66. The THIRD GROUP OF CARNIVOROUS DIGITIGRADES, includes

those animals of this tribe which have no small teeth behind the
great molar of the lower jaw. In this group are found the most
cruel, the most carnivorous, and on account of their strength,
the most formidable animals ; they have been separated into two
genera : the HYENAS and CATS.

67. HYENAS, (I'laie 3, fig. 3,) are distinguished from animals
of the genus CAT, by the number of their fingers, which is
four throughout, by their nails which are adapted for digging, and
which are never drawn in or retracted when on the march, and
by the position of their teeth, whose strength is so great that they
can crush the bones of the strongest of their prey. Their tongue
is rough, their sense of smell acute, their tail short and pendant,
and, below the anus there is a deep pouch in which a glandular
apparatus secretes a viscous matter, which diffuses a very disa-
greeable odour The coat is rough, not thick, composed of long
hairs, which form a mane along the back. Their gait is most
singular ; they keep the step of the hind legs always lower than
that of the fore. These animals are nocturnal, live in caverns,

65. What is the history of the Mangouste? Upon what does it usually

66. What animals are included in the third group of carnivorous Digiti.
grades ?

67. What are the general characters of the Hyenas ? What do they
especially feed on ?

68 CATS.

and are extremely voracious; they feed especially on dead bodies,
and seek them even in burial places ; they possess a reputation
for ferocity which they do not merit.

68. TheComnion Hyena, — Hyena Vu'garis, — is originally from
Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and some countries of Africa. It is of the
size of a wolf, and at first sight, somewhat resembles him. His
coat is of a brownish gray, and marked with white stripes. His
head is commonly carried low ; the back seems elevated like that
of the hog; he has long bristles which fall from each side. t

69. The cry of this animal is peculiar : it begins with a sound
that one might take for the groans of a man, and ends pre-
cisely as if a person were making efforts to vomit.

70. The CATS, — Felix, — ,a name under which naturalists com-
prehend, not only common Cats, but also Tigers, Lions, &c.) of
all the carnivora, are the most completely armed : their short
jaws are moved by prodigiously strong muscles (Plate 3, jig. 5;)
they have two false molar teeth in the upper and two in the lower
jaw, followed by a very large carnivorous tooth ; their retractile
nails, which are hidden amongst the toes when in a state of repose
by the action of elastic ligaments, never lose either their point or
edge. (Plate 3, fiy. 6.) The number of their toes is five on
the four feet, and four on the hind. They possess a sense of hearing
which is exceedingly fine, and it is the best developed of their senses.
Their sight does not seem to have a very long range, but they
see well both by day and by night ; their pupil dilates and closes
according to the quantity of light ; with some, it is elongated ver-
tically, and with others it is round. They make great use of their
sense of smell ; they exercise it before eating, and always when
they apprehend disturbance from any cause. Their tongue is
clothed with very rough horny points. Their coat is generally
soft and fine, and the whole surface of their body is very sensible
to the touch ; their mustaches particularly, seem to be the seat
of very delicate impressions.

71. Animals of the genus CAT, are spread almost every where
over the surface of the globe : they every where possess similar
habits. Though endowed with prodigious strength, they never
openly attack other animals ; stratagem and cunning direct all
their movements. They never force their prey into flight ; but

68. Where js the common Hyena found ? What are its characters?

69. What is the peculiarity of the cry of the common Hyena?

70. What are the gtn» ric characters of the genus Cat? What is the kind,
number and position of their teeth ? What is the character of their vision
and eyes ?

71. What are the habits of animals of the genus Cat ?

LTON.— TIGER.— JAGUAR. 69

most frequently concealed in a bushy covert, near the source of
running water, they await the animal they design attacking, and
at a single bound alight upon their victim.

72. At the head of this genus is placed the Lion, — Felis Leo, —
which is five or six feet in length from the end of the muzzle to
the origin of the tail, three feet high, distinguished by a square
head, the brush of hair which terminates his long tail, and the
mane that covers the head, neck and shoulders in the male. It
is the strongest of the carnivorous animals. It has an imposing
air, a proud look, and noble gait. Such is his power that a single
blow of his foot is enough to crush the sides of a horse, and to
knock down the strongest man with a blow of his tail. He can
clear at a single bound, a space of thirty feet, and he drags with
ease to great distances the largest bullocks. Formerly he was
spread over three fourths of the old world, but at present, he
appears to be almost confined to Africa and some of the neigh-
bouring parts of Asia. The roar of the Lion is such, that when
it resounds in the mountains it resembles distant thunder. This
roar is hollow and deep ; in his paroxysms of rage he utters
another cry not less frightful, but short, broken, and reiterated.
Nothing is more dreadful than this animal when he prepares for
combat. He lashes his flanks with his long tail ; his mane be-
comes erect, bristling, and envelopes his whole head ; all his
muscles are in motion ; his enormous eye-brows half conceal his
pupils ; he shows his teeth and frightful tongue, and he protrudes
his claws which are almost as long as the finger ; his approach
would freeze with terror the boldest of men. With the excep
tion of the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, no other
animal dares to contend with him.

[The flesh of the Lion is eaten by the Hottentots ; and a tribe
of Arabs, between Tunis and Algiers, live almost entirely upon it.]

73. The animal which some authors call the American Lion,
is another species of the genus cat, named Couguar, — Felis
Concolor, — which belongs to the new world.

74: The Royal Tiger, or Eastern Tiger, — Felis Tigris, — is a
still more formidable animal than the Lion, for he equals him in
size and strength, and exceeds him in ferocity ; his hair is rough
and yellow above with transverse black stripes. (Plate 3, Jig. 4.)
He inhabits India, and there commits the greatest ravages.

75. The Jaguar, — Felis Onca,— (the Ounce,) which is almost
sfs large as the Royal Tiger, and almost as dangerous, inhabits

72. What aie the specific chaiacters of thu Lion ? Where is he found ?

73. What is the American Lion ?

74. What is the Royal Tiger ?

75. What are the characters of the Jaguar ?

70 PANTHER.— LYNX.— DOMESTIC CAT.— AMPHIBIA.

the great forests of America ; his coat is yellow above, with black
spots in the form of eyes or rings, arranged in four rows along
the flanks, and white striped with black below. He is sometimes
distinguished under the name of American Tiger, and furriers
call him the Great Panther.

76. The Panther, — Mis Pardm — so remarkable for the beauty
of his yellow coat with black spots in the form of roses, is found
throughout Africa and in the warm parts of Asia, very much re-
sembles the Leopard, which inhabits the same regions.

77. The name Lynx, — Fi-lis Lynx, — The mountain cat — is
given to another species of cat, remarkable for the brush of hair
that tips the ears ; it is about two feet and a half long to the
origin of the tail, which is from four to five inches in length ; its
coat is red, spotted with brownish red ; it is indigenous to tem-
perate Europe, but has almost entirely disappeared from populous
countries ; it is still met with in the Pyrenees, in the mountains
of the kingdom of Naples, and in Africa. It climbs the highest
trees of the forest, and there lies concealed among the branches
to watch the Weasel, Ermine, Squirrel, &c. It commits great
havoc amongst Jlocks, and destroys a great number of hares and
game : its sight is so piercing that the ancients attributed to it the
faculty of seeing through stone walls ; but we can say, that it
distinguishes its prey at a much greater distance than any other
carnivorous animal.

78'. The Common or Domestic Cat, — Felis Catus, — is origin-
ally from the forests of Europe. In its wild state, it is grayish
brown, with transverse undulating stripes of a deeper colour
above, and pale below ; the inside of the thighs and the four paws
yellowish, and the tail annulated with black. When domesticated
it varies in the colour, fineness, and length of its hairs, as every
body knows.

Tribe of Amphibia.

79. The third tribe of the family of Carnivora comprises ani-
mals which, capable of being submerged for a long time and
having a body favourably organised for natation, keep them-
selves most generally in the sea, although they have a constant
necessity for respiring the air. These animals have been named
A mphibia, on account of their mode of life ; their feet are so
short and so enveloped in the skin that they serve them on land

76. What is the Panther?

77. What are the habits and character of the Lynx ?

78. What is the origin of the domestic Cat ?

79. What are Amphibia? What families are included in the tribe of
Amphibia ?

SEALS.— MORSE. 71

only for crawling ; but as the spaces between their fingers are
filled up by membranes, they form excellent oars. (Plate 3, fig. 7.)
They only land to bask in the sun, to sleep, and to suckle their
young. Their elongated body, their very moveable spine, pro-
vided with muscles which flex it with great force, their narrow
pelvis, their rough hair lying close to the skin, concur to render
them good swimmers. They form two families: the Seal, and
the Moise.

80. SEALS, — P/wca, — (Plate 3, fig. 7.) — have a round head
resembling that of a dog, a mild intelligent look, the canine teeth
of moderate size, the fore paws armed with hooked nails, the
posterior extremities directed backwards and in the form of fins.
These animals live in numerous troops near coasts, and feed
principally on fishes: they always eat in the water; they swim
with great ease and dive very well. The ancients knew these
animals and introduced them into their fables. The flocks of
Neptune that Proteus tended were composed of seals, and the
poetic mythology of the Greeks has transformed these Amphibia
into Tritons and Syrens to escort their god of the sea, Modern
voyagers often designate them under the names of Sea-calves,
Sea-cows, Sea-bears, fyc. This little family is divided into
several genera.

81. [Seals are found on the coasts of the South Shetland Isles,
and the western coast of America, and in the Northern Seas.
They are much hunted for the sake of their skins. These ani-
mals are of great importance to the Finnish Islanders, the Kamt-
schatkadales, and particularly the Greenlanders, and to the ii'squi-
maux of Labrador. The two latter people live on their flesh,
clothe themselves, build their summer huts, make their canoes, &c.
of their skins. The chase of the seal forms their principal busi-
ness, and their success in this, forms at once their fortune and glory.

82. The MORSE, — Trichechns, — (the Walrus) — is easily distin-
guished from the Seal by its enormous canine teeth which, planted
in the upper jaw, are directed downwards like tusks, and
sometimes attain two feet in length. (Plate 3, fig. 8.) The
necessarily large size of the alveoli for the accommodation of such
immense canine teeth, raises up the whole front of the upper
jaw into the form of a swelled jowl, and the nostrils open upwards
instead of terminating the muzzle. There are neither incisor nor
canine teeth in the lower jaw, which is compressed anteriorly, to
pass between the enormous canine teeth or tusks of the upper one

80. What are the characteristics of Seals ? What are their habits ?

81. What parts of the world do Seals inhabit ?

82. How is the Morse distinguished from the Seal ?

72 POUCHED ANIMALS.

83. The chief use of these tusks seems to be to aid the Morse
to detach from the ground and rocks the substances upon which
he feeds. They also serve to secure him to the rocks before he
trusts himself to sleep.

84. In other respects the Morse resembles the seal, the only
species known inhaoits the icy ocean, and is sometimes twenty-
feet in length.

LESSON VII.

ORDER OF MARSUPIALIA. — Zoological Characters. — Peculiarities
of Organization. — Habit*, (Opossums, Phalangera, Kangaroos.)

ORDER OF RODENTIA — Zoological Characters. — Peculiarities of
their Organization. — Organization and Habits of the Genus of
Squirrels. — Squirrels properly so called, (Common Squirrel,
Flying Squirrel.) — Organization and Habits of the Genus of
Hats. — Marmots.- Habits. — Hibernation. — Dormousp. — Rats
properly so called, (Mouse, Rat.) — Hamsters. — Field-mice.-—
Jerboa. — Genus of Cantors. — Organization and Habits of Cas-
tors properly so called. — Genus of Porcupines. — Organization
and Habits o/ Porcupines properly so called. — Genus of Hares.
— Organization and Habits of Hares properly so cal'cd; (Com-
mon Hare, Rabbit.) — Genus of Guinea-pigs. — Chinchilla.—
General remarks on Peltries. — The use of Hair in the manu-
facture of Felt. — Glue.

1. The Marsupialia are unguiculate mammals whose different
organs, at the time of birth, are very imperfectly formed ; and
they adhere by some means to the teat of the mother until their
developement is accomplished. In the majority of these animals,
the skin of the belly forms, in front of the teats, a pouch which
serves to lodge the young while they are suckled ; it is from this
peculiarity of organization, they have obtained the name of Mar-
tupialia, or pouched-animals.

2. The young, incapable of motion and almost without a dis-
tinct form, remain, for a certain time, fixed to the teats of the
mother, and concealed in the mammary pouch of which we have
just spoken. They do not detach themselves until they are

83. What use does the Morse make of its tusks ?

84. Where is the Morse found ?

1. What are Marsupialia? What is the peculiarity of their organization
from which their name is derived ?

2. During what period do the young of the Marsupials make use of the
mammary pouch ? How are the young of those Marsupialia that have no
pouch enabled to cling to their mothers ?

POUCHED ANIMALS. 73

covered with hair, open their eyes and are able to live on other
food than milk. For a long time after they have left this pouch,
they fly to it as a place of refuge when threatened by any danger.
(Plate 3, jig. 9.) In those species that have no pouch, but a
prehensile tail, the young are pendant from the belly of the
mother for a certain time; then they mount upon her back, and,
for the sake of support, wrap their tails around hers.

3. All these animals which are so intimately linked to each
other by the manner in which their young are developed, differ
very much in other respects. In some, the dental system is pre-
cisely like that of the intectivora, and accordingly, they feed
upon similar food ; in others, that still possess the three sorts of
teeth, the molars are tuberculous in place of being studded with
points, and hence their frugivorous diet ; and there are some that
want the canine teeth, which, if we take this circumstance into
consideration, should be placed amongst the Rodentia, (Plate 3,
fig. 12 ) These animals also differ from each other in their
general form and habits.

4. The Marsupialia have only been found in America, on some
of the islands of the South Sea, and particularly in New Holland,
which, with some exceptions, contains only mammiferous animals
of this order.

5. The order of Marsupialia is divided into six tribes, as follows :

First Tribe. Two long canines in each jaw; several small incisors; molars
studded with points. (Opossum.)

Second Tribe. The superior canines long and pointed, but the inferior
rudimentary, or entirely wanting; six small incteors above, but only
two large ones below. Thumb large and directed backwards ; the
two next fingers joined as far as the nails (Phalangers.)

Third Tribe. Two large incisors above with some small ones adjoining, and
two small canines; no thumb behind; paws very short. (Koala.)

Fourth Tribe. Dental system nearly the same as in the preceding tribe;
no thumb on the posterior extremeties which, as well as the tail, are
very long. (Potoroos.)

Fifth Tribe. Without canines ; a long vacant space between the incisors
and molars; several incisors in the upper jaw; posterior extremities
and tail very long. (Kangaroos.)

Sixth Tribe. No canines; two long, inclosed incisors in each jaw; molars
studded with transverse ridges ; tail short. (Phascolomys.)

3. Are all Marsupials alike? What is the nature of their diet ? Is the
dental system the same in all Marsupials?

4. In what parts of the world ar^ the Marsupi ih found/

5. How is the order of Marsupialia divided? What are the characters
which distinguish the Opossum from other Marsupials? What are the or-
ganic characters of the Phalangers ? By what features can the Koala be
recognised ? What are the characters of the Potoroos ? What are the or
ganic characters of the Kangaroo ?

74 OPOSSUMS.- PHALANGEKS.

6. The FIRST TRIBE of Marsupials is composed of animals that
are essentially insectivorous ; some of them belong to New Hol-
land ; but the greatest number inhabit America. The last consti-
tute the genus Opossum, — Sarigiie.

7. The OPOSSUMS have the hind thumb perfectly opposable to
the other fingers, which arrangement has obtained for them the
name of Pad'n^ana. They have ten incisors above, eight below,
and fourteen molars in each jaw, which, with four canines, make
fifty teeth, a greater number than is possessed by any other
mammiferous quadruped. They are nocturnal animals, and
nestle on trees j they feed on fruits, dead meat and weaker ani-
mals. There are from fifteen to eighteen species, all belonging
to America.

8. The Common Opossum, — Didelphis Virginiana, — (Plate 3,
fiy. 9. ; is about the size of a cat ; but its coat gives it the

appearance of greater size. Its head bears some resemblance to
that of a fox, with long, inanimate eyes, and broad, translucent
ears like those of the rat. The tail is round, and nearly a foot
long ; it is lightly covered with hair near its root, but at the ex-
tremity is entirely naked.

9. On the ground the Opossum is slow, and without resources,
but he climbs trees with the greatest dexterity. His food con-
sists of birds which he watches for, and surprises in the foliage.
He suspends himself by his tail, which is muscular and flexible,
and in this position he awaits his prey for several hours at a time.

1 0. All the other Marsupialia inhabit New Holland, or the
neighbouring islands ; among these animals we will mention the
Phalangers, Potoroos, Koalas, and Kangaroos.

11. The PHALANGEKS — I'halangista, — are climbers that have
a large, opposable thumb, and in their general form somewhat
resemble squirrels. Some of these Marsupials have received the
name of Flying Pkalanyers on account of the prolongation of the
skin of their flanks between their extremities, forming on each
side of the body, a sort of parachute, by which it is in a degree
sustained in the air when he leaps from one tree to another.

6. Upon what kind of food do Marsupials of the first tribe live ? Where
are they found ?

7. Why are Opossums called Perfimana ? How many species of Opossum
arc known? Where do they belong? How many teeih have they?

8. What is the appearance of the common Opossum ? Describe its tail ?

9. Is this animal equally active in all situations ? How does it obtain its
food?

10. Are Opossums found in New Holland? What Marsupials are found
there ?

11. What are Phalangers ? What are flying Phalangers ?

KOALA.— POTORQO.— KANGAROO.— RODENTIA. 75

12. The KOALAS: — Of this tribe only one species is known, —
Koala Cinerea, — which inhabits New Holland. It has a short,
stout body, short legs and no tail. The toes of the fore feet, five
in number, when about to seize any object, separate into two
groups ; the thumb and index on one side, and the remaining three
on the other. It passes one part of its life in trees, and the other
in burrows at their foot.

13. The POTOROOS, — Hypsiprymnm:— Of this tribe only one
species is known. It inhabits New Holland, and is described by
most authors under the name of the Kanyaroo-rat. It has a long
powerful tail, and the two first toes of the hind feet are united as
in the kangaroos. It is frugivorous.

14. The KANGAROOS, — Habitat urvs,— (Plate 3, fig. 11.) are
herbivorous animals, very remarkable for the smallness of their
fore paws, the length of their hind legs and tail, upon which they
sit vertically as on a tripod. By the assistance of these great
paws they leap very well, and there is one species known that can
clear a space of twenty feet at a single bound. The disposition
of the nail of the middle toe of the hind feet, makes them some-
what resemble ungulate mammals, for it is very large and almost
in the form of a hoof. They inhabit New Holland, and the
neighbouring Islands. One species called the Giant Kangaroo,
stands about six feet high.

ORDER OF RODENTIA.

15. The RODENTIA or gnawers, are easily distinguished from all
other unguiculate mammals without mammary pouches, by the
arrangement of their teeth, which correspond to the nature of
their food. These animals have no canine teeth, and there is a
vacant space between the incisor and molar teeth. (Plate 4 fig. 6.)
The first are remarkable for their strength, their length, their
arched form, and the lozenge shape of their cutting edge ; their
number is almost always two in each jaw, and their anterior
surface is ordinarily tinged, of a more or less deep yellow colour.
The molar teeth have a large, flat crown, traversed by raised

12. What are Koalas ?

13. What are Potoroos ?

14. What are Kangaroos ? To what pnrt of the world do they belong ?

15. How are the Rodentia distinguished? What are the cha acters of
their canine teeth ? What is their number ? What is the co'our of the
canine teeth? What are the characteis of the molar teeth of gnawers?
How is the lower jaw attached to the cranium ? What circumstance has
given the name to this order of animals ?

7*

76 RODENTIA.

lines, which renders their surface like that of a mill-stone. Finally,
the lower jaw of these animals, in place of being articulated with
the cranium by a transverse condyle, (like that in the carnaria,)
is joined to it by a longitudinal condyle, which only permits
motion forwards and backwards : on this account, these animals
cannot use their teeth either for tearing flesh or even cutting the
substances upon which they feed, and they are forced, therefore,
to file them as it were, in order to reduce them by continual
labour to very delicate particles, and it is from this circumstance,
they have obtained their name of gnawers or rodeutia.

16. In conformity to this mode of organization, the gnawers
must necessarily be designed to feed chiefly upon vegetable sub-
stances ; some of them are omnivorous (rats, (or example ;) but,
for the most part, they live upon fruits, herbs, barks or roots.

17. Most of these animals are of small stature, and in general,
their hind paws are much longer than the fore, so that they rather
leap than walk. The hare affords us an example of this arrange-
ment, which, in some other gnawers, (the Jerboas,) is carried so
far that the animal only uses his hind paws to leap with, and to
rest upon. (Plate 4.fg. 11.)

18. As regards intelligence, the Rodentia are, in general,
less favoured by nature than the quadrumana and carnaria, and
it is remarked that their brain is less developed and presents
scarcely any convolutions. Nevertheless, we find in this order
those mammalia whose instinctive faculties are most admirable,
as we shall see when we treat of the castors, and squirrels.

19. This order is composed of several small tribes, the most
important of which, with their distinctive characters, are indicated
in the following table: in which it will be perceived, they are
all arranged in two principal sections, according as they possess
a perfect, or an imperfect clavicle : the first section has been
called Rodentia with clavicles ; and the second, Rodentia with
imperfect clavicles :

16. What is the general food of the Rodentia ? Does their organization
indicate the kind of food on vvhicli they live .'

17. What is the general mode of progression amongst Roden'.ia? How is
their mode of progression accounted for ?

18. What decree of intelligence is pos?e-scd by the Rodenlia compared
with other animals ? What is the comparative clcvclopenienl of tlieir brain ?

19. (Answered in the table.) How is the order Rocieniia divided? What
is the composition of the teeth of Squirrels and Rats? Have they any
clavicles ? What numb* r of toes have Castors 1 What tribes of this order
have no clavicle, or only a very short one? What tribes of tliis order have
molar teeth without roots? What tribes of this order have molar teeth with
roots ? In what tribt?s do the molar teeth cease growing when completely
formed ? In what tribes do the molar teeth continue to glow through life ?

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78 SQUIRRELS.

Tribe of Squirrels.

20. The squirrels are recognised by their long, bushy tail, and
by their lower incisor teeth, which are very much compressed.
(Plate k.jig. 7.) Their head is large, their eyes projecting and
animated, and their form light ; their anterior extremities, which
often serve them for conveying food to the mouth, are sustained by
strong clavicles, and are provided with only four fingers which
are armed with hooked nails, while the posterior extremities have
five. These animals, which are remarkable for their agility, live
on trees and feed upon fruits.

21. They are divided into Squirrels properly so called, Flying-
Squirrels, fyc.

22. SQUIRRELS PROPERLY so CALLED, — Sciurus, — have the hairs
of the tail directed from the sides, giving it some resemblance to
a large feather. There are many species on both continents ; in
France, the Common Squirrel, — Sciurus Vulgaris, — is met with
in great numbers, and in the climate of that region, preserves its
colours (a lively red on the back, and white on the belly ;) but in
the north, during the winter, it acquires a beautiful bluish ash
colour, (producing the fur called minever, when taken from the
back only, and vair by the French— when it consists of the whole
skin.) Sometimes there are black squirrels ; less frequently snow
white with red eyes ; and more rarely still, spotted with black
and white.

23. These lively, graceful little animals inhabit the forests,
and make their nests upon the highest parts of the loftiest trees ;
they build them in a spherical form, of flexible twigs and moss,
and leave an opening in the upper part, taking the precaution to
cover it with a sort of conical roof, which prevents the ingress of
rain. In this nest they pass a part of the day : they sally forth
in the evening, at which time they are gay, jumping from branch
to branch, and uttering a pretty sharp whistle. During the sum-
mer, squirrels are occupied in making provision for the winter ;
it is remarked that they have a great propensity to hide what
ever food may remain after feeding. The trunk of a hollow
tree is their usual store-house, to which they recur when the
fruits upon which they feed grow scarce ; they know how to dis-

20. How are Sqninels recognised ? How many toes, or fingers have they
on the fore, and how many on the hind paws ? What do Squirrels feed on ?

21. How is the tribe of Squirrels divided ?

22. What is minever?

23. What are the habits of Squirrels ? Wheie and how do they build their
nests ? Are their limbs all of the same length ? What is the character of
their voice ?

__ FLYING SQUIRRELS. 79

cover their depot when under the snow, which they remove with
their paws, and their instinct teaches them not to put all they
gather into the same place : ordinarily they make several store-
houses, and when one is discovered and robbed, or exhausted,
they recur to the others. By their address and agility alone, they
succeed in eluding their enemies. The moment they are apprised
of their approach by any extraordinary noise, they leave their
nest, and through the assistance of their nails, which enables
them to adhere to the bark of trees, we see them, in order to
escape from the object of their dread, place the thickness of a
branch between it and themselves, which makes it difficult to see
them, if one is perceived by them ; when we go around the tree
to get to the same side upon which they are, they at once pass to
the opposite, and if their fear becomes still greater, they cover
themselves betwixt two branches and lie motionless. These
animals are extremely clean in their habits ; they never soil their
nests, and they are continually polishing their hairs with their
fore paws, which they employ for many other purposes : it is
with these, they convey food to the mouth, and pluck the moss
with which they build their nests : in some instances they can
oppose their rudimentary thumb with which they are provided
to their fingers, so that their paws perform the offices of hands.
The great length of their hind legs makes them excellent leapers ;
on the ground their progression is effected altogether by leaping ;
and to rest, they sit upon their hind legs, elevating the tail and
spreading it over their head as a kind of canopy. It is said that
they avail themselves of a piece of bark for a boat, and use the
tail as a sail when they wish to cross a stream ; but we may be
permitted to believe that a stream, even for a free squirrel, when
uninfluenced by the fear of danger, will always be a barrier that
he will never attempt to pass ; and if he were forced through
fear to plunge into the water, swimming would be his only re-
source. The voice of the squirrel is a sharp cry, and sometimes
he utters a feeble sound, although his mouth be shut, which is
said to be a sign of impatience or anger.

24. The FLYING SGIUIRRELS, — Pteromyft, — (winged rat) — (Plate
4, Jig. 8.) have on each side of the body a prolongation of the
skin, which extends between the fore and hind legs, and forms a
sort of parachute, by the aid of which, these animals can sustain
themselves in the air for a few seconds and make extended leaps.
One species is found in the forests of Poland and Russia, and one
in North America.

24. What peculiarity characterises Flying Squirrels ? , Where are they
found ?

80 MARMOTS— DORMICE.

Tribe of Hals.

25. The tribe of Rats is composed of a great number of small
Rodentia which resemble our common rats in the most impor-
tant parts of their organization, and are the most carnivorous
animals of this order. Their fore paws are in general termi-
nated by four toes which are well developed, and a tubercle rep-
resenting a rudimentary thumb ; on the posterior extremities
there are five complete toes. Most of them live in holes.

26. The principal genera of this group are, the Marmot, the
Dormouse, the Rat properly so called, and tne Hamster.

27. The Marmots — Arctomys, — (bear-rat,) or mountain rats,
(Plate 4, /?</. 9.) differ in many respects from the other gnawers
of the tribe of rats ; like the squirrels, they have five molar teeth
above and four below, all studded with points ; some of these
animals feed on insects as well as herbs. Their form is heavy
and squat ; the head is flat and thick, the ears round, the limbs
short and stout, the tail small, and their coat thick and coarse.
Their walk is clumsy, and they run badly, but they can flatten
themselves so as to pass through narrow openings. They dig
with readiness a deep hole into which many individuals retire
during winter, a season which they pass in profound lethargy,
covered in a bed of hay. On the approach of cold weather, they
close their hole by heaping up earth at its entrance ; they are
then very fat, and their fat serves for their nutrition during their
lethargy. They do not store provisions, and never wander far
from this hole. They live socially, and when the troop is out,
they place a sentinel upon some elevated point to give notice of
the approach of danger.

28. The Common Marmot, — Arctomys »0lpiniis, — is found in
the Alps, just below the region of perpetual snow. The moun-
taineers go in the winter to take them in their holes ; they eat
them and sell their skins, at a low price, for common fur ; it is
this fur which the little Savoyards who beg their way in some
European towns, often carry with them. It is about the size of a
hare, and its coat is yellowish gray.

29. DORMICE, — Myoxvs, — (rat with a pointed nose,) are pretty
little animals with soft fur, a hairy, or even tufted tail, and ani-
mated look, which, like squirrels, live on trees and feed on fruits.

25. How is the tribe of Rats constituted ?

26. What are the principal genera of the tribe of Rats ?

27. What are Marmots? What are their habits? Do they hibernate ?

28. Where is the common Marmot found ?

29. What are Dormice ? What are their habits ? How are they distin.
guished ?

DORMICE.— RATS. 81

Like the Marmots, they pass the cold season in a deep lethargic
sleep, rolled up in a ball. They may be recognised by the number
of their molar teeth, which is four on both sides of each jaw.

30. The Common Dormouse,— Myoxus Glis, — (the fat Dor-
mouse,) which is about the size of the common rat, inhabits the
southern parts of Europe ; it lives in the great forests, and in the
hollows of trees and rocks constructs a retreat which it lines with
moss, and in which it deposites provisions to be ready when it
awakes in the spring. In some parts of Italy it feeds on small
animals ; the Romans raised and fattened this species for the
table.

31. The Garden Dormouse, — Myoxus Nitela, — is another
species which is common in the neighbourhood of Paris. It
frequents espaliers, (hedge-rows of fruit trees) and retires into
cavities in orchard walls ; its food consists of fruits, and it some-
times commits great ravages.

32. Another species of Dormouse, — Myoxus .fluellanarius, — is
of the size of a small mouse, and inhabits the borders of woods,
hedges, &c.; like the squirrel, it prepares a bed of moss for the
winter.

33. RATS PROPERLY so CALLED, are distinguished by the disposi-
tion of their molar teeth, which are three throughout, and by the
long, hard tail. These animals are of small size, and feed chiefly
on vegetable substances (such as grains and roots,) but they also
eat animal matter, and when forced by hunger, they mingle in
fierce battle and devour each other. There are three species
which are common in houses, the Domestic Rat, the Surmulot, and
the Mouse.

34. The Domestic Rat, — Mvs Rattus, — was not known to the
ancients, and appears to be originally from America. The time of
its introduction into Europe is not known, but it is ascertained
that it existed in great numbers in the places which the Surmulot
now occupies after having almost entirely destroyed its species.
The domestic rat has become quite rare in Paris, and is not often
found except on farms where it feeds on grain, meal, fruits, and
vegetables of all kinds that it meets. Its taste for animal matter
is very decided, and it pursues small animals. In country houses

30. Where is the common Dormouse found ? What are its habi's ? Was
it known to the ancients?

3J. Where is the garden Dormouse found ? What does it feed on?

32. Is there any other species than the two mentioned ?

33. What are Ruts properly so called ? What do they feed on ? How
many species of Rats are common in houses ?

34. Was the Domestic Rat known to the ancients ? When was it intro-
duced into Europe ?

RATS.— MICE.

where it propagates, it is really a scourge by the damage it occa-
sions by eating linen, leather harness, bacon, in a word, every
thing that falls in its way.

35. The Simnulof, - Mm Dwumanvs, — (the Norway or Brown
rat,) is the largest of the rats ; it is seven inches long, without
including the tail, and its coat is reddish brown. Though very
abundant in Europe at the present day, it was not introduced <
there till sometime in the eighteenth century. Vessels trading to
India carried it to England, whence it found its way into France
and all other parts of Europe, America, and wherever Europeans
have settled colonies. About the environs of Paris, brown rats
are very numerous on the commons, and particularly on the voirie
of Montfaucon, where, towards evening, they may be seen
entirely covering the carcasses of horses that have succumbed
during the day ; they are also found in the sewers in the neigh-
bourhood of markets, and in all places where animal substances
in a state of decomposition are accumulated in any quantity, and
where grain is abundant. They dig holes scarcely deep enough
to hold their bodies.*

36. The Mouse, — Mux Hlusculu$, — \s the smallest species of
rat that inhabits our dwellings, and it is the only one that was
known to the ancients. In the wood-work of our houses, and in
old walls where the plaster is easily detached, these little animals
excavate galleries of greater or less length, in which they habitu-
ally dwell ; they feed on all articles whether animal or vegetable,
that fall in their way, and are particularly fond of tallow, bacon,
and other fat substances. Sometimes they are found wild in
the woods, where they feed chiefly on acorns and beech-nuts.

37. The J/ii/o/, or field-mouse,— Mus Syloaticus,—\s a species
of the same genus as the preceding, which is intermediate in
size between the rat and the mouse, but it does not visit the
habitations of man ; its ordinary dwelling place is in forests where
it often commits considerable havoc, either in digging up the acorns

* The voirie of Montftuoon, or commons, is the place where the filth of
the city of Paris is deposited, and where dead animals are flayed for the sake
of their skin?, and the purls which are fit for the manufacture of glue, &c
It has been said, with what truth we do not know, that the rats found hero,
were killed, and sold to the masters of eating-houses, who served them to
their customers.

35. What is the Surmulol? Was this rat always known in Europe 1
Where is it originally from ? Where does it most abound 1 What does this
rat feed on 1

36. What is the Mouse 1 Where does it dwell 1 What does it feed upon
when wild?

3? What is the Mulot? What are its habits?

__ HAMSTERS.— FIELDMICE. 83

or beech-nuts that have been planted, or by gnawing the bark of
young trees. It also does considerable damage to the harvest, in
company with the true field mouse, by cutting the stocks of the
corn (wheat, &c.) to eat a few grains and waste the rest. These
animals also store provisions, acorns, filberts, chestnuts, &c.., which
they deposite in holes in the ground about a foot deep, concealed
by some bushes.

38. The HAMSTERS have nearly the same teeth as the rats ; but
their tail is short and hairy, and both sides of the mouth are
hollowed into sacs or cheek-pouches, like certain monkeys, in
which they carry Ihe grain upon which they feed.

39. The Common Hamster, — Cricetns Vvlgttfis, — (Plate 4,
jig. 10.) is larger than the rat, reddish gray above, black on the

flanks and underneath, with three whitish spots on each side. It
feeds on roots and all the cereal grains cultivated by man ; it can
however, live on flesh, and when pressed by hunger does not even
spare its own species. It digs a hole with two galleries ; an
oblique one, to carry out the riddance of the earth, and a per-
pendicular one for the entrance and exit of the animal ; these
channels lead to different circular excavations which communicate
with each other by horizontal tunnels or galleries: one of these
chambers is furnished with a bed of dry herbs which serves for
the retreat of the animal, and the others are designed to contain
provisions which are collected in the warm season for the winter's
use. This animal lives solitary, but is numerous in Germany
and different sandy parts of Europe and Asia. It is injurious to
farmers on account of the quantity of grain it collects,

Tribe of Fieldmice.

40. This little group is nearly related to that of the rats ; their
external form is nearly the same, but their molar teeth possess a
peculiar conformation, which approaches to that of essentially her-
bivorous animals. In this tribe are placed Fieldmice properly so
called, Lemmings, 8fc,

41. FIELDMICE properly so called, — rfrcicnla, — have a squat
form, the same number of toes as rats, armed with hooked nails fit
for digging, and the tail is hairy and about the length of the body.
There are several species known in France. The Campayn.nl, —

38. How are Hamsters distinguished ?

39. What are the characters of the common .Hamster ? What does it
eat? What are its habits? What is the character of its burrows or habi-
tations ?

40. How does the tribe of Fieldmice differ from that of Rats?

41. How are Fieldmice properly so called characterised ? What is the
Campagnol ?

8

84 LEMMINGS.— JERBOAS.-.RAT.MOLES.-.CHINCHILLAS.

Jirvicola rfrralis, — (Mus Arvalis,) or little field-rat, is improperly
called Mulot in some provinces. It is of the size of the mouse,
and inhabits holes which it digs in the fields. Sometimes it is
excessively multiplied, and commits, as well as the Mulot, great
ravages.

42. The Water Raf, — Mus Amphibiiis, — is also a species of
Jlri-icnla ; it is rather larger than the common rat, and inhabits
the banks of streams, but it neither swims nor dives well.

43 The LEMMINGS, — (*eorychns, — (Mus Lemmus of Linnaeus,)
another species of fieldmouse which is found in Siberia, are
celebrated for the distant migrations they make every year in
numerous troops ; they are small Rodentia that inhabit the shores
of the Icy Ocean, and travel in numerous bands, laying waste
every thing that comes in their way. They are of the size of
the rat, and their colour varies from yellow to black.

Tribe of Jerboas.

44. This tribe consists of a small number of gnawers that con-
siderably resemble the rats. The tail is long and tufted at the
end : but they are most remarkable in their posterior extremities,
which, in comparison with the anterior, are of a most immoderate
length. (Plate 4, fig. 11.) They are met with from Barbary to
the shores of the Caspian Sea.

Tribe of K at- Moles.

45. The Rodentia included in this division (Sp'alax.) resem-
ble the Moles both in their habits and external form ; they are
essentially diggers, and live under ground ; they feed on roots
only.

Tribe of Chinchillas.

46. The Chinchillas are small Rodentia of South America, that
afford a most beautiful and much esteemed fur, which were
nevertheless, unknown to naturalists, until modern times. In
many respects they are intermediate between the Field mice and
Hares. Several species are known, The Chinchilla I^aniyera
is the only one whose fur is esteemed ; it inhabits the mountains
of Peru and Chile. [This animal is smaller than the rabbit, and
its head, which is ornamented with long mustaches, resembles

42. What is the Water Rat ?

43. What are Lemmings? What are their habits?

44. What are Jerboas ? Where are they found ?

45. Whut animals are included in the tribe of Rat-Moles ?

46. What are Chinchillas' Where are they found? For what arc they
valued ? How are they taken ? Are they abundant ?

BEAVERS. 85

that of the squirrel. Its ears are large ; its paws are delicate, and
differ little in length ; its coat which is of a beautiful gray, undu-
lated with white above, and of a bright gray underneath, is com-
posed of extremely tine, soft hair ; and its tail is blackish, par-
ticularly at its end. It lives in burrows and feeds principally on
bulbous roots. It is hunted with dogs trained to drag it from its
hole without injuring its coat It is found, especially in the neigh-
bourhood of Coquimbo and Copiapo, and its fur is sent to San-
tiago and Valparaiso, whence it is exported to Europe and the
United States ; but it has been hunted so actively, that for some-
time, it has been scarcely seen, and in order to prevent the total
destruction of the race, the pursuit of the animal has been pro-
hibited.]

Tribe of Castors.

47. The Rodentia which form this tribe, are distinguished by
the conformation of their teeth, by their essentially aquatic mode
of life, by their feet having five toes, and the hind ones being
palmate. They are divided into two genera, the most important
of which is that of CASTORS PROPERLY so CALLED.

48. BEAVERS, or CASTORS properly so called, are distinguished
from all other Rodentia by their horizontally flattened tail, which is
nearly of an oval form, and covered with scales. (Plate 4, /z</ 12.)

49. Beavers are large animals whose mode of life is entirely
aquatic, their feet and tail enabling them to swim well: they feed
chiefly on bark and other hard substances, and they make use of
their strong incisor teeth for cutting all kinds of trees.

50. The Beaver,— Cantor fiber,— (Plate 4, fg. 12.) Of all
quadrupeds bestows most time and labour on the construction of
his dwelling, at which he works in company, in the most solitary
parts of North America, from the thirtieth to the sixtieth degree
of north latitude. He is also met with in Siberia, Norway, Ger-
many, and in France on the banks of the Rhone and Garonne.

51. These animals are always found in the vicinity of rivers
and lakes ; in the summer they inhabit burrows which they dig
along the shores, but in winter they retire into huts, constructed
with the greatest care, on the banks or in the midst of waters.
In general, they select situations where the waters are so deep
that they do not freeze to the bottom, and prefer running water,

47. How are animals of the tribe of Castors distinguished ?

48. How are Beavers distinguished from other Rodentia ?

49. What is the mode of life of Beavers? What is their food?

50. For what is the Beaver remarkable ? In what parts of the world ia
the Beaver found ?

51. How do they dwell ? How do they build their huts ?

86 BEAVERS.

because they cut the wood necessary for their building above the
spot where they work, and then the current carries it where it
is required. If the water is stagnant, they at once commence
their houses; but if it is running, they assemble often two or three
hundred in a gang, and first form a shelving dam or dyke, to
maintain the water at an equal height : this dam is formed of
branches interlaced with each other, the intervals of which are
filled with stones and mud, and plastered over with a thick solid
coat; it is commonly ten or twelve feet thick at the base, and is
sometimes of very considerable extent. At the expiration of a few
years it is usually covered with vegetation and thus converted
into a substantial hedge. The dam being finished, they separate
into small parties of two or three families, and set about con-
structing their huts, which are built against the dam in the same
manner, but with less solidity ; each hut accommodates two or
three families ; it has two stones, the upper one being dry for the
residence of the animals, and the lower one under water, for the
store of bark upon which they feed. Only the latter opens ex-
ternally, and the entrance is entirely under water. Their work
is carried on in the night only, but with astonishing rapidity.
When the season of snow approaches, the Castors assemble in
great numbers and set about repairing the huts which they
had abandoned in the spring, or construct new ones.]

52. [Beavers, whose coat is ordinarily of a uniform reddish
brown, but sometimes of a beautiful black and at others white,
are provided with a great abundance of a grayish, soft down of ex-
treme fineness, which is concealed beneath long silky hairs, which
resisting the water, or not becoming wet, protects them against
cold and humidity ; but this fur, which is so useful to them, often
becomes the cause of their destruction ; because it is of great
use to man, and to procure it these animals are actively pursued.

53. Beaver skins are an important article of commerce ; they
are used as fur, and in the manufacture of hats; the most beau-
tiful are from those animals that are killed in winter in the coldest
parts of North America. A single skin furnishes about a pound
and a half of down which, in France, is worth from thirty-five
to forty dollars the pound. As many as one hundred and fifty-
thousand of these skins have been imported into Europe in a
single year.

54. Castoreum, an article of commerce also furnished by these
animals, is a solid, fragile substance of a strong nauseous odour.

52. What is the colour of the Beaver ? Why are Beavers hunted ?

53. What is the use of Beaver skins ? Are they cheap ?

54. What is Castoreum?

PORCUPINES. 87

It is sold in the pouch in which it is naturally formed. A Castor
furnishes about two ounces. The women of some savage tribes
use it to grease their hair, and in Europe, and the United States,
it is employed as a medicine. About three thousand pounds are
annually imported into France.]

Tribe of Porcupines.

55. Animals of the tribe of Porcupines are recognised at first
sight by the stiff and pointed quills or spines with which their back
is armed, and from this peculiarity they somewhat resemble the
Hedgehogs. Their grunting voice and thick truncated muzzle
have caused them to be compared to the hog, and hence their
French name, Pores-Epics.

56. PORCUPINES PROPER, — Hystrix, — have an arched or more
or less convex head. They have four toes before and five be-
hind, all armed with stout nails. There are many species known.
The European Porcupine, — Hystrix Cristata, — has very long
spines annulated black and white; a mane composed of long
hairs occupies the head and back of the neck. The tail is short, and
furnished with hollow truncated tubes or bristles, suspended to
slender tubercles, which make a noise when shaken by the animal.

57. This animal avoids inhabited places, and selects for its re-
treat stony arid hillocks with a southern or southeastern exposure,
in the declivities of which, it excavates deep holes with many out-
lets, where it lives in profound solitude and great security. It
passes the day concealed at the bottom of its burrow, and pro-
vides for its wants during the night only. Its chief food consists
of berries, fruits, buds, roots, &c. For the Porcupine winter is
a time of sleep ; but its lethargy does not seem to be very pro-
found, because it makes its appearance on the first bright days of
spring.

58. It was believed for a long time that porcupines had the
faculty of discharging or shooting off their spines ; but it is ascer-
tained that they are at times accidentally detached, and also by the
shock they receive when the animal raises them for its own defence.

59. This species is chiefly met with in the kingdom of Naples
and the southern parts of the Roman States.

55. What is the most striking- feature of the Porcupine ?

56. What are the characteristics of the Porcupines proper? What are the
specific characters of the European Porcupine ?

57. Whut are the habits of the Porcupine ? Upon what does it generally
feed?

58. Has the Porcupine the power of throwing its quills or spines from its
body?

59. In what part of the world is the Porcupine found ?

8*

88 HARE.— RABBIT.

60. Other Rodentia that have a prehensile tail like that of the
Sapajous, and climb trees, are ranged at the side of Porcupines.

Tiibe of Hates.

61. The Rodentia of which this tribe is composed, differ from
other animals of the same order by the arrangement of their
incisor teeth, which are double, each one of them having a smaller
one behind it. They have five toes before and four behind, and
the soles of their feet, as well as the outside of their mouth, are
furnished with hairs like the rest of the body.

62. The HARES PROPER, — Lepus, — are recognised by their long
ears, their short tail, and the length of their hind feet. They are
nocturnal animals, and of all their senses, that of hearing appears
to be the most perfect ; they are extremely timid, and fly from the
slightest danger. Their walk consists in a succession of leaps, and
their run only differs in rapidity. They inhabit woods, copses, rocks,
and sometimes plains, and feed on vegetable substances which
modify the taste of their flesh, according as these may be more
or less aromatic ; it is known indeed, that such is the cause of the
difference between the taste of the wild and domestic hare.
Some provide for their individual security, and that of their young,
by excavating deep holes, or by inhabiting rents and hollows in
rocks, while others content themselves with a furrow, a stump, a
copse, or the trunk of a hollow tree.

63. The Common flare, — Lepus Timidus, — is recognised by
a yellowish gray coat, having ears a tenth longer than its head,
tipped with black, and the tail white, with a black line above, and
of the length of its thigh. It Jives alone and cannot be domesti-
cated ; it differs from the rabbit in not digging a burrow, but is
contented with a hole, the situation of which it changes accord-
ing to the season.

64. The Rabbit, — Lepus Cimiciilns, — is smaller than the hare,
and has ears shorter than the head and without the black tip ;
its tail is also shorter than the thigh, and brown above. It appears
to be originally from Spain, but now abounds throughout Europe.
It lives in troops and burrows in dry soils. It accustoms itself
to the domestic condition, and in time assumes very various
colours.

60. Are there any other gnawers related to the tribe of Porcupines ?

61. How do animals of the tribe of Hares differ from other Rodentia ?

62. How are Hares proper recognised? What are their habits?

63. How is the common Hare recognised ?

64. What is the Rabbit?

GUINEA-PIG.— PELTRY.

Tribes of Cabiais and Pacas.

65. The Rodentia that constitute these two tribes belong to
America, and generally resemble each other in form ; many of
them however, are higher on their, legs than most animals of the
same order.

66. The Guinea- I'ici, — Mm Porcdlus of Li nnagus — belongs to
the tribe of Cabiais. This small animal, which is originally from
South America, where it is still found in its wild state, is exten-
sively multiplied throughout Europe, where, in some houses, it is
kept, under the impression that its odour drives away rats.

General Remarks on I'ellrics.

67. Almost all the peltries or furs in use, are derived from ani-
mals of the two orders the description of which we have just con-
cluded, namely: the Carnaria and Rodentia.

68. The furs most esteemed are those in which the long, silky,
thick hairs cover a considerable quantity of down. They all
come from cold countries ; the only peltries from warm regions
are those with smooth hair. Climate has very great influence
upon the fur of animals; when nature has designed them to live
in cold countries, they have a thick warm fur, while in hot climates
they only possess short dry'hairs not very closely set, arid there
is no soft down growing up between these hairs, as is the case in
the first.

69. The seasons also exercise an influence on furs. In the
summer the ordinary hairs are not so long nor so abundant as in
winter ; and it is only in this latter season that there exists any
large quantity of fur at their base. Sometimes very considerable
changes take place in the colour of their hairs at different seasons.

70 At a certain time of the year the mammiferous animals
lose their hair which is replaced by a new growth. This change
usually occurs in spring and autumn ; sometimes it occurs with-
out the colour of 'the coat being modified, while at others, the
new hair bears no resemblance Whatever to the old. Thus it is
in the north that the Squirrel, instead of always preserving its
reddish colour, assumes in winter a pretty gray. The Isatis, or blue

65. To what part of the world do those animals belong, that are included
in the tribes of Cabiais and Pacas?

66. What is the Guinra-Pijr?

67. What orders of animals furnish mo^t peltries ?

68. Has climate any influence on the fur of animals?

69. What effect have the seasons on furs ?

70. Are mammiferous animals always clothed in the same hair ?

90 PELTRY.— FELT.

Fox of Siberia, undergoes changes of colour not less consider-
able, and hence its winter fur is very much sought, while its sum-
mer coat is almost valueless.

71. Some furs are supplied by animals that inhabit France and
the neighbouring countries ; but the majority of them come from
North America, or Siberia.

72. [The peltries, which are called in France, Sauvagines,
are furnished by the Fox, the Beech-Marten, the Pole-Cat, the
River Otter, the Domestic Cat, the Hare and Rabbit. Most of
these skins are dyed in imitation of the more precious furs. This
mode of imparting artificial colours, known in manufactures
under the name of lustering, is generally effected by the succes-
sive application of different coats of colouring matter, by the aid
of a brush rather than by immersion, because it is easier in this
way to imitate nature, by giving the different tints to the base
and point of the hair. This business is extensively carried on in
Paris and Lyons, with the greatest degree of perfection.]

73. In the empire of Russia, the pursuit of animals for their fur
is chiefly carried on in that vast extent of country between the
east of the Volga, and Kamtschatka, and also on the north west
coast of America, where a great number of Sea Ottters are taken,
the fur of which is highly esteemed, and is principally sold to the
Chinese. Siberia furnishes different species of foxes, the skins of
which are often of great value (such as that of the Isatis or blue
fox, the black fox, &c.) the marten, the sable, the ermine, &c.;
bears also furnish a good proportion of peltries.

74. The immense forests of the north, east, and west of America
furnish beaver, marten, river otter, bear skins, &c.

75. The annual sale of peltries on an average of four years,
in London, is nearly five hundred thousand skins of various
kinds, which affords some general notion of the value of the fur
trade.

Of the manufacture of Felt.

76. The skins of many animals of the order of Rodentia, not
only serve for peltry, but are also employed in the manufacture
of fur hats. Hairs have the property of mixing and matting so

71. What countries furnish most fur?

72. Do the furs offered for sale alwnys possess their natural colours?

73. In what parts of the Russian Empire are animals most hunted for
Jieir fur?

74. What pellries are obtained from North America?

75. What is the number of fur skins annually sold in London?

76. What is Felt?

MANUFACTURE OF HATS. 91

closely together when worked, that very substantial tissues may
be formed of them, and it is in this way that what is termed jtlt
is produced.

77. Fur hats are manufactured principally from the down of
the Rabbit and Hare; formerly a great deal of the hair of Cas-
tors was employed, but its high price has driven it almost entirely
out of use.

78. [The manufacture of hats of felt is quite simple, con-
sisting of a series of three operations, namely ; the cutting
and preparation of the hair, pressing, and dressing. In France,
women are usually employed in the first part of the work : they
first remove the hair that covers the fur, and then pass the skin
to a workman whose business it is to wet the fur or down with
a liquid, composed of quicksilver dissolved in weak nitric acid.
The object of this operation is to increase the felting property of
the hair. When this is done, the skins are dried by a stove, and
then handed to the cutters or shearers, who, provided with a
cutting instrument of a particular form, detach the down from
the back and flanks of the skin. The hair thus prepared is de-
livered to the hatter who proceeds to felting. For this purpose
he places on a table a quantity of down sufficient to make a hat,
and begins the work by an operation called bowing: he is pro-
vided with a sort of large bow, which is suspended from the
ceiling, the string of which he passes into the heap of hair and
causes it to vibrate. By 'this means he throws into the air all
the delicate filaments which constitute the down, separates, and
mixes them in every way. The light mass thus obtained is then
spread on a cloth or leather, and pressed in every direction. By
this process the hair is by degrees more intimately mixed, and be-
gins to felt. When this is over, we have a large slightly consis-
tent cake which is then kneaded or worked, taking the precaution
to dip it, from time to time in hot water slightly sharpened with sul-
phuric acid. This kneading or working is performed on an inclined
table or board placed around the boiler, and is executed by the
hand, a wooden roller or a brush. In proportion as the hair felts,
the cake becomes more and more dense, and by working it in one
direction more than the other, it is made to assume an oval shape.
Generally a cake or foundation of common hair is first prepared,
and afterwards gilded; that is to say, there is incorporated
upon its surface a coat of finer hairs, which are kneaded much
less, so that they remain partially free, and constitute a bed or
layer of soft down, which hatters call the feather or nap. For
the gilding, they use about an ounce of the fine fur of the Russian

77. What animals furnish the materials for the manufacture of fur hats?

78. What is the process of manufacturing hata ?

92 GLUE.— ORDER OF EDENTATA.

Hare. One half of this quantity of Beaver hair covers as much,
and produces a much handsomer effect ; but from its great price,
it is seldom used except in mixture with other hair. Finally, to
complete the manufacture of a hat, the felt is softened by steam,
and formed on wooden blocks ; then it is dyed, and its interior
surface glued to impart to it greater n'rmness. This branch of
manufacture is carried on almost every where in France ; but is
most extensive in Paris and Lyons. There are about 1,100 hat
manufactories in France, in which 17,000 workmen find employ- .
ment, and the annual product of their labor is estimated at nine-
teen millions of francs, (or more than three and a half millions
of dollars;) but the business has decreased in importance of late,
owing to the general use of silk hats.

79. After the hair and fur have been removed from them, these
skins are converted into glue. The skin is insoluble in water,
under ordinary circumstances ; but if it be boiled for a long time
in that liquid, it softens, dissolves, and is transformed into a par-
' ticular product called gelatine, which on cooling forms a jelly
more or less solid. The same is true of the tendons and various
other tissues of the animal economy, and the gelatine thus ob-
tained constitutes common glue.]

LESSON VIII.
OKDER OF EDENTATA. — Zoological Characters. — Division into

three families.

FAMILY OF TARDIGRADA. — Organization. — Habits. — ./?/, or Sloth.
FAMILY OF ORDINARY EDENTATA — (Armadillos, >ft tit-eaters, Manis.)
FAMILY OF MONOTREMATA. — Peculiarities of their Organization.
. — Ornithorynchus. — Echidna.
ORDER OF PACHYDERM AT A.— Zoological Characters.— Peculiarities

of their Organization. — Division into three families.
FAMILY OF P'ROBOSCIDIANA. — Genus Elephant. — Organization. —

Habits.— Use.— Ivory, (Elephants of Asia, Africa, and Siberia)

ORDER OP EDENTATA.

1. Under this head is placed a considerable number of ani*
mals remarkable for a certain slowness and want of agility owing
to the position of their extremities. In general their toes are

79. Are the skins of any use after the fur and hair have been removed from
them? What is glue?

1 What is the distinctive character of animals belonging to the order
Edentata ? How is this order divided ? How is the Tardigrada distin-
guished from the ordinary Edentata? (See table.-) How are the Monotre-
mata distinguished from the other two families of this order ?

ORDER OF EDENTATA.— SLOTHS. 93

enveloped in stout nails upon which they walk with difficulty.
Their common distinctive character is the wanting of teeth in the
anterior part of the jaws, that is, the incisor teeth. (Plate 4. fig. 3.)
Sometimes the canine and molar teeth are also wanting, so that
the animal is then entirely edentate. This order is divided into
three families which may be recognised by the characters enu-
merated in the following table :

(Families.)

{The face very short. TARDIGRADA.
The muzzle long1, ) ORDINARY
and pointed. { EDENTATA.

[ Provided with a cloaca. (1.) .... MONOTREMATA.

(1.) NOTE. — That is to say, having the rectum and duct for the passage of
the urine opening into a common cavity, called cloaca which has a single
outlet, as is the case in birds and reptiles.

FAMILY OF TARDIGRADA, OR SLOTHS.

2. The SLOTHS, — Bradypus, — bear some resemblance to de-
formed and stupified monkeys, and they have in their whole being
something so disproportioned and strange, that at first sight they
might be taken as the product of some fantastic freak of nature ;
but when these anomalies are closely studied, we find they have
their use, and that they all tend, however grotesque they seem, to
adapt the organs of the animal to the purposes for which its kind
of life has designed them.

3. When on the ground, nothing is more awkward, more un-
graceful and powerless than the sloths. Their short, stout body
is borne on extremities so unequal in length, that, in order to
walk, the animal is obliged to tread on its elbows ; the pelvis is
broad, and the thighs are directed so much outwards, that they
cannot bring the knees together ; at the same time their hind feet
are articulated so obliquely upon the legs that they only touch the
ground by their external edge ; and the toes, joined together by
the skin, do not show except by their enormous hooked nails,
which are flexed when at rest, and they possess so little move-
ability that at a certain age the first phalanges become soldered to
the bones of the metacarpus and metatarsus. The sitting and
vertical position is least inconvenient to them, but their head being
in a line with the axis of the body, their mouth then looks up-
wards, rendering it very difficult for them to graze upon the
ground ; add to this that their flexor muscles are much more

2. Are Sloths really misshapen and illy formed animals ?
3. What are the general peculiarities of the conformation of the Sloths?
How do they feed ?

94 SLOTHS— ARMADILLOS.

powerful than their extensors, the latter being those which sustain
the weight of the body when walking, and that their motions are
extremely slow,, and we can then form an idea of the restraint
to which the mode of conformation of these animals must subject
them, when placed under the same circumstances in which most
quadrupeds live and move without inconvenience. But it would
be wrong to believe that nature has made any imperfect or
grotesque beings; it is altogether otherwise; she has designed
the Sloths to live hooked to branches of trees, and in this position,
in which the most ordinary quadrupeds would be quickly
fatigued, the anomalies of structure we have just pointed out,
become so many happy provisions to enable these edentata to
climb and cling, with the least possible muscular effort, and to
facilitate the prehension of their food, suspended over their heads.

4. The dental system of these animals also possesses distinctive
peculiarities ; their canines are long and sharp, and their molars
are cylindrical. Their stomach is divided into four pouches
analogous to the four stomachs of the Ruminantia. They have
two mammae on the chest and only give birth to one young one
at a time, which is carried on the back. They feed on leaves.
They inhabit the forests in the anterior of South America. The
most remarkable species of the many that are known, is the
*#/, or the Three Fingered Sloth, — Bradypus Tridactylus, —
(Plate &,fig> 1.) It is the only mammal that has more than seven
cervical vertebrae ; it has nine. It is about the size of a cat, its
arms are twice as long as its legs, and the hair which covers its
back is long, coarse, without elasticity, and resembles withered
grass. Its name is derived from its cry.

FAMILY OF ORDINARY EDENTATA.

5. Animals of this family are recognised by their pointed
muzzle. Of the genera composing this family, the

6. 1st. ARMADILLOS,— Dasypus,— (Plate 4, fig. 2.) Are very
singular animals, having the head, the body, and very often the
tail, covered by a hard, scaly coat, composed of compartments
like mosaic. This substance which may be considered as agglu-
tinated hair, forms one shield on the front, a second very large
and convex one on the shoulders, a third similar to the preceding
on the croup, and, between these two shields, several moveable

4. What is the character of their teeth ? Is there any thing remarkable
in the conformation of the stomach ? Where are Sloths found ? What is
the most remarkable species known? For what feature of its organization,
compared with other mammals, is the Sloth remarkable ?

5. How are the Edentata recognised ?

6. What are Armadillos ?

ANT-EATERS— MANIS. 95

parallel bands, which give the body the faculty of bending; the
tail is sometimes covered with a succession of rings; and some-
times, like the legs, only with different tubercles ; a few scatter-
ing hairs grow between the scales, or on parts of the body that
are not covered by these plates. These animals have large ears,
and large nails; the number of the latter is always five behind;
and sometimes four, and at others,five before. The armadillos
vary in size, from that of a badger to that of a hedgehog ; they
are stout in the body and low on their legs. They are all origin-
ally from the hot or temperate parts of America; they burrow,
and feed partly on insects, partly on vegetables and in part on
dead bodies.

7. 2nd. The ANT-EATPRS, — Myrmecoplwya, — inhabit the same
countries as the armadillos, but are readily distinguished from
them, because their body is hairy like that of most mammals, and
their muzzle,drawn out in a long cylindrical tube, is terminated
by a small mouth, which is entirely without teeth. Their jaws,
which are very long, they can scarcely separate from each other,
nor can they use them to seize or compress their food ; but they
are provided with a very long filiform tongue, which they can
project to a considerable distance beyond the mouth, and which
always being covered with a viscid, gluey humor, serves them
to seize the ants and other insects upon which they feed. By the
assistance of their strong, trenchant nails, which vary in number
according to the species, the ant-eaters tear up the nests of the
Termites, or white ants, and at the moment these little insects
sally forth in crowds from their retreat, to form a rampart and
defend themselves, they protrude upon them their viscid tongue,
and drawing it in again suddenly, convey them into their mouth.
When at rest, these nails, which serve also as defensive arms, are
folded back against a callosity on the wrist, and the animal only
rests its foot on the side, and its gait is slow. Some species have
a prehensile tail, by which they suspend themselves from branches
of trees ; the largest species, called Tai/ninoir, does not possess this
faculty; it is four feet long, and inhabits low, humid places.

3d. The MANIS, or PANGOLINS, (I'lale 4, //V. 4) — are without
teeth, have a very extensible tongue, and Jive on ants and termites
like the preceding; but their body, extremities and tail, are
covered with large trenchant scales, disposed like tiles, and
which are raised when they roll themselves into a ball to avoid
danger ; a few long bristles grow at the base of these scales.
They all belong to the old continent, Asia or Africa.

7. What are Ant eaters ? Upon what do they feed ? How do they seize
their prey ?

8, What is the Manis ? How does the Manis differ from the Ant-eater ?

96 ECHIDNA— ORNITHORYNC BUS.

FAMILY OF MONOTREMATA.

9. It includes animals of a strange construction, which unite
the characters of the mammal with those of the oviparous ani-
mals, and whose place in the classification of mammalia is still a
subject of controversy with some naturalists. The monotremata,
like birds, have but one opening for the escape of excrement
and urine ; but there is found under the belly two glandular
masses, which most naturalists consider to be mammas ; besides
the five nails on all the feet, the males have on the hind legs a
peculiar spur traversed by a canal from which issues a liquid,
which is secreted by a gland adhering to the thigh. It is asserted
that wounds inflicted by them are poisonous. The accounts of
travellers and of the natives of the countries which they inhabit,
seem to establish that they lay eggs like birds ; but this is still
doubtful.

10. They are peculiar to New Holland and Van Dieman's
land. This singular family contains two genera.

11. 1st. The ECHIDNA resemble the Hedgehogs, because they
are covered above with numerous spines mingled with hairs, and
below they have hair only. The body is stout and short, the neck
is scarcely perceptible, the tail is merely a tubercle covered with
spines ; their long muzzle terminated by a small mouth, contains
a very long tongue, which they protrude to seize insects, upon
which they feed ; they have no teeth, but their palate is armed
with several ranges of little spines directed backwards; they have
short feet armed with nails for digging. These animals readily
excavate the earth, and form subterraneous abodes near to trees.
Like the hedgehogs, they roll themselves into a ball.

12. 2d. The ORNITHORYNCHUS, — (Plate 4. fig. 5.) — has a small
elongated body, a small head, a very strong tail which is short,
flattened, and, at its root, as wide as the body of the animal,
like that of the Beaver ; it is covered with hair, and the extremi-
ties are very short, and the anterior widely separated from
the posterior ones The muzzle is terminated by a horny beak
like that of a duck, and like it the edges are provided with small
transverse plates ; in the back part of the mouth only, it has two
teeth without roots and flat crowns, on each side of both jaws ;
the tongue is large and soft, the nares are round, situate towards

9. Wh:it is pecu iar in animals of the family of Monotremata?

10. In what parts of the world are the Aloi.otremata found ? How many
genera does this family include ?

11. What are Echidna? What are their habits?

12. What is the Ornitliorynchus ? What are its peculiarities ? What are
its habits? Where is it found ?

PACHYDERMATA. 97

the superior extremity of the horny beak; the neck is short, and
the general form of the body is nearly cylindrical. The fore feet
have a membrane which not only unites the toes, but is carried
considerably beyond the nails ; on the hind feet the membrane
terminates at the root of the nails. As might be anticipated from
what we have said of their conformation, the Oruithorynchi are
aquatic animals ; they inhabit the marshes and rivers in the in-
terior of New Holland, and live like ducks, (if we may thus apply
the word,) by sifting the mud to separate from it insects and larva?.
The species best known is the Ornithorynchus Paradoxus.

ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA.

13. The animals comprised in this order are remarkable for the
hard thick hide with which most of them are covered : they are
nnyulatc mammals, (that is, the extremity of the foot is enveloped
in a very large nail, constituting a hoof;) they have generally a
simple stomach and do not ruminate.

14. Their teeth present great varieties in form and structure ;
in some, the incisors are trenchant, in others they are wanting ;
and in others again they are replaced by tusks. The same is true
of the canines ; while some resemble ordinary canines, others be-
come powerful and dangerous defensive weapons, and others
again want them altogether. The molars have wide irregular
surfaces suited for grinding.

15. They are entirely without a clavicle and are incapable of
bending the fingers (toes) which are in number either five, or three,
or only one, and rarely two. The Order of P achy dermal a in-
cludes the largest terrestrial mammals known. Except the Horse,
they are all clumsy, and have a heavy, indolent gait ; are very
dirty, and particularly fond of wallowing in the mud ; they con-
tinually dwell in troops, in warm covered places, in marshy situa-
tions, where they find aquatic stalks and roots suited to their wants;
sometimes the neck is very short, but then, as in the case of the
Elf pliant, they are provided with a trunk capable of raising from
the ground all objects which they wish to convty to the mouth ;
or, remaining almost constantly in the water, they can, without
stooping, catch the leaves and stalks floating on its surface.

13. How are animals of the order of Pachydermata characterised? Do
they chew the cud?

14. What is the character of the dental system of animals of this order ?

15. What kind of a clavicle have the Pachydermata ? What is the num-
ber of their toes ? What are their general habits ?

98 PROEOSCIDIANA.

16. These animals, which resemble each other in the general
features of their organization, are still distinguishable by impor-
tant particulars, which has made it necessary to divide them into
three families ; the Proboscidiann, the Ordinary Pac/iydermata,
and the Solipedes, which may be recognised by the following
characters :

(Families.)

Having tusks, a prehensile trunk and / „
five toes on all [he feet. \ PROBOSCIDIAN*.

PACHYDERMATA. •! Not having a pre- C Having at least 1 D

hrn.ile trunk, and I two toes and at j, P^HYDKRMATA
not having five toes] most four. J

on all the ket. (_ A single toe apparent. SOLIPEDES.

FAMILY OF PROBOSCI DIANA.

17. These are I}ac/n/dertnafa with a trunk and tusks. They
have five toes on all the feet, but incrusted in a sort of hoof of
callous skin ; their nails only are apparent. They have neither
canine or incisor teeth, but they have in the upper jaw two tusks
of enormous size; the mamma3, two in number, are placed upon
the chest. This family includes one living genus only.

18. The Genus ELEPHANT, — Elephas,—This genus (Plate 5,
Jig. 1, and 2.) comprises animals of gigantic size, naturally mild

and docile in disposition, which enables them readily to bear the
domestic condition. The amplitude required by the alveoli of
the upper jaw to contain the two tusks, elevates it so much, and
at the same time shortens the bones of the nose, that the nares,
in the skeleton, are found near the top of the face ; but in the
living animal they are prolonged into a cylindrical trunk, consist-
ing of a double tube, composed of fibres and many small muscles
variously interlaced, which is moveable in every direction and
terminates above by an appendix in the form of a finger. This
trunk, which communicates with the nasal fossa3, serves the
Elephant to seize hold of every thing he wishes to convey to the
mouth, to pump up his drink, and then pour it into his throat ; it
thus compensates for the shortness of his neck. By means of
this curious instrument, the Elephant can uproot trees, untie knots,

16. Into what fairies is the order of Pachydermata divided ? What are
the family distinctions of the Proboscidiana ? In what particulars do the
Pachydermata Ordinaria differ from the Pruboscidiana ? What arc the
family distinctions of the Solipcdes ?

17. What are Proboscidiana? How are thr-y recognised? Where are
the mam race situate? What number of genera is included in this family ?

18. What are the general characters of animals belonging to the genus of
Elephants ? What is the trunk ? What functions are performed by the
trunk ?

ELEPHANTS. 99

open a lock, and even write with a pen. The eyes are small,
and the pupil round ; the ears are wide and lie close against the
head, but quite moveable ; the parietes of the cranium contain
great vacuities which augment the size of the head, and render
the front projecting ; the skin is thick, hard, and wrinkled, and
almost without hair ; the tail is small. These animals have sharp
sight ; their hearing is quick, their sense of smell delicate, their
intelligence developed, their perception ready, their prudence ex-
treme : they remember kindness as well as harshness Their gait
is heavy, but the length of their steps gives rapidity to their march.

19. Although the Elephant is the most vigorous and most power-
ful of quadrupeds, in a state of nature he is neither cruel nor
formidable. Peaceful as he is brave, he never abuses his power,
or exerts his strength, except in his own defence ; he is rarely
seen alone in the desert. The herds usually consist of from forty
to one hundred Elephants. The oldest marches at the head of the
troop, and the next in age watches the rear.

20. It has been said, the Elephant never lies down ; but this is
an error ; he lies on his side, and sleeps profoundly.

21. Elephants are tamed when taken young; they may be
employed for the purpose of transport. They carry about two
thousand pounds weight, and will travel without being very much
fatigued, a distance of from fifteen to twenty leagues. These ani-
mals swim well ; they live to the age of nearly two hundred years,

22. Two species of Elephants are known: 1st. The Indian or
Asiatic Elephant, — Ekphas Indicus, — has an oblong head, con-
cave front, ears of middling size, and four nails on the hind feet.
(Plate 5. fig. 1.) It is met with in all the warm parts of India,
where the natives pursue, take, tame, and employ it as a beast of
burthen and draught. Its tusks often remain very short.

23. 2d. The African Elephant, — Elephas JJfricanus, —
( Plate 5, fig. 2 ) has a round head, a convex front ; the ears are
large, and there are but three nails on the hind feet. It inhabits
Africa from Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope. It is more fierce
than that of India, and its tusks are much longer ; the female has
them as long as the male. They have not yet succeeded in
taming this species.

19. Is the Elephant solitary in his habits ?

20. How does the Elephant sleep ?

21. What weight can an Elephant carry? To what age do Elephants
live?

22. How many species of Elephants are known ? What are the charac-
ters of the Indian Elephant 'f

23. What are the characters of the African Elephant ? Has this species
been tamed ?

9*

100 PACHYDERMATA ORDINARTA. ___

24. [In Siam there is a variety of elephant which is white,
and held in religious veneration.]

25. The tusks of elephants furnish true ivory; it is known by
the curved lozenge formed lines its cut surface exhibits when
polished. That which is obtained from the animal immediately
after its death is called green ivory ; it is more esteemed than the
other, which comes from tusks, found a long time after they have
been separated from the animal. It is said the first is least liable
to become yellow.

26. An elephant, found some years ago in the ice on the coast
of Siberia, appears to have been covered with a coat of thick hair
and fur, which leads to the supposition that this species, which
has long since disappeared from the earth, lived in cold climates.

27. The Mammoth and Mastodon are extinct species belong-
ing to the family of Proboscidians.

LESSON IX.

FAMILY OP PACHYDERMATA ORDINARIA. — Genus of Hippopotamus.

— Genus of Hogs, ( Wild Hog, Domestic Hoy.) — Genus of

Rhinoceros.
FAMILY OF SOLIPEDES. — Horse. — Habits. — Signs of the age of

Horses. — Principal Races. — Ass. — Zebra. — Couagga. —

Onagga.

FAMILY OF PACHYDERMATA ORDINARIA.

1. This family is distinguished from the preceding, because the
animals belonging to it have no trunk, or at least no prehensile
trunk, and from the family which follows, because the animals
composing it have several distinct toes. They are more or less
omnivorous. It is divided into several genera, amongst which
we will mention the following :

24. What kind of Elephants arc found in Siam ?

25. What is ivory ? What is green ivory ?

26. Has an Elephant with a h iiry skin ever been found ?

27. What are Mammoths and Mastadons ?

1. How is the family of ordinary Pachydermata distinguished from other
Pachydermata ? What are the chiract TS of the River Horse ? What are
the characters of the Hog ? What are the characters of *he Rhinoceros 1
What are the characters of the Tapirs 7

HIPPOPOTAMUS. 101

(Genera.)
Four equal toes. - HIPPOPOTAMUS.

PACHYDERMATA

f Equal, and the TwQ ,

foot having the t rmed*ilh slrong
appearance ot be-^ hoof while the ,ale_

ing forked. I

late- Y
und. J

ORDINARIA. I Having on all the j IQ regt Qn the found
Having toes in ' feet I.

number f Tliree toes on all

RHINOCEROS.

Unequal, and j the feet,
the f tot not } Four toes before and T
forked. [ three behind.

2. The HIPPOPOTAMUS, — the River Horse, — (Plate 5, fig. 4.)
Animals of this genus have a massive body, short legs and tail,
inflated muzzle, and the skin almost free of hair.

3. These animals, whose belly almost reaches the ground, so
short are their extremities, live in the rivers of southern Africa,
and feed on vegetable substances. They are brownish black,
and are from ten to eleven feet long, and from four to five feet in
height. They seek their food in the water as well as on land.
Sometimes three or four of them are seen together in a river, or
near a cataract, forming a sort of line and rushing upon the fishes
which the rapidity of the current brings towards them. They
swim with great vigor, and remain a long time under water with-
out any necessity of breathing the air ; they conduct themselves
with so much precaution, rising so little above the surface of the
water, that they can scarcely be seen. During the night, they
leave the rivers to visit plantations of sugar, millet, or rice, which
they devour with avidity : they are so impetuous in their march,
that they break down every thing that comes in their way.
Their fierce character renders them very formidable.

4. HOGS, — »Sws, — also have four toes on all the feet, but two of
them are very large, directed forwards, and two which are very
small and external, scarcely touch the ground. Their incisors
vary in number, and the canines protrude from the mouth, and
are all recurved like true tusks ; their muzzle is terminated by a
truncated, fleshy button, suitable for rooting the ground. Their
sense of smell is very fine, and their tongue is soft. They live
in troops in forests, where they feed on roots and fruits although,
they manifest no repugnance to animal food. To this genus be-
longs :

2. How are animals of the genus Hippopotamus distinguished ?

3. What are the general characters of animals of this genus ?

4. What are the characters and habits of Hogs?

102 HOGS.— RHINOCEROS.— TAPIRS.

5. The Wild Hog, — Sus Scropha, — which is the parent stock
of our Domestic Hog, has a thick, short body, straight ears,
prismatic tusks which curve outwards, hair bristled and blackish.
It is smaller than the hog, and does not vary in its colour, it is
always a dark iron gray, with black ears, feet and tail. Its
muzzle is longer than that of the hog, and its tusks which arise
from the two jaws are much larger ; they sometimes grow to be
a foot long ; the inferior ones are most formidable and inflict
serious wounds.

It produces six or eight young ones at a birth every year ;
which are striped black and white.

6. The Domestic Hog, varies in size, in the length of its ex-
tremities, in the direction of its ears and in colour ; it is white
or black, or reddish, or variegated : its fecundity is much in-
creased by domestication, the sow producing two litters every
year of from twelve to fifteen pigs each. The hog continues to
grow for five or six years, and may live twenty. It is very
voracious, and does not even spare its own young. This is one
of the most useful of animals, on account of the quality of its
flesh and lard, and from the facility of feeding, and multiplying
it. There are many varieties.

7. The RHINOCEROS,— (Plate 5. Jig. 3.) is a large, dull animal,
remarkable for the great thickness of its skin, and the solid horn
it carries on its nose, the bones of which are very thick, and
united in the form of an arch to sustain it. This horn, which is of
a fibrous, horny nature, adheres to the skin and seems to be com-
posed of agglutinated hairs ; it has no bony axis in its centre
like the horns of the ruminants.

8. Animals of this genus inhabit the warmest parts of the old
continent and are generally found in places where elephants are
met with. They seek shady and humid situations, and wallow,
like the Hippopotamus and Hog, to supple their hide. Their intel-
ligence 4s very limited, and their nature is fierce and indomitable.

9. Several species are known, some of which belong to India,
and the others to Africa.

10. TAPIRS are animals which very much resemble the Hog,
but are distinguished from it at first sight by the small fleshy

5. What is the wild Hog?

6. What are the habits of the Domestic Hog ? Why is this a very use-
ful animal ?

7. What is the Rhinoceros ?

8. What are the habits of the Rhinoceros ?

9. In what parts of the world is the Rhinoceros found ?
10, What are Tapirs?

FAMILY OF SOLTPEDES. 103

trunk, formed by the prolongation of their nose, which is suscep-
tible of being elongated and shortened, but it is not an organ of
prehension like that of the elephant.

1 1 . The American Tapir, — Tapir Jlmericanus — which is com-
mon in humid places in the warm countries of South America,
is about the size of a small ass. Its skin, which is nearly bare,
is brown. Its flesh is eaten. A second species inhabits the most
elevated regions of the Cordilleras of the Andes, and has long,
black hair ; it seems to have given rise to a great many fabulous
stories among the Indians. A third species is found in the forests
of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. The griffin of the ancients,
which is generally regarded altogether as a fabulous animal, might
have been this latter, a little disfigured by' voyagers, and to which
artists have added wings and a tail in architectural style.

FAMILY OF SOLIPEDES.

12. The Family of Solipedes comprises all quadrupeds that
have but a single toe apparent, and consequently a single hooC
This family includes but one genus.

1 3. The genus HORSE, — ECJUHS,— comprises the Horse properly
so called, the Ass, the Zebra, and several other species.

14. These animals have six trenchant incisors in each jaw,
which, in the earlier years of life, have a hollow or depres-
sion on the crown, and on each side of them six molars. The
males have besides in the upper jaw, and sometimes in both, two
small canines which are almost always wanting in the female.
Between these canines and the first molar, there is a vacant space,
(called barre in French,) in which rests the bit by the means of
which man overcomes and controls this animal. They have a
projecting eye with a pupil in the form of a long square, the ear
is long and moveable, the nares without muzzle, the tongue
very soft, the sense of hearing acute ; their upper lip is very
moveable and serves them as an instrument of prehension ; the
whole body is covered in a thick coat of hair, with a mane on
the neck ; their tail is of moderate size but often adorned with
long hair. Horses are essentially herbivorous, though their
stomach is simple in form and moderate in size. The Horse is
contented with the commonest grass when accustomed to it from
an early period. He is fond of dry pasturages ; in the stable he

11. What is the American Tapir ?

12. What animals belong to the family of Solipedes ?

13. What animals are included in the genus Horse ?

14. What is the dental system of the Horse ? What are the characters of
the Horse? Upon what does he feed ?

104 HORSES.

feeds on hay, luzerne, trefoil, vetches, oats ; wheat, barley, and
oat straw, also agree with him when he gets at the same time,
a portion of good hay and grain.

15. The Horse properly so ca lied is distinguished from other
species of this genus by the uniform colour of his robe, and by
his tail being ornamented with long hair from its origin. He ex-
ceeds them also in height as well as in the beauty of his form.

16. The Horse, the noble companion of man in war and the
labours of the field, the arts and commerce, is the most impor-
tant, and most carefully attended of all the animals which we
have brought under our control. It is originally from the great
plains of central Asia, but is now spread in great numbers
throughout almost all parts of the world, and no longer exists in
the wild state, except in places where horses, previously domesti-
cated, have been left at liberty, as in Tartary and America ; the
importation of these animals into the latter country dates only
about three hundred years back, and, nevertheless, wild horses
exist there in immense numbers. It is asserted that troops con-
sisting of more than ten thousand individuals aie occasionally
met with.

17. The Horse may live about thirty years; but when old, he
loses nearly all his estimable qualities ; before he attains four or
five years, he cannot be mounted or employed in draught; for
this reason, it will be perceived, it is very important to be able
to ascertain the age of horses ; up to the age of about eight
years it may be known with certainty, by the successive changes
which occur in the dental system, but beyond this period, there is
no positive sign of their age, and they say, they mark no longer,
because at that time, the hollows on the surface of their incisors
have been effaced.

18. Horses vary very much from each other in size, the beauty
of their form, and in their speed, and several different races are
distinguished amongst them. The most celebrated is the»tfra6mw,
which is small in size but admirable in form, and extremely swift.
The English horses owe their good qualities in a great measure
to their mixture with the Arabian. In France, there are several
races which are more or less prized; the horses of Limousin are
most esteemed for the saddle; the Norman race is equally prized,

15. How is the Hoi se properly so called, distinguished from oilier species
of thin gen os ?

16. Where is the Horse originally from ? Does the Horse exist in a wild
state ?

17. To what age do Horses live? By what means may we ascertain the
age of Horses ?

18. What races of Horses are most esteemed ?

ASS.— ZEBRA.— COUAGGA.—ONAGGA. 105

but is not so fine ; the race of Bretagne is principally employed
in posting, and the race of Boulogne for draught and similar
service.

19. The .Ass, — Equus rfsinus, — is known by his size, which is
generally smaller than that of the horse ; by his long ears ; by the
black cross over his shoulders, and by the tuft of hair which termi-
nates the tail. Though not so powerful as the horse, but being
more patient and quiet, he is not less valuable to the inhabitants
of the country. Comparatively, he is stronger and hardier than
his happy rival. Subject to fewer diseases, his life is sustained at
little cost. He is only particular in his drink, and requires pure,
limpid water. He is three or four years before he attains his full
growth, and lives from twenty to twenty-five years ; he sleeps
less than the horse.

20. When young, the Ass is animated and sprightly ; but bad
treatment soon destroys his vivacity : he becomes slow, stupid,
and headstrong.

21. The milk of the Ass, which very closely resembles that of
woman, is considered to be a wholesome diet, and even a remedy
in some diseases, such as phthisis.

22. The Zebra, — Equus Zebra, — which is very like the Ass in
form and proportions, is one of the most elegant and most intrac-
tible of animals. His skin has the softness of satin, and is adorned
with beautiful ribbon-like stripes. In the female these stripes are
alternately black and white ; and in the male, brown and yellow.
The body is round and full ; the limbs are remarkably slender.
His voice resembles the sound of a hunter's horn. The Zebra is
found principally in the southern parts of Africa ; numerous
troops are often seen grazing on the extensive plains of the Cape
of Good Hope.

23. [The Ct)uagqa,—Eqtms Quaccha, — which resembles the
Horse more than the Zebra, is striped only on the shoulders and
back. His name is derived from his cry, which resembles the
barking of a dog. The colonists of the vicinity of the Cape of
Good Hope, have accustomed it to harness, and keep it with their
herds, which, they say, it protects from hyenas and other ferocious
animals of the same size.

24. The Onagga,—E(juns Montanns, — or mountain horse,
which has not been very long known to naturalists, is smaller

19. What is the Ass ? What are his ciiaracters ?

20. What effect has bad treatment on the Ass?

21. What are (he peculiarities of Ass's milk ?

22. What is the Zebra ? Where is the Zebra found ?

23. What is the Couagga? For what purpose is it used If

24. What are the characters of the Onagga ?

106 ORDER OF RUMINANT! A.

than the Ass, and is marked on the head, neck and trunk by alter-
nately wide and narrow black stripes upon an Isabella or bay
ground. His legs and tail are white.]

LESSON X.

ORDER OP RUMINANTIA — Zoological Characters. — Peculiarities
of their organization. — Humiliation.

RUMINANTS WITHOUT HORNS. — Genus of Camels. — Camels proper-
ly so called. — Peculiarities of organization. — Habits and uses.
— Camel with one hump, Camel with two humps. — llamas,
(Guanaco,Victniia) — Genus of Musks.

RUMINANTS WITH HORNS. — Genus of Slags. — Deer. — Habits,
(Fallow Deer, Common Stag, Roebuck, Rein-Deer, Elk.) —
Genus of Giraffes. — Genus of Antelopes, (Gazelle, Chamois.)
— Genus of Goats, (Wild Goat, Bouquetin or Ibex, Domestic
Goat.)

ORDER OF RUMINANTIA.

1. All the animals belonging to this order, seem to have been
constructed on the same model. Their name is derived from the
circumstance of chewing the cud.

2. They all have incisors only in the lower jaw, always eight
in number.

3. They have on each foot two toes enveloped in two hoofs,
which apply one to the other, by their internal sides, so that their
feet have the appearance of being cleft or cloven.

4. The two bones of the metacarpus, and of the metatarsus,
are joined in a single one, which is called the canon bone.

5. They are all herbivorous and have four stomachs. ( Plate 6.
fg. 4. and 5.) The first and largest is called the paunch (rumen,)
the second is named honey-comb, or bonnet, (reticiilttw,) the
third the leaflet, the Manyplies, or the Omasum, (psalterium,) and
the fourth the Caillette (abomasus,) or rennet-bag.

1. From what circumstance do animals of the order of Ruminantia
derive the name?

2. What is remarked of their incisor teeth ?

3. How many toes have Ruminants ?

4. What is the Canon bone ?

5. What is the peculiarity of the digestive apparatus of the Ruminantia?

RUMINATION. 107

6. When these animals feed they swallow their aliments at
first without having chewed them, These substances then enter
into the paunch and there accumulate ; thence they pass into the
second stomach (reticulum ;) but after having remained there for
a certain time they are carried back again into the mouth to be
chewed, and afterwards swallowed again ; and when they descend
again into the stomach, they no more enter the paunch or reticu-
lum, but go directly to the mam/plies (third stomach) from which
they pass into the fourth stomach or rennet-bag, where they are
digested.

7. At first, one is astonished to see food pass at one time into
the paunch and reticulum, at another into the many piles, (third
stomach,) according as it has been swallowed for the first time,
or after it has been regurgitated, and one is tempted to attribute
this phenomenon to a sort of tact with which the openings of
these different digestive pouches seem to be endowed. But there
is nothing of the kind, this result being the necessary consequence
of the anatomical arrangement of the parts. The oesophagus
terminates below in a species of gutter or longitudinal slit, which
occupies the upper part of the reticulum, (second stomach) and
the paunch, and is continued to the manyplies. Ordinarily, the
edges of the slit, of which we have just spoken, lie close together,
and then this gutter constitutes a perfect tube which leads from
the oesophagus into the manyjjlies (third stomach ;) but if the
alimentary ball swallowed by the animal is solid, and somewhat
large, it distends this tube, and separates the edges of the open-
ing through which the oesophagus communicates with the two
first stomachs : the food falls into these pouches ; but if the
alimentary ball be soft and pulpy, as is the case when mastica-
tion has been completed, the matter swallowed, enters into this
same tube without separating the edges of the slit, and reaches the
third stomach.

8. It is by this mechanism that unchewed food which the ani-
mal swallows for the first time, stops in the paunch and reticulum ;
while, after it has been chewed a second time and well mixed
with saliva, it penetrates directly into the manyplies.

6. What becomes of the food wh< n first swal'owed by Ruminants?
After it has been for a time in the second stomach, what becomes of it?
What becomes of the food after it has been swallowed a second time ?

7. What is the reason why food swallowed thcjirst time does not enter
the third and fourth stomach ? Why does no*, the food enter the first and
second stomach after it has been chewed and swallowed a second time ?
What is the anatomical arrangement of the stomachs and oesophagus of the
Rurninai tia?

8. What is the effect of this arrangement ?

10

108 DIVISION OF THE ORDER OF RUMINANTS.

9. The mechanism by which aliment accumulated in the first
stomach is carried back to the mouth is also very simple. When
regurgitation begins, the reticulum contracts and presses the
alimentary mass against the slit-like opening which terminates
the oesophagus ; then this opening enlarges so as to seize a pinch
or portion of the alimentary mass, compresses it and forms it
into a small pellet which engages in the oesophagus, the fibres of
which contract successively from below upwards, to push for-
ward the new alimentary ball into the mouth.

10. Ruminants are large animals without much intelligence,
but which, nevertheless, render immense service to man : they
furnish him with nearly all the meat that he eats ; their milk
furnishes us excellent food; their fat, which is harder than that
of other quadrupeds, and named tallow is applied to many pur-
poses in the arts and domestic economy ; their skin, prepared by
tanning, constitutes nearly all the leather we use ; finally, their
horns, their bones, their blood, and even their intestines which
are manufactured into cords, are useful to us ; when living, many
of these animals, employed as beasts of burthen, are equally
valuable both in commerce and agriculture.

11. This order may be divided into two sections: the first
comprises Ruminants without horns, and the second, Ruminants
with horns, either in both sexes, or in the male only.

Ruminants without Horns.

12. Ruminants, which are entirely without horns, also differ
from other Ruminants in their teeth, and somewhat resemble the
Pachydermata. They are divided into two small tribes which
may be recognised by the following characters :

(Tribes.)

RUMINANTS WITHOUT HORNS. \ Six incisor tedh .... CAMEL.
The lower jaw provided with ) Eight incisor teeth - . - MUSK.

13. The, Tribe of Camels is composed of Camels propely so
called, and Lamas. These animals differ from all other Rumin-
ants in the number of their incisors, which is eight in all the rest
of this order, and in their molars, of which we count from twenty

9. By what process is food carried back fro a the second stomach to the
mouth ?

10. What are Ruminants? In what particulars are they useful to man ?

11. Howls the order of Ruminantia divided?

12. Into what tribes are Ruminants without horns divided ? How many
incisor teeth have Camels? How many incisor teeth have Musks?

13. What animals are included in the tribe of Camels? How many molar
leeth have they ? What are the general characters of Camels?

CAMELS.— LAMAS. 109

to twenty-two instead of twenty-four. The conformation of their
extremities is equally characteristic, for their feet are not cloven,
and they have very small hoofs ; the neck is very long, their limbs
badly proportioned, and their upper lip inflated and cleft. Their
gentleness is remarkable.

14. CAMELS PROPERLY so CALLED, — Caaielus,— are distinguished
by the enormous humps of fat they have on the back; which
makes them appear hump-backed, and by the structure of their
feet which are admirably adapted for travelling on the sand, so
common in the regions inhabited by these animals : in fact, their
two toes are joined underneath nearly to their ends by a thick,
flexible sole.

15. These animals belong to the warm parts of the old conti-
nent. They are celebrated for their docility, for the faculty
which they possess of sustaining long journeys, though heavily
laden, and particularly for their great gentleness Camels, with-
out which, perhaps man never could have traversed the vast,
sandy deserts which are found in Asia and Africa, have the
faculty of passing several days without drinking, which is proba-
bly owing to the presence of a number of cells in the parietes of
the paunch, where the water is retained or continually produced ;
on this account they have been called ships oj the desert.

16. The two principal species of the genus of camels are; the
Bactrian Camel, or Camel with two humps, and Arabian Camel,
or Camel with one hump, which is called the Dromedary, —
Came lus Dromedarhis.

" The variety to which the name of Dromedary properly belongs,
with the weight of a man, only, can perform very lengthened
journeys, and at a very rapid quick pace. Several of these attend
the caravans when crossing any of the African deserts, perform-
ing the offices of scouts and keeping a look out both for danger
from the wandering tribes, and for the approach to the water
stations. These will travel from seventy to one hundred and
twenty miles in the twenty four hours.

" It is related by a modern traveller,' That one of these animals
will in one night, and through a level country, traverse as much
ground as any simple horse can perform in ten. It was often
affirmed to him by the Arabs and Moors, that it makes nothing of
holding its rapid pace, which is a most violent hard trot, for four
and twenty hours upon a stretch, without showing the least sign

14. How are Camels properly so called recognised ?

15. What is the general character of the Camel ? What peculiar faculty
is possessed by the Camel ? How do you account for the Camel being able
to pass several days without drinking ?

16. What are the principal species of the genus Camel?

GUANACO.— VICUNIA.— MUSK.

of weariness, or inclination to bait, and that having then swallowed
a ball or two of a sort of paste, made up of barley, and perhaps
a little powder of dates among it, with a bowl of water or camel's
milk, if to be had, and which the courier seldom fails to be pro-
vided with in skins, as well as for the sustenance of himself as of
his pegasus, the indefatigable animal will seem as fresh as at first
setting out, and ready to continue running at the same scarce
credible rate for as many hours longer, and so on from one ex-
tremity of the African desert to the other.' "

17. The Bactrian Camel, — Camelus Bactrianus, — is about
seven feet high to the shouders : he is much more powerful than
the Dromedary in proportion to his size.

1 8. The LAMAS, — Jlitclnnia, — are the camels of the new world,
but, if they are less ugly than those of Asia, they possess neither
their size nor strength. Their proportions are lighter : they have
no humps, and their toes not being joined, they retain their
mobility which enables them to climb rocks and mountains with
the agility of Goats. Two species are known: the Guanaco
and V icy nia.

19. [The Guanaco,— Camelus Llama,— (Plate 5, fig. 5.)— is
met with in the high mountains of South America ; it is the size
of a stag, and its coat is thick, and of a chestnut colour. A
variety of this species, very long since domesticated, is known
under the name of Lama, or Llama. At the time of the con-
quest of Peru by the Spaniards, it was the only beast of burthen
of that country, and in our day, it is still employed for the same
purpose ; it carries a load of about one hundred and fifty pounds,
but makes very short journeys. Another variety of the domestic
Guanaco is the Alpaca, or Paco, the fleece of which is composed
of long, woolly hair, which, in fineness and elasticity, is not much
inferior to the most beautiful wool of the goats of Thibet.

20. The Vicunia, (Vicunia,) — Camclits Vicunna, — which is
rather larger than a sheep, is also remarkable for its beautifully
soft, yellowish, brown wool. It inhabits along the line of per-
petual snow of the Andes of Chile and Peru ; it is actively hunted
on account of its wool which is manufactured into valuable stuffs,
and hats.]

21. The Tribe of Musks, — Moschus, — includes only one genus.
These are charming animals from their elegance and lightness ;

17. WhaMs the Bactrian Camel ?

18. What are Lamas? What are their habits? How many species of
Lamas are known ?

19. What is the Guanaco ? Where is it found ? Is it applied to any use ?
What is the Alpaca or Paco?

20. For what is the Vicunia remarkable ?

21. What are Musks? What genera belong to this tribe ?

RUMINANTS WITH HORNS. 111

all belong to central or southern Asia ; they have no incisors in
the upper jaw, nor canines in the lower, but are distinguished by
a long canine on each side of the upper jaw which, in the male,
descends upon the lower lip and protrudes from the mouth. To
this genus belongs the species named, the Musk, — Mosc/ius Mos-
cliiferus, — which is found in Thibet ; it is the size of a goat : it
furnishes musk, which substance is found with the male in a
pouch beneath the belly.

Ruminants with Horns.

22. All the animals comprised in this section, of the male sex
at least, have two horns the centre of which is formed by pro-
jections of greater or less length of the frontal bone. Three kinds
of horns are distinguished in Ruminants.

23. Sometimes, as in the Giraffe, they are enveloped in a hairy
skin, which is continuous with that of the head, and do not perish
or shed.

24. At other times, as is seen in the genus of STAGS,. the above
mentioned projections or processes, covered for a time by hairy
skin like that of the rest of the head, have at their base a ring of
bony tubercles which, by enlarging, compress and obliterate the
nutritious vessels of this skin. It dries, and is removed : the bony
prominence, thus laid bare , separates at the end of a certain time
from the cranium, and falls, leaving the animal without horns :
but he replaces them with new ones, which become still more
developed than those they have replaced, and in their turn they
also fall, from the influence of the same causes. Those bony
horns which are liable to periodical changes, bear the name of
deciduous horns, (antlers.)

25. Again, the bony part of the horns is covered in a case of
elastic substance which grows by layers through the whole period
of life ; the horns of the ox are of this kind ; they never fall.
Those Ruminants which have similar prominences or projections
are named, Ruminants with hollow horns.

26. In the family of Ruminants with horns, the incisor teeth
of the lower jaw are always eight in number, and the total num-
ber of molars is twenty-four : the feet are cleft or cloven.

22. How are Ruminants with horns distinguished ? How many kinds of
horns are possessed by Ruminants ?

23. What kinds of horns have Giraffes ?

24. By what process do Stags shed their horns ? What are those horns
called which are shed periodically ?

25. vWhat kind of horns have Oxen ?

26. What is the number of incisor teeth in Ruminants with horns ? What
is the number of their molars ?

10*

112 DIVISION OF RUMINANTS WITH HORNS.

27. Ruminants with horns are divided into genera in the follow-
ing manner :

27. How are Ruminants with horns divided into genera ? (See table) What
kind of horns has the Stag? What genera have permanent horns ? What
genus has the horns covered with hairy skin ? What is the character of the
homs of the Antelope ? What kind of horns has the Goat? What kind of
horns have Sheep ? What is the character of the horns of the Ox ?

STAG.— FALLOW DEER. 113

-- -

28. The genus STAG, — Cervus, — includes all Ruminants that,
in the male sex, have deciduous horns on the head ; these horns
are always wanting in the female, with the single exception of
the species named Rein-deer. All these animals inhabit forests,
and are fleet in the chase ; their limbs are long and slender, the
body light and round, the coat clean and shining : in general
they are remarkable for the beauty and elegance of their forms ;
ordinarily, they shed their horns in the spring.

29. A great number of different species are known, among
which we will mention, the common Stag, the Fallow Deer, the
Roebuck, the Rein-Deer, and the Elk.

30. The Stag, properly so called, the common Stag, — Cervus
Elephns, — (Plate. 5. fry. 7.) — is found in forests. The female is
named a Hind or Doc, and the young is called a Fawn. The
male only has horns. At about six months old there is perceived
on the head two tubercles ; at this time the animal is called a
Knnbbcr ; at one year old these tubercles are lengthened, and
though simple, they are from five to ten inches long. At this
period the animal loses the skin that covers them, the horns remain,
naked for sometime before they fall, and the Knobber takes the
name of Pricket, Brock, or Stayyurd. When the Fawn reaches
his third year, he loses the spikes or spears, and the horns which
replace them ordinarily have three brances and are called Antlers.
During each succeeding year to the seventh, the horns, on being
reproduced, have an additional antler, so that the horns of old
Stags are generally composed of seven branches which spring
from a common stalk.

31. This animal is very delicate in his choice of food, which
usually consists of herbs or young buds and roots of different
trees. When his hunger is satisfied, he retires to the shade of"
some dense foliage and ruminates, but with more difficulty than
the cow or sheep ; he makes a hiccough-sort of noise the whole
time : his hearing and sense of smell are very fine.

32. The Fallow Deer, — Cervus Dama,—is not so large as the
Stag ; he has a longer tail, black above and white below. His

28. Wi at animals belong to the genus Stag? Have all the females of
this genus bom?-? What are the general ch sracters of animals of this genus?

29. Is ihere more than one species of :he genus Stig?

30. Where is the Stag properly FO called found ? What is the female Stag
called ? What is a Fawn ? What is the young Stag called when its horns
are first peri eiv :d ? What is the animal when it is a year eld ? When do
the Antlers appear ? What is th« greatest number of Antlers possessed by a
Stag?

31. On what does the Stag feed ?

32. What are the characters of the Fallow-Deer ? Is this Deer found wild ?

114 ROEBUCK.— REIN-DEER.— ELK.

horns, in place of being branched and round, are flattened and
palmate. The two species dislike each other and never dwell or
pasture in the same places. Fallow-deers ordinarily live twenty
years, and attain their full growth at the end of three. They are
rarely found wild ; they are reared in parks, and are kept for the
amusement and luxury of the great.

33. They browse more closely than the Stag, and feed on
many vegetables that Stags refuse to eat ; they are very in-
jurious to young trees, which they despoil of their bark.

34. The Roebuck, — Cermis Cupreolus, — is of a more or less
deep yellowish gray, white buttock and almost without tail.
He lives in the tall forests of temperate Europe. His horns are
six or eight inches long ; they are strong, straight and divided at
the extremity into three branches. The length of the Roebuck
rarely exceeds three feet and his height two and a half. He is
very animated, and his sense of smell is very acute. The dura-
tion of his life is from twelve to fifteen years.

35. Roebucks differ from all other deer in their habits. They
do not live in troops, but in families, The female manifests the
highest degree of maternal solicitude and affection ; she brings
forth two fawns at a birth, ordinarily a male and a female.

• 36. The Rein- Deer, — Cervus Tarandvs, — is of the size of the
stag, but has shorter legs. The female, like the male, has horns
which at a certain age are branched, in the form of enlarged den-
ticulate palms. (Plate 5. fig. 8.) The people of the northern
nations employ them in drawing sledges and carrying burthens,
and eat their flesh arid milk, Their activity is such that two
Rein-Deers harnessed to a sledge will travel from forty to fifty
leagues in a single day.

37. The Elk, — Cervus dices,— (Moose Deer,) is the largest
of all the animals of this genus ; his stature sometimes exceeds that
of a horse. His horns which stand out from the sides of the head,
form two flattened plates, deeply denticulated on the anterior
edge ; their weight sometimes reaches fifty pounds ; and to sup-
port them nature has given this animal a shorter and stouter neck
than any other deer : he is nevertheless, taller than most of them,
which forces him, when grazing on the ground, either to kneel or
spread his feet; but he feeds principally on leaves and high grass.
He delights in low forests and swamps, and inhabits the north of

33. Upon, what does the Fallow-Deer feed ?

34. What are the characters of the Roebuck ?

35. What are the habits of Roebucks ? ,

36. What are the characters of the Rein-deer ? To what purpose is this
animal applied ?

37. What are the characters of the Elk ? What are his habits ?

GIRAFFE.— ANTELOPES— GAZELLE.— CHAMOIS. 115

Europe, Asia, and America. He is a heavy animal, and is far from
possessing the grace and beauty that generally belong to the
Deers.

38. The genus GIRAFFE, — Cameleopardalis, — is distinguished
from all others by the horns, which are conical, and always
covered with hairy skin ; they are never shed, and exist in both
sexes. (Plate 5. fiy. 6.) Only one species is known. The Giraffe,
whose height when full grown, from the top of the head to the
fore feet, is about seventeen feet, has the skin beautifully spotted
brown on a white ground. His walk is neither clumsy nor disa-
greeable, but there is something in his trot that is ridiculous; his
favourite food is the leaf of acacia and ash trees. When he
browses on the ground, the length of his legs forces him to spread
them in order to reach his pasture. The Giraffe inhabits Africa.
The one, whose head is copied in the plate, was taken at Sanaar.

39. The genus of ANTELOPES is placed at the head of the group
of Ruminants with hollow horns, or horns with sheaths ; these
animals for the most part resemble stags in their light forms and
swiftness. Amongst the numerous species which are spread
through both continents, we will mention :

40. The Gazelle, — Antelope Dorcas, — is of the size of the
Roebuck, and possesses an elegant form ; the horns are black,
round, and thick ; the eye beautiful, and its look very soft. It
lives in very numerous troops and inhabits the north of Africa.

41. The Chamois, — Antelope /hipicapra, — (Plate 5, fig. 9.)—
is of the size of a large goat, but has shorter legs and a stouter
body than common antelopes, a deep brown coat with a black
stripe descending from the eye along the muzzle. These animals
are never contented except among the rocks, on precipices, where
they can be sheltered from the rays of the sun. Their agility is
surprising ; they venture upon almost perpendicular rocks from
twenty to thirty feet in height, without any means of insuring
their footing : they fly rather than run.

42. Animals of the genus of GOATS, — Copra, — have the horns
directed upwards and backwards, the chin is generally furnished
with a long beard and the chanfrin is concave. All the species
of this genus belong to Europe or Asia, and live in small families
on steep mountains, where they display astonishing agility.

38. How is the genus Giraffe distinguished from other Ruminants? What
are the characters of the Giraffe ? Where is this animal found ?

39. Whut are Antelopes ?

40. What is the Gazelle?

41. What are the characters of the Chamois?

42. What are the distinguishing characters of Goats ?

116 GOATS.

43. The jEgagre or Wild Goat, — Capra ^Egagrus, — (Plate
5. fig. 10.) seems to be the original stock of all the varieties of
our domestic goats; it is distinguished by having horns which
are trenchant in front and very large in the male, while they are
short and" sometimes entirely wanting in the female. It lives in
troops on the mountains of Persia, and perhaps also of the Alps.
The Oriental Bezoar is a concretion which is found in its intes-
tines.

44. The Bouquetin, or Ikes; — Capra Ibex, — is another species
of wild goat ; the male has large horns which are square in front,
and marked by transverse and projecting knots ; they are sHort
or wanting in the female ; his colour is yellow above, white be-
low, and he has a black stripe upon the back. He inhabits the
summits of lofty mountains in the old world.

45. The Domestic Goat, — Capia Hircus, — which seems to
have descended from the Wild Goat, or from a mixture of that
species and the Ibex, is found throughout Europe, and indeed, is
met with in almost all parts of the earth, for it is an animal that
costs little for maintenance, and yields large profits. It seems,
however, to be more fond of the mountains and steep rocks than,
cultivated fields. Its favourite food is the buds of young trees.
It is capable of enduring the greatest degree of atmospheric heat j
the tempest does not alarm, nor rain incommode it.

46. The milk of the goat is rich, nourishing, and medicinal.
The young is called a kid, the flesh of which is as much esteemed
by some persons as that of a lamb.

47. [Certain e!s%tic races furnish a most valuable down or fur.
Those of Thibet called Cashmere goats, are the most remarkable
in this respect : it is from their wool that the beautiful shawls of
the East are manufactured, which are so much used by the Turks,
and the imitation of which, for some years past, has become an
important branch of industry in France. The goats of Angora,
also, a great number of which are raised in Asia Minor, have an
extremely fine fleece, and those of the table land of Kirgis almost
rival the goats of Thibet. Unsuccessful attempts have been made
to introduce them into Europe.

48. Gloves of a fine kind are made of Goat skins prepared
by maceration, and it is from these skins that real Morocco

43. What is the wild Goat? What is Bezoar ?

44. What is the Ibex ?

45. What are the habits of the Domestic Goat?

46. What is a Kid ?

47. For what are Goats of Cashmere most valued ?

48. To what purposes are Goat skins applied ?

SHEEP. 117

leather is manufactured, being supposed to take the dye better
than those of sheep. Cordovan, another kind of leather, is pre-
pared from Goat skins, a manufacture that is extensively carried
on in Peru.]

LESSON XI.

Genus of Sheep, (Jlrgali, Mouflon, Domestic Sheep.) — Wool. —
Merinos. — Genus of the Ox, (Common Ox, Jluroch, Buffalo,
Bison, Yack.)—Use of Oxen.— Milk.— Butter. —Cheese. —
Leather.

ORDER OP CETACEA. — Zoological Characters. — Peculiarities of
Organization. — Habits. — Division into two Families. — Her-
bivorous Cetacea. — Manati. — Ordinary Cetacea. — Apparatus
of the Blowers. — Genus of Dolphins, (Dolphin, Porpoise.) —
Genus of Narwhals. — Genus of Cachalots. — Organization. —
Habits. — Spermaceti. — Genus of Whales. — Organization and
Habits. — Whalebone. — Fat. — Uses. — Whale Fishing.

1. The genus SHEEP, — Om, -is composed of animals whose
horns are directed at first backwards, and then incline spirally,
more or less forwards ; they are without a beard, and have a
convex chanfrin ; in other respects they do not differ very much
from goats.

Of the different species of the genus sheep, we will mention :

2. The Jlrgali of Siberia, — Ovis JLmmon — (Plate 5. fig. 11.)
The male of this species has very large horns, which are trian-
gular at their base, rounded at the angles, flattened in front,
striated behind: the female has compressed horns in the form of
a scythe ; the spring coat is smooth : of a grayish, fawn colour,
while that of winter is hard, thick, and reddish gray, with a white
or whitish muzzle, throat and belly ; the tail is very short.

3. This animal, which, it seems, should be considered as the
parent and stock of all varieties of the domestic Sheep, is
found in great numbers in Kamtschatka, in all the mountainous
regions of Central Asia and on the highest mountains of Bar-
bary, of Corsica, and of Greece. It grows to be as large as a
deer : it is an agile, active animal, with a very delicate sense of
smell, and is taken with very great difficulty. Its flesh is very
much esteemed by the natives of Kamtschatka.

1. What kind of animals belong to the genus of Sheep?

2. What are the the specific characters of the Argali ?

3. What animal is supposed to be the original stock of common Sheep ?
Where is the Argali found ?

118 SHEEP.

4. The Mouflon of Sardinia, — Ovis Musimon. — (Plate 5.
jig. 12.) which is found in Europe, Africa, and America, differs

from the Jlrgali in never growing to the same size : the female
rarely has horns, and when they do exist, they are very small.
There are varieties of the Mouflon which are partly or entirely
black; and others that are more or less white. This animal lives
in troops.

5. The Domestic Sheep, — Ovis Jiries: — when young, it is
called a lamb, the female, a sheep, and the male a ram ; this ani-
mal is too well known to require us to enter into details upon its
habits or zoological characters. It is reared in numerous flocks,
for the sake of the fleece, which consists of crisped hair called
wool, and is sheared every year. It is manufactured into stuffs,
cloth, &c. The fat of these animals, which is white and brittle,
is made into candles ; the intestines twisted and dried, form cat-
gut ; and their excrement affords a warm compost which con-
tributes powerfully to increase the fertility of the soil. The skin,
freed of its wool, is manufactured into various sorts of soft leather,
used for making gloves, lining shoes, &c., and prepared by other
processes, it is known as chamois leather, parchment, vellum, fyc.
Merino sheep, are remarkable for the fineness of their wool.
Formerly, their exportation from Spain was prohibited ; but they
are now carried to all parts of Europe, and the United States.
The first Merinos were imported into France in 1776, and there
are now in that country about 500,000, without counting the
mixed breeds.

6. The shearing of sheep takes place every year about the
month of May, June, or July, when, on separating the locks of
wool, a new growth is perceived. Sometimes, the wool is
washed on the back of the animal before it is cut ; but more fre-
quently it is cut without washing, because the greasiness which
it possesses protects it from the attacks of insects.

7. It is estimated that there are in France thirty millions of
sheep, which yield annually about fifty millions of pounds of
wocl, besides which about fifteen or twenty millions of pounds
are imported from Germany, to supply the manufactories of
woollen goods. England also imports from Germany about
twenty^ five millions of pounds annually, the produce of that
country not being sufficient, though very large, to meet the de-
mand of the manufacturers.

4. What is the Mouflon ?

5. To what uses is the domestic Sheep applied ? What are Merino
Sheep ?

6. How is wool obtained ?

7. In what countries do Sheep most abound ?

OX.— AUROCH. 119

8. The genus of the Ox, — Bos, — comprises those animals, the
horns of which are directed from the side, and turn upwards or
forwards in the form of a crescent; they are large animals with
a broad muzzle, short stature, and stout limbs, and are found on
both continents. They are also distinguished by a fold of skin that
hangs beneath the neck, which is called Dewlap. They delight
in humid and marshy situations. They are slower and heavier
than other Ruminants. The principal species are : the common
Ox, the Auroch, both originally of Europe, the Buffalo, the Yack,
which belong to Asia, the Bison and Musk Ox, which are indige-
nous to North America.

9. The Common Ox, — Ens 7'ot/n/s — which when young, is
called a 6V///, is characterised by a flat forehead which is longer
than it is broad ; round horns placed at the two extremities of a
ridge which separates the forehead from the occiput, and four
mammae which are arranged in pairs The male is called a Ball
and the female a Cow. As powerful as he is docile, the Ox is of
great use in domestic economy He draws waggons, ploughs, &c.

10. His flesh, which is very succulent, is eaten both fresh
and salted. By boiling, his skin forms glue ; by tanning, it is con-
verted into Li akn; which is chiefly manufactured into shoes ;
the hair enters into the composition of certain mortars ; the horns
are manufactured into toys, combs, and other utensils. His fat
is burned ; his blood makes good manure, and is used to manu-
facture a precious blue colour, known under the name of Prussian.
Jtiltie; it is also employed in refining sugars, and fish oils. The
membrane that covers the intestines, when dried, forms what is
called Gold-tH'atc.ii? s/tin^ and is used for covering balloons, for
beating gold into extremely thin leaves; and the milk of the cow
yields cream, cheese and butter. There are oxen in all parts of
the world, but they are originally from Europe and Asia

1 1 The Jlni-octi, — Bos Urns, — is the largest quadruped proper
to Europe. It is distinguished from the domestic Ox, by its
arched" forehead, which is broader than it is high, by the horns
being attached below the occipital crest, by a sort of curly wool
that covers the head and neck of the male, forming a short beard
under the throat, and by an additional pair of ribs It is there-
fore plain, that it is wrong to suppose that the Aurochs form the
original stock of our horned cattle.

8. What iirTmals belong to thi,- genus of the Ox ? What is the Dewlap ?
What are the principal t-pe< ies of this genus '?

9. How is the common Ox charac erised ?

10. To whiit purposes is the bo.Jy of the Ox applied? What is Prussian
blue made of ? What is Gold-beaters' skin ? What use is made of it ?

11. What is the Auroch?

11

120 BUFFALO.— YACK.— MUSK OX.— BI SO N.

12. The Auroch formerly inhabited all temperate Europe ; now
the race is almost extinct, and only a few individuals are found,
that have taken refuge in the great marshy forests of Lithuania,
of the Krapacs, and of Caucasus.

13. The Buffalo,— Bos Bnbalits — (Plate 6, fig. 1.) — originally
from India and naturalised in Italy and Greece, has a convex fore-
head, higher than wide, and the horns marked in front by a longi-
tudinal ridge. It is less docile than the Ox, but is more robust,
and more easily fed. Its skin is converted into a strong, dura-
ble kind of leather ; the horns are of a very fine grain, and are
susceptible of a high polish. The Buffalo loves to wallow in the
mud ; he is an excellent swimmer, and sometimes dives to a depth
of ten or twelve feet, to tear up with his horns certain aquatic
plants that he eats while swimming.

14. The Yack, also called the Horse-tailed Buffalo, and
Grunting Cow of tartary, — Bos Grunuiens, — (Plate 5, fiy. 13.)
— is a species originally from Thibet, and is of small size. The
Yack has a long mane on his back and his tail is covered with
long hairs like that of a horse This tail constitutes the standards
still used among the Turks to distinguish the superior officers.

15. The ;)/?/.*/< Ox of America, — IJ«s Moschatvat~(Plate6.
fig. 2.) — inhabits the most northern parts of America, under the
polar circle, and climbs rocks almost as well as a goat. The
horns meet at their base in front of the forehead almost on a
straight line, and are directed outwards and downwards. It
stands low, and is covered with tufted hair that reaches to the
ground. The tail is very short. It diffuses a strong smell of
musk with which its flesh is also impregnated. The Esquimaux
make caps of the tail, the hairs of which falling over their face,
defend them from mosquitoes.

16. The Bison, or American Buffalo, — Bos Rison ; Kos Ameri-
canus, — also inhabits North America, but not to so high a latitude
as the preceding. He is met with from Louisiana to within a
few degrees of the polar circle. He lives in great herds, pell-mell
with deer and stags on the vast open savannas or prairies, and
abounds in the vicinity of the sources of the Missouri and Missis-
sippi rivers, and is always found near salt-licks. He is smaller
than the Auroch, but larger than the domestic Bull. His limbs
andtailare short. The anterior part of his body is very thick

12. Where is the Auroch found ?

13. What is the Buffalo? Whore is it found ? To what uses is it ap.
phed ? What are it* habits ?

14. What is the Yni-k ? What use is made of its tail?

15. Where is the Musk Ox found ? What kind of an animal is it ?

16. Where is the Bison found? What are its characters ?

BISON, OR, AMERICAj^BUFFALa 121

and strong, but the croup is comparatively more feeble. A fleshy
hump rises on the withers between the two shoulders; this wen,
the distinctive characteristic of the Bison, is regarded by the
Indians as a luscious morsel. His head is large ; his horns round,
short, almost straight, and set wide apart at the base. A thick,
curly wool of a brownish black colour, which in winter, grows
very long, covers his head, neck, and shoulders, while the rest of
his body is furnished with smooth black hair. His skin is very
thick and spongy, like that of the Buffalo. Although heavy in
appearance, he is swift of foot ; he is savage, but may be tamed
if taken young.

17. The flesh is juicy, and well flavoured. The skin makes an
excellent blanket when dressed ; and the wool has in England
been manufactured into a fine cloth. Pemmican is made of the
flesh and fat of the American Buffalo.

18. "The Bison wanders constantly from place to place, either
from being disturbed by hunters, or in quest of food. They are
much attracted by the soft tender grass, which springs up after a
fire has spread over the prairie. In winter, they scrape away
the snow with their feet, to reach the grass. The Bison is, in
general, a shy animal, and takes to flight immediately on wind-
ing an enemy, which the acuteness of its sense of smell enables
it to do from a great distance. They are less wary when they
are assembled together in numbers, and will often blindly follow
their leaders, regardless of, or trampling down the hunters posted
in their way. It is dangerous for the hunter to shew himself
after having wounded one, for it will pursue him, and, although
its gait may appear heavy and awkward, it will have no great
difficulty in overtaking the fleetest runner. One of the Hudson
Bay Company's clerks was descending the Saskatchewan in a
boat, and having one evening pitched his tent for the night, he
went out in the dusk to look for game. It had become nearly
dark when he fired at a Bison bull which was galloping over a
small eminence, and as he was hastening forward to see if his
shot had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him.
He had the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair
on its forehead, as it struck him on the side with its horns, and
being a remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued,
which continued till his wrist was severely sprained, and his
arm rendered powerless. He then fell, and, after receiving two
or three blows, became senseless. Shortly after, he was found
by his companions, lying bathed in blood, being gored in several

17. To what purpose is the Bison applied ?

18. Is the Bison at all times a savage animal?

122 ORDER OF CETACEA.

places, and the Bison was couched beside him, apparently wait-
ing to renew the attack, had he shown any signs of life.

19. " The favourite Indian method of killing the Bison, is
by riding to the fattest of the herd on horseback, and shooting
it with an arrow. When a large party of hunters are engaged
in this way on an extensive plain, the spectacle is very imposing,
and the young men have many opportunities of displaying their
skill and agility." — Richardson's Travels.

O R D S R OF CETACEA.

20. Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises, and other animals of analo-
gous structure, designated by naturalists under the name ol
Ci-tacea, so closely resemble fishes in their external form, as well
as in their mode of living, that the ignorant always regard them
as belonging to this class ; but, if we do not confine ourselves to a
superficial examination of these singular beings, and study their
organization and the mechanism of their functions, we shall at
once be convinced that, in every important particular, they depart
from the fishes, to approach the ordinary mammalia. Like the
first, they have the trunk seemingly confounded with the head,
and continued without interruption into a thick tail, terminated
by a broad fin, and the anterior extremities transformed into
fins ; they want the posterior extremities, and their skin is not
furnished with hair like that of ordinary mammals; but, although
they keep constantly in the water, they have no branchiae, and
respire through the medium of lungs ; which obliges them to rise
frequently to the surface, to breathe the air which is necessary to
the maintenance of their life. Their blood is warm ; the heart
has two ventricles and two auricles; their young are born alive,
and they are provided with a mammary apparatus for suckling
them.

21, Consequently Cetacea are true mammals; but, in place of
being organized for living on land, like quadrupeds of this class,
they possess important modifications in their structure which
renders these anirrals essentially aquatic, and the density of the
element which they inhabit, permits them to acquire dimensions
which would have been incompatible with the manner of living and
moving proper to other mammalia ; it is in this group that the
giants of the creation a"re found. The very largest quadrupeds

19. What is the favourite Indian method of killing the Bison ?

20. Why is a Whale not a fish ?

21. What are Cetacea ?

CETACEA. 123

are small in comparison to many of the Cetacea, and notwith-
standing these latter are so immeasurably large, they swim with
great rapidity. The air enclosed in their chest, and the enor-
mous quantity of fat on their body helps to sustain them in the
water surrounding them, and their general form is perfectly fitted
for the kind of movements they are called upon to perform. Their
long, thick tail is an oar as powerful as that with which nature has
endowed the most vigorous and most active fishes, and the fin
which terminates it, in place of being vertical, as in the latter, is
placed horizontally, a position which is singularly favourable for
raising them to the surface when they require to breathe the air.
'22. Their anterior extremities, as we have said, are trans-
formed into fins : nevertheless, these organs possess the basis of
the same structure as the arm of man, the paw of a dog, or the
wing of a bat. We find in them the same bones, except that the
humerus and bones of the fore arm are shortened, and those of
the hand flattened and enveloped in a tendinous membrane, which
confines motion almost exclusively to the articulation of the
shoulder. Sometimes, the phalanges are more numerous than in
other mammals ; in other respects these oars only serve the ani-
mal in preserving his equilibrium and changing his course ; the
tail being his true organ of motion. The posterior extremities
are entirely wanting : but we find at the posterior part of the
abdomen, two or three rudimentary bones, suspended in the flesh,
which are the vestiges of the pelvis. (See First Book of Natural
History.) Beneath the caudal vertebrae, there are bones in the
form of the letter V, which afford points of attachment to the
flexor muscles of the tail, and increase their strength : it is to
remarked also, that the cervical vertebra, although seven in num
ber, are very short, and generally, almost entirely soldered
together. Finally, the petrous bone, that part of the cranium
which encloses the internal ear, in place of being confounded with
other parts of the temporal bone, is separate from the rest of the
head, and adheres to it by ligaments

23. The senses generally seem to be obtuse in these animals.
They never have an external ear ; they often want the olfactory
nerves; the tongue is almost irnmoveable, and their skin is
generally covered with the thickest kind of epidermic layer. They
display but little intelligence. Their brain is nevertheless large,
and its hemispheres are well developed.

24. In the Cetacea, the apparatus of respiration possesses pecu-
liarities of structure, the utility of which is evident The nares

22. What is the general conformation of Cetacea ?

23. Do the Cetacea possess all the senses in perfection ?

24. What are the peculiarities of the apparatus of respiration ?

124 HERBIVOROUS CETACEA.

in general open externally on the top of the head, which enables
the animal to breathe the air without raising his muzzle out of the
water, and the larynx is advanced to the posterior nares, so as to
establish, independently of the pharynx, a communication be-
tween the nasal fossae and the lungs, and permit him to fill his
mouth with water, and swallow his food without interrupting
respiration. The stomach of the Cetacea generally presents as
great, if not greater, complication in its structure, than that of the
Ruminants. There is no large intestine recognised, and their
teeth, when they exist, are all alike.

25. This order is composed of two families which are distin-
guished by their regimen, their teeth and several other peculiari-
ties of organization, and may be recognised by the position of
their nares ; they are :

1st. The HERBIVOROUS CETACEA, — Cetacea Herbiuora, — the
nares of which open externally at the extremity of the muzzle ;

2d. The ORDINARY CETACEA, or BLOWERS, — Cetacea Ordinaria,
— the nares of which open on the posterior face of the head.

FAMILY OF HERBIVOROUS CETACEA.

26. The food of these animals being herbaceous, they possess
molar teeth with flat crowns, and the faculty of crawling on land,
to graze along the sea shore : their anterior extremities are more
flexible than those of other Cetacea, and they do not frequent
the high sea. From the circumstance of grazing like Ruminants,
and being large and massive, travellers often designate them
under the names of Sea-£utl, Sea-cow, and Sea-calf. Sometimes
they are termed Mermaids, — Sea-women, — and it is probable
these have been in question, when some modern navigators said,
they had met with Sirens and Tritons : for they have a habit of
often raising the anterior part of the body out of the water, and
their mamma? being on the chest, tfie hair which surrounds the
snout, might at a distance appear like female tresses ; and then
the adroitness with which they sometimes use their fins to carry
their young, gives them in certain points, some remote resem-
blance to the human species. Their stomach is divided into four
pouches, two of which are lateral.

27. The principal genera of this family are the Lamantins and
Dvyonns;

28. The Lamantins, — Man atm, — have an oblong body termi-
nated by an elongated oval fin. Vestiges of nails are found on

25 How is the Order of Cetacea divided ?

26. What kind of teeth have the herbivorous Cetacea ? What are Mer-
mai Is? What is the character of the s'omach of Herbivorous Cetacea?

27. What are the principal genera of the family of Herbivorous Cetacea 7

28. What are Lamantins? Why have they been called Manati?

DUGONG.— ORDINARY CETACEA. 125

their paws, which, having a coarse resemblance to hands, have
obtained for these animals the name of Manatust which has
been corrupted into Lamantin. Their head is terminated by a
fleshy muzzle, furnished with hair^nd they have eight molars
with square crowns, throughout. They inhabit the warm
regions of the Atlantic Ocean, near the mouths of rivers, wjiich
they sometimes ascend to a considerable distance : they live in
troops, often land and are readily approached. They display the
greatest attachment for their companions. The Lamantin is some-
times fifteen feet in length. The flesh is eaten.

29. Dugouts, — Hulicore Dugoiig, — inhabit the Indian Seas,
and are distinguished from the Lamantins by their elongated
body, the crescent-form of their caudal fins, and the pointed tusks
that protrude from the upper jaw.

FAMILY OF CETACEA ORDINARIA, OR BLOWERS.

30. The Cetacea of this group differ from those of the pre-
ceding by having their mammae near the anus, instead of being
on the chest, by the garniture of the mouth, the teeth, when
they exist, being pointed ; by their carneous regimen ; by the
position of the nares, &c.; but what especially distinguishes them,
is the singular apparatus which has obtained for them the name
of Blowers.

31. The great masses of water that these animals take into
their vast mouth with their prey, are thrown out through the
nasal fossa?, in the form of jets which may be perceived at a long
distance. For this purpose the blowers move their tongue and
jaws as if they would swallow the liquid ; while at the same time
the commencement of the oesophagus closes with so much force
as to prevent its descent to the stomach, and retains it in the
pharynx. The veil of the palate at once intercepts the commu-
nication between the mouth and the swallow, and the powerful
muscles which surround this latter cavity, by contracting, expel
the water, which finding no outlet except through the posterior
nares, passes through them and accumulates in two great mem-
branous pouches, situate between the extremity of the bony por-
tion of the nasal canal and the skin. A fleshy valve, arranged
so as to rise up when the water presses from below upwards,

29. How are Dugongs distinguished from Lamantins ?

30. In what particulars do animals of the family of Ordinary Cetacea
differ from the Herbivorous Cetacea '/

31. What is the anatomical arrangement which enables the Blowers to
avoid swallowing the water they take into the mouth? What becomes of
the water after it passes through the posterior nares ? What prevents the
water in the reservoirs from returning to the pharynx, when they contract ?

126

DOLPHINS.

and to intercept all communication between these cavities and the
nasal fossae, when pressed in a contrary direction, prevents the
water forced into the reservoirs just described, from descending
into the nasal fossae ; then the fleshy fibres, which come in the
form of rays from all the neighbouring parts of the cranium to be
attached to the two bags, by contracting, compress them violently,
and expel the water, which escapes externally through the narrow
opening of the nares, (called spiracle, vent, or blow-hole,) and
forms a jet which sometimes ascends as high as nearly forty feet.

32, These animals do not chew their food, but swallow it
rapidly. Their stomach consists of from five to seven distinct
pouches. Many of them have on the back a vertical fin, formed
of tendinous matter but which is not sustained by bones. The
skin is smooth, and generally without a vestige of hair.

33. This family is divided into four principal genera, which
may be recognised by the following characters :

(Genera.)

(Furnished with small ) n
conical teeth in both jaws. \ "
Without ordinary teeth, ")
but armed with a great ^NARWHALS.
horizontal tusk.

CETACEOUS
BLOWERS.

f Teeth in the lower jaw :
The head equal j no whalebone,
to a third, or one-^
half of the whole | Without teeth : whale-

length.

l^bone in the upper jaw.

~
^

WHALW

34. Dolphins are divided, according to the form of the head
and the presence or absence of a dorsal fin, into Dolphins properly
so called, Porpoises, &c.

35. DOLPHINS PROPERLY so CALLED, — Delphinus, — are recog-
nised by a sort of beak formed by the muzzle, which is more
slender than the rest of the head, abruptly separating from the
convex forehead: they have a dorsal fin, and a considerable
number of conical teeth placed along both jaws ; they count in
all from one hundred and sixty eight, to one hundred and ninety,
according to the species.

32. Do these animals chew their food ? What kind of a stomach have
they ? Is their skin rough or smooth ?

33. How is this family divided ? What kind of teeth have Dolphins ?
What kind of teeth have Narwhals? Are the heads of these animals ex-
ceedingly large ? What kind of teeth have Cachalots ? What kind of teeth
have Whales? What is the character of the head of Cachalots and Whales?

34. How are the Dolphins divided?

35. How are Dolphins properly so called distinguished ?

PORPOISES. 127

36. These animals are the mo?t carnivorous, and in proportion
to their size, the most cruel of all the Cetacea. Their skin, which
is smooth, is ordinarily bluish black above, and white or whitish
below. The vent, directed vertically, is sometimes in the form of
a crescent, sometimes of a straight line, and is often found on
a line with the eyes. Most of them have a triangular fin on the
back. Their brain is generally remarkable for its developement
and the depth of its convolutions. These animals are celebrated
for their swiftness, as well as on account of the fables the ancients
have mingled with their history, and on account of a species of
religious worship they received amongst the Greeks. They live
in numerous troops, of which the strongest seem to be the leaders,
and display strong attachment for their young; they often ac-
company ships to seize upon fishes attracted by the refuse thrown
overboard, and sometimes they have been known to follow a ves-
sel throughout a long voyage, playing under the bows, while she
cleaves the waves with all the rapidity that wind and sails can
communicate. It is these peculiar habits, joined to a degree of
intelligence far superior to that of fishes, with which the ignorant
are always disposed to compare these animals, that have obtained
for them their ancient reputation for sociability ; the poetic im-
agination of the Greeks created for the Dolphin an assemblage
of perfections, moral and physical, which the human species is
far from possessing. They placed its image in their temples, im-
pressed it on their coins, on their medals and made it the attribute
or symbol of the god of the sea; they employed its image to
recal the memory of a host of events real or fabulous, and to ex-
press moral precepts; finally, they associated it with a great
number of their divinities, and what is singular, the ancients
never represented it with that exactness which they habitually
observed in imitating nature, but as if they designed to idealize it.

37. The species of cetacea which has received so many honours
seems to be the Common Dolphin, — Delpldnus Delpliis, — It is
from eight to ten feet long and is found in every sea. It is black
above and white below ; it has a depressed beak, which is armed
on each side with from forty two to forty seven small, pointed teeth.

38 PORPOISES,— Phoccena, — differ from the preceding in their
short muzzle, uniformly convex, which does not resemble a beak.
Their name, which signifies hog-fish, has been given to them on
account of the quantity of fat found beneath the skin.

36. What are the habits of Dolphins 1

37. What is the common Dolphin? What is the number of its teeth?

38. How do Porpoises differ from Dolphins 1

128 GRAMPUS.— NARWHAL.— CAC H A LOT.

39. The Common Porpoise, — Delphian* Phoccena, — (Plate 6.
Jig, 6.) — which is the smallest of all the Cetac?a, never exceeds

four or five feet in length. It lives in numerous troops.

40. Another species of Porpoise known under the name of
Grampus, — Defpkimu Gladiator, — is the largest animal of this
tribe of Cetacea, often attaining from twenty to twenty-five feet
in length. It is the most relentless enemy of the whale. They
attack it in troops, and torment it until it opens its mouth, when
they devour the tongue.

41. The NARWHALS, — Monodon,— closely resemble porpoises,
but they have no teeth properly so called. The mouth is armed
with two straight, horizontal tusks, one of which generally re-
mains concealed in the alveolus while the other acquires a very
considerable length, sometimes ten feet, and is generally furrowed
spirally. These tusks were for a long time mistaken for the
horns of a fabulous quadruped, the Unicorn Only one species
of Narwhal is known : it inhabits the North Sea, principally be-
tween Greenland and Iceland. Its skin is marbled brown and
whitish, and its length is from fifteen to sixteen feet. Its vent is
on the top of the head, and it has no dorsal fin. It swims with
great rapidity, and is a formidable enemy of the whale, which it
attacks in troops, inflicting deep wounds with its tusks Fisher-
men seek it for the excellent oil obtained from its fat, a single
Narwhal yielding from two to three tons. The tusks are also
employed for the same purposes as ivory.

42. The CACHALOTS, — Physeter, — (Plate 6,^/7. 9.) -are
Cetacea with a very voluminous, inflated head, particularly in
front, whose lower jaw is armed with a row of cylindrical
teeth, which, when the mouth is closed, enter into corresponding
cavities in the upper jaw which has neither teeth nor whale-
bone, (balen.) The head of these animals is enormous, and very
much swelled-out anteriorly. Its structure is very singular; all
above the face and cranium is formed into a large oval basin, the
edges of which rise behind six feet above the cranium and gradu-
ally diminish in front ; the parietes of this great cavity are chiefly
formed by a prolongation of the superior maxillary bones, which
joins a vertical crest of the occipital bone, and these latter give in-

39. What is the common Porpoise?

40. What is the Grampus ?

41. What are Narwhals? What is the Unicorn ? To what purposes are
Narwhals applied?

42. What are Cachalots ? What kind of teeth have they ? What is the
eize of their head ? What are the anatomical peculiarities of the head of
the Sperm Wnale ? In what part of the animal is spermaceti found ?

SPERMACETI.— AMBERGRIS.— SPERM WHALE. 129

sertion, by their edges, to a sort of fibro-cartilaginous cover,
which transforms the basin, we have just described, into a long,
cylindrical cavity, divided into two stories by a membranous
partition, also extended from the margin of one maxillary bone to
that of the other. These two chambers are filled with adipocire,
a sort of oil which becomes fixed on cooling, well known in com-
merce under the name of Spermaceti: they communicate with
canals which go to different parts of the body and are connected
with the sub-cutaneous fatty tissue or blubber, and also contain
arlipocire: in proportion as the great upper reservoir is emptied,
it refills with this fatty matter.

43. The channel of the vent, (spiracle) passes obliquely through
this mass of adipocire and opens a little to the left, near the supe-
rior edge of the snout which terminates the head of the Cachalot
in front. The jets of water spouted from it, are directed obliquely
forwards, they ascend higher and occur more frequently than in
the whale, and are attended with a noise which may be heard at
a long distance. The layer of fat, which lies beneath the skin,
constituting what is called blubber by whalers, is not so thick
and does not furnish so much oil, as in the whale. The odorous
substance known under the name of Jlmberyris, sometimes met
with floating on the surface of the sea, appears to be a morbid
concretion formed in the intestines of these animals.

44. The Cachalot inhabits, from choice, the equatorial regions
of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. They are met with in pretty
numerous bands composed of females led by two or three males,
which are much larger than the former. They seem to feed
chiefly on the large mollusca ; but we are assured that they do not
spare the largest fishes, and are objects of terror to all the in-
habitants of the sea.

45. The different species are not well ascertained. The best
known is the common sperm whale — Wyscter Macrocephuliis, —
which has a callous prominence in place of a dorsal fin. The
muzzle, which is of a cubic form, is truncated in front, and the
vent or spiracle, which is double in most other cetacea, is single.
The length of this animal is about seventy feet, and the bi-lobed
fin which terminates the tail is about eight feet wide.

43. What is the direction of the water spouted through the spiracle of the
Cachalot? What is blubber ? What is ambergris ?

44. Where does the Cachalot resort from choice ? What does the Sperm
Whale feed upon ?

45. What are the characters of the common Sperm Whale ? Is the spiracle
double or single ? What is the size of this animal?

130 WHALES.— WHALEBONE.

46. WHALES, — MalcEna, — have a head as large as that of the
Cachalot, though not so much swelled out in front ; but their jaws
are without teeth, and the upper one which is keel-shaped, is fur-
nished with whalebone. This name is given to great horny plates
of fibrous texture, which are very elastic and fringed at their
edges, that are placed transversely like the teeth of a comb,
strongly locked one into the other and attached to the jaw at their
base, so as to extend from each side of the palate, (Plate 6 fig. 8.)
forming a sort of great sieve through which, the water, taken
into the immense mouth of the animal, partly escapes, without
however carrying with it the small animals it contains,

47. From the size of Whales, we should be led to believe that
these animals would devour the largest fishes, but it is altogether
otherwise ; the absence of teeth, the species of armature of their
mouth and the weakness of the muscles of their jaws permit them
to seize only small marine animals; their ordinary food consists
of small moliusca, of Crustacea a few lines in length, and of
zoophytes whose bodies are soft as jelly, and, as the number of
these beings is immense, they have only to open the mouth to
swallow them by millions. They are very voracious and eat
almost continually ; the water which enters their enormous mouth
every time it is opened, is ejected through the nares, forming a jet
above the head that falls in a sort of fine shower. Whales swim
with great rapidity ; and having no means of defence and being
often embarrassed by the enormous mass of their body, they are
incapable of defending themselves successfully against agile and
robust enemies, and a consciousness of their weakness renders
them fearful and timid ; but they nevertheless become occasion-
ally furious, and display all their strength in defending themselves,
or in escaping from their pursuers ; when they strike the water
with their tail, they produce a commotion equal to that from a
cannon ball

48. Several species of Whales are known. That which is
most sought by whalers is the Common Whale, — Ral&na i\hjste-
cetiis, — ( t>!ate 6, fig. 7,)— which is recognised by its having no
dorsal fin ; it does not often exceed seventy feet in length, yet it
is very large, and the mass of the body is enormous. It has been
estimated J;hat a whale of only seventy feet in length, weighs
about seventy tons, equal to the weight of three hundred fat oxen.

46. How do Whales differ from Cachalots ? What is Whale bone? Of
what use is it to the Whnle ?

47 What is the ordinary food of Whales ? What are the habits of
Whales"'

48. How is the Common While recognised ? What is the size of the
head ?

WHALE FISHING. 131

The head is about one third of its whole length. His jaws are
from fifteen to twenty feet long, and his tail very nearly twenty
feet in breadth. His skin, which is black and spongy, is often in-
vaded by a great number of parasites. Some attach themselves
to it as to a rock, and others penetrate into its substance and are
nourished at its expense. The layer of fat (blubber) which
entirely covers the body of this animal is often several feet in
thickness, and yields an immense quantity of oil ; finally, the
whalebones are from three to fifteen feet long, according to the
part of the mouth they occupy.

49. The catching of big-headed cetacea, which naturalists
separate into Cachalots and Whales, but which mariners often
confound under the latter name, is among the most important of
maritime pursuits from the products it affords, and from the in-
fluence it exercises on the nautical education of sailors. Whale
fishing was pursued in very remote times. The historians of
Norway, and the account of his voyages related by Otho to Alfred
the Great, King of England, show that, from the ninth century, the
Normans devoted themselves actively to the taking of whales that
approached their coasts, and it seems that they made the cordage
used in the rude marine of that people, of the skins of these cetacea.
At the period of the invasion of France by the Normans, whales
were seen in great numbers in the British channel, and were there
attacked by the fishermen. From time immemorial the Basques pur-
sued these animals near the vicinity of the shore ; and gradually,
as whales became rare in the Bay of Biscay, they pursued them
on the high seas : to these hardy mariners belongs the honour of
being the first to carry on a regular fishery for whales at . a dis-
tance. They pursued their prey along the coasts of Spain to
Cape Finistere, and upon those shores rnay slill be seen the
watch-towers established by the Basque fishermen for the dis-
covery of whales, and the ruins of 'kilns constructed for the
rendering or " trying-out " their blubber. It appears that to-
wards the close of the tenth century, they occupied Oporto, by
the right of conquest, and founded colonies in the vicinity. The
fishery, at first coast-wise, was aiterwards conducted on the open
ocean. The mariner's compass being discovered, the Basques
ventured to the north east in pursuit of wrhales, and it is affirmed
that, as early as 1372, they arrived on the grand bank of New-
foundland, whence they continued their voyages to the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, and the coasts of Labrador. In the fourteenth
century the merchants of Bordeaux fitted out two whale ships

49. Is whale fishing a modern practice? What people were the first
pursue Whales upon the high seas ?
12

132 WHALE FISHING.

for the Frozen Ocean, which went as far as Greenland, and even
to Spitzbergen. At this period, whale fishing was in a most
flourishing condition on all the coast of Beam and of Aunis, and
continued on the same footing till the commencement of the
seventeenth century ; but then the Basques, finding no protection
under their national flag, were disturbed by jealous rivals, who
excluded them from the places most favourable for the fishery, and
exacted from them onerous contributions. This branch of in-
dustry then began to decline, and was lost to France, when in
1636, the Spaniards having taken and sacked Soccoa, Cibourn,
and Saint-Jean-de-Luz, seized fourteen large ships, from Green-
land, richly laden with oil and whalebone.

The poor Basque fishermen were then forced to serve as guides
to their more powerful rivals ; they taught the art of harpooning
the whale to the Dutch and also to the English, who at that time,
were ardently devoted to maritime speculations, and understood
all the advantages that would accrue to them from this distant
fishery.

The fishing of the Dutch began in 16 12, and, although thwarted
at first by the rivalry of the English, rapidly increased. Rich
companies were formed for pursuing this new branch of industry,
which continued to be a source of prosperity to the whole country
till the beginning of the nineteenth century ; but maritime wars
opposed an insurmountable obstacle to it, and since the peace, Hol-
land has made ineffectual efforts to revive the prosperity of her
whale fishery, which is doubtless the best school for forming
hardy and experienced seamen.

While the whale fishery was so productive in the hands of the
Dutch, it did not prosper in England : but the enlightened govern-
ment of that country, appreciating its utility, made efforts to in-
sure its success. In 173'2, it granted high premiums to all vessels
fitted out for this fishery, and this encouragement not producing
the desired effect in 1 749, they were doubled and made nearly
equal to one tenth of the expense of the outfits. From that time
this branch of maritime industry rapidly increased, and now be-
longs almost exclusively to the hlnglish, and their ancient colonies
in America, the United States, which have become their rivals.

We have already seen the ground of this fishery moving more
and more towards the north, in proportion as the whales were
destroyed or learned to fly from the dangers with which they
were threatened. Until the fourteenth or fifteenth century it was
carried on in the waters of England, France and Spain ; but in
the sixteenth, whales were no longer met with by fishermen except
in the seas of Greenland and Spitzbergen. These animals were

WHALE FISHING. 133

then so numerous near the shores and even in the small inlets of
the last named island, that whaling vessels promptly completed
their cargoes, lying near the shore, and with the object of facilita-
ting their operations, the Dutch established on a small island
in the neighbourhood, a village called Smerremberg, where they
brought the captured whales, and tried out the oil to be after-
wards transported to Europe ; but these animals soon deserted
the coasts of Spitzbergen and the neighbouring islands, to seek
refuge along the great icy bank that bounds the sea of Green-
land on the north west. The fishermen followed them there as
soon as they left the waters of Spitzbergen. From the middle
of the seventeenth century the whale fishery has been most active
about the 78th or 81st degree of north latitude, or in Davis'
Straits, about the isle of Disco ; but these waters in turn have
been depopulated, and for three or four years past, the English
whalers have almost entirely abandoned those places, to advance
in the midst of the ice, in Baffins Bay, to Lancaster Sound and
Melville Bay.

But the voyages of whalers are not confined to the northern
seas. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the American
whalers of Massachusetts began to look towards the south and
visited the waters of Cape de Verd, the south western coast of
Africa, along the coasts of Brazil and Paraguay to the Falkland
islands. From that time, the B^nglish have also carried on a
fishery to the south, and now the whale ships of both nations
plough not only the southern parts of the Atlantic, but the whole
expanse of the Pacific Ocean : during the season, they cross
to the waters of Japan, then descend towards the Sandwich,
Marquisas, and Galapagos islands, and if their cargo is not com-
plete, they touch upon the coasts of Chile and Peru, and return
by Cape Horn ; but, if they wish to continue their operations,
they cross the southern hemisphere in the summer to New Zealand,
to return towards the north to visit the seas of Japan, or the coast
of California. In this way, they sometimes keep at sea for eight
months together, exposed to the greatest fatigue and privations
of all kinds ; but in general, the dangers are less in this vast ocean
than in the polar seas, where the stoutest vessels are sometimes
crushed by the ice, and where shipwreck is unfortunately very
frequent.

The northern fishery is for the common whale, while that ot
the south is chiefly for the Cachalot, ( P/iyseter Macrocepkalus) or
Sperm whale.

The mode of attacking both these immense cetacea, is the
same. As soon as the sailor, placed in a lookout at the mast

134 WHALE FISHING.

head, discovers a whale, the fishermen take to their boats, and
with muffled oars approach him in silence. One of them stands
erect in the bows, holding a harpoon, a species of javelin, the
deeply barbed head of which is attached to a strong cord, six or
seven hundred feet in length. The harpooner of the first boat that
arrives within reach of the whale, throws his weapon so as to
cause it to penetrate deeply and remain firmly in the body of the
animal, who, feeling the wound, sometimes turns violently, and
exerts his powerful tail with so much force as to shatter the boat
or hurl it into the air. Generally, however, the whale dives im-
mediately, dragging after him the cord attached to the iron that
has been planted in his flesh. This is the critical moment for the
fishermen. If the cord does not run out with sufficient rapidity,
or gets hitched, the whale sinks the boat and all the crew, and
sometimes it has happened that sailors, by being caught in a
loop of the swiftly running cord, have been almost cut in two
and thrown into the sea never to be seen again on its surface.
The rapidity with which the animal flies is such that the cord,
from rubbing against the side of the boat, produces dense smoke,
and would take fire were it not kept constantly wet. When the
first line has almost run out, the fisherman attach a second, then
a third, and so on till they have in use all they have on board,
and all that the other boats can supply. The length of line they
let out in this way, sometimes exceeds ten thousand feet : never-
theless, it is not always enough, and then they are obliged to cut
loose and abandon all this mass of cordage as well as their har-
poon, while the whale prolongs his flight without returning to
the surface. Sometimes the animal remains under water more
than half an hour; but the necessity of breathing forces him
to come to the surface, and the fishermen who are dispersed about,
to be more within striking distance, endeavour to plant a second
harpoon in his body or pierce it with lances. When the whale
thus rises, he is ordinarily in a state of extreme exhaustion, and,
in proportion as his blood flows, he becomes more enfeebled;
often when death is near, he yet makes a last and terrible effort,
raises his tail above the water, and agitates it with a convulsive
movement which can be heard at a distance of several miles.
Finally, succumbing altogether, he turns upon his side and ex-
pires. The fishermen hasten to pierce his tail and tie to it ropes
by means of which they secure the immense carcass to the side
of their ship ; then, armed with large knives and a sharp instru-
ment in the form of a spade, they get upon it and cut off the
blubber in slices which is afterwards tried out.

WHALE FISHING.

A single whale sometimes yields as much as a hundred to a
hundred and sixty barrels of oil, but as a greater number of
small, than of large whales are taken, so large a quantity is not
obtained from them all. Scoresby informs us that 498 whales,
taken in twenty-eight successive voyages in the seas of Green-
land, yielded 4,246 tons of oil, making an average of about nine
tons to each whale.*

The Cachalots, as we have said before, furnish much less oil,
and those that are taken within the tropics are much leaner than
those of cold seas. A male Cachalot, seventy feet in length,
yields about fourteen tons of oil and spermaceti, but six females
yield scarcely as much. .

The northern fishery often occupies more than one hundred
and fifty English ships, and the southern fifty or sixty. In 1831
there were despatched for Davis' straits and Baffin s Bay, seventy
five ships, which captured 330 whales, and returned with 4,100
tons of oil and 4000 quintals! of whalebone. At the same time,
the English fitted out twelve whalers for the Greenland seas,
which took 86 whales, 4,100 seals, and returned with 700 tons
of oil and 600 quintals of whalebone. The product of the whole
English whale fishery, for the preceeding year, was valued at about
a half a million of dollars.

The number of whalers belonging to France does not exceed
twenty. In 1837 the number of vessels belonging to the United
States engaged in the whale fishery was 580 — and the oil brought
home that year is set down at 181,724 barrels of sperm oil, and
219,138 barrels of common whale oil.

This concludes all we have to say at present, about mammiferous
animals ; we next preceed to the consideration of birds, which
form the second CLASS of the BRANCH of VERTEBRATA.

END OP THE SECOND BOOK OP NATURAL HISTORY.

* A ton of oil contains 252 English gallons or eight barrels of 31 i gallons.
t A quintal is one hundred pounds.

12*

MAMMALOGY.

GLOSSARY.

ABDOMEN. — From the Latin, abdere,
to conceal; the bi'lly. Tlie chief
viscera contained in the abdomen,
are the stomach, intestines, liver,
•fee.

ABDOMINAL. — Relating to the abdo-
men.

ABOMASUS. — Latin ab, from, without,
and omassum, stomach. The fourth
stomach of Ruminants. The Ren-
net. (See page 106.)

ACACIA. — From the Greek, alee, a
point. A tree with a tall trunk
that bears leguminous flowers.

ACCLIMATE — From the Greek, klirna,
a region: to habituate to a climate.

ACEPHALA. — From the Greek, a, pri-
vative, and kephale, head. With-
out a head. The name given to a
division of molluscous animals that
have no apparent head.

AERIAL — From the Latin aerius : be-
longing to the air.

^EGAGRE. — From the Greek, nix, a
goat, and agrios, wild : wild goat.

J!EGAGRUS. — Latin for JEgngre: wild
goat. (See page 116.)

ADIPOCIRE — From the Latin adeps,
fat, and cera, wax: an animal sub-
stance analogous to wax and fat;
spermaceti. (See page 1*29.)

AFRICANUS — Latin. African.

AGGLUTINATE. — From the Latin ag.
glutinure, which is formed from adt
to, and gluten, glue : to join parts
together.

AGILIS. — Latin. Agile, supply light,
prompt.

Ar. — The sloth — a mine derived from
the cry of the animal. (See p. 94 )

ALCES.— Latin, an Elk, — one of the
dogs of Acteon was so called. (See
page 114.)

ALIMENT. — From the Latin, alimen-
tam, which is formed from oitre,
to nourish. Any substance, which,
if introduced into the system, i»
capable of nourishing it and re-
pairing its losses. Food.

ALOU.VTTE — French name of the howl-
ing monkey. (See page 39.)

ALPINUS. — Latin, Alpine ; relating to
the Alps.

ALVEOLUS. — Latin. The hole in which
a tooth is placed.

ALVEOLI. — Plural of alveolus. Sock-
ets of the teeth.

AMBERGRIS. — From the Arabic, ani-
bar, or rather anhar, as written in
Spanish, and the Fienchg-m,gray,
which litt rally rendered, means
" gray amber," to distinguish
it from " yellow amber" of the
French, which is a kind of fossil
resin of vegetable origin, and gene-
rally known under the name of
Amber; but ambergris originates
in the spermaceti whale, and in its
essential properties differs alto-
gel her from amber, with which
substance, the derivation of its*,
name might lead us to confound it.

AMERICANUS. — Latin. American.

AMMON. — From the Greek, ammos,
sand : Grecian Ram. (See p ige
117.)

AMPHIBIA. — From the Greek, amphi
— on two side*, both, double, and
bios, life : animals that are fitted
for living both on land and in the
water.

AMPHIBIOUS. — From the Greek — am-
phi double, and bios, life — That
which partakes of two natures, so
as to live in two elements ; as in
the air and water.

138

MAM MALOGY:— GLOSS ARY .

AMPHIBIUS. — Latin. Amphibious.
ANATOMY. — From the Greek, ana,
through, and temno, I cut ; the des-
cription of the structure of ani-
mals. The word anatomy properly
signifies dissection ; but it has been
appropriated to the study and know-
ledge of the number, shape, situa-
tion, structure, and connexion, in
a word, of all the apparent proper-
ties of organised matter, whether
animal or vegetable.

ANATOMICAL. — Relating or belonging
to anatomy.

ANALOGOUS. — From the Greek, ana,
between, and logos reason. Hav-
ing some resemblance or relation,
though differing in essential par-
ticulars. Similar.

ANGLE. — From the Latin, angulus,
which is derived from the Greek ag.
kulos, a curve. The space intercept-
ed between two lines that meet at a
point. The Facial angle, is formed
by two line--, one of which passes ver-
tically along the face from the in-
cisor teeth, and the other is drawn
horizontally from the external open-
ing of the ear to the same teeth.

ANGLICUS. — Latin. English.

ANIMAL — From the Latin, animalis
— a name given to every animated
being provided with digestive or-
gans.

ANIMALIA. — Latin. Animals.

ANIMALCULE — From the Latin, Ani-
malculum — a diminutive animal.

AJVIMALCULA. — Plural of animalcu-
lum — animals that are only per-
ceptible by means of the micro-
scope.

ANNELIDES. — A class of animals with-
out vertebrae.

ANNULATED — From the Latin, annu-
lus, a ring; marked in rings.

ANOMALY. — Greek, a privative, and
omalos, equal. Irregularity, devia-
tion from the common rule.

ANTLER. — From the French, andouil-
ler, — properly the first branch of
a stag's horns ; but it is applied to
all the branches.

ANUS — Latin. The fundament — the
inferior opening of the bowels.

APOPLEXY — From the Greek, apo,
from, and plesso, I strike : a disease
of the brain, an obstruction of the
nervous principle which deprives
the body suddenly of sensation and
motion.

APPARATUS. — Latin, ad, for, and par-
ore to prepare: a collection of in-
struments or organs for any opera-
tion whatever. An assemblage of
organs.

APPENDIX. — Latin ad, to, and pendere
to hang : something added. Any
part that adheres to an organ, or
is continuous with it.

AQUATICUS. — Latin. Aquatic. Rela-
ting or belonging to water.

ARCHIPELAGO. — From the Greek,
arche, beginning, andpelagos, sea ;
an extent of sea sprinkled with
islands.

ARCTOS. — Greek. A Bear.

ARCTOMYS. — From the Greek, arctos,
a bear, and mus, a mouse. The
Marmot. (See page 80.)

ARGALI. — A Wild Ram.

ARIES. — Latin. A Ram.

ARMADILLO. — Spanish, diminutive of
armado, armed. (See page 94.)
The Brazilian name of this animal
is Tatou.

ARVALIS. — Latin. Relating or be*
longing to fields.

ARVICOLA. — Latin, arvum, a field,
and colere, to cultivate. (See p. 83.)

ARTICULATE — From the Latin, arti-
culuSi which is the diminutive of
artus, a lirnb, which is derived
from the Greek, arthron, a joint.
To join or joint'. To form words ;
to utter.

ARTICULATA. — The same derivation
as articulate. Animals whose
bodies seem to consist of a series
or succession of rings. They con-
stitute the third BRANCH of the ani-
mal kingdom, which includes In-
sects, Crustacea, Worms, &c.

ARTICULATION. — A joint.

ASINUS. — Latin. An ass.

ATELES. — A kind of monkey. (See
page 40.) Athenians, who were
exempt from certain taxes, were
called Attica.

MAMMALOGY:-GLOSSARY.

139

AUCHENIA. — From the Greek anchcn,
the neck. The genus of animals
to which the Llama belongs, is so
called, probably from having along
neck.

AUREUS. — Latin. Golden. Relating
or belonging to gold.

AURICLE. — From the Latin, auricula,
which is the diminutive of awns, an
ear. The two auricles of the heart,
derive the name from their resem-
blance to ears. They receive the
blood from every part of the body.
The two venae cavae open into the
right auricle, and four pulmonary
veins into the left auricle. (Sec
First Book of Nat. History, p. 35.)

AUROCH. — A sort of wild bull, (See
page 119.)

AVELLANARIUS. — From the Latin, av-
ellana, a filbert. Relating or be-
longing to filberts. (See page 81.)

AVICULARIS. — From the Latin avicula,
which is the diminutive of avis, a
bird. Relating or belonging to birds.

BACTRIANUS. — Latin. Bactrian. Re-
lating or belonging to Bactria.

BALEN. — From the Latin, balaena,
which is derived from the Greek,
phalaina, a whale. Whalebone.
The substance put into ladies' cor-
sets, and used to form part of the
frame of an umbrella.

BAL^SNA. — Latin. A whale.

BAPTISMAL. — From the Greek, baplo,
I plunge into water. Rdaung, or
belonging to baptism. The name
given at the ceremony of baptism,
is the baptismal or chri.-tian name.

BASQUES. — The inhabitants of Biscay,
a province of Spain, are so called.

BEZOAR. — From the Persian beazahar,
antidote. A stone formed in the
bodies of certain animals, to which
Arabian physicians have attributed
great virtues, chiefly that of resist-
ing the effects of poison. An an-
cient chemical preparation to which
the same properties were attributed.
Mineral Bezoar, an oxyd of anti-
mony. Vegetable bezoar, a stony
concretion found in cocoa trees. The
word is also applied to other natural
etony concretions.

BILOBED — From the Latin, bis, twice,
and the Greek lobos, a lobe. Having
two lobes.

BIMANA. — From the Latin, bis, twice,
and manus, hand. The first family
of the class of mammalia.

BIPED — From the Latin, bis, twice,
and pes, foot. Animals that walk
on two feet are biped.

BLUBBER. — That part of a whale from
which the oil is obtained.

BOREALIS. — Latin. Northern.

Bos. — Latin. An ox, a bull.

BRADYPUS. — From the Greek, bradust
slow, and pous, foot. The sloth.
(See page 93.)

BRANCH — From the word, Iranca,
which is deiived from the Latin,
bractiium, an arm. The branches
of trees were viewed as their arms
Any member or part of the whole;
any section or sub-division. The
first division of the animal king-
dom is into BRANCHES. (See p. 1 6.)

BRANCHIAE — Latin. It is derived
from the Greek, bragchos, the
throat. The gills of fishes. They
are the respiratory organs of fishes,
and are very different from lungs,
both in their form and structure.

BUBALUS. — Latin. An animal of the
genus ox. (See page 120.)

BUFFALO. — Probably derived from the
Greek boubulos, the root of which
is bous, an ox.

CACHALOT. — French. The spermaceti
whale. (See page 128.)

CAILLETTE. — French. A name of the
fourth stomach of Ruminating ani-
mals, derived from cailler, to cur-
dle. The fourth stomach of a calf,
is used under the name of rennet,
for the purpose of curdling or co-
agulating milk.

CALLOSITY. — Hardness, induration,
| and thickness of the skin.
I CALLOUS. — From the Latin, callus,
\ hardness. That which is hard, or
induraled.

CAMELEOPARDALIS. — From the Greek,
kamelos, a camel, and pardalis, a
leopard. The ancient name of the
Giraffe.

CAMELUS. — Latin. Camel.

140

MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

CAMPAGNOL. -— French name of the

Fieldmouse.
CANINE. — From the Latin, canis, a

dog. The name of certain teeth.
CANIS. — Latin. Dog.
CAPRA. — La? in. Goat.
CARNARIA. — From the Latin, caro,

carnis, flesh. The name of an

order of animals.
CARNIVOROUS. — From the Latin, caro,

carnis, flesh, and voro, I eat. Ani

mals that feed on flesh, are said to

be carnivorous.

CARNIVORA,— Latin. Carnivorou
CASTOR. — Latin. Beaver.
CASTOREUM. — A substance obtained

from the Beaver.

CATUS. — Latin. Sharp, quick, sly.
CAUDAL. — From the Latin, cauda, a

tail. Relating or belonging to the

tail.
CEPHALOPODA. — From the Greek ke

phale, head, and podos, which is the

genitive case of pons, a foot. Mol

luscous animals whose mouth i:

surrounded with fleshy appendices

which serve them as feet.
CEREAL. — Relating or belonging to

Ceres, the goddess of agriculture

Cereal is applied to the various sort

of nutritious corn or grain.
CERVICAL. — From the Latin, cervix

the neck. Belonging or relating to

the neck.
CERVUS. — Latin. A stag.

CINEREA. — Latin. Like ashes ; of an

ash colour.

CIVETTA — Latin. Civet. The word
is derived from the Arabic, zebed,
or zobad, froth, or the peculiar se-
cretion of the civet. (See p. 66.)

CLASS. — In Latin classis, which comes
from the Greek, klesis, which is de-
rived from kaleo, I call. The order
according to which persons or
tilings are arranged or distributed.

CLASSIFICATION. — The act of forming
classes.

CLAVICLE. — From the Latin, clavis, a
key. The collar bone.

CONCOLOR. — Latin. Of the same
colour.

CONDVLE. — From the Greek kondulos,
a knot, an eminence, a joint. A
small round eminence of bone en-
tering into the composition of an
articulation.

CONTORTED. — From the Latin, cantor-

queo.

I twist about. Twisted.

CONVOLUTION. — From the Latin, con~
volvere, to entwine. The cerebral
convolutions are the round, tortuous
projections obsei ved on the surface
of the brain.

CORTICAL. — From the Latin, cortex,
bark. Belonging or relating to bark.

CRANIUM. — From the Greek, kranon,
head. The skull.

— Latin name of the Ham-
ster.

CETACEA. — In Latin cetaceus, which <CRISTATA. — Latin. Tufted, combed,
is formed from the Greek, ketos, a^ crested, wearing a crest,
the word

whale. Naturalists use

to designate pisciform mammals,

that have fins in place of feet,

and inhabit the sea. (See page

122.)

CHAMOIS. — From the Greek kemas, a
roe-buck. A ruminating animal of
the genus of Antelope.

CHANFPviN.-^-From the Latin, camus,
a bit or curb, andfrenum, a bridle.
That part of the head of a horse,
which is between the brows, from
the ears to the nose.

CHEIROPTERA. — From the Greek keir,
hand, and pteron, wing. Having
winged hands. Name of a family
of mammals, vulgarly called bats.

CRUSTACEA. — From the Latin, crusta,
a crust. A class of animals whose
bodies are inclosed in a covering,
like the crab.

CUNICULUS. — Latin. A nbbit.

CVNOCEPHALUS. From the Greek,
kvon, a dog, and kephale, head. A
species of monkey i* so called, be-
cause its head resembles that of a
dog. It is the baboon of the
moderns.

DAMA. — Latin. A fallow-deer. ,

DANICUS. — Latin. Danish. Belong-
ing to Denmark.

DASYPUS.— From the Greek, dasus,
thick, hairy, and pous, foot. Hairy
foot.

M AMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

141

DECIDUOUS. — From the Latin, cadere,
to fall. Falling, that which falls
off — not permanent.
DECUMANUS. — Latin. Tenth. Huge,

fair, of a large size.
DELPHINUS. — Latin. A Dolphin.
DELPHIS. — The name of a priestess
of the temple of Delphos, which
Linnaeus gave to an animal of the
order of cetacea.

DENTAL. — From the Latin, dens, a
tooth. Relating or belonging to the
teeth.

DENTICULATE. — Having the edge or

border like teeth. Armed with teeth.

DERMA. — Greek. The skin.

DIDELPHIS. — From the Greek, dis,

twice or double, and delphus a womb

The name of a genus of the older

of Marsupialia.

DIGITIGRADA. — From the Latin digi-
tus, a finger or toe, and gradus, a
step. Name of a tribe of animals
that in walking rest only their toes
on the ground.

DIGITIGRADE. — Animals that walk on
the toes, without resting the whole
foot on the ground.
DIURNAL. — From the Latin, dies, a
day. Belonging or relating to the
day.

DOE. — A she deer. «

DOMESTICUS. — Latin. Domestic.
DORCAS. — Greek. A Gazel.
DORMOUSE. — From the Latin. Dor-
mire, to sleep, and mus a mouse.
(See page 80.)

DORSAL. — From the Latin, dorsum,
the back. Belonging or relating to
the back.

DOWN. — From the Danish, duun.
Soft wool, or tender hair, fur. Soft
feathers.

DROMEDARIUS. — Barbarous Latin, for-
med from the Greek, dromos, a
race, speed. The Dromedary, a
species of camel with one hump,
is thus named from its swiftness.
ECHIDNA. — From the Greek. A viper
or snake. The name of a monster,
the upper part of whose body was
in the form of a beautiful woman,
and the lower part like that of a
hideous serpent. The name of a

genus of animals of unusual con-
struction. (See page 96.)
ECHINODERMATA. — From the Greek,
echinos, a hedgehog, and derma,
skin. Animals whose skin is like
that of the hedgehog.
EDENTATA. — From the Latin, e, priva-
tive, and dens, tooth. Without
teeth. The name of an order of
mammiferous animals that ara
without teeth.
EDENTATE. — Without teeth.
ELEPHAS. — Latin. An Elephant.
ELEPHUS. — Latin. Belonging or re-
lating to an elephant.
ENAMEL, (of the teeth.)— The sub-
stance which covers the crowns of
the teeth. It is of a white colour,
very smooth, and polished, and suf-
ficiently hard to strike fire with
steel. Enamel is thickest where
the teeth are in contact, and thin-
nest about the neck of the tooth.
The fibres of the enamel are per.
pendicular to the surface of the
teeth, on which they seem, as it
were, planted. This gives them a
velvety appearance when examined
by the microscope. The enamel
has no blood vessels, and is not re-
newed when removed.
ENCEPHALON. — From the Greek, eg,
in, and kephale, head. The brain
and spinal marrow.
ENTELLUS. — Latin name of an Apo,

or Guenon of Malabar.
EPIDERMIS. — From the Greek, epi,
upon, and derma, skin. The ex-
ternal covering of the derma. The
cuticle or scarf-skin.
EPIDERMIC. — Relating or belonging to

the epidermis.

EPHEMERAL. — From the Greek, ejri,
in, and emera, a day. Lasting but
a day. Fleeting, transient, momen-
tary.

EQUUS. — Latin. A horse.
ERINACEUS. — Latin. Hedgehog.
ERMINEA. — Latin. Belonging or re-
lating to the ermine.
ESPALIER. — French. From the Italian,
spalliere. Trees which are attached
to, and supported by a wall, in a
row.

142

MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

EXCRETION. — From the Latin, excer-
ner?, to separate. The separation,
or throwing off those matters from
the body of an animal, which are
supposed to be useless, as perspira-
tion, &c, The matters thrown off
from the body as useless, are termed
excretions.

EXCRETORY. — Belonging or relating
to excretion. (See First Book of
Natural History, pasje 9S.)

EXOTIC. — From the Greek, exotikos,
strange, foreign.

EXTREMITIES. — From the Latin, extre-
mus, extreme ; the end of a thing.
The limb-; the legs, and arms.

EXTRARIUS — Latin. Outward, foreign,
strange.

EXTENSORS. — From the Latin, exten-
dere, to stretch out. The muscles
whose office it is to extend certain
parts

FILIFORM. — From the Latin, filum, a

thread, and forma, form. Having

the shape of a thread.
FLEX. — From the Latin, flectere, to

bend.
FLEXOR. — A muscle whose office it is

to bend certain parts.
FOINA. — From the Latin, fuscina,

which is formed from fuscuSj

brown. The name ot a species of

marten. (Sue page 58.)
FOLIACEOUS. — From the Latin,/o/iu/n,

a leaf,
leaves.

Consisling of laminae or

FOLLICLE — From the Latin,/o//icu/us,
which is the diminutive of follis, a
bag. A diminutive glandular sac
or bag.

FORAMEN. — Latin. A hole ; from /oro,
I pierce. A cavity pierced through
and through Also, the orifice of
a canal.

FACIAL. — From the Latin, fades, the \ FORAMINA. — The plural of foramen.

face. Belonging or relating to the
face. Facial angle, (See ANGLE.)

FAMILIARIS. — Latin. Familiar. Be-
longing or relating to a family.
Domestic.

FAMILY. — From the Latin, familia,
family. All those of the same
blood, children, brothers, parents,
&c. The assemblage of several
genera of animals that resemble
each other in many respects.

FAWN. — The young deer.

FELIS.— Latin. A cat.

FELT. — A sort of cloth made of wool,
or fur, united without weaving. The
fabric or foundation of hats.

FIBER. — Latin. A beaver.

FIBRE — From the Latin, fibra. An
organic filament, of solid consis-
tence, and more or less extensible,
which enters into the composition of
every animal and vegetable texture.

FIBROUS.— Composed of fibres.

FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS. — Of the nature
of fibro-cartilage, which is an or-
ganic tissue, partaking of the nature
of fibrous tissue, and of that of car-
tilage. It is dense, resisting, elastic,
firm, supple, and flexible.

FILAMENT. — From the Latin Jilamen-
turn, A small thread

FOSSA. — In the plural, Fossae. From
the Latin, fodio, I dig. A cavity of
greater or less depth, the entrance
to which is always larger than the
base. The nasal fossae are two
large cavities, situate between the
oibits below the cranium, and lined
by the pituitary or schneiderian
membrane : the internal nostrils.

FRICATOR. — Latin. A rubber.

FRUGIVORA. — From the Latin, fruges,
all kinds of fruit, serving for food,
that the earth brings forth, and
vorare, to eat. Animals that feed
exclusively on vegetable substances.

FRUGIVOROUS — Fruit-eating. Animals
that feed exclusively on vegetable
substances are frugivorous.

FUR. — Soft hair of beasts. Skin with
soft hair, with which garments are
lined for warmth, or covered for
ornament (See DOWN.)

FUNCTION. — From the Latin, fungor^
I act, or discharge an office. The
action of an organ or system of
organs.

FURO. — Barbarous Latin, formed from
furvus, dark, black, dusky. A name
given to a species of marten on ac-
count of its habit of seeking game
in dark holes or burrows.

MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

143

GALEOPITHECUS. — From the Greek,
gale, a weasel, and pithekos, a mon-
key. The name of a tribe of ani-
mals. (See page 45.)

GALLICUS. — Latin. G.tllic. French.

GANGLION. — Fro in tin Greek, gang-
lion, a knot. Nervous ganglions
are enlargements or knots in the
course of a nerve.

GASTEROPODA. — From t'ie Greek, £v/s-
ter, belly, and pous, foot. Name of
a genus of molluscous animals that
crawl by means of the inferior sur-
face of the body.

GAZELLE, or GAZEL — From the Arabic,
alghazal, gazelle. A species of an-
telope.

GENUS. — Latin. A kindred, breed,
race, stock, lineage, or family,

GENERA. — Plural of genus.

GENERIC. — Belonging- or relating to
genus.

GEORY^HUS. — From the Greek, ge, the
earth, and orusso, I dig. The Lem-
ming. (See page 84.)

GLACIAL. — From the Lati i, glades,
ice. Belonging or relating to ice.

GLADIATOR. — Latin. A sword-player,
a fencer, a swords-rnan.

GLIS. — Latin. Dormouse.

GRMUS. — Latin. Grecian.

GRAMPUS. — From the French, grand-
poisson, big fish, pronounced by the
Normans, grapois, whence the En-
glish word Grampus. An animal
of the order of cetacea.

GRUNNIENS. — Latin. — Grunting like a
hog.

GUENON. — French. An ape.

GULO. — Barbarous Latin. The glutton

HALICORE. — From the Greek, als, the
sea, and kore, a maiden. A sea-
nymph; a mermaid.

IlALMATURUs.~From the Greek alma,
a leap, and oura, a tail. The Kan-
garoo is so called from leaping by
the aid of its tail.

HEMISPHERE — From the Greek einisus,
half, and sphaira, sphere or globe.
One half of a sphere or globe, or
globular body ; the brain is divided
into two hemispheres.

HERBACEOUS. — From the Latin, herba,
an herb. Belonging to herbs.
13

HERBIVORA. — Latin. Herbivorous.

HERBIVOROUS. — From the Latin, her-
ba, herb or plant, and vorare to e it.
Herb-eating. Animals that feed
chiefly, or entirely on herbs or
plants, are herbivorous.

HIBERNATE. — .From the Latin, hiber-
nare, to winter, to be in winter
quarters. Anim.ils that retire and
sLep throughout the winter are said
to hibernate.

HIBERNATION. — The act of hiberna-
t ng. Being in winter quarters.

HIND. — A female deer.

HIPPOPOTAMUS. — From the Greek, ip-
pox, a horse, and potamos, a river.
The river hor=e.

HIRCUS. — Latin. A he go.it.

HUMERUS. — The hone of the arm,
which is situate between the shoul-
der joint and the elbow.

HYOID. — From the Greek, u, and
eidos, lesemblance. Resembling
the shape or form of the letter U.
The Os hyoides, the hyoid bone, is
a very moveable bony arch placed

. horizontally, in the substance of the
soft parts of the neck, at the root
of the tongue. It does not articu-
late with any other bone of the
skeleton, and is only connected to
it through the medium of muscles
and ligaments.

HYFSIPRVMNUS. — From the Greek, ipsi,
high, nndprumnog, behind, extreme.
The Potoroo.

HYSTRIX. — From the Greek, ustrix.
which is formed of us, a hog, and
thrix, a bristle. The Porcupine.

INCHNEUMON. — From the Greek, ich-
neud, I pursue, I follow in the track.
The Mangouste, or Pharaoh's nt.

INCISOR. — From the Latin, incido, I
cut. The teeth which occupy the
anterior part of the upper and lower
jaws, are called incisors, or incisor
teeth, because they are used for
cutting the food in the manner of
cutting instruments.

C From the Latin, indicarc

INDEX. J to point out, to indicate.

INDICATOR. ] The fore-finger, the in-
^ dex-finger.

INDICUS. — Latin. Indian.

144

MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

INSECTIVORA. — Latin. Insectivorous.

INSECTIVOROUS. — From the Latin, t'n-
secta, insects, and vorure, to eat
Insect-eating. Animals that feed
on insects are insectivorous.

INTEGUMENT. — From the Latin, tegere,
to cover. The skin.

INUUS. — (One of the names of Pan,
the heathen god of shepherds, and
of flocks.) The Barbary ape has
received this name.

ISCHIATIC. — From the Greek, ischion,
the haunch. Belonging or relating
to the haunch.

KNOBBER. — The name of a young
stag when the first rudiments of the
horns appear in the form of a tuber-
cle or knob.

LABYRINTH — From the Latin, Inbyrin-
thuS) which is for rued from the Greek,
laburintlios, a p'ace full of turnings,
the exit of which is not easily dis-
coverable. Anatomists have given
this name to the aggregate of parts,
constituting the internal ear.

LACERTA. — Latin. A lizard.

LAMANTIN. — From the Barbarous Lat-
in, manalus, which is formed from
manus, a hand. An animal of the
Order of Cetacea. (See page 124 )

LAMINA. — Latin. A plate, or thin
piece of metal or bone.

LAMINAE. — Latin. Plural of Lamina.

LAMINAR. — Composed of Laminae.

LAMELLA. — Latin. A little thin plate
or piece.

LAMELLAE. — Latin. Plural of Lamella.

LAMELLAR. — Composed of Lamellae.

LANIGERA. — Latin. Lanigerous.

LANIGEROUS. — From the Latin, lana,
wool, and -gerere, to bear. Wool
bearing.

LARVA. — Latin. A mask. An insect

* after it has left the egg, and before

it assumes the form of a crysa'is,

is called a larva, because in this

state it is, as it were, masked.

LARVAE. — The plural of larva.

LARYNX. — From the Greek, larugx^a.
whistle. The apparatus of voice.
It is situate at the superior and an-
terior part of the neck ; and at the
top of the trachea, with which it
communicates.

LATITUDE. — From the Latin, lalitudo,
breadth. The extent of the earth
reckoned from the equator to either
pole. Latitude is measured by de-
grees and minutes. The latitude
of any place is its distance from
the equator towards either pole.

LEMMUS. — Barbarous Latin. A Lem-
ming.

LEMUR. — Barbarous Latin. A name
given to mammalia of the family
of makis and some others.

LEO. — Latin. A Lion.

LEPUS. — Latin. A Hare.

LETHARGY. — From the Greek, lethe,
fbrgetfulness, and argos, prompt.
A profound and unnatural stupor,
which deprives the individual of
the use of his senses. Insensibility
or indifference to everything.

LETHARGIC. — Belonging or relating
to lethargy.

LIGAMENT. — From the Latin ligare,to
tie. A name given to fibrous struc-
tures, which serve to unite bones,
and form articulations.

LINE. — A rope, or cord. The tenth
part of an inch.

LITTER. — A brood of young.

LOR IP. — The name ofa kind of monkey.

LUNGS. — The organs of respiration in
mammiferous animals. Vulgarly
called the lights.

LUPUS. — Latin. A Wolf.

LUTRA. — Latin. An Otter.

MACACUS. — Barbarous Latin. Ma-
caque.

MACAO.UE. — French. The Macaco, a
species of ape with a tail.

MACROCEPHALUS, — From the Greek,
makros, long, big, and kephtle, head.
Long or big head. A name of the
spermaceti whale.

MAGOT. — French. A baboon.

MAMMA. — Latin. The breast, pap, or
teat.

MAMMAE. — Plural of mamma.

MAMMAL — Any animal having teats
for suckling its young, is called a
mammal.

MAMMALIA. — From mamma, a breast.
Animals that suckle their young.

MAMMALOGY. — From the Latin, mam-
ma, breast, and the Greek, logos

MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

145

discourse or treatise. That part of
Natural History which treats of
Tnammiferous animals.

MAMMARY. — From the Latin mamma,
a breast. Belonging or relating to
the breast.

MAMMIFER^E. — From the Latin, mam-
mo, a breast, and /ero, I carry.
Animals that have teats.

MAMMIFEROUS — Belonging or relating
to mammiferse.

MAMMOTH. — An extinct animal of the
family of Proboscidiana.

MANATUS. — Barbarous Latin, formed
from manus, a hand. The Lam-
antin. (See page 124.)

MANATI.I — Plural of Manatus.

MANYPLIES. — The third stomach of
ruminating animals.

MARITIMUS. — Latin. Maritime. Re-
lating to the sea.

MARSUPIALIA. — From the Latin, mar-
supium, a purse, pouch or bag.
Animals that have on the anterior
surface of the body, a pouch, formed
of the skin, for the accommodation
of their young.

MARSUPIALS. — Marsupialia. Animals
provided with pouches for the ac-
commodation of their young.

MARTKS. — Latin. A marten, a ferret.

MASTICATION.- -From the Greek, mas-
tichao, I chew. The act of chew-
ing food, to impregnate it with sali-
va, and prepare it for the digestion
it has to undergo in the stomach.

MASTIVUS. — Barbarous Latin, formed
from the Italian, mastino, a large
dog. The mastiff.

MASTODON. — An extinct animal of the
family of Proboscidiana.

MAXILLARY. — From the Latin, max-
illa, a jaw. Belonging or relating
to the jaws.

MELES. — Latin. A Badger.

MEMBRANA. — Latin. A membrane.

MEMRRANE.— A name given to different
thin organs, representing species of
supple, more or less elastic, webs.

MEMBRANOUS. — Belonging to mem-
brane.

MEPHITIS. — Latin. A stink, an un-
pleasant smell. The name given to
the skunk on account of its odour.

MERINO — Spanish. Wandering or
removing from pasture to pasture.
The name of a kind of sheep with
very fine wool, originally from
Spain.

METACARPUS. — From the Greek, meta,
after, and karpos, the wrist. That
part of the hand which is between
the wrist and fingers.

METATARSUS. — From the Greek, meta,
after, and torsos, the instep. That
part of the foot which is between
the instep and toes.

MOLAR. — From the Greek, mvlos, a
millstone, or grindstone ; or from
the Latin, moZo, I grind. That
which bruises or grinds. The name
of certain teeth.

MOLAR TEETH — The grinders. Jaw
teeth.

MOLLUSCA. — From the Latin, mollis,
soft. A class of marine animals
without vertebrae, which have blood
vessels, a spinal marrow, and a sim-
ple body, without articulated limbs.

MOLLUSCOUS. — Relating to Mollusca.

MOLOSSUS. — Barbarous Latin. A spe-
cies of large dog. (See page 64.)

MONILEFORM. — From the Latin moniZe,
a necklace, and forma, shape, form.
In the form of a necklace or string
of beads.

MONODON. — From the Greek, monos,
single, and odous, o'dontos, a tooth.
The name of the Narwhal, from
having a single tusk.

MONOSYLLABIC. — From the Greek, mo-
nos, single, and sullabe, a sylable.
Consisting of but one syllable.

MONOTREMATA. — From the Greek, mo-
wos, single, and trema, a perforation
or hole. The name of a family of
animals found in New Holland.
(See page 96.)

MONTANUS. — Laiin. Mountainous. Re-
lating to mountains.

MOSAIC. — -From the Greek, mouseion,
mows/0/?, and mosion, which signify
the same thing in the Greek of the
middle ages, as the musivum opus,
of the Latins, a museum, a place
designed for study. Some add, that
it is because cabinets or museums
were ornamented at first with works

146

MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

of this kind. A work, in which,
by means of small stones and little
pieces of differently coloured glass,
figures or even entire pictures are
represented.

Moscnus. — Barbarous Latin, formed
from the Arabic mosch. Musk.

MOSCHATUS. — Barbarous Latin. Be-

longing or relating to musk,
fumed with musk.

Per-

MOSCHIFERUS. — Latin. From moschus,
and/ero, I bear. Musk bearing.

MOTIVE. — From the Latin, moveo, I
move. That which excites motion.

MOTOR. — From the Latin, moveo, I
move. That which causes motion.
A mover.

MULOT. — French. A sort of Field-
mouse.

Mus. — Latin. A Mouse.

MUSCULUS. — Latin. A little mouse.

MUSK. — An animal substance of a
very diffusible odour, bitter taste,
and deep brown colour. It is used
as a medicine and perfume. The
name of an animal.

MUSTELA. — Latin. A Weasel.

MUZZLE.— That part of the head of
the dog, and certain other animals,
which comprises the mouth and nose.

MYOXUS.— From the Greek, mus, a
mouse, and ozus, sharp-pointed. A
rat with a pointed nose.

MVRMECOPHAGA. — From the Greek,
murmex, an ant, and phago, I eat.
Ant-eaters.

MYSTECETUS. — From the Greek, mus-
tus, a nose, and chaite a bristle. A
name given to a species of Cetacea,
that has whalebone.

WARES. — Latin. The nostrils.

NASAL. — From the Latin, nasus, a
nose. Belonging or relating to the
nose. Nasal fossae. (See Fossa.)

NATATION. — From the Latin, natatio,
swimming. The act of swimming,
or supporting one's self, or moving
upon the water.

NICTITANS.— Latin. Winking. The
membrana nictitans, is a sort of
internal eyelid, found in many
mammals.

NITELA. — Latin,
mouse.

A sort of Field-

NOCTURNAL. — From the Latin, noxt
the night. Belonging or relating to
the night. Noctural animals are
those which sleep during the day,
and are active only in the night.

OCCIPUT. — The back part of the head.
The hind-head in opposition to the
lore-head.

OCCIPITAL. — Relating or belonging to
the occiput.

OCELLATA. — From the Latin, oculus,
an eye. Having marks of an eye.

ODORIFEROUS. — From the Latin, odor,
a scent, and /ero, I bear. Scent, or
odour-bearing.

(ESOPHAGUS. — From the Greek, oiso,
I carry, and phagein, to eat. The
gullet. The membranous canal
which conveys food from the mouth
to the stomach.

OLFACTORY. — From the Latin olfactus,
the smell. Belonging or relating
to smell.

OMASUM. — Latin. The manyplies, or
third stomach of ruminants.

OMNIVOROUS. — From the Latin, omnis,
all, and vorare, to eat. Applied to
animals that eat all kinds of food,
both animal and vegetable.

ONAGGA. — Probably from the Greek,
ones, an ass, and agrios, wild. The
mountain horse, or a wild ass.

ORDER — An arrangement, disposition.

ORDINARIA. — Latin. Ordinary, com-
mon.

OREILLARD. — French. Having long
ears. The name of a kind of bat.

ORGAN. — From the Gieek, organont
an instrument. Part of an orga-
nised being, destined to exercise
some particular function ; for ex-
ample, the ears are the organs of
hearing, the muscles are organs of
motion, &,c.

ORGANIC. — Relating to an organ. Com-
posed of organs.

ORGANIZATION. — The mode or manner
of structure of an organized being.

ORNITHOLOGY. — From the Greek ornis,
in the genitive case, ornithos, a bird,
and logos, a discourse. The natu-
ral history of birds.

ORNITHORYNOHUS. — From the Greek,
] ornis, ornithos, a bird, and rugchos,

MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

147

a beak or muzzle. The name of an
animal. (See page 9 6.)

OURANG-OUTANG. — From the Malay,
ourang, a reasonable being, a man,
and outang, wild. The wild-man.

OVIPAROUS. — From the Latin, ovum,
an egg, and parere, to bring forth.
Animals that multiply by means of
eggs, are oviparous.

Ovrs. — Latin. A Sheep.

PACHYUERMATA. — From the Greek,
pachus, thick, and derma, skin.
The name of a family of animals.

PALMAR. — From the Latin, palma, the
palm. Belonging or relating to the
palm of the hand.

PALMATE. — Having the toes united by
a membrane.

PAPILLA. — Latin. A nipple. A name
given to small eminences, which
appear to be formed by the ulti-
mate expansion of the vessels and
nerves.

PAPILLA.— Plural of Papilla.

PARACHUTE. — From the Greek, para,
against, and the French, chute, a
fall. A machine, somewhat in the
form of the top of an umbrella,
used to moderate the descent of
those who ascend in balloons, and
guarantee them against the effects
of a sudden fall.

PARADOXUS. — Latin. Strange, won-
derful, unusual.

PARASITE. — From the Greek, para,
near, and sitos, corn. One who is
near the food. A hanger-on.

PARDUS. — Latin. A Panther.

PARIETES. — From the Latin, paries, a
wall. A name given to parts, which
form the inclosure — the limits of
different cavities of the body.

PARIETAL (protuberances.) The emi-
nences in the middle part of the
parietal banes, which form the up-
per and lateral parts of the head.

PAUNCH — The first stomach of Ru-
minants.

PEDIMANA — From the Latin, pes,
pedis, a foot, and manus a hand.
A family of mammals that have
a thumb on the hind feet, which
fits them to perform the office of
hands.

13*

PEGASUS. — In Greek, pagasos, formed
irom pege, a fountain. The celebra-
ted winged horse of the poets, which,
by a single kick caused the foun-
tain of Hippocrene to gush forth on
Mount Helicon. The genius of
poetic inspiration.

PELTRY. — From the Latin, pellis, a
skin, a hide. A name given to des-
ignate all kinds of skins collective-
ly that are dressed with the hair
and fur upon them.

PELVIS. — Latin. A basin. The name
of the bony structure at the lower
part of the trunk, which forms the
inferior boundary of the abdomen,
gives support or place of foundation
to the spinal column, and affords
points of articulation for the thigh
bones, constituting the hip joint.

PEMMECAN. — The name given by cer-
tain North American Indians to the
muscular fibre of beasts, after it
has been dried and powdered with-
out the addition of any salt. This
article has the quality of remaining
good, and fresh for a long time, and
is used by voyagers and travellers
as a convenient article of diet, form-
ing, when boiled in water, a fresh,
nutritious soup. The best pemme-
can is made of the flesh of the buf-
falo. The flesh of the musk ox is
also prepared in this way.

PENDENT, (or pendant) From the Lat-
in, pcndo, I hang. Hanging.

PETROUS. — From the Greek, petra,
a rock, a stone. A part of the tem-
poral bone, which contains the in-
ternal organs of hearing, is so called
from resembling a stone in hardness.

PHALANGES. — The plural of Phalanx.

PHALANX. — From the Greek, phalagx,
a file of soldiers. The bones com-
posing the fingers and toes. They
are named first, second, and third
phalanges.

PHALANGER. — The name of an animal
which is remarkable for the singu-
lar conformation of its phalanges.
(See page 74.)

PHALANGISTA. — Latin. Phalangers.

PHARAONIS. — Latin. Relating or be-
longing to Pharaoh.

148

MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

PHARYNX. — From the Greek, pharugx,
the pharynx. The swallow. The
superior opening ofthe (Esop'iagus.

PHASCOLOMYS. — From tlie Greek, pha-
*tolos, a pouch. The name of a
genus of marsupials.

PHOCA. — Lati'i. A Seal.

PHCECENA. — The systematic name of
porpoises.

PHTHISIS. — From the Greek, phthed, I
dry up, I waste away. Usually ap-
plied to consumption, or wasting
away, from a particular diseased
condition of the lungs

PHYLLOSTOMA. — From the Greek, phul-
lon, a leaf, and sterna, a mouth. The
name of a kind of bat. (See pa^e
45.)

PHYSETER. — From the Greek, phusao,
I blow. The name of a kind of
whale.

PISCIFORM. — From the Latin, piscis,
a fish, and forma, form. Of the
shape or form of a fish.

PIPISTRELLUS. — The name of a kind
of bat.

FLANTIGRADA. — Plantigrade animals.

PLANTIGRADE — From the L dinplanta,
the sole of the foot, and gradi, to
walk. Applied to certain mam-
miferous animals that, in walking,
rest the entire sole upon the ground.

POLYPE. — From the Greek, polus,
many, and pous, foot. A sort o^
aquatic animal, whose me nbranous
and tubu'ar body is termin itcd by
many filaments, which serve it b./th
as feet and arms for seizing its
prey.

POLYPUS. — Latin. Polype.

POLYPI. — Plural of Polypus.

POMERANUS. — Latin. Relating or be-
longing to Pomerania, a province
of Prussia.

PORCUPINE. — From the Lntin, porous,
a hog, and spicatus, from spicu, a
head of w"heat, a spine. An ani-
mal resembling a hog with the skin
armed with spines.

PORC-EPIC. — French. A Porcupine.

PORCELLUS.— Latin. The diminutive
of porous, a hog. A pig.

PORPOISE. — From the Latin, porous, a
hog, and piscis, a fish. Hog-fish.

PREHENSILE. — From the Latin, prc-
hendere, to lay hold of. The pre-
hension of aliment consists in lay.
ing hold of, and conveying food in-
to the mouth.

PROBOSCIDIAN. — From the Greek, pro-
boskis, a proboscis or trunk. The
name applied to animals of the
family that includes the elephant.

PROBOSCIDIANA. — The name of the
family of animals that includes the
elephant.

PROCESS. — A natural eminence or pro-
jection of bone.

PROCYON. — Latin. A rackoon.

PROGRESSION. — From the Latin pro-
gressio, which is formed from prot
before, and gradus, a pace or step.
A movement in advance, a going
forward. The movement of pro-
gression is peculiar to animals.

PSALTERIUM. — A name of the third
stnnruch of ruminants.

PTEROMYS. — From the Greek, pteron,
a wing, and wus,a mouse. The sys-
tematicn tme ofthe flying-squirrels.

PULMONARY. — Belonging or relating
to the lungs.

PUTORIUS. — Latin. From putor, a
stink. The systematic name of
the polecat.

QUADRUMANA. — From the Latin, quad-
rinus, formed from quatuor, four,
and manus, hand. The name of
the order of mammals that possess
four hands.

QUADRUI ED. — From the Latin, quad,
rinuft, and pes, a foot. Having four
fe,t.

RADIATA. — From the Latin, radius, a
spoke. The name given to the
fourth BRANCH of the amrnal king-
dom, on account of tluir configu-
ration.

RAMUSCULE. — From the Latin, ramus*

a branch. A diminutive branch.
• RATTL"--. — Barbaioua Latin. A rat.

RECURVED. — Bent backward.

REGIMEN.— From the Latin, regere,
to govern. The rational and metho-
dic;il use of food, and of everything
essential to life ; both in a state of
health and disease. It is often re-
stricted, in its meaning, to diet.

M AMM ALOGY:— GLOSS ARY.

149

REGURGITATE. — From the Latin, re,
again, and gurges, a gulf, whirl-
pool, or stream.
The word is used
return of food to the mouth in ru-

To throw back,
to describe the

ru-
the

minants after
swallowed.

it has been once

RUMINATE, — To chew the cud.

RUMINATION — From the Latin,
minatio, the act of chewing
cud.

RUMINANT. — An animal that chews
the cud.

RUMINANTIA. — The systematic name
of animals that ruminate.

RUPICAPRA. — From the Latin, rupes, a
rock, and capra, a goat. The sys-
tematic name of the chamois.

SAGOUIN. — French. A marmoset. A
sort of monkey. All American
monkeys whose tails are not pre-
hensile, are so called.

SAJOU, — French. A species of mar-
moset.

SAKI. — A sort ot monkey.

SALIVA. — Formed from the Latin, so?,
salt. Spittle. An inodorous, trans-
parent, slightly viscid fluid, which
is secreted by several glands, and
poured into the mouth through
their respective duels. It consists
of water, mucus, a particular ani-
mal matter and salts of soda and
potash. Its use is to assist in the
process of digestion, by mixing
with the alimentary ball during
mastication.

SALIVARY. — Belonging or relating to
saliva.

SAPAJOU. — French. A species of mon-
key.

SARIGUE. — French. An Opossum.

SAURIA. — From the Greek, sauros, a
lizard. The name of an order of
reptiles with long, scaly bodies, and
long tails, resembling a lizard.

SCAPULA. — The shoulder blade.

SCIURUS. — Latin. A Squirrel.

SCROPHA, or Scrofa. — Latin. A Sow.

SEMNOPITHECUS. — From the Greek,
semnos, venerable, and pithekos, a
monkey. (See page 38.)
rows. The matter thrown out, or <SEROTINUS. — Latin. Belonging or re-

REGURGITATION. — The act of throwing
back into the mouth food that has
been swallowed.

RENNET. — The fourth stomach of ru-
minants. When the fourth stomach
of the calf is salted and dried, it
possesses the property of coagula-
ting milk, when a portion of it is
soaked in water, and the infusion
is added to the milk.

REPTILE. — From the Latin, repere, to
crawl. An animal that crawls, that
draws itself along on its belly, like
worms and serpents. By extension,
an animal that has feet so short that
it seems to crawl rather than walk.

RESPIRATION. — From the Latin, res-
piio, I take breath. A functioi
proper to animals, the object of
which is, to place the materials of
the blood in contact with atmos-
pheric air, in order that it may ac-
quire the vivifying qualities that
belong to arterial blood.

RETICULUM. — The second stomach of
ruminants.

RHINOCEROS.— From the Greek, n'n, a
nose, in the genitive rinos, and
keras, a horn. The name of an
animal from its having a horn on
the nose.

RHINOLOPHUS. — From the Greek, n'n,
in the genitive, rinos, a nose, and

lophos, a tuft or crest,
of a kind of bat.

The name

RIDDANCE. — A word employed to des-
ignate the refuse matter thrown out
by animals in digging their .bur-

delivered by a saw, in its passage
throug-h any substance, may, per-
haps, be thus designated.

RODENTIA. — From the Latin, rodere,
to gnaw. The systematic name of
an order of mammals.

RUMEN. — The paunch, or first stom-
ach of ruminants.

lating to the evening
SIMIA. — L;itin. A Monkey.
SINUOUS. — Relating or belonging to a

sinus. Partaking of the nature of

a sinus.
SINUS. — Any cavity, the interior of

which is more expanded than the

entrance.

150

MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY.

SIREN, or Syren. — From the Greek.
sen-fir, a chain, from the supposed
strength of its charms. A fabulous
monster.

SKELETON. From the Greek, skello,

I dry. The aggregate of the hard
parts of the body, or the bones.

SOLIPEDE. — From the Latin, solidipe.s,
which is formed from solidus, solid,
and pee, a foot. The term is ap-
plied to those animals that have but
one hoof on each foot, as the horse.

SOREX. — Latin. A Shrew, or fieldrat.

SPALAX. — The name of a species of
rodentia.

SPECIFIC. — Relating or belonging to
species.

SPIRACLE. — From the Latin, spirare,
to breathe. The breathing hole or
nostril of the cetacea.

STERNUM — The breast bone.

Sus. — Latin. A hog. a sow.

SURMULOT. — French. Name of a kind
of large rat.

SYLVATICUS. — Latin. Sylvan. Wild.

SYNOPSIS. — From the Greek, st/n, with,
together, and optomai, I see. That
which is seen at a glance, or at one
view.

SYNOPTICAL. — Belonging or relating to
a synopsis. Partaking of the na-
ture of a synopsis.

TALPA. — Latin. A mole.

TARANDUS. — Barbarous Latin, formed
from Tarande, a name of the rein-
deer.

TARDIGRADA. — From the Latin, tar-
dust slow, and gradus, a step. The
systematic name of the sloths.

TARDIGRADE. — Same derivation as the
above. Slow-stepping.

TARSUS. — From the Greek, torsos, any
row, the sole of the foot. The pos-
terior part of the foot, which, in
man, consists of seven bones, and
forms .the heel and instep.

TAURUS. — Latin. A bull.

TEGUMENTARY. — From the Latin, teg-
vmcn, a covering. Belonging or
relating to the tegument or skin.

TEMPORAL. — From the Latin, ternpus,
time, the temple, so called, it is said,
because on this part, the hair be-
gins to turn white, and indicate

age. Belonging or relating to the
temples. The temporal bone is
placed at the lateral and lower part
of the skull of which it forms a
part, and contains within it the
organs essential to the sense of
hearing.

TENDON. — From the Greek, teino, I
stretch. Strong, white, fibrous cords,
which connect the muscles to the
bones which they move. The ten-
dons may be considered as so many
cords, for transmitting the motion of
the muscles to the bones, or levers.

TENDINOUS. — Belonging to, or parta-
king of the nature of tendon.

TERMITES. — The name of a species of
insect. White ants.

TERRARIUS. — Barbarous Latin. A
terrier dog.

TERR^E-NOV^E. — Latin name of New-
foundland.

THORAX. — From the Greek, thorax,
the chest. It is bounded posteriorly
by the vertebree; laterally, by the
ribs and scapula; anteriorly, by the
sternum ; above, by the clavicle ;
and below, by the diaphragm. It
is destined to lodge and protect the
chief organs of respiration and cir«
culation : — the lungs and heart-

TIGRIS.— Latin. A tiger.

TIMIDUS — Latin. Timid.

TRACHEA. — From the Greek, trachus,
rough, and or/eria, an artery, which
is formed from aer, air, and terein,
to keep. The canal which conveys
the air to the lungs. The windpipe.

TRENCHANT. — Cutting.

TRICHECHUS. — Barbarous Latin, for-
med from the Greek, trix, hair.
Systematic name of the morse.

TRIDACTYLUS. — From the Greek, treis,
three, and daktulos, a finger. Three
fingered.

TRIPOD. — From the Greek, t reis, three,
and poKS, a foot. Having three feet.

TRITON.— From the Greek, treis,
three, and tonos, a tone. The name
of a fabulous god, that accompa-
nied Neptune, blowing a shell as a
trumpet. Most sea-gods are called
Tritons, and are generally repre-
sented in the act of blowing shells.

MAMMALOGYr-GLOSSARY.

151

TRUNK. — The body without including
the head or extremities. The pro-
boscis of an elephant.

TRUNCATED. — Cut short. Cut abrupt-
ly, or square off.

TUBERCLE. — From the Latin, tuber, a
knot, a small knot or projection.

UNGUICULATA. — From the Latin, un-
guis, a (finger) nail. Animals that
have small nails on their fingers or
toes.

UNGUICULATE. — Having small nails.

UNGULATA. — Animals having large
nails or hoofk

UNGULATE. — Having hoofe.

UNICORN. — From the Latin, unus,
one, and cornu, a horn. Having
one horn. The name of a fabulous
animal.

URSUS — Latin. A bear.

URUS. — Latin. A buffo lo.

VENTRICLE.— From the Latin, ventri-
culus, a little belly, formed from
venter, a belly. A name given in
anatomy to various parts.

VERMIFORM. — From the Latin, rermts,
a worm, and/orma, form. Worm-
shaped. An epfthet applied to cer-
tain carnivorous animals, on ac-
count of their ability to pass through
narrow openings.

VERTAGUS. — Latin. Name of a par-
ticular kind of dog.

VERTEBRA. — From the Latin, vcrtere,
to turn. This name has been given
to each of the bones, which, by
their union, form the vertebral or
spinal column, vulgarly called the
back bone.

VERTEBRAE. — The plural of vertebra.

VERTEBRAL. — Belonging or relating to
vertebrae.

VERTEBRATA. — Animals that possess
vertebrae. The first branch of
the Animal kingdom. (See page
18.)

VERTEX. — Latin. The top or crown
of the head.

VEPPERTILIO. — Latin. A bat.

VETCH. — A kind of bean.

VICUNNA. — Barbarous Latin. A vi-
cunia.

VIRGINIANA. — Latin. Belonging to
Virginia.

VIRIDIS. — Latin. Green.

VIVERRA. — Latin. A ferret.

VIVIPAROUS. — From the Latin, vivus,
alive, and^ario, I bring forth. Ani-
mals whose young are born with-
out being hatched, are said to be
viviparous.

VULGARIJ>. — Latin. Common.

VULPES. — Latin. A fox.

WEN. — A kind of tumour.

WITHERS. — The joining of the shoul-
der bones at the bottom of the neck
and mane, towards the upper part
of the shoulder.

ZIBELLINA. — Modern Latin. Relat-
ing to the sable.

ZOOLOGICAL. — Belonging or relating to
zoology.

ZOOLOGY. — From the Greek, zdon, an
animal, and logos, a discourse. That
part of natural history which treats
of animals.

ZOOLOGIST. — One devoted to the study
of zoology.

ZOOPHYTE. — From the Greek, zoon
an animal, and phuton, a plant.
An animal without vertebrae, or
extremities, that attaches itself to
solid bodies and seems to live and
vegetate like a plant.

FINIS.

Plate 1,

1.

Fig. 1. to 3. — Order of Bimana.
Fig. 4. to 12. — Order of Quadrumana.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1.

ORDER OF BIMANA.

Fig. 1. Head of a man of the Caucasian race.
Fig. 2. Head of a man of the Mongolian race.
Fig. 3. Head of a man of the Ethiopian race.
(Frontispiece. Head of a man of the American race.)

ORDER OF QTJADRUMANA.

FAMILY OP MONKEYS.
Fig. 4. Head of a young Ourang-Outang.
Fig. 5. A Chimpanzee.
Fig. 6. The Semnopithecus entellus.
Fig. 7. The Cynocephalus, or dog-headed monkey.
Fig. 8. The black Ateles — a monkey belonging to the division of Sajous.
Fig. 9. The Alouatte, or howling monkey ; a female carrying a young
one on her back.

FAMILY OF OUISTITIS.

Fig. 1 0. The Ouistitis.

FAMILY OF MAKIS.

Fig. 12. Hind paw of a Maki, to show the peculiar form of the nail on
the index finger.

Fig. 11. The red maki.

Plate 2.

Order of Carnaria.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2.
ORDER OF CARNARIA.

FAMILY OF CHEIROPTERA.

Fig. 1. A but (Oreillard) with the win<:s extended.

Fig. 2. A b,t with the wings folded as when walking.

Fig. 3. The bones of .he wing of a bat,-*, the humerus.-&, the fore-
arm — c. the thumb.— d, the fingers.

Fig. 4. Head of the Vampire.

Fig. 6. Teeth of a frugivorous bat, viewed from above (one half of the
upper jaw only is represented).

Fig. 5. Teeth of an insectivorous bat.

Fig. 7. The Galeopithecus, with its young one.

FAMILY OF INSECTIVORA.
Fig. 9. The common shrew.
Fig. 10. The common mole.

* l11; B°::eS °f the fore-ann and hand <* themo1e.-«f the fore-arm.-
o, the hand.

Fig. 8. Teeth of an insectivorous animal.— ;n, the molar teeth.

FAMILY OF CARNIVORA.

Fig. 12 Teeth of a carnivorous animal (the Glutt >n.)-i, incisors-,
ines.-/-m, false molars.-ca, carnivorous tooth.-«, tuberculous tooth.

TRIBE OF PLANTIGRADES.
Fig. 14. Fore paw of a bear, seen from below.
Fig. 13. White bear of the Icy ocean.
Fig. 15. The Glutton.

TRIBE OF DIGITIGRADES.
Fig. 1 6. The common polecat.
Fig. 17. The common civet.
14

Plate 3.

3.

Fig. 1 to 8. Order Carnaria.
Fig. 9 to 12. Order Marsupialia.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3.

Fig. 1. The Mangouste of Egypt, or Ichneumon of the ancients.

F,g. 3. The Hyena.

Fig. 5. The skull of a Lion.

Fig. 4. The Royal Tiger.

Fig. 2. Head of the Wolf.

Fig. I). Paw of a Digiligrade. — ff, the humerus — 6, the fore-arm.-—
C, the carpus. — d, the metacarpus. — e, the phalanges and toes.

TRIBE OF AMPHIBIA.

Fig. 7. The common Seal.

Fig. 8. Head of a Morse.

ORDER OF MARSUPIALIA.

Fig. 9. The Opossum represented erect, with its young ones entering
the mammary pouch.

Fig. 11. The Kangaroo.

Fig. 10. Teeth of the Opossum. — a, the incisors. — 6, tlie canines. — c, the
molars.

Fig. 12. Teeth of the giant Kangaroo.

Plate 4.

Fig. 1 to 5. Order of Edentata.
Fig. 6 to 12. Order of Rodentia.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4.

ORDER OF EDENTATA.

Fig. 3. Skull of the AY or Sloth.
Fig. 1. The AY, or Sloth.
Fig. 2. The Armadillo.
Fig. 4. The Pangolin, or Manis.
Fig. 5. The Ornithorynchus.

ORDER OF RODENTIA.

Fig. 12. The Beaver.

Fig. 11. The Jerboa.

Fig. 10. The Hamster.

Fig. 9. The Marmot.

Fig. 8. The Flying Squirrel

Fig. 6. The teeth of a squirrel.

Fig. 7. Front view of the lower incisors of a Squirrel

14*

Plate 5.

Fig. 1. to 4. — Order of Pachydermata.
Fig. 5. to 13,— Order of Ruminantia.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 5,
ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA.

Fig. 1. Head of the Asiatic Elephant.

Fig* 2. Head of the African Elephant.

Fig. 3. The Rhinoceros.

Fig. 4. The Hyppopotamu*.

Fig. 5. The wild Lama or Gluanaco.

Fig. 6 Head of the Giraffe.

Fig. 7. The common Stag.

Fig 8. Head of the female Rein -deer.

Fifr. 9. Head of the Chamois.

Fi?. 10. Head of the J^agre.

Fig. 11. Head of the Argali, or wild sheep of Asia.

Fig. 12. Head of the Mouflon.

Fig. 13. The Yack.

Plate 6.

Fig. 1 to 5. Order of Ruminatia continued.
Fig. 6 to 9. Order of Cetacea*

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 6.

Fig. 1. Head of the Buffalo.

Fig. 2. Head of the Musk Ox of America.

Fig. 3. Skull of the Ox.

Fig. 4. Stomach of a ruminant (sheep.) — o, the oesophagus. — pt the
paunch. — fe, the bonnet or reticulurn.— /, the many plies or omassum, — cat
the cailktte or rennet b;ig. d, the intestine.

Fig. 5. The same opi ned to show how the cEsophagus terminates in the
bonnet and manyplies. (The same letters indicate the same parts.)

ORDER OF CETACEA.

Fig. 6. The porpoise. — a, the vent or spiracle.
Fig. 7. The Whale.

Fig. 8. Skull of a Whale.—/, the whalebone. — w, the upper jaw.— <,
the cranium.— mi, the lower jaw.

Fig. 9. The Cachalot, or Spermaceti whale.

RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES.

OPINION OF WILLIAM S. ZANTZINGER, M.D.
MESSRS. TURNER AND FISHER : —

The flattering reception which the previous volumes of Dr. Ruschenberger's Series have met
•with from the public, has already proved that his efforts to diffuse a taste for the study of
Natural History, especially among the younger members of the community, and the means
•elected for the purpose have been fully appreciated. Any commendation of the present number
of the Series, " The Elements of Botany,'1 would therefore seem almost superfluous.

It is certainly admirably adapted for "beginners, whether young or old," containing a large
amount of information in a small compass, and easy of comprehension.

WILLIAM S. ZANTZINGER, M.D.

Philadelphia, April 25, 1844.

OPINION OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON,
Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, Pennsylvania Medical College.
MESSRS. TURNER AND FISHER:—

I have carefully examined the Elements of Botany, constituting part of Dr. Ruschenberger's
Series of " First Books of Natural History," and am highly pleased with the plan and details
of the work. It appears to combine whatever is requisite in elementary science, and is well
calculated to mingle pleasure and instruction in the mind of the learner.

SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON, M.D.

May 7, 1844.

OPINION OF THOS. D. MUTTER, M.D.

Professor of the Institutes and Practice of Surgery, in the Jefferson Medical College, Phila.
MESSRS. TURNER AND FISHER:—

Gentlemen, — I have just examined the " Elements of Botany," by Dr. Ruschenberger, and
heartily recommend the work to the notice of all who desire information on the subject of
which it treats. Like the previous numbers of the Series, it fully sustains the high reputation of
its author. Respectfully, yours, &c.

THOS. D. MUTTER, M.D.

OPINION OF JOSEPH CARSON, M.D.
Professor of Materia Medico in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy.

To MESSRS. TURNER AND FISHER : —

1 have examined the " Elements of Botany," belonging to Ruschenberger's Series, and regard
it as the best book of the kind that has fallen under my observation. The descriptions are
accurate ; and, as every thing required by the learner is presented succinctly and lucidly, a full
knowledge of rudimentary Botany may be obtained from it. Aa a pocket volume, it will be of
advantage to the adept, who has occasion often to refresh his memory upon first principles.
Even the general reader may derive information from the account of plants employed in th«
arts, or affording articles of luxury. Modest as is the form of this little production, it is en-
dowed with high merit, and cannot fail to be useful to the public, by whom it will be appreciated.

Very sincere.,.** j. CARSON.

Philadelphia, April 18, 1844.

OPINION OF ROBERT BRIDGES, M.D.

Lecturer on Chemistry.
MESSRS. TURNER AND FISHER:—

Gentlemen,— I have read and examined somewhat in detail the " Element* of Botany," by
Dr. Rusck».nberger, and can state with pleasure that it is calculated to sustain the reputation
of the Scries of " First Books," of which it constitutes a part

Very respectfully, yours, &c.

ROBERT BRIDGES,
PUUdelphfc, April 20, 1844,

RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES.

OPINION OF THE RIGHT REV. CHAS. P. McILVAINE, p. D.

Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Diocese of Ohio ; President of
Kenyan College, fyc.

Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, Feb. 1842.
MESSRS. TURNER & FISHER:

Gentlemen,— On reaching home, after a long absence, I had the pleasure
of reciving the copy of the work prepared by Dr. Ruschenberger on Physi-
ology and Animal Mechanism, for the use of schools. If my opinion of its
merits can be of any service to its circulation, I am free to say that not only
are the subjects of the work such as ought to enter into the course of study
of the higher classes of our schools, but this work seems to me to be well
adapted to the want of .schools in reference to its subjects. At any rate, I
know not a better for its professed purposes.

Yours, very truly, and respectfully,

CHAS. P. McILVAINE.

OPINION OF THE HON. LEVI WOODBURY,

United States Senator from New Hampshire.

Washington, 28th Jan. 1842.
MESSRS. TURNER & FISHER.

Gentlemen, — Yours of the 22d inst, has been received, with the First and
Second Book on Natural History, which you have recently published.

I have examined them with some care and appreciate the plan of commu-
nicating the elements of this interesting branch of science in so cheap and
clwar a form.

With my best wishes for the success of your enterprise,

I am, respectfully,

LEVI WOODBURY.

OPINION OF THE HON. DANIEL STURGEON,

United Stales Senator from Pennsylvania.

Senate Chamber, Washington City, Jan. 29th, 1842.
MESSRS. TURNER & FISHER.

Gentlemen. — I have examined with some care the two small volumes you
<vere so kind as to send me.

I think Dr. Ruschenberger has succeeded in condensing into as small a
space as possible, much valuable information on the subject of which he
treats, and think the work admirably calculated to impart general knowledge
on this interesting subject.

I will be pleased to see it adopted in our high schools and colleges as a
textbook.

With sentiments of respect and esteem, yours,

DAN'L STURGEON.

OPINION OF THE HON. SAMUEL L. SOUTHARD,

United States Senator Jrom New Jersey.

Washington, Feb. 15th. 1842.
MESSRS. TURNER & FISHER.

Dear Sirs, — I am gratified by your kindness, in sending me the two
volumes referred to, in your letter of the 31st of January. I entirely concur
in the objects you desire to accomplish. Few things can be more important
to our common country. My incessant and inexorable duties, have, thus far,
prevented me from making that examination of the volumes which I desire.
I am respectfully, &c. &c.

SAMUEL L. SOUTHARD

RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES.

OPINION OF GEORGE M'CLELLAN, M. D.

Professor of the Institutes and Practice of Surgery, in the Pennsylvania

College of Medicine.
MESSRS. TURNER & FISHER.

I have examined the two first of the Series of Dr. Ruschenberger's First
Books of Natural History, with much attention, and take great pleasure in
giving my opinion in their favour. They are admirably calculated to diffuse
a sound knowledge of first principles in the sciences. They are axiomatic
in their design and character, and are constructed on the true principles oi
inductive philosophy. The general propositions all comprehend true minor
ones, and also the individual facts. They appear to me to have been drawn
up according to Bacon's strictest method of exclusions and rejections. I
have made the first of the series a text book in my private class; and have
found it to facilitate the business of communicating an accurate and precise
knowledge to the best educated among the students of medicine and surgery.

GEORGE M'CLELLAN.

Philadelphia, March 7. 1842.

OPINION OF THO'S D. MUTTER, M. D.,

Professor of the Institutes and Practice of Surgery, in the Jefferson Medical
College, Philadelphia.

Philadelphia, Jan. 18, 1842.

DR. RrjSCHENBERGER.

Dear Dr. — I have carefully examined the " Second Book" of your very
valuable series on " Natural History," and cordially unite with many others
in bearing testimony to its merits.

The study of Natural Sciences has been too much neglected in our " sys-
tems of education," and nothing can remedy the evil but the publications by
individuals whose reputations will be a sufficient guarantee to the public as
to the value of their labours of well arranged, lucid, and at the same time
scientific works upon these subjects. I need hardly say that the series now
under issue, possesses all the attributes of success.

Very faithfully, yours,

THO'S D. MUTTER.

OPINION OF ROBERT M. BIRD, M. D.

Professor of Materia Medica, and the Institutes of Medicine, in the Penn-
sylvania College of Medicine.

Philadelphia, February 21, 1843L
MY DEAR DOCTOR.

After a very careful examination of your Mammalogy, or Second Book of
Natural History, from the text of Edwards and Comte, it affords me pleasure
to bear witness to its merits. It is, like the First Book of the Series, on
Physiology and Animal Mechanism, extremely well adapted to the purpose
for which it was written, of opening to the pupils of our higher schools and
colleges, the great field of Natural History, and grounding them in the
principles of classification, while imbuing them with a love of the science
and the introduction of such works into our schools, cannot be otherwise
than favourable to the interests of education.

Very respectfully yours, &c,

ROBERT M. BIRD,

W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M. D.

SEHIES.

F I P > BOOK S

OF

iTUEAL HISTOKY,

FO; COLLEGES, AND FAMILIES.

1. ELEMENTS OF

TO-MY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

ELEMENTS OF

MAMMALOGY,

T h r Natural Pistory of Quadrupeds.

•» L 0 G Y,

The

HI KPETOLOGY AXI) ICHTHYOLOGY,

Tht - -iral History of Reptiles and Fishes.

OF

CO^CHOLOGY,

T'»e Natural History of Shells and Mollusca.

6. ELEMENTS OF

E N TO MO LOGY,

The Natural Hi^ior* of Insects.

7. ELK" OP

BOTANY,

The Natural History of Plant*.

E 0 L 0 G Y,

The Natural History of the Earth's Structure.

11 the ri