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ORIGIN OF THE S T A R K S.
The name of STARK has its rife from juft fuch another action
as that of TurnbuWs. — One of the name of Muirbead faved King
James Vf. from a bull in fche foreft of Cumbernauld^vflio, for his
ftrength was called STARK; to fhow his defcent from Muirbead,
he carries the armorial figures of Muirbead, with a bull's head,
viz. azure,,a cheveron between three acorns in chief, Or for Muir- y
teadj and a bull's head erazed in bafe of the fecond. — The fame
is carried by JOHN STARK of Killermont, and for creft, a bull's
head erazed argent diftilling drops of blood proper.

MOTTO.
FORTIORUM FORTIA FACTA.

iL+Mrt*

•*

ELEMENTS

OF

NATURAL' HISTORY,

i

ADAPTED TO THE PRESENT STATE OF THE SCIENCE,
CONTAINING

THE GENERIC CHARACTERS OF NEARLY THE WHOLE

ANIMAL KINGDOM,

AND

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES.

BY JOHN STARK, F. R. S. E.

MEMBER OF THE WERNERtAN NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH,

&C. &C.

WITH ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS.

VOL. I.
VERTEBRATA.

EDINBURGH :

ADAM BLACK AND JOHN STARK, EDINBURGH:
AND LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN & GREEN, LONDON.

1828.

s

Printed by John Stark.

ADVERTISEMENT.

THE following work, though in some measure ele-
mentary, will be found to contain considerably more
than a mere Introduction to the study of Natural His-
tory. It was originally intended, besides observations
on the different Classes, detailing generally the struc-
ture and classification of the objects they embraced, to
give not only the generic characters of the whole Ani-
mal Kingdom, but examples of the principal and most
interesting species. In all the classes except two, the
INSECTA and ENTOZOA, this has been done, and in
most cases the indication has not been confined to a
single species. But in the class of Insects this was
found to be impossible within the limits prescribed,
the objects being so extremely numerous, that the re-
cently established generic distinctions would alone
have filled a volume.

In the class MAMMALIA, the Mammalogie of M.
Desmarest has been followed, with the addition of the
species described since that work was published ; and
in this department, besides the characters of the recent
and fossil genera, room has been found for descriptions

iv ADVERTISEMENT.

of the whole ascertained species. In the class of BIRDS
Temminck has been taken for the guide ; and in ad-
dition to the European species described by that ce-
lebrated ornithologist, the characters, and at least
one typical species, of all the extra-European genera
have been given. The arrangement of Baron Cuvier
has been followed in the classes of REPTILES and
FISHES.

The classes MOLLUSCA and CONCHIFERA, includ-
ing the fossil genera, and the class TUNIC AT A, have
been adopted from M. Lamarck ; — the CIRRIPEDA
and ANNELIDES chiefly from Latreille — the CRUSTA-
CEA from the same author, Dr Leach, and Desmarest
— the MYRIAPODA from Latreille — and the characters
of the INSECTA have been almost wholly taken from
the writings of that distinguished entomologist. In
this class, however, in place of detailed generic cha-
racters, room has only been found for analytical tables.
These, with the descriptions of the families and tribes,
will, it is hoped, enable the student or traveller to re-
fer any insect met with, if not to its proper genus,
at least to the tribe or family to which it belongs.
The class ACALEPHA is adopted from Cuvier — the
ENTOZOA from the same author and Rudolphi — and
the POLYPI and INFUSORIA chiefly from Lamarck.

In the whole work, indeed, it has been a principal
object to give, in the arrangement of the different clas-

ADVERTISEMENT. V

ses, the methods adopted by naturalists of the first emi-
nence, and most generally followed, — keeping in view
the great outline of Cuvier, founded on the compara-
tive organization of the animal races. The other sys-
tems which have been at various periods proposed are
noticed in the introductory observations at the head of
each class. In most cases the Linnaean name, where
it has not been followed as the leading term, is given
as a synonym.

As the place of the different classes of animals in
the series is determined by their comparative organiza-
tion, a short sketch of the internal structure as well as
of the external characters of each group is given in the
respective introductions. The details on this part of
the subject, which are chiefly from Cuvier and Dumeril,
will be found of material use to the student of Compa-
rative Anatomy, in connecting with his researches the
zoological history of the various races.

To complete the plan, a short Introduction to Bo-
tany, embracing a general view of the structure of the
Vegetable Kingdom, of the system of Linnaeus, and the
Natural Families of Jussieu, follows the Zoological
part of the work ; and a brief sketch of the Mineral
Kingdom, including Mineralogy and Geology.

- In the collection and arrangement of the materials,
every accessible source has been consulted ; and gene-

VI ADVERTISEMENT.

ral remarks have been inserted to lighten the details of
scientific arrangement. In the absence of a System of
Nature adapted to the present state of knowledge, this
work, it is hoped, will form a useful guide to the stu-
dent of Nature, as, however imperfectly executed, it
is the only one in which a consecutive and complete
view of the modern classifications of Animals has been
offered to the notice of the Public.

Edinburgh, Htk October 1828,

CONTENTS OF VOLUME FIRST.

INTRODUCTION, Page 1

I.—VERTEBRATA.

Class I. MAMMALIA, ' 22

Class II. BIRDS, 166

Class III. REPTILES, 331

Class IV. FISHES, 371

Preparation and Preservation of Objects in Natural His-
tory, 495

List of Books, 511

ELEMENTS

OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

INTRODUCTION.

THE object of Natural History is the Material World, and the
various classes of organized and inorganic bodies which form
its component parts. To examine and arrange these in con-
nection with the laws by which they are governed, to investi-
gate their structure, their history, and their uses, is the pro-
vince of the Naturalist. In its most extended sense, Natural
History embraces all the visible creation, and includes every
object in that creation, from the most magnificent of the ce-
lestial bodies to the smallest insect or particle of dust which is
found in the globe inhabited by men. A field so extensive,
compared with the limited powers of the human faculties, is
too vast for the subject of individual research ; and in detail its
objects are so numerous, that to possess a knowledge of even
a small portion of these, has been considered a competent task
for a life spent in investigation.

For this reason it has become matter of necessity to subdi-
vide and arrange the objects of the material world into portions,
suitable to the powers and the intelligence of those whose pro-
vince and interest it is to investigate the wonders of Creation.
One great branch, termed NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, has thus
been divided into numerous departments, of which DYNAMICS,
or the doctrine of the laws of motion and its effects, and its sub-
sidiary divisions, Statics, Hydrostatics, &c. offer a wide field to
investigation. The observation of the positions and revolutions
of the Heavenly bodies has become the province of that branch
of Natural Science denominated ASTRONOMY ; the nature,

VOL. I. A

INTRODUCTION.

motion, and qualities of light form the science of OPTICS :
the changes that take place in the atmosphere, as they are per-
ceived by the senses, or indicated by instruments, is the ob-
ject of METEOROLOGY : And it is the province of CHEMISTRY,
another great branch of Physical Science, to investigate the mu-
tual agencies of the elementary principles of matter upon one
another, their composition, and the laws by which they are re-
gulated. These divisions of the great field of Natural Science
have, from the universality of their influence, been called Ge-
neral Physics ; while Natural History in its limited sense,
and as confined to the examination of what have been called
the three kingdoms of Nature, viz. the Animal, Vegetable, and
Mineral, has received the name of Particular Physics. Natu-
ral History, besides, is distinguished from the other branches of
science now named in this, that while Dynamics is a science
chiefly of Calculation, and Chemistry of Experiment, the basis
of this great science rests chiefly on Observation.

In the limited sense in which Natural History is thus to be
understood as confined to the three great divisions of Animals,
Vegetables, and Minerals, a System of Nature is a grand cata-
logue of the objects in these kingdoms, in which each individual
has a distinctive character and an appropriate name. These in.
dividuals, for the sake of arrangement, are collected into groups
which have something in common, and which are termed Genera;
Genera are further combined into other groups, which form in
systems what are called Orders ; and Orders are finally arranged
under one great head, which is termed a Class. This scale of
divisions, of which the highest contains the least, is, as. Baron
Cuvier remarks, a kind of dictionary, where theproperties of things
are investigated to discover their names, and which reverses the
usual order of such works, where the names are indicated as
detailing the qualities of the things named.

But though method and arrangement form the first step to
the knowledge of the numerous objects which claim the attention
of the naturalist, Natural History is by no means confined to a
list of names. If the method be a good one, and the subdivi-
sions arranged conformably to the fundamental and natural con-
nections of bodies, the very arrangement and classification of
names of beings which have something in common, leads to the

INTRODUCTION. 3

knowledge of their connection and dependence upon one another,
and to their comparative importance in the scale of existence.
Were it possible to arrange all the classes of organized and inor-
ganic existences in such a manner that the individuals of the
same genus should be more nearly connected with that genus
than with any other — the genera of the same order more nearly
connected with that order than with all the other orders, and so
on, — little more would be necessary to make the method, so far as
depends on arrangement, complete. But it has not hitherto been
found in practice, that characters sufficiently uniform, and at the
same time easily cognizable, can be found for arranging all the
groups of individuals into closely connected families. Aware of
this, Linnaeus in his Systema Naturce employed one system of
organs in his division of its various objects ; while those who at-
tempt to class individual species according to what is called the
Natural Method take the whole structure of the objects into con-
sideration. The last of these methods, it is evident, could it be
carried into effect, would be the most philosophical ; but either
system followed exclusively is found to produce the most hete-
rogeneous combinations. That system, then, is to be considered
the best, which, in addition to short and clear diagnostic charac-
ters, affords the greatest facility in investigating the productions
of nature.

The term Nature, it may be remarked, bears various signi-
fications. It is sometimes used to signify the properties which a
being derives from original conformation, in opposition to those
which it has acquired from art ; sometimes to express the whole
objects which compose the universe ; at other times the laws
which regulate this universe ; and these laws being, in point of
fact, the will of that Beneficent and Omnipotent Being who
formed all this " gay creation," the word Nature is frequently
employed by a figure of speech to designate its great Author.

The first great division of natural objects is into ORGANIZED
and INORGANIC bodies ; the first including animals and plants
—the second minerals. These distinctions are easily under-
stood, and have been universally acknowledged to be confor-
mable to nature. Vitality distinguishes the one— the want of
vitality characterizes the other.

The objects of Natural History are further arranged into three

4 INTRODUCTION.

great divisions, which have appropriately enough been called
kingdoms,, viz. the ANIMAL— the VEGETABLE — and the MINE-
RAL kingdoms. These divisions are not less proper than con-
venient ; and although some writers believe it possible to trace
a continuous but progressive connection from the most perfect
animal in the scale to the inert and lifeless rock, yet there seems
no good reason for supposing that such a chain exists, or if ex-
isting, that all the links shall ever be discovered. The works of
the Author of Nature are indeed all in consistent harmony with
one another, and there is a mutual dependence, advantageous
to all, among the various classes of organized beings : but be-
tween the lowest form of vegetable or animal life, and the most
symmetrically disposed crystal in the mineral kingdom — be-
tween a living body and inert matter — there is an immeasu-
rable distance ; and between the highest of the lower animals
and Man, of all beings alone endowed with the power of reason
and the faculty of speech, a distance still more incalculable.

Animals have been defined to be organized bodies which have
life and sensation, and are capable of voluntary motion ; — Vege-
tables organized bodies, endowed with a vital principle, but want-
ing sensation ; — and Minerals unorganized bodies, without life,
and of course without sensation.

It has been found impossible to give a satisfactory definition
of Life ; and physiological writers have therefore limited their
efforts to communicate some idea of the vital principle by re-
marking its effects. Life, where its effects are most easily recog-
nized, seems to consist in the faculty with which certain corpo-
real combinations are endowed, of existing for a certain period
under a determinate form, and assimilating to their substance a
part of the surrounding bodies ; at the same time restoring to
the elements part of their own substance. This vital principle,
which, when allied to matter, controls its affinities and directs
its forms, is not palpable to the senses in an uncombined shape,
and it is only from its effects on material substances that its ex-
istence is demonstrated. Baron Cuvier compares the mechani-
cal action of life on matter to a vortex more or less rapid, more
or less complicated, where the supply and the waste of particles
occasion a constant movement. While this movement subsists,
the body which exercises it lives ; when the movement is stop-

INTRODUCTION.

ped beyond recal the body dies. After death, the elements which
composed it, delivered to the ordinary chemical affinities, soon
separate to form other and new combinations.

All living bodies die after a period of which the limit is de-
terminate for each species ; and death indeed appears to be a
necessary result of vital action, which insensibly alters the
organic structure. The living body, which derives its mys-
terious birth from another living body which has preceded it,
at first enlarges in dimensions, according to certain proportions
and limits fixed for each species, and for each of its parts ; these
parts gradually increase in density ; the fibres and vessels which
compose them imperceptibly acquire a rigidity which unfits them
for the discharge of their functions, the vital impulse ceases,
and the body naturally dies. In short, absorption, assimilation,
exhalation, developement, and generation, are functions common
to all living beings ; their birth and their .death the universal
terms of their existence.

Organization presupposes life, and the organization of each
being implies the life proper to that being. Life indeed is
never seen but in connection with an organized body ; and all
the ingenuity of the materialist has failed to show, that par-
ticles of matter can organize themselves, or be organized by
any combination known in chemistry. In fact, vitality exercises
upon the elements which form at each instant part of the living
body, an action contrary to what the ordinary chemical affini-
ties can produce without this master agent ; and no power in
nature is known capable of reuniting again, in the same manner,
the atoms which have been disjoined by death.

Animal life is distinguished from vegetable life by the power
of locomotion and sensation ; the first is active — the other pas-
sive. The nourishment of plants is derived through the me-
dium of their roots ; that of animals through a central organ of
digestion destined to receive the food. The organization of this
cavity and its appurtenances varies according to the nature of the
aliments and the alterations which they undergo before furnish-
ing fluids proper to be absorbed ; while the atmosphere and the
earth supply vegetables with juices ready for absorption. Ani-
mal bodies, besides, at least those classes higher in the scale of ex-
istence, possess a circulating system, muscles for voluntary move-

6 INTRODUCTION.

ment, and nerves for sensation. Respiration is another essential
function in the animal constitution ; and in proportion as the re-
spiratory system is complete, the animal functions are more fully
exercised. In addition also to the chemical elements which en-
ter into the composition of vegetables — oxygen, hydrogen, and
carbon — a fourth substance, azote, seems almost peculiar to the
animal constitution. To complete the distinction between ani-
mal and vegetable life, Hedwig has ingeniously remarked, that
in vegetables the sexual organs fall each year, or at each pro-
duction, while animals preserve them through the whole course
of their existence,

As nutrition is the most general function of living bodies,
under the name of organs of nutrition are comprehended all
the parts of the body by which alimentary matters are intro-
duced for its support, or which are employed in preparing the
food for that purpose. The materials of nutrition penetrate by
various means into organized bodies. They may either be in-
troduced under the form of elastic fluids by the pores or imper-
ceptible interstices in all living bodies, or they may be conveyed
by a particular organization for this purpose into an internal or-
gan of digestion. Sometimes this internal canal or digestive ca-
vity has the form of a tube with two orifices, the one for the en-
trance of food, the,other for the exit of matters unfit for the pur-
poses of life ; others have only a single opening destined to this
double use ; and a few which are found in water absorb their
nourishment in the manner of vegetables, with this difference,
that the canals which run from these numerous mouths end in
a common cavity. The solid matters introduced into the di-
gestive cavity or stomach are converted by an internal process
first into a pulpy mass named chyme, and afterwards into a semi-
fluid substance denominated chyle, which is finally taken up
or absorbed by appropriate vessels, and conveyed to the great
centre of circulation, the heart.

The movement communicated by the action of the heart to
the internal fluids, now mixed with other animal liquids and
termed blood, by which they are impelled through the body,
is known by the name of circulation. The vessels which
conduct the blood or chyle to the heart are called veins ; those
which conduct it from the heart to the other parts of the body

INTRODUCTION. 7

are called arteries ; and the alternate dilatation and contrac-
tion of this important organ is the mechanism by which this
object is accomplished. In certain classes of animals, in which
the circulation is simple, the venous blood terminates in a
kind of reservoir or appendage to the heart named an auricle,
A muscular apparatus attached to this sinus propels the blood
which it receives through an orifice, into the cavity of the
heart. The ventricle, composed of thicker and stronger mus-
cular walls, is furnished with moveable valves, which prevent
the blood from returning into the auricle, while it is impelled
by the contraction of the ventricle into the artery. This ar-
rangement varies much, both in the mechanism and in the num-
ber of auricles and cavities in the ventricle, in different clas-
ses, and even in families of the same class of animals.

The liquid prepared by the process of digestion requiring to
be submitted to the action of the atmosphere, or water contain-
ing air, to absorb the oxygen and deprive it of certain principles,
the function by which this is accomplished is called respiration.
The organ which performs this service is the lungs, through
which the blood is forced by the action of the heart. In ani-
mals doomed by their organization to live constantly in water,
respiration is effected by means of membranous laminae called
gills (branchice,) which separate the air from the water as it
passes over their multiplied surface.

Among animals which appear to have no true circulation,
there exists another mode of respiration by tracheae or air-vessels,
by which the air is conveyed through the body in elastic canals ;
and in these animals it is through their integuments, which are
soft and easily permeable, or on their surface, that the respira-
tory function is exercised, as in vegetables.

In many animals the mode of generation is not known. Of
others fixed to solid bodies, like vegetables by their roots, the
power of reproduction seems to be by buds or gemmce, or by
means of a separation, which operates naturally or accidentally, of
some parts of their bodies, in which are ultimately developed
the organs which at first were wanting. In all other animals
there are organs specially destined to generation. These organs
distinguish the males from the females In the greater part of
animals the sexes are distinct and separate in two different indi-

8 INTRODUCTION.

viduals of the same species ; but in some classes the individuals
are at once males and females. In this case these beings are
termed androgynous. Sometimes the individuals possess both
sexes, like the greater number of vegetables, and they are then
called hermaphrodites.

The animals which have the sexes separate differ also among
themselves. Those are termed oviparous in which the germ
of the young individual is separated from the parent for a time
before birth under the form of an egg. Viviparous animals, on
the contrary, are those in which the young are nourished in an
organ termed the uterus, and are not excluded from the mother
till they have taken the form which they afterwards preserve.

Other modifications are noticed among the oviparous animals,
or those which deposit eggs. In some the egg is impregnated
within the animal, and then the shell or covering is generally
solid or corneous. In others, such as fishes, frogs, some insects,
and many mollusca, the impregnation of the ovum does not
take place till after extrusion. Two remarkable circumstances
have been further observed among oviparous animals. The one
is, that in some species the ova are not truly excluded but hatch-
ed in the parent animal, who thus preserves the imperfect beings
till they have acquired the requisite solidity for being deposited
in a place adapted to their further developement. These species,
which are met with in very different classes, are termed ovo-
vivlparous. The other singular fact to be noticed in regard to
oviparous animals is, that in a very great number of species the
young when hatched have neither the form, the structure, nor
the manners of the parent animal, and many live in altogether
a different medium. These animals undergo in the course of
their limited existence many organic transformations or succes-
sive metamorphoses. Such in particular are the frogs and con-
nected genera, and the whole class of insects.

The moving power is another characteristic of animal organi-
zation. It is seated in the muscular fibre, which is formed of
filaments of excessive tenuity, capable of contraction, and of
moving the parts upon which they are fixed. These fibres are
distributed over the body, and produce all its exterior and inte-
rior motions. When they are united in a bundle, of which the
mass co-operates in the same action, this bundle is termed a mus-

INTRODUCTION. 9

cle. In animal bodies there are as many different muscles as
there are simple movements ; and besides, there are generally,
for the purpose of bringing back the parts to their original posi-
tion, other bundles of fibres destined to produce a contrary ef-
fect, and which have been accordingly termed antagonist mus-
cles. The element of the muscular fibre, chemically consider-
ed, appears to reside in a matter called Jibrine.

The other organs destined to the purposes of movement are
altogether passive. Sometimes they are disposed outwardly
under the appearance of membranes or integuments more or less
solid, sometimes under the form of crusts or sheaths, in the in-
terior of which the muscles are placed. The solidity of these
parts, their structure, their articulation, and movements, corre-
spond to the animal's mode of life ; and these crusts, shells, scales,
or sheaths, are of a calcareous or horny nature, and adapted to
the efforts they are destined to sustain, — the.more soft coverings
of this kind, as may be conceived, being only calculated for mo-
tion in fluids.

In the higher classes of animals the solid articulated parts
which form the frame-work of the body and modify its form are
almost always placed internally, and serve the purpose of joint-
ed levers, and as a fulcrum for their muscular coverings. These
parts are the bones of animals, and when arranged as a whole
they are termed the bony skeleton. All these bones meet in a
central stalk, or hollow and moveable column, called the spine,
of which the pieces, more or less solid and numerous, are termed
vertebras. Among those which are on this account named Ver-
tebrated Animals, the column is terminated at one end by the
cranium, a bony cavity inclosing the mass of cerebral matter
which gives sensation, and is the seat generally of four organs of
sense. In the head is also placed the mouth, an instrument
capable of prehension, and provided with organs for mechanical-
ly dividing the aliment ; and often also in this important part of
animals the organs are placed which produce or facilitate the
action of respiration. The spine is generally prolonged behind,
and forms the tail in many animals.

The mechanical apparatus by which animals acquire the
knowledge of what is around them are termed organs of sense,
and the impressions made on these by external objects, sensa-

10 INTRODUCTION.

tions. The medium by which these sensations are conveyed to
the brain, the great centre of nervous energy, is through nerves,
and the whole apparatus of sensation is termed the nervous sys-
tem. In animals not possessed of a brain or spinal column, cords
or threads of nervous matter, with thickenings or ganglions at
certain distances, form their medium of sensation ; and although
in some groups of animals composed of soft parts, or of extreme
tenuity, the presence of nerves has not been satisfactorily traced,
yet there seems little reason to doubt the existence, in a greater
or less degree, of the faculty of sensation in even the lowest of
the animal races.

The material substance of animal bodies, in an anatomical
view, may be divided into solids and fluids. The solid portions
are named tissues, and are united or combined in various de-
grees in the animal organs. These tissues have been dis-
tinguished by anatomists by their forms, or by the chemical ele-
ments which enter into their composition. They are chiefly the
following : 1 . The cellular tissue, forming in the greater num-
ber of animals the connecting medium of all their organs, and
enveloping and penetrating them by a reticulation of a spongy
nature, which takes the form of cells, capable of distension by
the fluids which it includes. %. The filwo-gelatmous tissue is
a collection of solid, tenacious, and resisting fibres in their longi-
tudinal direction, flexible and elastic across, whose use seems to
be to communicate movement and resist the efforts of exterior
force. It is so named from dissolving in boiling water to the
consistence of a jelly. 3. The membranous tissue is a disposi-
tion of thin membranous flexible laminae extended like a web, and
various in structure and uses. The cutaneous membrane enve-
lopes the superficies of the body and permits absorption and ex-
halation. It is formed of many layers, and produces the hair,
feathers, nails, scales, &c. of the animal body. Other membranes
are called mucous or folliculous, because they secrete a viscid
fluid, which lubricates their internal surface ; and serous mem-
branes are those so named from their internal smooth and polish-
ed surface exhaling a very liquid humour. They form thin and
transparent sacs without openings, which facilitate the recipro-
cal movements of the organs. 4. The vascular tissue is form-
ed of continuous membranous branched tubes, to receive, con-

INTRODUCTION. 11

tain, and direct the nutritive juices from the organs where they
are prepared, till they are required for the purposes of nutrition,
respiration, or the secretions. 5. The glandular tissue in-
cludes those secreting organs which produce fluids for internal
use, or to transmit them out of the body by means of excretory
canals. These organs have a granular or lobated form. 6. The
bony tissue, or cartilaginous, calcareous, and corneous, is formed
by the mucous or gelatinous parenchyma, in which are deposit-
ed the hardest and most resisting parts, which protect the body
and contribute to its motion. 7. The fibrinous or muscular
tissue is composed of filaments disposed in bundles, which, from
their power of contraction, produce all the movements which
characterize animals. 8. The nervous tissue is a net-work of
filaments and tubes, in the interior of which are found prolonga-
tions of the cerebral matter. This tissue, extending from the
centre to the circumference like radii from a centre, is the me-
dium of sensation, actuates every member through the medium
of volition, and connects all the parts of the body by a mutual
sympathy.

The animal fluids are found in the body under the form of
gases or liquids of various consistence. The first being absorb-
ed or exhaled are but momentarily under this form. The fluids
are the chyme, the chyle, the lymph, the blood, and the serous,
albuminous, mucous, saline, and other humours peculiar to dif-
ferent parts of the body.

The simple chemical elements which are found in the animal
structure are, among the imponderable agents, caloric, light, and
the electric fluid. Among the simple gases, azote, which enters
into the composition of many of the tissues ; hydrogen, which
is one of the elements of lymph, bile, &c. ; oxygen, which all
animals absorb in the act of respiration ; carbon, lime, sulphur,
iron, &c. which serve as the base of many salts formed by carbonic
and phosphoric acid.

The instincts and habits of the different classes of animals
will be hereafter detailed, in the descriptions of the individual
species whose manners have been most accurately observed.
It is sufficient in this place to state, that all their motives to
action, their migrations, and their instincts, may be traced to

12 INTRODUCTION.

the desire of self-preservation and the impulse of reproduc-
tion.

The VEGETABLE KINGDOM is sufficiently distinguished from
the animal, as before remarked, by its passive character, by the
want of spontaneous motion, and of sensation. Vegetable life
is therefore supported by absorption ; and its functions, like
those of animals, are exercised in nutrition, developement, and
reproduction. The principal part of the nourishment of plants
is derived from their roots ; and their texture is composed of
tissues and vessels formed for absorbing, retaining, and elabora-
ting the nutritive juices drawn from the soil and atmosphere.
The vegetable kingdom likewise has this analogy among others
with the animal, that the function of reproduction is performed
through the medium of sexual organs. These organs are pro-
tected by the corolla or flower ; and all the display of colour
and form in this essential part of vegetables is, like the notes
of many birds, connected with the important purpose of the con-
tinuation of the species. The number, form, and situation of
these organs has afforded to Linnaeus the chief characters in
his simple though artificial arrangement of the classes and orders
of plants, in consequence termed the sexual system ; while what
is called the natural system, proposed by Jussieu, is founded
chiefly upon the presence or absence and the nature of the seed
or germ — the relative position of the stamina^-and upon the
absence or presence and form of the corolla.

The MINERAL KINGDOM is distinguished from the other
two great divisions by the absence of vitality and organic
structure. Forming the solid crust of the globe, the mine-
ral kingdom in its various compounds affords support and sus-
tenance to the organized beings existing on its surface. The
constitution and arrangement of the mineral strata have given
rise to various theories to account for their present appearance ;
but facts have not yet been sufficiently multiplied to afford a
satisfactory solution. One great line, however, is drawn between
those mineral strata which have been termed Primitive, in which
no organized remains occur ; and those of posterior formation,
in which the remains of plants and animals are discovered. The

3

INTRODUCTION. 13

principal external characters of the mineral kingdom are taken
from their specific gravity, as compared with water, — hardness,
— crystallization, when it exists, — and cleavage, or the direction
of the lamellae, which in many minerals is regulated by the rela-
tion of the external surfaces to the primary crystal or form. Of a
less constant kind are colour, degree of transparency, fracture,
and the streak which many minerals show when scratched. The
physical characters are fusibility, solubility, phosphorescence,
electricity, magnetism, and refraction.

Linnaeus in his Systema Natures arranged the Animal King-
dom into six classes ; the Vegetable Kingdom into twenty-four ;
and the Mineral Kingdom into three. As this arrangement,
though now modified and extended in many of its parts, as will
be detailed elsewhere, forms the basis of modern classification,
and was the first successful attempt at arranging in intelligible
order the various objects of Natural History, its principal divi-
sions are subjoined. *

ANIMAL KINGDOM.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA. CLASS IV. PISCES.

OIIDER I. Primates, ORDER I. Apodes,

II. Bruta, II. Jugulares,

III. Ferae, III. Thoracici,

IV. Glires, IV. Abdominales,
V. Pecora,

VI. Belluae, CLASS V. INSECTA.

VII. Cete, ORDER I. Coleoptera,

II. Hemiptera,

CLASS II. AVES. III. Lepidoptera,

ORDER I. Accipitres, IV. Neuroptera,

II. Pica?, V. Hymenoptcra,

III. Anseres, VI. Diptera,

IV. Grallae, VII. Aptera,
V. Gallinae,

VI. Passeres, CLASS VI. VERMES.

ORDER I. Intestina,

CLASS III. AMPHIBIA. II. Mollusca,

ORDER I. Reptilia, III. Testacea,

II. Serpentes, IV. Lithophyta,

III. Nantes, V. Zoophyte.

* Systema Naturae, cd. 12. Holmiae, 1766.

14 INTRODUCTION.

THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM

is divided into twenty-four classes, according to the number and
position of the stamens ; the greater part of the orders from the
number of the pistils in the flower ; others by the situation of
the seeds and form of the seed-vessels ; in compound flowers
from the arrangement of the florets; and the great class of
cryptogamic plants, or plants without conspicuous flowers, form
four orders, divided into Filices, Musci, Algce, and Fungi.

THE MINERAL KINGDOM

is divided into three classes, viz. I. PETR.E, II. MINEILE, III.
FOSSILIA, and numerous subdivisions. But as the Mineral
Kingdom had attracted but little of the attention of Linnaeus,
and the progress of Chemistry has since changed the whole
science of Mineralogy, it is not necessary here to give the in-
ferior details.

^

Such is the" field of realities," as M. Lamarck terms it, which
the study of nature offers to the intelligent mind. Life in all
its aspects is exhibited in countless forms, and the regular
succession of organized beings present the creation in the attrac-
tive features of perennial youth. Without herbivorous races,
the vegetable kingdom would soon encumber the surface of the
globe ; without carnivorous animals the others would multiply
beyond their means of support ; and provision is made in those
tribes whose food is decomposing substances, to free the earth
from dead animal remains. By no conceivable means could the
same amount of existence aid happiness be attained ; and the
whole system is so wonderfully arranged, that among the num-
berless existences which peojle the earth, the air, and the waters,
there is a constant harmony between the means of existence and
the existing beings. While animals useful to others are pro-
duced in amazing numbers, ;he fecundity of others whose phy-
sical powers might otherwise give them a superiority are limited,
and species apparently the most defenceless are provided with
means of protection which insure their perpetuity. To Man
alone, as the intelligent head of the whole, is given the dominion
over the inferior creatures ; his reason has enabled him to ap-
ply to his use the whole of the organized and inorganic bodies

INTRODUCTION. 15

around him, and left him, within certain limits, the accountable
master of the creation.

On the utility of a knowledge of the objects of Nature, to a
being depending on her productions for the supply of all his
conveniences and wants, it is scarcely necessary to insist. No
species of human learning is so well calculated to form habits of
attention and correct observation as the study of the different
branches of Natural History, and none is more admirably adapt-
ed to the feelings and capacities of the young. Besides the im-
provement of the intellectual powers which the examination of
the structure and habits of any class of organized beings is cal-
culated to produce, and the associations likely to be thereby
awakened, there is something in the study of nature which ap-
proaches to philosophy of a higher kind — something that, while it
teaches man his place in this Creation of Wonders, infallibly
leads him to admire the wisdom, and power, and goodness dis-
played by its Great Author.

16 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

I—THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

ACCORDING to Cuvier there are four principal forms after
which all living beings seem to have been modelled. The basis
of these distinctions is laid in the organization of the creatures
themselves. Sensation and movement are the characteristics of
animals. The heart and the organs of circulation seem a kind
of centre for those functions which may be called vegetative, while
the brain and the nervous system form the principal source of
the functions more exclusively animal. Descending from the
higher to the lower races of animals, both these systems are found
gradually to become more imperfect, and finally to disappear al-
together. In the lowest tribes in the scale, where nerves are no
longer visible, the muscular fibre also ceases to be distinct, and
the organs of digestion are reduced to a simple cavity in the
homogeneous mass. In insects the vascular system disappears
even before the nervous system ; but in general the dispersion
of the medullary masses is connected with the agents of muscu-
lar motion : a spinal marrow upon which knots or ganglia re-
present as many brains or seats of sensation, corresponding to
the structure of a body divided into numerous rings, and sup-
ported by pairs of limbs distributed along these annulations.
This relative proportion in the structure of general forms, which
results from the arrangement of the organs of motion, from the
distribution of the nervous masses, and from the energy of the
circulating system, constitutes the basis upon which M. Cuvier
has founded the principal divisions of the Animal Kingdom.

In the first of these general forms, which is that of Man
and the animals which resemble him most nearly, the brain and
the principal trunk of the nervous system are inclosed in bony
cases, the first called the cranium, the second the vertebrae. To
the sides of the vertebral column, as to a centre, are attached
the ribs, and the bones of the members which form the frame-
work of the body. The muscles in general cover the bones,
which they put into action, and the viscera are inclosed in the

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 1?

head and trunk. Animals of this form are called VEIITEB RAT-
ED ANIMALS, (Animalia Vertebrata.)

They have all red blood, a muscular heart, a mouth with
two horizontal jaws, distinct organs of vision, hearing, smell,
and taste, situated in cavities of the head, and never more' than
four limbs. The sexes are always separate, and the distribution
of the medullary masses and the principal branches of the nervous
system is nearly the same in all.

On a close examination of any of the characters of this leading
division, some analogy of conformation is always found, even in
the species the most remote from each other; and the grada-
tion of the same general plan is to be traced from Man down
to the lowest of the fishes.

In the second conformation peculiar to animals there is no
internal frame-work or skeleton. The muscles are simply attach-
ed to the skin, which forms a soft and contractile covering,
from which proceed, in many species, stony plates or envelopes
denominated shells, of which the position and production are
analogous to that of the mucous body. The nervous system is
with the viscera included in this general covering, and is com-
posed of many scattered masses united by nervous threads. The
principal of these, placed upon the cesophagus, is denominated
the brain. Of the senses, properly so called, the organs of
taste and sight are alone to be distinguished, and even these
are sometimes wanting. One family alone exhibits the organs
of hearing. This division, however, is always characterized by
a complete circulating system, and particular organs for respira-
tion ; and the organs of digestion and secretion are little less
complicated than those of the vertebrated animals. Though
the general plan of their organization be riot so uniform in re-
gard to external configuration as the preceding division, yet
even between these parts there is always an analogous resem-
blance in structure and functions. This division is termed
MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS, (Animalia Mollusca.j

The third general form is that which is observed in insects,
worms, &c. Their nervous system consists in two long cords
extending along the belly, and swelled out at intervals into knots
or ganglia. The first of these, placed upon the oesophagus, though

VOL. i. B

18 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

held analogous to the brain, is but little larger than the others.
The covering of the body is divided by transverse folds into a
certain number of rings, of which the teguments are in some
hard, in others soft, but to the interior of which the muscles are
always attached. Articulated limbs are often attached to the
sides of the annulated portions of the trunk, but it is also frequent-
ly destitute of those organs of movement. To these animals
Cuvier has given the name of ARTICULATED ANIMALS, (Ani-
malia Articulata.)

In this division is observed the transition from the circulat-
ing system in closed vessels, to a nutritive process by simple
imbibition ; and also a corresponding transition from respiration
by circumscribed organs to respiration performed through the
medium of tracheae or air-vessels dispersed through the body.
The organs of taste and sight are very evident in the animals
of this division. Their jaws, when they have any, are invaria-
bly lateral. One family alone possesses the organ of hearing.

The animals comprehended under the fourth general form
are usually known under the name of Zoophytes. They ap-
proach in structure to the homogeneous character of plants.
Neither a distinct nervous system, nor particular organs of sense,
are perceptible, and but obscure vestiges of circulation. Their
respiratory organs are almost always on the surface of their bo-
dies. The intestines of the greater number consist merely in a
cavity without an outlet. The lowest in the series, which are al-
so the last of the animal tribes, exhibit nothing but a homoge-
neous pulp, possessed of motion and sensibility. In the preced-
ing divisions the organs of movement and sense are disposed
symmetrically on both sides of an axis ; but in this they have a
circular arrangement round a common centre. This form of
existence Cuvier arranges under the head of RADIATED ANI-
MALS, (Animalia Radiata.)

The term Zoology includes the whole of the Animal kingdom;
besides which different departments have received particular
names, such as Ornithology for the birds, Ichthyology for the
fishes, Entomology for insects, and Conchology for the testa-
ceous Mollusca.

VERTEBKATED ANIMALS. 19

FIRST DIVISION.
VERTEBRATED ANIMALS.

THE body of vertebrated animals is sustained by a skeleton
composed of many pieces connected together, and moveable up-
on one another. The body is composed of a head, a trunk, and
limbs. The head is formed of the cranium, which includes the
brain, and of the face, composed of two jaws. In the face are
the organs of sense. The trunk is sustained by the spine and
ribs. The spine is composed of vertebrae, which move upon one
another, all of which have a cylindrical opening in the centre,
forming together a canal containing the portion of nervous mat-
ter called the spinal marrow. The ribs are semicircular, and
protect the sides of the cavity of the trunk. They are general-
ly articulated by one extremity to the vertebral column, and
by the other to the sternum. In some species they are scarcely
perceptible.

The vertebrated animals have never more than two pair of
limbs ; sometimes indeed one or other of these pairs is deficient,
and sometimes both. According to the motions to which these
limbs are destined to be subservient, the anterior ones assume the
form of hands, feet, wings, or fins ; the posterior of feet or fins.

The blood of the vertebrated animals is always red, and seems
by its composition adapted to sustain energy of sensation and
muscular vigour. The correspondence of the blood with the
respiration necessary to the several species of these animals has
suggested their division into Classes.

The external organs of sense in all vertebrated animals are
two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, the teguments of the tongue,
and the teguments of the whole body. The nerves unite with
the nervous matter in the vertebrae, and terminate in two medul-
lary cavities in the cranium, the volume of which is generally
proportioned to the extent of intellectual capacity.

There are always two jaws, an upper and under one. The
principal motion exists in the lower, which has the power of
elevation or depression. In the greater number the upper jaw is
completely fixed and motionless. Both are generally provided
with teeth, excrescences of a peculiar nature, similar in chemical

20 THE ANIMAL KINGJJOM.

composition to bone, but which grow from the jaws by a process
of secretion. The jaws of one entire class, however, (that of
Birds) and the genus Testudo in that of Reptiles, are invested
with a horny substance.

The intestinal canal extends from the mouth to the anus in
various degrees of expansion or contraction. It possesses cer-
tain appendices, and receives liquids of a solvent nature, viz.
saliva from the mouth, the secretion of the gland denominated
pancreas, and the bile, which is produced by another large gland,
the liver.

In the passage of the food through the alimentary canal, the
part of it adapted to the purposes of nutrition, and termed the
chyle, is absorbed by the lacteal vessels, and conveyed into the
pulmonary artery, where, in combination with the blood, it un-
dergoes a certain change ; and after each portion of the body has
received its proper supply, the remainder is carried back into the
veins by a set of vessels analogous to the lacteal, and which to-
gether form what is usually called the lymphatic system. The
veins carry back to the heart the blood which has served the pur-
poses of nutrition. This blood, however, must pass either wholly
or partially into the organ of respiration for the purpose of re-
suming its arterial character, before it is carried back by the arte-
ries to the different parts of the body. In the three first classes
of vertebrated animals the organ of respiration consists of lungs,
an assemblage of small cells permeable by the external air. In
fishes alone respiration is performed by gills or branchice—a
series of laminae between which the water passes.

In all vertebrated animals, the blood which furnishes to the
liver the materials of the bile is supplied from the venous blood
which has circulated in the intestines, and which, after being
reunited in a trunk called the vena porta, is again divided at
the liver, and distributed in ramifications through its substance.

The sexes in this division are always in separate individuals ;
but the mode in which fecundation is performed is different in
the various classes.

Though in all these points the vertebrated animals have a
general resemblance, yet the various beings of which this divi-
sion is composed present peculiarities, which are the foundation
of their arrangement into classes. These differences depend
upon the nature and energy of their movements, which again

VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. 21

are always proportioned to the quantum of respiration ; for up-
on the perfection of this function, in a great measure, depend
the irritability of the muscular fibre, and the energy of the mus-
cular action. The quantity of respiration depends upon the re-
lative portion of blood contained at every given instant of time
in the lungs, and the amount of oxygen which enters into the
composition of the fluid. The quantity of blood is altogether
determined by the peculiar disposition of the organs of respi-
ration and circulation.

The organs of circulation may be double, so that all the blood
conveyed by the veins from the different parts must undergo
a process of circulation before it can be returned by the arteries ;
or they may be simple, in which case only a portion of the blood
which returns to the body passes through the lungs. This last
is the case with reptiles. The quantity of their respiration, and
the qualities depending on it, vary with the relative proportion
ef blood returned at each pulsation into the lungs.

Fishes have a double circulation, but as they respire through
the medium of water, and their blood only receives the portion
of oxygen in that medium, their quantity of respiration is per-
haps less than that of reptiles.

In the Mammalia the circulation is double, and the respira-
tory process simple. The quantity of their respiration is supe-
rior to that of reptiles and fishes. But the quantity of respira-
tion in birds is still greater than that of quadrupeds, because
they also respire by various other cavities as well as the lungs.
The air penetrates through their whole body, and acts upon
the branches of the aorta with the same efficiency as upon those
of the pulmonary artery.

From these circumstances result four different kinds of motion
among vertebrated animals. Quadrupeds, in which the quantity
of respiration is moderate, are formed for walking and running,
and their predominant characteristic is vigour. Birds, whose
respiratory system is more extensive, possess the lightness and
strength of muscles necessary to support them in their flight.
Reptiles, which respire more feebly, creep upon the earth, and
many of them pass more or less of their existence in a state of
torpor. And fishes, which move in a fluid almost as specifical-
ly heavy as themselves, are enabled to execute their movements

22 MAMMALIA.

by an arrangement altogether different from the others. Every
peculiarity of organization proper to each of these classes, and
especially such as belong to motion and external sensation,
have a close and necessary relation with the characters now enu-
merated.

CLASS L— MAMMALIA.

Vertebrated animals with red and warm blood, breathing
through lungs, viviparous, and suckling their young with
milk formed in their breasts or mammce.

THE earliest writers on the Mammalia are Aristotle and Pliny,
afterwards -^Elian and Oppian. ./Elian has a work on the nature
of animals, and Oppian a Treatise on Hunting, in which lie
treats of wild animals. Many other writers, however, incidentally
notice the animals known to them, either on account of their use
to man, or their ferocity, such as Hippocrates, Cato, Columella,
Caesar, Seneca, Varro, and Athenaeus.

It was not till after the revival of letters in Europe that the
study of Natural History began to assume a regular form.
Conrad Gesner in 1551 published a history of quadrupeds, in
which, though he treated of these animals in the alphabetical
order of their names, he grouped together some natural genera,
as apes, horses, deer, oxen, &c. He besides made a division of
oviparous quadrupeds for the tortoises, lizards, and frogs. Aldro-
vandus, Johnston, and others followed the steps of Gesner in the
following century, without much advancing the progress of the
science.

In 1693 our celebrated countryman John Ray published his
Synopsis Methodica Animalmm Quadrupedum, the first regu-
lar system of mammiferous animals, and the basis of all which
have since appeared, in which he divided the Mammalia into
two great classes, viz. those which have hoofs and those which
have nails.

The first class is subdivided into >Solipedes,such as the horse;
those which have cloven feet, as the sheep, and animals which

MAMMALIA. 2a

have their feet divided into more than two parts, as the ele-
phant.

The mammiferae with cloven feet are subdivided into two sec-
tions, those which do not ruminate, as the hog, and those which
ruminate : — these last form four genera, the sheep, the goat,
the stag, and ox.

Among the Mammalia armed with nails, Ray distinguishes
those with broad nails, resembling those of man, such as the
apes, and those which have narrow and pointed nails. Among
these last he separates those which have the toes divided, which
he names fissipedes.

These fissipedes he divides further into, 1 . those which have
more than two incisors in each jaw, as the lion, the dog, &c. ;
or which have only two incisors, as the beaver, squirrel, rat, 8cc.
2. those which have no teeth at all, as the tamandua, or which
have teeth different in number, form, and position, from those of
the other Mammalia, such as the hedgehog, the mole, the sloth,
&c.

To Ray succeeded other writers who endeavoured to improve
the study of Natural History by a proper arrangement of its ob-
jects. Among these was Seba, whose figures make his work still
a desirable addition to the library of the naturalist. But all
these were forgotten in the attention which was attracted by the
publication of the system of the celebrated Linnaeus, whose writ-
ings were destined to form an era in the science of Nature. His
sagacity enabled him to fix the basis of the classification of its
objects upon a proper basis, his genius freed the study of its
chief difficulties, and he created a language appropriated to all
its wants'. The first edition of the Systema Naturce was pub-
lished in 1735, the second in 1737; and its author lived to see
it undergo a twelfth impression, and unite the suffrages of Eu-
rope in its favour. As the arrangement of the Mammalia by
Linnaeus forms the basis of most of the modern systems, it
may be proper to give an outline of it in this place.

The Mammalia, which constitute his first class, is divided
into seven Orders, the characters of which are derived from the
number, situation, and form of the teeth. These teeth in the
Mammalia are of three kinds, viz. the incisores or cutting teeth
— the canini or dog-teeth — and the molares or grinders.

24 MAMMALIA.

I. PRIMATES. Fore-teeth cutting, upper four parallel; tusks solitary ;
mammae two, pectoral ; feet used as hands ; nails flattened, oval ; food
fruits, except a few which use animal food.

II. BRUTA. Fore-teeth in either jaw none; feet with strong hoof like
nails ; motion slow ; food chiefly vegetables.

III. FER2E. Fore-teeth conical, usually six in each jaw; tusks longer;
grinders with conic projections ; feet with claws; claws subulate ; food
carcases, and preying on other animals.

IV. GLIRES. Fore-teeth cutting, two in each jaw ; tusks none ; feet form-
ed with claws for running and bounding ; food, bark, roots, vegeta-
bles, &c. which they gnaw.

V. PEC OR A. Fore- teeth cutting, upper jaw none, under jaw many ;
feet hoofed, cloven; food, herbs which they pluck; chew the cud;
stomachs, four.

VI. BELLILZE. Fore-teeth obtuse; feet hoofed; motion heavy; food
vegetables.

VII. CETE. Pectoral fins instead of feet ; tail horizontal, flattened ;
claws none ; teeth cartilaginous ; nostrils a fistulous opening in the an-
terior and upper part of the head ; food molluscu and fish ; inhabit
the ocean.

The example of Linnaeus was not without its effect in lead-
ing others to attempt the improvement of Natural History. Be-
tween the publication of the first and twelfth edition of the Sys-
tema Naturae, many authors made their appearance, who, emu-
lous of his fame, endeavoured to share or divide the reputation
of the author. Among these was the Comte de Buffon, who,
while Linnaeus described the mammiferous animals in the se-
vere and simple language of science, attracted the attention of
all classes of readers to the subject by his less exact but more
brilliant colouring. The first volumes of the Natural History
of this celebrated author appeared in 1 749. Disregarding sys-
tematic order, he supplied its place, in detailing the manners of
the various races, by an enthusiastic and powerful eloquence,
which, however, has too often led to exaggeration, and uncon-
sciously seduced him to transfer the passions of men to the ac-
tions of animals.

J. T. Klein, in 1751, published his Quadrupedum dispositio
brevisque kistoria naturalis. In this work the Mammalia are
divided into two orders, 1. those which have the foot terminated
by one or more hoofs ; and, 2. those which have claws or fingers.
In 1756, Brisson followed by a work entitled Le Rcgne Ani-
mal divise en onze classes, in which the Mammalia arc divided

MAMMALIA. 25

into eighteen orders and forty-two genera. In 1777, about a
year before the death of Linnams, Erxleben published a work en-
titled Sy sterna Regni Animalis. The merit of his work is high,
both in regard to the discrimination of the species and the sy-
nonymous terms. He increased the Linnaean number of genera
by ten.

Next followed Gmelin's edition of the Systema Natures in
1788. This work contained all the new objects in Natural His-
tory which had been described since the publication of the twelfth
edition; but the compilation was made without sufficient ex-
ercise of critical judgment, and the work is in consequence not
of much authority.

Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr, professor, published in
1780 at Tubingen a thesis, under the title of Prodromus Me-
thodi Animallum, remarkable for its distinct arrangement.
The leading characters are taken from the form of the feet.
Boddaert, a physcian in 1785, and Vicq-d'Azyr in 1792, each
proposed arrangements for the classification of animals; but
as these have not been generally adopted, it is not necessary to
enter into the details.

Professor Blumenbach of Gottingen published a Manual of
Natural History in 1807, in which he attempted to form a more
natural system for the Mammalia, which he divides into nine or-
ders, viz.

I. Bimana, VI. Bisulca,

II. Quadrumana, VII. Multungula>

III. Chiroptera, VIII. Palmata,

IV. Digitata, A. Glires,

A. Glires, B. Fere,

B. Ferae, C. Bruta,

C. Bruta, IX. Cetacea,
V. Solklungula,

M. Cuvier, in 1798, published his Tableau Elementaire des
Animauaf. This sketch contained the basis of classification which
he afterwards developed in his Anatomic Comparee and Regne
Animal. Two years afterwards appeared the first two volumes of
the Comparative Anatomy ; to which were added synoptic tables
of all the classes of animals. In 1804, M. Desmarest published*
in the 24th volume of the New Dictionary of Natural History, a

26 MAMMALIA.

methodical table of the mammiferae, founded chiefly upon the
classification of Storr and Cuvier, and in which he distinguished
the natural families, which, like the most part of the families
established in zoology, were but the genera of Linnaeus.

Between this period and 1811 many new species of mammi-
ferous animals were discovered, for several of which it was ne-
cessary to establish new genera. Besides the many memoirs and
monographs which had appeared, M. Cuvier had also pub-
lished great part of his researches on fossil quadrupeds ; and
it thus became desirable to place in a complete system the
result of all the new discoveries. This was attempted by Illi-
ger, a Prussian naturalist, who published in 1811 a classifica-
tion of Mammalia and Birds, which attracted attention for the
precision of the generic characters. The Mammalia by this
arrangement were divided into fourteen orders, thirty-nine fa-
milies, and 125 genera; but his predilection for changing long-
established and familiar names for others was felt to be an un-
necessary load on the memory.

M. Blainville followed Illiger in 1816 by the prodromus of
a new systematic distribution of the animal kingdom; and Baron
Cuvier, in his important work entitled Le Regne Animal distri-
bue suivant son organi%ation, published in 1817, brought for-
ward his arrangement, improved by the discoveries which had
been made since the interval of its first publication, and by the
lights which comparative anatomy threw on the structure of the
animal system.

This work was followed, so far as regards the Mammalia, by
the Mammalogie of A. G. Desmarest, written for the French En-
cyclopedic, and published in 1820-1822. This excellent work,
founded on the classification of Cuvier, and including every
species discovered from the period of the publication of the
Regne Animal, leaves little to be desired as far as regards this
important class. And finally, an English translation of Cuvier's
work, including much valuable matter, and describing many
new species, by Mr Edward Griffith and others, and accompa-
nied by excellent figures, appeared in 1827.

As the high character of Baron Cuvier as a naturalist and
comparative anatomist, has acquired for his writings the suffrages

MAMMALIA. 27

of Europe, in the following elementary summary the arrangement
of the Regne Animal is chiefly followed.

The Mammalia are placed at the head of the animal king-
dom, not only because it is the class to which man, considered
in his animal structure, belongs, but also because the Mammalia
enjoy the most numerous faculties, the most delicate sensations,
and the most varied powers of motion. As the quantity of re-
spiration is in mammiferous animals moderate, they are gene-
rally formed for walking, and in consequence, all the articulations
of their frame have defined forms which determine their mo-
tions.

Some of the Mammalia, however, can raise themselves in the
air by means of elongated limbs connected by extensible mem-
branes ; others have their limbs so much shortened that they
can move with facility only in water ; but these circumstances
by no means exclude them from the class to which they are
allied by other essential characters.

All the Mammalia have the upper jaw fixed to the cranium ;
the lower is composed of two pieces articulated by a projecting
condyle to a fixed temporal bone. The neck is composed of
seven, and in one species of nine vertebrae. The anterior ribs
are attached to a sternum, formed of a number of pieces, placed
vertically. Their anterior extremity commences at the scapula,
which is not articulated to any other bone, but simply suspend-
ed in the muscular attachments, and often resting on the ster-
num by an intermediate bone, denominated the clavicle. This
extremity is. continued by an arm, a fore-arm, and a hand, which
last is formed of two rows of little bones called the carpus, of
another row named the metacarpus, and of fingers, each com-
posed of two or three bones called phalanges.

With the exception of the Cetacea, all this class have the
first part of the posterior extremity fixed to the spine. This
part, in the form of a girdle or basin, is named the pelvis. In
youth it is divided into three pairs of bones, — the os ilium , which
is attached to the vertebral column ; the os pubis, which forms
the anterior part; and the ischium, which forms the posterior por-
tion. At the junction of these three bones is the cavity where
the bone of the thigh is articulated, to which again is joined the
leg, composed of two bones, the tibia and ihejibula. This ex-

28 MAMMALIA.

tremity is terminated by the foot, which is composed of parts
analogous to the hand> viz. a tarsus, metatarsus, and toes.

The head in the Mammalia is always articulated by two
condyles upon the atlas or first vertebra. The brain is com-
posed of two hemispheres, united by a medullary lamina cal-
led the corpus callosum, and contains two ventricles, enclosing
four pairs of tubercles, called corpora striata, the thalami op-
tici, nates, and testes. Between the thalami optici is a third
ventricle communicating with the fourth situated beneath the
cerebellum. The crura of the cerebellum form always under
the medulla oblongata a transverse prominence called pom
Varolii.

The eye, always lodged in its orbit, is protected by two eyelids
and a vestige of a third. Its crystalline lens is fixed by the
ciliary process and its cellular sclerotic coat.

In the ear there is always found a cavity shut up by a mem-
brane called the tympanum, with four little bones ; a vestibule
at the entrance of which one of these bones is placed, and which
communicates with three semicircular canals ; finally, a spiral
canal termed the cochlea, which terminates by one of its canals
in the tympanal cavity and by the other in the vestibule.

The cranium is divided into three compartments. The an-
terior part is formed of the two frontal bones and the ethmoid,
the intermediate by the parietal and the sphenoid bones ; and
the posterior by the occipital bone. Between the occipital, the
parietal, and the sphenoid, are inserted the temporal bones,
which, to a certain extent, belong to the face.

In the foetus the occiput is divided into four parts, the body
of the sphenoid into two, and three of its pairs of alae are se-
parate; the temporal bone into three, of which one serves to com-
plete the cranium, another to enclose the labyrinth of the ear,
the third to form the walls of its cavity, &c. These portions of
the cranium unite more or less quickly, according to the species,
and end by perfect union in the adult.

The face is formed by the two maxillary bones, between which
the nasal canal passes. Before these are two intermaxillary,
behind two palate bones, and between them descends the
single plate of the ethmoid bone, named the vomer. At the
entrance of the nasal canal are the bones which form the nose.

4

MAMMALIA. 29

The molar or cheek bone of each side unites the maxillary to
the temporal, and often to the frontal bone; and finally, the la-
chrymal cavity occupies the internal angle of the orbit, and some-
times part of the cheek.

The tongue in the Mammalia is always fleshy, and attached
to the hyoid bone, which bone is suspended by ligaments to the
cranium.

Their lungs, two in number, are composed of a mass of small
cells, inclosed without adhesion in a cavity formed by the sides
of the diaphragm, and lined by the pleura. Their organ of voice
is at the upper extremity of the trachea or windpipe ; and a
fleshy continuation, named velum palati, establishes a direct
communication between their larynx and the back part of their
nostrils.

Living on the earth's surface, as do the greater part of the
Mammalia, they are exposed to alternations of heat and cold,
and their bodies have in consequence a covering of hair, which
is thicker in the colder, and more scanty in the warmer
regions. The Cetacea, which inhabit the sea, are, however, to-
tally destitute of this covering.

The intestinal canal of the mammiferous animals is suspend-
ed by a fold of the peritonaeum, called the mesentery, which
contains numerous conglobate glands for the lacteal vessels.
Another production of the peritonaeum, named the epiploon,
hangs before and beneath the intestines.

The generation of the Mammalia is essentially viviparous.
The foetus after conception descends into the uterus, to the
inner surface of which it is attached by means of an arrange-
ment of vessels termed the placenta, through the medium of
which nourishment is derived. The young for some time after
birth are nourished by a particular secretion of the mother (milk,)
produced in the mammiferous animals after parturition, and
drawn by the young from mammce or teats. It is from this last
character that the term Mammalia has been applied to this Class
—a character exclusively proper to them, and by which they are
more easily recognized than by another external distinction.

The total number of mammiferous animals described, accord-
ing to Desmarest, is about 850, including, however, many species

30 MAMMALIA.

imperfectly ascertained and the fossil Mammalia ; of which be-
longing to the order Quadrumana are 141, — Cheiroptera 97,—
Ferae 176, — Marsupialia 47, — Rodentia 149, — Edentata 24, —
Pachydermata 55, — Ruminantia 97, — Cetacea 62. Of these
about 330 are frugivorous or herbivorous, 80 omnivorous, 1 50
insectivorous, and 240 carnivorous, in a greater or lesser de-
gree. The number of terrestrial species domesticated by Man
(but perhaps including all that are really useful) amount only
to thirteen.

The essential characters of the Mammalia are taken from the
organs of touch and the organs of mastication. On the first
depend the power and dexterity of the animal ; and from the
second may be deduced the nature of its food, and the conse-
quent structure of its digestive apparatus. On these characters
are founded the division of mammiferous animals into Orders.

The degree of perfection of the organs of touch may be es-
timated according to the number and mobility of the fingers, and
according to the greater or less depth with which their extremi-
ties are covered by the nail or hoof. A hoof, for instance, which
envelopes that part of the extremity which would otherwise touch
the ground, blunts the feeling, and renders the foot incapable
of seizing. The opposite extreme is, when only a single
lamina covers the upper surface of the end of the finger or toe,
leaving to the other all its sensibility.

The nature of the food may be judged of by the appearance
of the molar teeth, to the form of which the articulation of the
jaws always corresponds. For cutting flesh the teeth require
to be edged like a saw, and the jaws to close vertically like
scissors. To bruise grains or roots it is requisite that the mo-
lars have a flat crown ; that the jaws should move horizontal-
ly as well as vertically ; and that the teeth should be com-
posed of parts of unequal hardness, to give them the necessary
inequalities for this operation. The hoofed animals are all ne-
cessarily herbivorous, and possess teeth of this description, since
the structure of their feet precludes them from seizing living
prey.

Animals with unguiculated toes or fingers, on the contrary,
are susceptible of more variety in their modes of subsistence ;

3

MAMMALIA. 31

for besides the form of the molar teeth, they differ materially
among themselves in the mobility and delicacy of their toes or
fingers. There is one characteristic, however, which exercises
a mighty influence on the dexterity of the animals possessed of
it, and which multiplies or greatly varies their modes of action.
This is the faculty of opposing a thumb to the other fingers,
and of thus being enabled to seize with facility the most minute
objects. This opposition of a fifth member to the other four con-
stitutes what is properly called the hand, an organ which is
carried to the highest degree of perfection in Man, in whom
alone the anterior extremities are free.

From these various combinations, which strictly determine
the nature of the different mammiferous animals, Cuvier has
arranged the Class into the following Orders.

I. BIMANA, (with two hands) of which man is the type
and only species, is at the head of the unguiculated species, and
is distinguished zoologically by possessing hands at the anterior
extremities, the posterior being employed to sustain him erect,
and three kinds of teeth.

II. QUADRUMANA, with four hands at the four extremities,
and three kinds of teeth.

III. CARNIVORA, Carnivorous, or feeding more or less on
animal food. This order has no thumb capable of free motion
and opposable to the toes ; three kinds of teeth. It is divided
into four families, viz. Cheiroptera, Jnsectivora, Carnivora,
and Marsupialia.

IV. RODENTIA, or Gnawers: (Glires, Lin.) The animals
.of this order have the extremities little different from those of
the carnivora ; but they want the canine teeth, and their inci-
sors are adapted to a kind of mastication peculiar to themselves.

V. EDENTATA, without teeth. This order includes animals
which have no incisors, or cutting teeth ; some of them even
want the canine teeth ; and others have none at all. Besides
this their toes are contracted and buried in large and often
crooked nails.

This distribution of the unguiculated animals would be per-
fect, and would form a regular series, if New Holland had not
recently furnished a collateral chain composed of animals with

32 MAMMALIA.

abdominal sacs for their young. Though the different genera
of these are thus connected in this one particular, yet in the
form of their teeth some are found to correspond with the Car-
nivora, others with the Rodentia, and others resemble the
Edentata in the structure of their teeth and the nature of their
food.

VI. PACHYDERMA, or thick-skinned animals. This order
includes all the quadrupeds with hoofs, except the ruminating
animals, though the elephant is only remotely connected with
this group.

VII. RUMINANTIA, ruminating animals, (Pecora, Lin.)
These animals form a very natural family, and are distinguished
from all other quadrupeds by their cloven feet, the want of true
incisors in their upper jaw, and by their having four stomachs.

VIII. CETACEA, Whales. Mammalia which have no dis-
tinct posterior extremities. These are the warm-blooded Jishes
of the ancients, which, to the strength of the mammiferae, unite
the advantage of being supported by water, and thus form the
most gigantic of animals.

Since the publication of the Regne Animal, Latreille and
others have made a separate order of the Cheiroptera, the first
of the four families into which Cuvier divides his Carnassiers ;
and this separation seems natural and proper, from the other
families of the Order having their mammae ventral, while the
Cheiroptera, like the Quadrumana, are distinguished by pectoral
mammae. Cuvier himself suggests the propriety of arranging
the Marsupial animals, forming the fourth family of the same
order, into a separate group. In the following pages the ar-
rangement will therefore stand thus : —

ORDER I. BIMANA, ORDER VI. GLIRES,

II. QUADRUMANA, VII. EDENTATA,

III. CHEIROPTERA, VIII. PACHYDERMA,

IV. FERJE, IX. RUMINANTIA,

V. MARSUPIALIA, X. CETACEA.

HOMO. MAMMALIA. 33

ORDER I.— BIMANA.

TEETH of three kinds ; the posterior extremities proper for walk*
ing ; the anterior furnished with hands ; nails Hat ; body ver-
tical ; two pectoral mammae ; stomach simple ; orbital and
temporal fossae distinct.

Genus, HOMO. Incisors f , canines j-j, molars |-f = 32.
Species, HOMO sapiens. Man.

MAN stands alone in the order and genus to which naturalists
have referred his species. Differing widely in physical conforma-
tion from all other classes of animated beings, and distinguished by
reason and the power of speech, this wonderfully constructed being
seems the bond of connection between the material and immaterial
worlds. Possessed of mental powers which raise him beyond the
level of the surrounding creation, and connect him with higher or-
ders of existences, Man is the only being who looks forward to fu-
turity, and intuitively perceives his connection ' with and depen-
dence upon the great Source of Intelligence. While the inferior ani-
mals enjoy unalloyed the blessings of life and present enjoyment,
Man combines the past, the present, and the future in his calcula-
tions of happiness ; and while some parts of his organization con-
nect him with the creatures around him, and sober his rule over
beings with animal feelings of pleasure and pain as acute as his
own, his intellectual powers, unfettered by the material organs
which are their instruments, trace the Divinity in all the parts of
creation. Hence has arisen the religious feeling among every tribe
of human beings, however rude j and Man alone seems to connect
himself with the Great Author of his being through the medium
of intellectual homage, and worships, according to his conceptions
of that Almighty Being, the Creator and Preserver of all.

While reason places Man at such an infinite distance from the
inferior animals, the faculty of articulate speech, and an artificial
language, widens the barrier still farther ; for although some of the
animals possess the power of articulation in a considerable degree,
and can communicate by natural signs significant to those of their
own species, they totally fail in those powers which enable Man to
classify objects, and to employ sounds or signs as an instrument of
thought. Brutes possess indeed the powers of sensation, percep-
tion, and memory, and seem to be capable of intellectual operations
to a certain extent ; but their action is extremely limited, and
bounded to the supply of their bodily wants ; and though suscep-
tible of a species of education, their imitative powers are neither
subservient to the improvement of the individual nor the species.

The faculty which seems to direct the inferior animals in most
of their operations, essentially different from any thing like human
intelligence, is called instinct. This wonderful faculty, surer in its

VOL. T. 0

34 MAMMALIA. BIMANA.

limited aims than reason, bears, however, no proportion to the gene-
ral intelligence of the animals which exercise it ; for it has been re-
marked, that those in whom the instinctive propensity displays the
greatest seeming wisdom and contrivance^ are upon other occasions
remarkably deficient in sagacity.

The physical structure of Man also widely separates him from
the other portions of the mammiferous class. But these varia-
tions in form and proportion are neither so prominent nor so to-
tally different in character from the other animal structures, as to.
account for the superiority which he enjoys. Destined to be nou-
rished on substances used in common by other animals, the mecha-
nism of his frame must so far correspond with theirs, as to be able
to convert these substances to the fluids which support his animal
life ; and his organs of sensation must necessarily be analogous in
some degree to those of beings on whom the material world is des-
tined to make similar impressions. But no material organs which
Man possesses, abstracted from the mind of which they are but the
instruments, can account for his intellectual supremacy; and all
those hypotheses which would trace Man's intellectual and moral
powers from the absolute or relative size of the brain or other ma-
terial organs, have miserably failed in connecting mind with mattery
or thought with organic structure.

The structure of the human frame, however, is wonderfully adap-
ted to the various purposes for which it is destined ; and even phy-
sically considered, seems the worthy habitation of a being placed at
the head, and with the control, of animated nature. Man, indeed,
considered as an animal, is the only one which walks erect in a verti-
cal position ; the only one with hands at the anterior extremity,
distinct from the organs of locomotion, and free for executing his
purposes ; and no other has like him vertical incisive teeth in
the lower jaw and a projecting chin. Contrary to what is found
in any other mammiferous animal, the structure of his body demon-
strates that man is destined to walk erect. The foot is entirely
different from the posterior hands of apes, and furnishes a larger
and firmer base than that of any other animal. In relation to the
foot the leg holds a rectangular or vertical position. The muscles
which hold the foot and thigh in an extended state are extreme-
ly vigorous, and produce the projection of the calf and the thick-
ening of the buttock. The flexors of the leg are attached very high
to allow the extension of the knee. The pelvis is large, which, be-
sides separating the extremities widely, gives a pyramidal form to
the trunk favourable to equilibrium ; and the articulation of the
head is strictly central in relation to its own bulk.

It would be impossible for Man, even if he desired it, to walk
on the four extremities, his feet being short and almost inflexible,
and the great length of his thigh would bring his knee to the ground.
His shoulders, also, being too much separated, and his arms too far
extended from the central line, would form a very ineffectual sup-
port for th.e upper part of the body. The great muscle, which, in

HOMO. MAMMALIA. 35

quadrupeds, like a girth, holds the body suspended between the
shoulders, is smaller in man than among them. The head of man is
also heavier, and its means of support weaker ; for there is neither
a cervical ligament, nor such an arrangement of vertebrae as would
prevent its bending forward. The arteries, besides, which supply
the human brain not being subdivided, as in most quadrupeds, the
blood necessary for an organ of such volume would be poured in
too copiously and rapidly, if he should affect the horizontal posi-
tion. In short, Man is the only biped and bimanous animal ; and
his locomotive organs being placed at one extremity, leaves that
admirable instrument, the hand, free for the execution of purposes
which distinguish him from every other animated being. This
instrument, which derives so many advantages from being at liber-
ty, possesses as many more from the wonderful mechanism of its
structure. The thumb, longer in proportion than that of apes, af-
fords greater facility for seizing and holding small objects ; all the
fingers have separate movements ; and the nails being placed at one
side of the extremity, form a support for the organ of touch with-
out injuring its delicacy. The arms to which those hands are af-
fixed possess a strong point of attachment in the large scapula, the
powerful clavicle, and the general arrangement of their articulation.

According to Cuvier, no quadruped is comparable to man for the
magnitude of the hemispheres of the brain in proportion to that of the
face. The form of the cranium announces this magnitude of brain,
while the comparative smallness of the face displays how little that
part of the nervous system which influences the external senses is
predominant in the human species. Though the external senses of
man are less energetic than in some other animals, they are, how-
ever, extremely delicate, and admirably balanced amongst them-
selves. His eyes are directed forwards, and thus, though he does
not see on both sides at once like most quadrupeds, there is a great-
er unity in the result of the visual operation. Though his ear pos-
sesses but little mobility or extent, yet of all animals he can best
distinguish -the various degrees of intonation. His nostrils, though
more complicated than those of apes, are less so than those of other
animals, — yet man appears to be the only creature whose sense of
smell is sufficiently delicate to be affected by unpleasant odours.
Lastly, The perfection of his touch results both from the delicacy of
his external integuments, the absence of all insensible parts, and
the form of his hand, so admirably constructed to adapt itself to
the slightest inequalities of surface.

As man, when compared with other animals, displays a striking
difference in the relative proportions of the cranium and face, a theo-
ry has been formed from these proportions to account for intellectu-
al differences j and it has been remarked, that, among the brute crea-
tion, those animals which approach to man in these proportions also
combine the largest portion of intelligence and docility. Thus an
oblique line drawn from the greatest projection of the forehead to
that of the upper maxillary bone, and a horizontal line drawn

36 MAMMALIA. BIMANA.

backwards from beneath the base of the nostrils, forms what is
called the facial angle, and the number of degrees in this angle
gives the measure of the relative prominence of the jaws and fore-
head. In the human race the facial angle approaches nearly to a
right angle, and the obliquity of the line has been observed to in-
crease as we descend the scale of animated beings, till at last the
cranium and face form parts of one horizontal line.

This theory of comparative intelligence founded on the facial line,
proposed by Professor Camper, corroborates in some measure the idea
that the intelligence of animals may be estimated by the compara-
tive size of the brain. At the same time it must be observed, that
in many animals the facial line does not measure the actual promi-
nence of the brain but that of the frontal sinuses, which, in the Car-
nivoraj many of the Ruminantia, and the elephant, elevate the faci-
al line considerably. In the human race, however, and the qua-
drumarrous animals, where the frontal sinuses are inconsiderable, this
elevation may be conceived to arise for the most part from the great-
er capacity of the cranium. In man the facial angle varies from
65° to 85° in adults, while in children it reaches to 90°, a sufficient
proof, it has been observed, of the inadequacy of this standard as a
measure of intellect.

Fruits, roots, and succulent vegetables, appear to be the natural
food of man. His hands afford him facility in procuring these, and
his short and comparatively weak jaws, his canine teeth not project-
ing beyond the line of the others, and his tuberculous molar teeth,
would not permit him to feed on herbage or devour flesh, unless
those aliments were previously prepared by the culinary process. But
once in possession of fire, and assisted by the arts of his own inven-
tion, to take animals by stratagem or to kill them at a distance, the
whole living world is converted to his use, and the means of mul-
tiplying his species are infinitely augmented.

The organs of digestion in man are in conformity with those of
mastication. The stomach is simple, the intestinal canal of mode-
rate length, the large intestines well-marked, the ccecum thick and
short, and augmented by a thin appendage; the liver is divided in-
to two lobes and a smaller one ; and the epiploon hangs in front of
the intestines, extending even into the pelvis. To complete the
anatomical detail as far as necessary in this place, it may be added,
that the cranium is formed of eight bones ; one frontal, one ethmoid,
one sphenoid, and one occipital — all on the mesial plane, and one
parietal and one temporal on each side of this plane. The bones
of his face are fourteen in number; two maxillary and two malar,
each of which is attached to the temporal of the same side by a pro-
cess, called the zygomatic arch ; two nasal bones, two lachrymal at
the internal sides of the orbits, two palate bones, two inferior turbi-
nated bones within the nostrils, the vomer between the nostrils, and
lastly, the single bone of the lower jaw. Each jaw has sixteen teeth ;
four incisors in the niiddLg, two pointed canine teeth at the cor-
ners, and ten molar teeth with tubercular crowns, five on each side,
making in all thirty-two.

HOMO. MAMMALIA. 37

The vertebral column or spine is composed of thirty-two verte-
brae, seven of which are denominated cervical, twelve dorsal, five
lumbar, five sacral, and three coccygeal. Of the ribs seven pair
(called true ribs) are attached to the sternum or breast-bone by car-
tilaginous productions ; the other five pair are called false ribs. The
scapula has at the end of its projecting ridges a tuberosity called
the acromion, to which the clavicle is attached, and above its articu-
lation a point named the coracoid, for the attachment of certain mus-
cles. The radius turns completely on the ulna, in consequence
of the manner in which it is articulated with the humerus. The
carpus has eight bones, four in each row ; the tarsus seven ; those
of the rest of the hand and feet correspond with the number of toes
and fingers.

The human race have rarely more than one child at each birth,
and twins do not occur in more than a single instance out of five
hundred. The period of gestation is nine months. The child at
birth is generally eighteen inches long, more than one-fourth of its
destined stature ; one-half is attained at two years and a half ; and
three-fourths at the age of nine or ten. The. growth generally
ceases about eighteen. The milk-teeth begin to shoot out a few
months after birth ; at two years old they are twenty in number,
and they fall successively towards the seventh year, to be replaced
by others. Of the twelve molar teeth which do not drop out, four
appear at about the age of four years and a half, four at nine years,
and the last four do not appear sometimes till the twentieth year.
Puberty is usually manifested by external signs, in girls at the age
of ten, twelve, or fourteen, and in boys from twelve to sixteen. The
male of the human species seldom exceeds six feet in height, and
is rarely under five feet ; the female is generally a few inches less.

Scarcely has the body attained its destined height when it begins to
increase in bulk. Fat accumulates in the cellular tissue ; the diffe-
rent vessels are gradually obstructed ; the more solid parts grow
rigid; and after a life more or less long, more or less agitated
by physical or moral pleasure and pain, old age arrives, and in its
train decrepitude and death. While a few pass the limit of a hun-
dred years, the greater part of the race perish long before this
period by diseases or accidents, or even by old age itself.

The greater part of animals are able at the moment of theiHkirth
to provide for their principal wants ; some of them, indeed, as Fish-
es, Reptiles, almost all Insects, and the Mollusca, never know their
parents. The Mammalia in general, and the Birds, remain for some
weeks in a state of great helplessness, but towards the eighth or tenth
day their senses are all developed, and some of them are even then
able to follow their mother. But Man, on the contrary, is at birth
the most helpless being imaginable ; even his senses, which require
a kind of education, are not developed till towards the fortieth day,
when the little being also begins to smile, and to know those who
approach him :

" risu cognoscere matrem."

38 MAMMALIA. BIMANA,

When about an year old he begins to lisp the simplest sound's;
in about fifteen months he is able to walk ; speaks generally in
about a year and a half ; but it is not till after a long period of
training that the infant man is qualified to procure for himself the
necessaries of animal life. An intellectual as well as a physical
education is therefore necessary, and the foundation is thus laid for
one of the most natural as well as permanent bonds of attachment.
The equality of the sexes in number point to monogamy as the
kind of union most proper and natural for the human species. The
long education necessary permits the parents to have other children
in the interval ; and thus, according to Cuvier, the perpetuity of the
conjugal union appears to be a law decreed by Nature. The long
period of infantine imbecility gives rise to another natural law,
namely, the subordination of each individual family; and this again
leads, by a necessary consequence, to the whole system of social or-
der. This family connection, expanded in the progress of time in-
to the bonds of tribes and nations, has wonderfully strengthened
the intellectual resources of the human race ; and has enabled man
to subsist under every variety of temperature, and to cover the face
of the whole earth with beings similar to himself.

In other respects Man appears to possess nothing resembling the
instinct of animals. He is not stimulated to any regular or conti-
nuous exertion of industry by an uncontrollable impulse. His
knowledge is the consequence of his own sensation and reflection, or
of those of his predecessors ; and from these results, transmitted by
language or example, and applied tohis various wants and enjoyments,
have originated all the arts. Language and letters, by affording the
means of preserving and communicating acquired knowledge, hold
out to the human race indefinite sources of improvement.

Of the numerous varieties of the human race Cuvier mentions
three as eminently distinct, viz. the white or Caucasian, the yellow
or Mongolian, and the negro or Ethiopian. Blumenbach conceives
they may be divided into five distinct varieties, viz. the Caucasian,
Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malayan ; and other writers
have farther subdivided these as their family characteristics were
more or less marked.

1. The Caucasian variety includes all the Europeans, with the ex-
ception of the Laplanders, and the inhabitants of the western and
northern parts of Asia. They have the face oval ; facial angle 85° ;
forehead high and expanding ; cheeks colouredred; hair long, brown,
but varying from white to black.

2. The Mongolian variety inhabits eastern Asia, Finland, and
Lapland in Europe, and includes the Esquimaux of North America.
They have a broad and flat olive-coloured face, with lateral projec-
tion of the cheek-bones ; facial angle 75° ; oblique and narrow eyes ;
hair hard, straight, black ; beard thin.

3. The Ethiopian variety, inhabiting the middle parts of Africa,
are black in a greater or less degree, with black woolly hair, jaw pro-
jecting forward, thick lips, and flat nose ; facial angle 70°.

4

HOMO. MAMMALIA. 39

4. The American variety, comprising all the Americans except the
Esquimaux, are mostly tan or reddish copper-coloured, with prominent
cheek-bones, short forehead, flattish nose, straight coarse hair, and
thin beard.

5. The Malayan variety includes the inhabitants of the islands in
the Indian Ocean and Polynesia. They are of a brown colour, from
a clear mahogany to the darkest clove or chesnut brown, with
thick black bushy hair, a broad nose, and wide mouth.

To one or other of these strongly marked families all the other va-
rieties of the human race may be traced ; and these in their turn
may be referred to certain hereditary conformations, modified by
food, soil, and climate, which have separated the members of one
family, long prior to the era of written records.

Some French naturalists have endeavoured to raise the varieties
now observable among the human race into different species ; but,
as Cuvier justly remarks, the indiscriminate sexual intercourse and
consequent production of an offspring capable of propagation prove
mankind to be but a single species. And it is remarked by Blumen-
bach, that all national differences in the form and colour of the hu-
man body are not more remarkable, nor more inconceivable, than
those by which varieties of so many other organized bodies, and
particularly of domestic animals, arise as it were under our eyes.

In considering the peculiarities which distinguish man from the
brute creation, his capability of inhabiting every climate and sus-
taining every degree of heat and cold, deserves to be noticed.
While the geographical range of most animals is extremely limited,
the physical and intellectual powers of man enable him to create a
climate of his own in every degree of latitude ; and while the In-
dian of Canada may sleep upon the snow with impunity with the
thermometer at 40° below zero, the natives of Sierra Leone suffer
unhurt the heat of a vertical sun with the thermometer above 100.°
And as the physical powers and intellectual resources of Man ena-
ble him to occupy the whole surface of the globe, his capacity of
living on every species of food renders him in the widest sense of the
word omnivorous. The continued use of animal food is as natural
and wholesome to the inhabitants of the Arctic regions, where it is
impossible to raise vegetables, as a mixed diet is to the Englishman ;
and vegetable food within the tropics is necessary from the exube-
rance of this part of the creation, and the comparative scarcity of
those gregarious animals on which man subsists in other latitudes.

ORDER II.— QUADRUMANA.

THREE kinds of teeth, incisors, canines, and molars ; four ex-
tremities terminated by hands, with the thumb separate from
the other fingers, and more or less opposable to them ; fingers
long and flexible ; two or four pectoral mammae ; clavicles

40 MAMMALIA. QUADRUMANA.

complete ; bones of the arm and leg distinct, and suscepti-
ble of the motions of pronation and supination ; male organs
of generation external ; stomach membranous, simple ; intes-
tines of medium length ; a little coecum ; orbital and tem-
poral fossae distinct.

This order feeds on fruits, roots, and insects. They are intelligent, agile, lively,
and petulant, destined by their organization to live on trees, where they are al-
most constantly found. Inhabit the warm parts of Asia, Africa, and America.

FAMILY I.— SIMILE.

Form approaching more or less to that of Man ; four inclined
incisors in each jaw ; nose more or less prominent ; nostrils
more or less separated from one another ; two pectoral
mammae ; orbital and temporal fossse distinct.

If the conformation of the body always implied corresponding intellectual attri-
butes, the Simla: or apes should approach the nearest to man. But this is not
found to be the case ; and though the family of apes have, like man, their anterior
hands free, and opposable thumbs, though in a less degree, yet it is not found that
their sagacity is superior or equal to some other tribes of mammiferous animals. The
structure of their body, indeed, enables them to perform many movements similar to
man, but this, when it approaches the usages of the human race, is in general the mere
effect of imitation or education in individuals withdrawn from their kind. Posses-
sed of hands at both extremities, capable, were they directed by intelligence, of turn-
ing the soil or the inhabitants of the forest to their use, they are inferior in sagacity
to the beaver and many other animals which live in society. The social instinct of
theapes indeed seems limited to the tendency which frugiverous animals have in general
to live in wandering troops, for the purposes of mutual protection.

The whole structure of apes marks them as essentially formed for climbing trees,
and it is in forests, accordingly, that they are chiefly found. Their gait on the ground
and on all-fours as quadrupeds is awkward and by leaps ; and their head not being
placed in equilibrium on the spine as in man, their pelvis being small, and the mus-
cles of the thigh being attached lower in the leg, prevents their assuming the erect
position. Their very long arms, and hands at both extremities, are, on the contrary,
admirably calculated for their mode of life.

The family of apes are lively, petulant, and extremely lascivious. They possess
the talent of imitation to a great degree, and hence the ancient generic denomination
of Simice from simulare, to imitate. MM. de la Condamine and Bouguer, when
making their observations in South America on the Figure of the Earth, were annoyed
by domesticated apes looking through their telescopes, planting signals, running to the
pendulum, taking the pen to write, and imitating all the actions of these learned astro-
nomers. Their intelligence is not, however, greater than that of the dog, though
their imitative actions appear advantageously from their particular conformation.
Their senses of touch, of smell, and of taste, are particularly acute, and seem to direct
all their appetites, which are sensual and gross in almost all the species. The dis-
gusting resemblance to the human countenance which the'ape presents, was remark-
ed by Ennius the old Roman poet in the following line :

" Simia quam sirnilis turpissima bestia nobis."

Apes bring forth one or two young at a birth, after a gestation of from five to seven
months, according to the species. The females carry their young in their arms or
upon their backs, offer them suck, amuse them, and sometimes strike or bite them
when they are dissatisfied. Among the Sapajous or American apes with prehensile
tails, the young seat themselves upon the haunches of the mother, preserving their
equilibrium by their tail. The males are polygamous in the smaller species, but
often monogamous in the largest Their geographical range is extremely limited,
and they are only found under the tropics in both hemispheres.

3

TROGLODYTES. MAMMALIA. 41

1st TRIBE. — APES OF THE OLD CONTINENT.
(SimicB Catarrhini, Geoff.)

Five molars on each side in both jaws, crowned with blunt tuber-
cles ; nostrils approaching, having between them only a thin
partition ; tail none, or short, or long, never prehensile ;
often with cheek-pouches and callosities. Inhabits Africa,
India, and the neighbouring islands.

Gen. 2. TROGLODYTES, Geoff. — Pithecus, Cuv.—Simia, Lin.

Incisors J, canines^-}, molars |-f, = 32.- Canines little project-
ing, contiguous to the incisors and molars, as those of man ;
head rounded ; muzzle little projecting ; superciliary ridge
prominent ; facial angle 50° ; arms almost proportioned to the
legs, reaching to the bottom of the thighs ; thumbs long and
opposable ; no tail, cheek-pouches^ intermaxillary bones, nor
callosities on the buttocks.

T. niger,Desm. (Simia Troglodytes, Ijm.) The Chimpanse. Arms of
moderate length ; fur black ; mouth and ears large ; canine teeth
scarcely surpassing the incisors ; lips with some stiff hairs ; belly
flat and large ; buttocks naked and not callous ; body covered
with long black and thinly scattered coarse hair,, that on the
shoulders longer than elsewhere ; hair on the fore-arm directed
towards the elbow ; face naked, of a brown colour, with the
exception of the cheeks, which have hair similar to that of the
body ; belly almost naked. About three feet in length.

The Chimpanse, about which so many fables have been related, most resembles
man in organization. It lives in troops, and can use a stick to lean upon or for
defence. It is very intelligent, and susceptible of considerable education. It is
sometimes said to pursue negresses. If there be any truth in the statements of
travellers, regarding the great wild man of the woods of Africa, there is little reason
to doubt that this formidable animal will turn out to be the adult Chimpanse, as all
the specimens brought to Europe displayed their nonage by their teeth and other
indications. Inhabits Africa, particularly on the coasts of Angola and Congo.

Gen. 3. PITHECUS, Cuv. Geoff. — Simia, Lin.

Incisors |, canines {-^9 molars f-f, = 32. Canine teeth a
little longer than the others ; molars more square than in man,
with tubercles more pronounced ; head rounded ; no super-
ciliary ridge, at least in young individuals ; facial angle 50°
to 65° ; arms excessively long ; thumbs pretty short ; no tail
or cheek-pouches ; callosities on the buttocks in some spe-
cies ; ears rounded, similar to those of man.

This genus approaches nearest to man by their intelligence. Inhabits Cochinchina,
Malacca, Borneo, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago.

42 MAMMALIA. QUADRUMANA.

Sub-Gen. 1. — ORANGS, properly so called — No callosities on the but-
tocks.

P. satyrus, Desm. (Simla satyrus, Lin. — Pongo Wormbu3 Desm.)
The Great Orang-outang. Fur brownish-red ; face prolonged be-
fore,, nearly bare, and of a dark lead- colour; eyes small, ap-
proaching ; nose very flat, with two oblique nostrils ; muzzle pro-
jecting, ears small, resembling -those of man, but wanting the
lower lobe ; opening of the mouth large ; canine teeth a little
projecting ; the two middle upper incisors twice the breadth of
the lateral ones ; arms long ; nails similar to those of man, those
of the thumb shorter and narrower than the others ; thumb reach-
ing to the first joint of the index finger ; hair of the head of a
reddish brown; beard chesnut colour ; hair of the fore-arm direct-
ed towards the elbow ; breast and belly nearly bare ; no callosi-
ties or tail.

The history of this animal, confounded with relations of other species, has hither-
to been involved in much obscurity. The animal described by naturalists under the
name of S- satyrus, specimens of which have occasionally been seen in Europe, and
the Pongo of Wurmb, seem only, as Cuvier conjectured, to be the young of the gigan-
tic animal described and partly figured by Dr Clarke Abel. From the measurement
of the shrivelled and dried skin, that gentleman makes its height to exceed seven
feet and a half, though the youth of the animal was ascertained by the state of its
teeth, and by the apophysis of the bones of its hands and feet being incompletely
ossified.

" The face of this animal," says Dr Abel, " with the exception of the beard, is
nearly bare, a few straggling short downy hairs being alone scattered over it. It is
of dark lead-colour, excepting the margins of the lips, which are lighter. The eyes
are small in relation to those of man, and are about an inch apart. The eyelids are
well fringed with lashes. The ears are 1^ inch in length, and barely an inch in
breadth, are close to the head, and resemble those of man, with the exception of
wanting the lower lobe. The nose is scarcely raised above the level of the face, and
is chiefly distinguished by two nostrils, f of an inch in breadth, placed obliquely side
by side. The muzzle projects in a mammillary form. The opening of the mouth
is very large. When closed, the lips appear narrow, but are in reality half an inch
in thickness. The hair of the head is of a reddish brown, grows from behind for-
wards, and is five inches in length. The beard is handsome, and appears to have been
curly in the animal's lifetime. Its colour is lighter than that of the head, approach-
ing to a light chestnut. The beard is about three inches long, springing'very grace-
fully from the upper lip, near the angles of the mouth, in the form of mustachios,
whence descending, it mixes with that of the chin, the whole having at present a
very wary aspect. The face of the animal is much wrinkled.

" The palms of the hands are very long, are quite naked from the wrists, and are
of the colour of the face. Their backs are covered with hair to the last joint of the
fingers, and this inclines backwards towards the wrists, and then turns directly up-
wards. All the fingers have nails, which are strong, convex, and of a black colour.
The thumb reaches to the first joint of the fore-finger.

" The soles of the feet are bare, and of the same colour as the hands j they are
covered on the back with long brown hair to the last joint of the toes. The great
toe is set on nearly at right angles to the foot, and is relatively very short. The
original colour, however, of the hands and arms, and the soles of the feet, is some-
what uncertain, in consequence of the effect of the spirit in which they have been
preserved.

" The skin itself is of a dark leaden-colour. The hair is of a brownish red. but
when observed at some distance, has a dull, and in some places, an almost black ap-
pearance ; but, in a strong light, it is of a light red. It is in all parts very long ;
on the fore-arm it is directed upwards. On the upper arm its general direction is
downwards, but, from its length, it hangs shaggy below the arm. From the shoul-

PITHECUS, MAMMALIA. 45

ders, it hangs in large and long massy tufts, which, in continuation with the long
hair on the back, seems to form a continuous mass to the very centre of the body.
About the flanks the hair is equally long, and, in the living animal, must have de-
scended below the thighs and nates. On the limits, however, of the lateral termi-
nation of the skin, which must have covered the chest and belly, it is scanty, and
gives the impression that these parts must have been comparatively bare. Round
the upper part of the back it is also much thinner than elsewhere, and small tufts
at the junction of the skin with the neck are curled abruptly upwards, corresponding
with the direction of the hair at the back of the head."

This animal was killed on the coast of Sumatra by a party who had landed for
the purpose of watering. Captain Cornfoot, the commander of the vessel, in his re-
lation of its capture to Dr Abel, dwelt much " upon the human-like expression of
its countenance, and especially on the beautiful arrangement of its beard. He also
obliged me with some account of its capture, as reported to him by his officers, and
feelingly described the piteous action of the animal on being wounded, and of its
apparent tenacity of life. It seems that, on the spot wliere this animal was killed,
were five or six trees, which occasioned his hunters great trouble in procuring their
prey ; for, in consequence of the extreme agility and power of the animal in spring-
ing from branch to branch, and bounding from one tree to another, his pursuers
could not fix their aim, until they had cut down all the trees but one. When thus
limited in his range, the orang-outang was shot, but did not die till he had received
five balls and the thrust of a spear. One of the first balls probably penetrated his
lungs, as he, immediately after the infliction of the wound, slung himself by his feet
from a branch, with his head downwards, and allowed the blood to flow from hi?
mouth. On receiving a wound he always put his. hand over the injured part, and
distressed his pursuers by. the human-like agony of his expression. When on the
ground, after being exhausted by his many wounds, he lay as if dead, with his head
resting on his folded arms. It was at this moment that an officer attempted to give
the coup de grace by pushing a spear through his body, but he immediately jumped
on his feet, wrested the weapon from his antagonist, and shivered it in pieces. This
was his last wound, and last great exertion, yet he lived some time afterwards, and
drank, it is stated, great quantities of water. Captain Cornfoot also observes, that
the animal had probably travelled some distance from the place where he was killed,
as his legs were covered with mud up to the knees."— -Breiester^s Journ. iv. 194.

A young specimen of this animal brought to England from Java, and previously
described by Dr Abel in his Account of the Embassy to China, was allowed to wander
freely about the ship and became familiar with the sailors. " They often chased
him about the rigging, and when pressed he eluded his pursuers by seizing a loose
rope and swinging out of their reach. At other times he would patiently wait on
the shrouds, or at the mast head, till his pursuers almost touched him, and then sud-
denly lower himself to the deck by any rope that was near him. When in a play,
ful humour he would often swing within arm's-length of his pursuer, and having
struck him with his hand, throw himself from him.'* The manners of this animal
were gentle, and he romped with the boys of the ship. He would entice them to
play by striking them with his hand as they passed, and then bounding from them.
But when excited to violent rage, he displayed his teeth, and attempted to bite those
who were near him. " If repeatedly refused an orange when he attempted to take
it, he would shriek violently, and swing furiously about the ropes ; then return and
endeavour to obtain it, and if still refused he would roll for some time like an angry
child upon the deck, uttering the most piercing screams ; and then suddenly starting
up, rush furiously over the side of the ship and disappear. On first witnessing this
act it was thought he had thrown himself into the sea ; but on a search being made
he was found concealed under the chains."

This animal, according toDr Abel, neither practices the grimaces nor antics of other
apes, nor possesses their proneness to mischief. Gravity, approaching to melancholy
and mildness, were strongly expressed in his countenance. He soon became attached
to those who used him kindly. He was fond of sitting by their side, and getting as
close as possible to their persons. From the boatswain of the Alceste, who shared
his meals with him, he learned to eat with a spoon ; and might be often seen at his
cabin door enjoying his coffee, quite unembarrassed by those who observed him, and
with a grotesque and sober ait that seemed a burlesque on human nature.

44 MAMMALIA. QUADRUMANA.

He arrrived in England in August 1817, and survived his transportation till the
first of April J819, in the custody of Mr Cross at Exeter-Change. He was shedding
his teeth at the period of his death. A figure of the head of this animal, drawn
from a cast taken after death, is given by Mr Griffith, (An. King. i. 252), and the
head and hands of the adult are figured in Brewster^s Journal^ iv. pi. 4.

Sub-gen. 2. — GIBBONS, — Hylobates^Ill. — Callosities on thebuttocks*

P. lar, Desm. (Simla lar, Lin.) The Gibbon. Fur black ; face
surrounded with gray hairs. About sixteen inches in height ;
arms almost reaching the ground when the animal is erect. — In-
habits Coromandel, &c.

P. variegatuSjDesm. (Simla lar,var. Lin.) Fur variegated with gray
brown and deep gray. A third smaller than the preceding.— -
Inhabits the island of Malacca.

P. leuciscus, Desm. (Simla leucisca, Schreb.) Fur gray ash-colour-
ed ; face black ; strong callosities.
Similar in form to the preceding, but having the arms longer. They sometimes

walk erect, balancing themselves with their long arms upon the high branches of the

bamboo in Java and the Moluccas.

P. syndactylus, Desm. (Simla syndactyla, Raffles.) The Siamang.
Fur of a deep black,, woolly, and very thick, naked under the
throat ; index and middle finger of the posterior hands united to
the second joint.

These animals are common in Sumatra. They are generally found assembled in
large troops, conducted, it is said, by a chief, whom the Malays believe to be invul-
nerable. Assembling at sunrise and sunset, they vie with each other in making the
most dreadful cries. At all other times they appear to be perfectly quiet. When
any of a troop is wounded it is abandoned to its fate, unless indeed it be a very young
one. In this case maternal affection prevails, and the mother of the bleeding young
will sacrifice her own life in an ineffectual attack on the enemy. Affection is al-
so often displayed under more pleasing circumstances in the care of the persons
of their young, by washing, rubbing, and drying them, in spite of the pettish cries
and resistance of the little Siamang. This species is readily tamed ; but, unconquer-
ably timid, it never displays familiarity, and its submission seems rather the result
of apathy than of confidence. It displays little intellectual vigour. It drinks by
plunging the fingers in water and then sucking them. — Griffith's An. King. i. 256.

P. agilis, Desm. (Hylobates agilis, F. Cuv.) The Active Gibbon.

Fur brown, with the back yellow ; forehead very low ; orbital

arches very prominent ; face of the male bluish black, that of the

female brown — Mam. 532.

Inhabits the forests in Sumatra, living in isolated couples. It is very lively, and
climbs with amazing agility, but does not display much intelligence. — F. Cuv. Mam.
liv. 32.

Gen. 4. COLOBUS, Geoff. — Simia, Pen. Gmel. &c.

Incisors |, canines \-\, molars f-f , — 32. Muzzle short ;
face naked ; nostrils approaching ; hands deprived of thumbs ;
feet with five fingers, the thumb much separated, and the
fingers increasing in length from the first to the third ; tail
long and slender, tufted towards its extremity ; cheek-pouch-
es ; callosities on the buttocks ; body and legs slender.

SEMXOPITHECUS. MAMMALIA. 45

C. polycomos, Geoff. {Simla polycomos, Schreb.) Full Bottom Mon-
key. With a mane upon the neck,, shoulders, and top of the
back. About three feet high. Inhabits the forests of Sierra
Leone and Guinea — Penn. Quad. i. pi. 24.

C. ferrugmosus, Geoff. (Simla ferruginosa, Shaw,) Bay Monkey,
Penn. Fur ferruginous ; crown of the head, hands, and tail

black Desm. Mam. 53.

Similar to the preceding species in its slender members, length of the tail, and

form of the fingers.

C. Temmlnckll, Kuhl. Black above, on the shoulders and outside
of the thighs. About twenty inches in height — Desm. Mam. 53.

Gen. 5. SEMNOPITHECUS, F. Cuv.—Cercopithecus, Geoff. Cuv.

Incisors f, canines i-^, molars f-f = 32. Facial angle 45° ;
head round ; nose flat ; ears moderate ; limbs very long ;
thumbs of the anterior hands very short and remote ; cheek-
pouches, and callosities on the buttocks ; tail very long and
slender.

S. maurus, C Simla maura, Lin.) The Negro Monkey, Penn. Fur
black ; a white spot beneath, near the origin of the tail ; about
fifteen inches in height. Inhabits the Island of Java — Edwards'
Glean, pi. 311.

S. melalophus, F. Cuv. (Simla melalophus, Raffles.) The Simpai.
Fur of a bright yellowish red above, whitish beneath ; a band of
black hairs on the forehead ; face blue. Inhabits the island of
Sumatra. — F. Cuv.

S. pruinosus, Desm. (Simla villosa, Griffith.) Fur blackish, tinged
with white ; tail brown. Inhabits Sumatra. — Mam. 533.
This animal differs from the S. maurus in the want of a white spot at the in-
sertion of the tail.

S. comatus, Desm. Fur above gray, beneath dirty white ; upper
part of the head covered with black hair, forming a tuft at the
back. Inhabits Sumatra — Mam. 533.

S. entellus, Geoff. (Simla entellus, Schreb.) Fur yellowish white ;
/^the face and hands black. About three feet and a half in length.
^ Inhabits India. — Audeb. iv, § 2, pi. 2.

Gen. 6. CERCOPITHECUS, Cuv. Geoff. —Simia, Lin.

Incisors J, canines y— j, molars f— f = 32. Canines a little
projecting, with intermediate spaces for their reception ; pos-
terior molars with only four tubercles ; head rounded ; fa-
cial angle 45° to 50° ; ears sometimes rounded, sometimes
slightly angular ; thumbs distinct, more or less approach-
ing to the fingers; cheek-pouches ; callosities on the but-
tocks, with the exception of one species ; tail as long at least
as the body, often turned up on the back.

46 MAMMALIA. QUADRUMANA.

Inhabits Africa, the southern parts of India, and some islands of the Archipelago,
living in troops in the forests, but occasionally approaching the cultivated fields.
This genus is divided into four sub-genera.

Sub-Gen. 1. — LASIOPYGA, Illig. — Hands longer than the fore-arms ;
anterior thumbs very short and slender ; no callosities ; buttocks
bordered with long hair.

C. nazmeus, Desm. (Simla ncemea, Lin.) Cocliinchina Monkey,
Penn. Fur variegated with brilliant colours. About two feet
high. Inhabits Cochinchina and Madagascar. — Shaw i. pi. 23.

Sub-Gen. 2 — NASALIS, Geoff. — Nose projecting and disproportion-
ately long ; ears little and round ; body thick ; anterior hands
with four longjlngers and a short thumb ; posterior broader, with
thick nails ; tail longer than the body ; callosities.

C. nasicus, Desm. (Simia nasica, Schreb.) Proboscis Monkey, Penn.
Fur reddish fawn-coloured ; nose very long ; face black.

Inhabits the island of Borneo, lives in troops'on trees in the vicinity of rivers, and
is savage in its manners. — Shaw, i. pi. 22.

Sub-Gen. 3.. — CERCOPITHECUS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. — Head round ;
forehead tapering behind ; facial angle 50° ; no superciliary rid'
ges ; nosejlat and open, at the top of the nasal furrows ; callosities
on the buttocks ; tail much longer than the body ; orbitary hollows
with smooth borders.

C. auratus, Geoff. Fur of a golden yellow ; long hair upon the
forehead and cheeks ; a black spot on the knee. Inhabits the
Moluccas.

C. talapoin, (Simia talapoin, Lin.) Talapoin Monkey, Penn. Fur
olive-coloured above ; of a pale yellowish below ; tail ash-colour-
ed beneath ; feet black — Inhabits Africa.

C. latibarbatus, Desm. (Simia dentata, Shaw.) The Broad-beard-
ed Monkey. A large beard extended laterally ; end of the tail
tufted; face violet purple. About nine inches in height.—
Shaw, i. pi. 13.

C. cephus, Geoff. (Simia cephus, Lin.) Mustache Monkey. Fur
greenish-brown; last half of the tail of a bright red; nose and
lips blue.— About a foot high.

C.pileatus, (Simia pileata, Shaw.) Bonneted Monkey. Of a brown
fawn colour above, white below, and long hair on the forehead ;
cheeks covered with white short hair ; ears naked, rounded —
About a foot in height.

C. mona, Desm. (Simia mona, Lin.) Varied Monkey. Fur chest-
nut-colour ; outer part of the extremities black ; two whitish
spots upon each buttock. About 15 inches high. Inhabits
Africa — Shaw, i. pi. 18.

C. nictitans, Desm. (Simia nictitans, Lin.) White-nosed Monkey.
Fur black, dotted with greenish gray ; nose white and gibbous ;

CERCOPITHECUS. MAMMALIA. 47

anterior extremities entirely black above. About a foot and a
half in height. Inhabits the coast of Guinea. — Audeb. Fam. iv.
§ 1, pi- 2.

C. petaurista, Desm. (Simia petaurista, Lin.) Vaulting Monkey.
Fur red above, white below ; extremities olive-coloured above,
grayish below; lower half of the nose white. About 13 inches
in height. Inhabits Guinea — Schreb. pi. 19.

C. ruber, Geoff. (Simia rubra, Lin.) Red Monkey. Fur red
above ; ash-coloured below j a narrow black or white band above
the eyes. About 18 inches in length. Inhabits Senegal.—
Schreb. pi. 16, B.

C. Diana, (Simia faunus, Lin.J Palatine Monkey. Fur of a
bright chestnut-colour ; slate gray on the flanks, with an oblique
line of the same colour upon the thighs. About a foot and a half
long. Inhabits Africa — Audeb. Hist. iv. § 2, pi. 6.

C. albo-cinereus, Desm. Fur gray above, whitish below, with a
row of stiff black hairs across the forehead ; hands blackish ; tail
brown.— Inhabits Sumatra.

Sub-Gen. 4 — CERCOCEBUS, Geoff. — Muzzle a little longer than the
preceding ; facial angle 45° ; margin of the orbit projecting.

C. cynosurus, Desm. (Simia faunus 3 Lin.) The Malbrouck. Fur
brownish-olive above, whitish below, with a whitish band above
the eyes. About 14 inches long. Inhabits Bengal, &c.-— Audeb.iv.
§ 2. pi. 5.

C. saboeus, Desm. (Simia sabcea, Lin. The Green Monkey, Penn.)
Fur greenish-olive above ; dirty white below ; head pyramidal ;
face black ; cheeks furnished with long hairs ; scrotum of a cop-
per-geen colour, surrounded with yellow hairs ; end of the tail
yellow. About 16 inches long. Inhabits Senegal and the Cape
de Verd Islands. — Audeb. iv. § 2, pi. 4.

This is one of the species most frequently imported into Europe. In captivity
they display a considerable portion of malice and intelligence. Adanson found them
in immense numbers in Senegal. Though in large troops upon the trees, he did not
at first notice them, until his attention was roused by their flinging branches of trees
toward him. They were not at all frightened by the discharge of fire arms, and pre-
served the most profound silence even when they were wounded. The individual of
which M. F. Cuvier gives a figure was remarkably gentle. He was fond of being
handled by those whom he knew, and expressed his satisfaction by a gentle grunt.

C. griseo-viridis, Desm. The Grivet. Fur of greenish-gray j scro-
tum copper-green, with the surrounding hairs white ; head py-
ramidal ; tail entirely gray.

C. pygerythrceus, F. Cuv. Fur of a greenish-gray colour above ;
white below ; scrotum verdigris green, surrounded with white
hairs ; hair round the anus deep red ; termination of the tail
black — Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.

C.fuliginosus, Desm. (Simia JEthiops, Lin.) The Mangabey. Fur

48 MAMMALIA. QUADRUMANA.

of a brown slate-gray colour, without spots on the head and neck ;
upper eyelids white.

About 21 inches long. Inhabits Ethiopia according to Hasselquist, and Mada-
gascar according to Buffon — Shatv, i. pi. 20.

C. JElhiops, Desm. (Simla JEthlops, Lin.) The Collared Mangabey.
Fur of a brown wine-colour ; upper eyelids white ; a white band
separating the eyes, and proceeding on each side to the top of the
neck. About a foot and a half high — Audeb. Fam. iv. § 2.
pi. 10.

N C. Atys, Geoff. (Simla Atys, Aud.) Fur entirely white ; hands,
face, and ears flesh-coloured.
This is conjectured by some naturalists to be only an accidental variety of some

other species, like the Albinos among the negroes. About 17 inches in length.

Country unknown.

Gen. 7. MACAcns,Lacep. Pithecus, Geoff. Cuv. Simia, Lin. &c.

Incisors f , canines ^-y, molars J-f = 32. Canine teeth very
strong, above all in the males ; the first and second molars
have two tubercles on their crown ; the three others have
four, with the exception of the last of the lower jaw, which
has five, and which is terminated by a heel ; facial angle
40° to 45°; superciliary ridges much developed; muzzle broad
and projecting ; eyes approaching ; nostrils oblique ; ears
naked, close to the head, angular ; cheek-pouches ; lips thin
and extensible ; callosities on the buttocks.

Inhabits Africa and India, living in troops, and often doing great damage to the
gardens and cultivated fields.

Sub-Gen. 1 MACACUS, properly so called — Tail more or less long.

M. silenus, Desm. (Simla silenus et leonina, Gm.) The Ounderou.
Fur black ,• a mane and large gray beard ; tail of medium length,
terminated by a tuft of hair — About two feet high. Inhabits
Ceylon. — Shaw, i. pi. 16.

M. Sinlcus, Desm. (Simla Sinlcus, Lin.) Fur chestnut-brown ; hair
of the head diverging from the centre to the circumference, and
disposed in the form of a cap. Inhabits Bengal, East Indies.—
Shaw, i. pi. 20.

M. radlatus, Desm. Fur greenish-brown above ; clear ash-coloured
below ; hair on the top of the head diverging, and dispersed in
the form of a cap. Inhabits India — Ann. de Mus. xix. p. 98.

M. cynomolgus, Desm. (Simla cynomolgus, Lin.) Hare-lipped
Monkey. Fur greenish brown or olive above, grayish white be-
low ; edges of the orbits projecting in the male ; a tuft of hair
in the middle of the forehead in the female. One foot eight in-
ches long. Inhabits Africa.— Shaw, i. pi. 16.

M. rhesus, Desm. Pig-tailed Baboon. Upper part of the body of
a greenish gray ; tail short and wrinkled at its base ; buttocks

CYNOCEPHALUS. MAMMALIA. 49

of a golden yellow ; extremities grayish. About a foot long.
Inhabits forests on the banks of the Ganges.— Shaw, i. pi. 25.

M. nemestrinus, (Simia nemestrina, Lin.) Brown Baboon. Colour
deep brown above, middle of the head and dorsal band black ;
tail short and slender, only reaching to the middle of the thigh ;
head and extremities yellowish. Larger than the last. Inhabits
Java and Sumatra — Shaw, i. pi. 13.

Sub.-Gen. 2. MAGOT. — Tail replaced by a simple tubercle.

JM. inuus, (Simia inuus, S. silvanus, Lin. the young.) The Pigmy
Ape. Fur of a greenish gray ; a cutaneous appendage in place
of a tail. Inhabits Barbary, Egypt, and the rocks in the neigh-
bourhood of Gibraltar. — Shaw, i. pi. J, 8,

Gen. 8. CYNOCEPHALUS, Cuv. — Simia, Liu. &c.—
Papio, Bris. &c.

Incisors £, canines £-£, molars f~f , = 32. Canine teeth very
strong ; left molar of the under jaw on each side with a heel ;
head and muzzle much elongated ; nostrils placed at the ex-
tremity, like the dog ; facial angle 30° 35° ; superciliary,
sagittal, and occipital ridges much developed ; orbit hollow ;
maxillary bone much produced ; face wrinkled with longitu-
dinal striae ; ears flat and angular ; cheek-pouches ; mem-
bers of nearly equal length, and very robust ; large callosities.

The Cynocephala arrive at considerable magnitude, and their proportions indi-
cate vigour and agility. Ferocity, though not unmingled with intelligence, is a
marked trait in their character. They are in confinement observed to pass in a few
moments, and without any apparent cause, from affection to menace, from indifference
to rage, and some of them have been known to expire from the consequences of their
fury. Their cunning and promptitude in laying waste a plantation are so great,
that the utmost vigilance is scarcely sufficient to prevent their devastations. When
they eat, they commence by filling their cheek-pouches, and they drink by suction.
They are comparatively docile when young, and may be taught little exercises and
tricks ; but in maturity they refuse obedience, and resume their natural ferocity*

Sub.-Gen. 1. BABOONS.— Tail longer or nearly as long as the body.

C. babouin, Desm. (Simla cynocephalus, Lin.) Little Baboon. Fur
of a yellowish green ; face the colour of raw flesh ; cartilage of
the nostrils not passing the bone of the upper jaw. Upwards of
two feet long. Probably the Cynocephalus of the ancients.— In-
habits Southern Africa.

C. papio, Desm. Guinea Baboon. Fur of a yellowish brown ; face
entirely black ; cartilage of the nostrils surpassing the jaws at
their superior extremity; upper eyelids white. Inhabits the
Coast of Guinea — Audeb. iii. § 1, fig i.

C. porcarius, Desm. (Simia porcaria, Lin.) Pig-faced Baboon.
Fur of a blackish green above j a mane of long hair on the neck ;
face of a blackish violet ; upper eyelids white. Female without
a mane. — Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.
VOL. i. D

50 MAMMALIA, QUADRUMANA.

C. hamadryas, Desm. (Simla hamadryas, Lin.) Dog-faced Ba-
, boon. Fur ash-coloured ; mane and beard very long ; face flesh-
coloured ; hands black. Inhabits the environs of Moca on the
Persian Gulf.— -Shaw, i. pi. 15.

Sub.-Gen. 2. MANDRILLS — With a very short and slender tail per-
pendicular to the dorsal spine.

C. mormon, Desm. (Simia maimon, Lin.) The Mandril or Varie-
gated Baboon. Fur grayish brown or olive above, white below ;
If beard yellow ; face blue in the adult ; nose red in the male.

This is among the largest of apes, since it attains sometimes the height of five
feet when on its hind legs. Young males and females have the muzzle shorter,
and of a uniform blue. The nose of the males does not become red till their ca-
nine teeth are fully developed, when the wrinkles of their face begin to appear. From
the Gold Coast and Guinea in Africa. — Shaw, i. pi. 10.

C. leucophceus, Desm. (Simia leucophcea, Fred. Cuv.) Fur grayish
r\ brown, greenish above, white below ; face of both sexes at all
ages of a deep uniform black. About three feet in length.

The three following species, viz. The wood Baboon, Penn. Simia sylvicola, Shaw ;
the yellow Baboon, Penn. S. siiblutea, Shaw ; and the Cinereous Baboon. Penn.
S. cinerea, Shaw ; together with the S. apedia of Linnseus, seem in M. Desmarest's
opinion to have great affinity with the preceding, and perhaps to hare been establish-
ed from ill -preserved species.

C. Niger, Desm. Fur black ; hair woolly, except that on the top
of the head, which is lank, and forms a tuft on the occiput ; no
tail ? — From the Indian Archipelago.

2d TRIBE.— APES OF THE NEW CONTINENT.
(Simice Platyrrhini, Geoff.)

Six molars on each side of both jaws, with blunt tubercles, or
five only with sharp tubercles. Partition of the nostrils
broad ; nostrils opening on the sides of the nose ; tail al-
ways long, often prehensile ; buttocks hairy, never with cal-
losities ; no cheek-pouches ; head generally rounded.

They live in troops as the other apes, feeding on fruits, roots, and sometimes in-
sects : but are less turbulent and lascivious than those of the Old Continent. They
inhabit South America from Mexico to Paraguay, particularly the wooded and well-
watered districts situated to the east of the chain of the Andes, Guiana, Brazil,
Para, a part of Peru, &c.

1st Division. SAPAJOUS. — Tail Jong and prehensile.
Gen. 9. ATELES, Geoff. Cuv. — Simia, Lin.

Incisors |, canines J-J, molars f-§, = 36. Canines little pro-
jecting, crossing one another, conical ; molars with blunt
crowns as those of man ; head round ; face perpendicular ;
facial angle about 60° ; ears bordered. Extremities very Ion
and slender ; the anterior ones generally tetradactyle ; thum
none, or only replaced by a wart, or extremely short, and arm-
ed with a little sharp nail ; posterior pentadactyle ; nail con-

ATELES. MAMMALIA. 51

vex and shott ; tail extremely long, strongly prehensile, hav-
ing a part without hair, and covered with a delicate skin
towards its extremity.

These apes are slow in their movements, and live in monogamy, bringing forth
only one young at a time.

* With a very little nailed thumb on the hands, or a rudimentary
thumb without a nail.

A. kypoxanthus, Kuhl, Desm. Fur yellowish gray ; face flesh-
coloured, spotted with gray ; base of the tail and anal region
sometimes of a ferruginous yellow ; a little strong and short
thumb with a nail on the hands. About two feet long, and the
tail nearly the length of the body. — Inhabits Brazil.

A. subpentadactylus, Geoff. Fur entirely black ; a very little
thumb without a nail on the anterior hands. About a foot and a
half long; tail much longer than the body — Inhabits Guiana.

** No trace of thumb on the anterior hands.

A. pani&cus, Geoff. (Simiapanisca,Lin.) The Coaita. Fur entire-
ly black ; no thumb on the anterior hands. Inhabits Guiana,
Brazil, &c Shaw, i. pi. 28.

Var. A. Orbit projecting above ; partition of the nostrils narrow ; all the head
naked except a few hairs on the middle of the forehead. — From Surinam.

Var. B. Obritary partition little projecting, nostrils widely separated, face black,
head furnished with hair — Cayenne.

In this species the prehensile tail is nearly a foot longer than the body of the ani-
mal, and nearly answers all the purposes of a hand. The prehensile part of the tail
is naked, and has a covering of very delicate skin. In all its movements the animal
entwines this tail round the objects near it, draws things towards him too remote to
be reached by his hands, and suspends himself by the same organ from the branches
of trees.

A. bchebuth, Geoff. The Marimonda. Fur black ; belly of a
dirty white or yellow in the males, white in the young and fe-
males. About 16 inches in length. Inhabits the banks of the
Orinoco, living in troops — Ann. Mus. vii. pi. 16.

A. marginatus, Geoff. The Chuva. Fur black ; a white ruff
around the face. About 16 inches in length. In the adult male
the ruff of hair yellowish ; white in the females. Common on
the banks of the rivers Santiago, and Amazons.— Ann. Mus. xvii.
pi. 9.

A. arachnoides, Geoff. The Spider Monkey. Fur of a gray fawn-
colour, very soft ; eyebrows long and black -9 no thumb on the
anterior hands. Inhabits Brazil.-— Ann. Mus. xiii. pi. 9.

A. melanochir, Desm. Fur gray ; top of the head, extremities of
the four members, and an oblique spot on each knee of a brown
black or gray colour. About 13 inches long.

Gen. 10. LAGOTHRIX, Geoff. Humb.
Incisors f , canines }-}, molars |-f , = 36. Head rounded ;

52 MAMMALIA. QUADRUMANA.

ears very small ; facial angle about 50° ; muzzle projecting ;
extremities proportioned to the body ; all the hands with five
fingers provided with nails ; tail long, strongly prehensile,
naked and callous below near its extremity ; hyoid bone lit-
tle apparent externally ; hair soft and woolly.

L. Humboldtii, Geoff. (The Capparo.) Fur of a blackish ash-colour;

hair long. Body upwards of two feet long ; tail a little longer

than the body.

Of a gentle nature, frequently standing upon its hind feet— Inhabits tire banks of
the Rio Guaviara, South America.

L. canus, Geoff. Silver-haired Monkey. Fur olive gray ; head,
hands, and tail of a red gray ; hair short — Inhabits Brazil.

Gen. 11. MYCETES, Illiger. — Stentor, Geoff. — Aluata^ Lacep.
— Cebus, Erxleb. — Simia, Lin. Schreb. &c.

Incisors f , canines £-J, molars f-§, = 36. Canines well de-
veloped, triquetrous ; head pyramidal ; countenance oblique ;
facial angle 30°. Hyoid bone ventricose, apparent externally
and cavernous. Four extremities pentadactyle ; tail very
long, strongly prehensile, naked under its extremity ; nails
convex and short.

Savage apes, living in numerous troops, and making the forests resound with their
cries particularly at the rising and setting of the sun. They use their tail as an
instrument of prehension.— Found from Paraguay to Guiana.

M. seniculus t Desm. (Simia seniculus, Lin.) Red Howling Monkey.
Upper part of the body of a fine red ; head, extremities, and tail
of a deep lively red ; face naked and black. Body upwards of
two feet long ; tail nearly as long as the body. Inhabits French
Guiana, &tc.—Audeb. v. fig. 1.

M. ur sinus, Desm. The Araguato, Humb. Fur of a uniform
golden red; face in part covered with hairs. Form and size of the
preceding. Inhabits South America. — Humb. Obs. ZooL fig. 30.

M. stramineus, Desm. The Arabata. Fur of a straw yellow, the
hairs being of this colour at their point, and brown at their base.
A little less than the preceding — Inhabits South America.

M. fuscus, Desm. (Simia behebuth, Lin.) The Guariba. Fur
chesnut brown back and head, inclining to chesnut ; the extremi-
ties of the hairs golden colour. A little larger than the seniculus.
A solitary and savage species, inhabiting the most retired deserts.
Brazil.— Bttjf. Suppl vii. t. 26.

M. flavicaudaius, Desm. The Choro. Fur blackish brown, of a
darker tint on the back ; tail ornamented on both sides with two
yellow stripes.
A little smaller than the M. seniculus. Lives in troops, and is hunted for its skin,

which is employed to cover the saddles of the mules on which they travel on the

Cordilleras. Inhabits the province of Jaen in New Grenada, and the banks of thg

river Amazons.

CEBUS. MAMMALIA. 53

M. niger, Desm. Araay of Azara. Fur of a very fine black in the
male ; sides and under part of the body fawn-coloured in the fe-
male and young. About one foot nine inches long ; tail the length
of the body.

Lives in forests, feeding on leaves and fruits, and making itself be heard at break
of day by a strong rough voice, which has been compared to the sound of a number
of carriages not greased. — Inhabits Paraguay, Bahia, and the interior of Brazil.

M. rujiinanus, Desm. The Red-handed Howler. Fur black ; hands
red ; tail the length of the body.

Gen. J 2. CEBITS, Erxleb. — Calliihrix, Geoff. Cuv. 11%. — Simia,

Lin. &c.

Incisors J, canines i-|, molars f-g, = 36. Superior incisors
larger than the inferior ; canines more or less strong, those
of the males being much more so than the females ; head
round ; muzzle short ; forehead a little prominent ; occiput
projecting behind ; facial angle about 60° ; ears rounded ;
hyoid bone not projecting ; tail prehensile, but entirely cover-
ed with hair.

Lives in society in forests, but never quits the trees, feeding on fruits and insects.
Inhabits South America from the Guianas to Paraguay. M. Desmarest remarks of
this genus that the species are difficult to be characterized. The exterior form is
nearly the same in all, and preceding authors vary much in the number of those
which they admit into their methods. Brisson describes three ; Linnaus four ;
Gmelin six ; Buffon two ; and Baron Cuvier reduces them to one. In these circum-
stances, M. Desmarest thinks it safer to consider as distinct species all those which
have been regarded as such by authors, with the exception of two of Gmelin's. From
the researches of Dr Kuhl in the museums of Germany, Holland, and Paris, he is
led to think that if all are not separate species they form at least very constant varieties.

C. robustus, Desm. Fur brown ; a black line above the head and
neck and surrounding the face ; arms of a bright yellow ; fore
part of the neck and belly of a reddish chestnut in the male, and
of a brown pale yellow in the female and young. About 20 in-
ches in length. — Common in Brazil.

C. apella, Desm. (Simia apella, Lin.) The Weeper. Fur of a
pretty deep brown above, fainter below ; top of the head, tail,
and feet of a blackish-brown ; face brown, surrounded with hairs
of a blackish brown colour ; external side of the arms and under
side of the neck of a yellowish brown. About 18 inches in
length. Found in French Guiana — Schreb. t. 28.

C.griseus, Desm. (Cebus barbatus, Geoff,) The Gray Sajou. Fur
of a brown fawn-colour, mixed with grayish above ; of a clear
fawn-colour below; head capped with black; no beard; arms
the colour of the back ; face surrounded with hair of a blackish
brown ; sometimes white under the neck and breast. Size of
the preceding. Country unknown. — Buff. xv. t. 5.

C. barbatus, Desm. (Cebus albus, Geoff.) The bearded Sapajou.
Fur grayish red, varying to gray and white, according to the age
and sex ; belly red ; beard prolonged on the cheeks ; hair long
and soft. Size of the preceding. — Ann. Mus, xix. fig. 12.

54 MAMMALIA. QUADRUMANA.

Var. A. Fur white, with the summit of the head and the hind legs of a pale red-
dish gray.

Var B. Fur fine, undulated hair of a dirty yellowish uniform white, and colour
a little deeper in the feet and tail.— Inhabits Guiana.

C.frontatus, Desm. Kuhl. (Simla trepida, Lin.) The Fearful Mon-
key. Of an almost uniform black brown colour, with the top of
the head and the extremities of the members of a deeper shade;
hair of the forehead raised perpendicularly,, very erect ; scatter-
ed white hairs around the mouth and on the anterior hands.
About 15 inches long. — Country unknown,

C. niger, Desm. Geoff. The black Sapajou. Fur deep brown ;
face, hands, and tail black ; forehead and posterior part of the
cheeks covered with yellowish hair.

M. Humboldt unites this species with that of the brown Sapajou. Country un-
known.— Buff. Suppl. vii. t. 28.

C. variegatus, Desm. Geoff. The Variegated Sapajou. Fur black-
ish, spotted with golden yellow, belly reddish ; hair of the back
of three colours, the roots brown, then red, and the apex black ;
head round ; snout projecting ; interocular region of a blackish
brown. About 15 inches in length — Country unknown.

C.fulvus. Desm. (Cebus Jlamis, Geoff. Simla flava, Schreb.) The
Yellow Sapajou. Fur entirely fawn-coloured ; hair silky and
erect, not waved. Inhabits Brazil — Schreb. t. 31, B.

C. albifrons, Desm. Geoff. White-fronted Sapajou. Fur gray,
brighter on the belly ; summit of the head black ; forehead and
orbits white ; extremities of a yellowish brown. About 14 inches
long. — Inhabits the banks of the Orinoco.

C. lunatus, Desm. Kuhl. The Spectacle Sapajou. A cross white
band upon each cheek, reaching from the eyebrows to the mouth.
About the size of the apella.

C. xanthosternos, Desm. Kuhl. The yellow-breasted Sapajou. Fur
chestnut-coloured ; under the neck and breast of a clear reddish
yellow. — Inhabits Brazil.

C. fatuellus, Desm. (Simia fatuellus, Lin.) The Horned Sapajou.
Fur on the back chestnut coloured ; bright red under the belly ;
extremities and tail of a brown black ; two strong tufts of hair
rising from the forehead. About 14 inches long. Inhabits Guiana.
—Shaw, i. pi. 28.

C. cirrifer, Geoff. Desm. The Crowned Sapajou. Fur chestnut
brown ; vertex, extremities, and tail of a chestnut colour, verging
to black ; a tuft of elevated hair of a horse shoe form on the top
of the head; head round. About 16 inches long. — Inhabits
Brazil.

C. capucinus, Desm. (Simia capucina, Lin.) Capuchin Monkey.
Fur varying from brown gray to olive gray ; crown of the head
and extremities black ; forehead, cheeks, and shoulders of a whit-

CALLITHRIX. MAMMALIA. 55

ish gray. Upwards of a foot long ; tail longer than the body. In-
habits Guiana. — Buff. xv. t. 8.

C. hypoleucus, Desm. (Simia hypoleuca, Humb.) The white-throat-
ed Sapajou. Fur black ; forehead, sides of the head,, throat, and
shoulders white. About a foot long ; tail longer than the body.
Inhabits Guiaiia.-^-Bn. xv. t. 9.

2d DIVISION. SAGOINS. — Tail long, not prehensile.

Gen. 13. CALLITHRIX, Cuv. Geoff. — Simia, Lin. — Cebus,
Erxl. — Saguinus, Lacep.

Incisors f , canines {—{, molars §-f , — 36. Canines of medium
size ; inferior incisors vertical and contiguous to the canines ;
head small, rounded ; muzzle short ; facial angle 60° ; parti-
tion of the nostrils not so broad as the row of the upper in-
cisors ; ears very large and deformed ; tail a little longer than
the body, not prehensile, and covered with short hair ; body
rather slender.

C. scitireus, Desm. (Simla sciurea, Lin.) The Squirrel Monkey.
Fur olive gray ; muzzle blackish ; arms and legs of a bright red.
Nearly a foot long. Inhabits Brazil, Cayenne, &c. — Shaw, i. pi, 25.

Var. A. Back of one colour.

Var. B. Variegated with bright red and black, and larger in size.

C. personatus, Desm. Geoff. The Masked Monkey. Fur gray
fawn-coloured j head and fore hands blackish ; tail red,— -Inha-
bits Brazil.

C. lugens, Desm. Geoff. (Simla lugens, Humb.) Fur blackish ;
throat and anterior hands white ; tail scarcely longer than the body.
About a foot long — South America.

C. amictus, Desm. Geoff. (Simia amicta, Humb.) The Ruffed Sa-
goin. Fur blackish brown ; a half collar of white : hands of
the anterior extremities of a pale yellow ; tail longer by a fourth
than the body. Almost double the size of the sciureus. — Inha-
bits South America.

C. torquatus, Desm. Geoff. The Collared Monkey. Fur chestnut
brown, yellow below ; a half collar of white ; tail a little longer
than the body. — Inhabits Brazil.

C, moloch, Desm. Geoff. Fur ash-coloured, with annulated hairs
above ; temples, cheeks, and belly of lively red ; end of the tail
and hands of a clear gray, almost white j tail almost a half longer
than the body. Size almost double that of the sciureus. Inha-
bits Peru.

C. melanochir, Desm. Kuhl. The Black-handed Sagoin. Fur ash-
coloured ; posterior part of the back and extremity of the tail
of a reddish brown ; anterior hands fuliginous. — Inhabits Brazil.

C. iiifulatiis, Desm, (Callithrix infulata, Kuhl.) Mitred Sagoin.

56 MAMMALIA. QUADRUMANA.

Fur gray above ; reddish yellow below ; with a large white spot
surrounded with black above the eyes ; origin of the tail of a
reddish yellow colour,, its extremity black.— -Inhabits Brazil.

Gen. 14. AOTUS, Humb. Geoff. Illig.

Dental formula same as last genus ; head round and very large ;
muzzle short ; eyes very large and approaching ; nostrils se-
parated by a very thin partition ; ears small ; tail as long as
the body, not prehensile, and covered with hair ; hands pen-
tadactyle, nails flat.

A. trivirgatus, Geoff. Humb. The Douroucouli. Fur ash-colour-
ed ; belly of a reddish yellow ; with three brown and parallel
lines extending from the forehead to the occiput. About nine
inches long ; tail longer than the body. — Griff. Quad. t. 14.
Inhabits thick forests near Maypura and Esmeralda in South America. It lives

solitary upon trees, passes the day in sleeping, and seeks its food during the night.

It feeds on insects, which it catches with much address, little birds, and fruits. It

is monogamous.

Gen. 15. PITHECIA, Desm. Cuv. Geoff. — Simla, Lin.

Incisors f , canines J-J, molars f-f , = 36. Incisors approach-
ing, the upper ones oblique and the broadest; canines strong,
triquetrous ; partition of the nostrils broader than the row of
the upper incisors ; head round, muzzle short ; facial angle
about 60° ; ears rounded ; tail a little longer than the body,
not prehensile, and furnished with long hair ; feet pentadac-
tyle ; nails short and armed.

These are nocturnal animals living upon trees, which they seldom quit, and which
furnish them with fruits and insects, their habitual food. Inhabit Brazil, the GUI-
anas, and Paraguay.

P. Satanas, Geoff. Desm. (Cebiis Satanas, Hoffm.) The Couxio.
Fur of a brown black in the male ; of a reddish brown in the fe-
male; thick locks covering all the head and falling upon the fore-
head; a well furnished beard; tail nearly the length of the body.
About 16 inches long.— Inhabits the banks of the Orinoco. — Humb.
Obs. t. 27-

P. chiropotes, Desm. Geoff. Fur reddish chestnut; hair of the head
thick,, separated in the middle, and rising in two distinct tufts
on each side of the head ; a long and bushy beard. Size of the
preceding. — Inhabits the deserts of the Upper Orinoco. Habit
solitary. It drinks in the hollow of its hand, from whence the
specific name chiropotes given by Humboldt.

P. ntfiventer, Desm. (Simia pithecia, Lin.) Fox Tailed Monkey.
Fur reddish brown ; belly red ; the hair brown at its origin, and
annulated towards the end with red and brown : locks radiating
from the vertex, and falling upon the forehead ; no beard ; tail
nearly the length of the body. Size of the preceding. Inhabits
French Guiana — Sharv, i. t. 25.

3

JACCHUS. . MAMMALIA. 57

P. miriquoina, Geoff. Desm. (Miriquoina Azara.) Pur gray brown
above; cinnamon-coloured below; hair of the back annulated, first
with white, with black in the middle, and white at the point;
two white spots above the eyes; no beard; tail a little longer than
the body. Body about 14 inches in length.— Inhabits S. America.

P. rufibarba, Desm. Kuhl. The red-headed Saki. Body of a
brown black above ; below of a pale red ; pale red above the eyes ;
tail pointed at the end — Inhabits Surinam.

P. ochrocephala, Desm. Kuhl. Yellow-headed Saki. Fur of a clear
chestnut colour above ; red ash-coloured yellowish below ; hands
and feet of a brown black ; hair of the forehead and around the face
of an ochre yellow. About ten inches long — Inhabits Cayenne.

P. monachus, Desm. Geoff. The Monk. Fur variegated with large
spots of brown and dirty yellowish white ; hair chiefly brown at
its origin, and red and golden towards its extremity ; hair of the
head radiating from the occiput and ending at the vertex ; tail
nearly the length of the body ; no beard. A little smaller than
P. rufivcnter. Inhabits Brazil — Buff. Supp. vii. t. 30.

P. leucocephala, Desm. Geoff. (Simla pit hecia, Lin.) The Yarke.
Fur black, around the head of a dirty white ; each hair of one
colour ; tail nearly the length of the body ; no beard. Body about
ten inches long. Inhabits Guiana; rare — Audeb. vi. §. i. f. 2.

P. melanocephala, Desm. (Simia melanocephala, Humb.) The
Cacajao. Fur yellowish brown ; head black ; no beard ; tail a
sixth shorter than the body. Body about a foot and a half long.
Inhabits the banks of the rivers Cassiquiana and Rio Negro in
S. America Humb. Obs. Zool. t. 29.

Gen. 16. JACCHUS, Des. Geoff. — Saguinu*, Cuv. — Simia, Lin.

Incisors f , canines ^-^, molars |-§, = 36. Incisors and ca-
nines variable in their dimensions ; molars with a crown fur-
nished with sharp tubercles ; head round ; muzzle short ; oc-
ciput prominent ; tail longer than the body, soft, and entirely
covered with hair ; feet pentadactyle ; thumb of the anterior
hands not opposable; nails very long, compressed, arched
and pointed.

These animals, always of small size (nearly that of a squirrel,) are of a gentle na-
ture, and their habits are similar to those of the other American apes. They are
easily tamed. Inhabit chiefly Brazil and the Guianas.

Sub-Gen. 1. OUISTITI, Jacchus, Geoff.— Intermediate incisors of
the upper Jan) broader than the lateral ones; these last isolated on
each side ; lower incisors elongated, narrow, vertical, the lateral
ones longest, upper canines conical, and of medium length, the two
inferior ones very small.

* With annulated tail.
J. vulgaris, Desm. Geoff. (Simia Jacchus, Lin.) Striated Monkey.

58 MAMMALIA. QUADHUMANA.

Fur ash- colour ed ; croup and tail annulated with gray brown
and ash-colour; a white spot on the forehead; very long ash-
coloured hair before and behind the ears ; remainder of the head
and shoulders brown red. Body six inches long. — Shaw, i. pi. 25.

Var. A. Fur red ; croup annulated with red and ash-colour. — Inhabits Brazil.

J. penicillatus, Geoff. Desm. The tufted Jacchus. Fur ash-colour-
ed ; croup and tail annulated with brown and ash-colour ; a
white spot on the forehead ; a tuft of long black hairs before the
ears; head and top of the neck black. About the size of the pre-
ceding; but the head smaller and more rounded — -Inhabits Brazil.

J. leucocephalus, Geoff. Desm. The white-headed Jacchus. Fur
red ; head and chest white ; upper part of the neck black ; tail
annulated with brown and ash-colour ; very long hair before and
behind the ears. Size of the two preceding — Inhabits Brazil.

J. auritus, Geoff. Desm. The great-eared Jacchus. Fur black
mixed with brown ; tail annulated with blackish and ash-colour ;
a white spot on the forehead ; a tuft of very long white hairs co-
vering the interior of the ears. Size of the preceding.

J. humeralifer, Geoff. Desm. The white-shouldered Jacchus. Fur
chestnut brown ; tail slightly annulated with ash-colour ; shoul-
ders,, breast, and arms white — Inhabits Brazil.

Some naturalists regard the five last named as only varieties.

** With tail not annulated.

J. melanurns, Geoff. Desm. The black-tailed Jacchus. Fur brown
above, fawn-coloured below ; tail of a uniform black,, and a
fourth longer than the body. — Inhabits Brazil.

J. argentatus, Geoff. Desm. (Simia argentata, Lin.). The fair
monkey. Fur white ; face, feet, and hands red ; tail black or
white, but almost double the length of the body — Inhabits Para
in South America. — Shaw, i. pi. 26.

Sub.-Gen. 2. TAMARIN, Midas, Geoff. — Four upper incisors con-
tiguous, the intermediate being broader than the lateral ones ;
four lower incisors inclined, contiguous ; canines conical, pretty
strong, and inclining oulwards ; ears large ; forehead rendered
very apparent by the projection of the orbital ridge.

J. rufimanus, Desm. (Simia Midas, Lin.) Fur black ; croup va-
riegated with gray ; hands and feet of a red colour ; body seven
or eight inches long. Inhabits Guiana, &c. — Shan), i. pi. 26.

J. ursulus, Desm. (Midas ursulus, Geoff.) Fur black ; back un-
dulated with bright red ; hands black. Size of the preceding.
Inhabits Para in South America. — Audeb. vi. § 2, fig. 6.

J. labiatus, Desm. (Midas labiatus, Geoff.) Fur blackish ; ferru-
ginous red below ; head black ; nose and margins of the lips
white. — Inhabits Brazil.

J. chrysomelas, Desm. Kuhl. Fur black ; forehead and upper side

INDRIS. MAMMALIA. 59

of the tail of a golden yellow ; fore-arms, knees, breast, and sides
of the head of a red chestnut — Inhabits forests in Brazil.

J. albifrons. Fur black, slightly variegated with white; face black;
tail a little longer than the body, — Act. Stockholm. 1819.

J. rosalia, Desm. (Midas rosalia, Geoff. Simia rosalia, Lin.) Fur
golden red ; a long mane. About nine inches long. Inhabits
Guiana and Brazil. — Shaw, i. pi. 25.
Var. A. Fur varied with red and blackish. Guiana.
Var. B. Fur of a bright red ; tail of the same colour, Brazil.

J. leoninus, Desm. (Simia Iconina, Lin.) Fur brown olive ; a long
mane of the same colour ; face black ; mouth white ; tail black-
ish above, brown below ; body seven or eight inches long ; tail
about the length of the body — Humb. Zool. Obs. t. 5.
A very lively animal, very irascible, and emitting a whistling sound like birds.

Inhabits the warmer regions of South America.

J. (Edipus, Desm. (Simia (Edipus, Lin.) Fur of a brown fawn-
colour above, white below, with locks of long bristly white hair ;
tail red in its first part, and black in the other ; about nine inches
long ; tail nearly double the length of the body. — Inhabits South
America. — Bujf\ xv.tt. 17«

FAMILY II.— LEMURES.

General form approaching to the quadrupeds, properly so called;
incisors varying in both jaws in number, form, and situa-
tion ; nostrils at the extremity of the muzzle ; posterior ex-
tremities longer than the anterior ; first finger of the hind
feet after the thumb terminated by a sharp turned up nail ;
two or four pectoral mammae ; tail, when it exists, not pre-
hensile.

The Lemurs may be considered as the link between the Quadrumana and the ge-
nuine quadrupeds. These animals being for the most part nocturnal, Linnaeus, in
reference to the Roman mythology, called them Lemurs or ghosts.

Gen. 17. INDRIS, Lacep. Cuv. Geoff. Desm. — Lemur, Gmel.
— Lichanotus, Illig.

Incisors J, canines ]-y, molars f-f , =. 32. Superior incisors
united by pairs ; the external inferior ones broadest ; molars
with a tuberculous crown ; two pectoral mammae ; head long,
triangular ; posterior members pretty long ; the second toe of
the hind feet subulate ; tail sometimes very short, sometimes
very long ; fur woolly.

I. brevicaudatus, Desm. Geoff. (Lemur indri, Lin.) Fur black-
ish ; tail very short. About three feet long — Shaw, i. pi. 32.
Its voice resembles that of a child crying. It is trained to hunting by the natives

of the south part of Madagascar.

I. longicaudatus, Geoff. Desm. (Lemur laniger, Gm.) Fur fawn-

60 MAMMALIA. QUADKUMANA.

coloured ; tail very long. About a foot long. Inhabits Mada-
gascar —Shaw, i. pi. 34.

Gen. 18. LEMUR, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. Desm.< — Prosimia, Bris.

Incisors |, canines i-{, molars f-£, — 32. Superior incisors
united in pairs, inferior inclined, long ; superior canines long,
compressed, crossing the inferior ones before ; inferior canines,
or first molars compressed, triangular ; molars with blunt tu-
berculous crown ; two pectoral mammae ; head long and tri-
angular ; muzzle slender ; ears short, rounded ; the fourth
toe of the feet largest ; tail longer than the body, covered
with hair, not prehensile ; hair soft and woolly.

They live in troops more or less numerous, like the apes, upon trees, and climb
with excessive quickness. Feed on vegetable substances, fruits, and roots.

L. macaco, Lin. Geoff. &c. Ruffed Lemur. Fur variegated with
large patches of black and white ; tail all black ; hair of the
cheeks very long. About 20 inches long — Schreb. t. 49.
Var. A. Black colour replaced by a brown gray. — Inhabits Madagascar.

L. ruber, Peron, Geoff. Cuv. Black and Red Lemur. Fur of a fine
reddish chestnut colour ; head, hands, abdomen, and tail black ;
a white spot on the neck. About 16 inches long. Madagascar.
—Griff. Quad. t. 33.

L. catta, Lin. Ring-tailed Lemur. Fur reddish ash-coloured above,
ash-coloured on the limbs, white below j tail annulated with black.
About a foot long. Madagascar. — *Sharv, i. pi. 35.

L. niger, Geoff. Desm. Black Lemur. Fur entirely black ; long
hair on the neck. Size of the domestic cat. Inhabits Madagas-
car.—Edw. Glean, iii. pi. 217-

L. mongoz, Lin. Geoff. Desm. The Mongooz. Fur yellowish gray
above, white below ; around the eyes and forehead black. About
17 inches long. Inhabits Madagascar. — Shaw, i. pi. 33.
The Mongous pass a considerable portion of the day in sleep, rolled up in a ball,
having their large tail passed between their hind-)egs, and twined round their neck.
Like the other Lemurs they are essentially formed for climbing trees. They will
leap ten feet from the ground without any apparent effort. They carry their food to
their mouth with the hand, and drink by suction. When tranquil their voice is a
feeble grumbling, but insupportably loud when alarmed.

L.fulvus, Desm. Fur brown above, gray below ; forehead elevated
and prominent. — Inhabits Madagascar.

L. albimanus, Geoff. Desm. White-handed Lemur. Fur gray
brown above ; sides of the neck of a red cinnamon colour ; breast
white, belly reddish, hands and feet white. Body 14 or 15 inches
long.— Inhabits Madagascar.

L. rufus, Desm. Geoff. Red Lemur. Fur of a golden red above,
yellowish white below ; all the head white except the face ; a
black band extending from the face to the occiput. Size of the
preceding — Inhabits Madagascar.

LOHIS. MAMMALIA. 61

L. collaris, Desm. Geoff. Collared Lemur. Fur red brown above,
fawn-coloured below ; a ruff of red hair ; face lead-coloured. A
little larger than the L. catta. — Inhabits Madagascar.

L. albifrons, Geoff. Desm. White-fronted Lemur. Fur of a gray
red above, whitish below ; forehead of the male white ; female
with the same part of a deep gray, and a black longitudinal line
on the top of the head. Size of the L. catta.—- Inhabits Mada-
gascar.

L. nigrifront, Geoff. Desm. Black-fronted Lemur. Fur on the up-
per part ash-coloured before, and grayish red on the posterior
parts ; a black band on the forehead ; abdomen and under side
of the thighs red. Size of the preceding. Inhabits Madagascar.
—Schreb. t. 42.

L. clnereus, Geoff. Desm. Ash-coloured Lemur. Fur above yel-
lowish gray, beneath dirty white ; hair of the tail of a uniform
gray. Inhabits Madagascar — Buff. Sup. vii. t. 84.

Gen. 19. Louis, Geoff. Lacep. Cuv.-— Lemur, Gmelin.—
Stenops, Illig.

Incisors §, canines £-j, molars f-£, = 36. Upper incisors
very small, separated in their middle ; inferior inclined, con-
tiguous, and very small ; molars with sharp pointed crowns ;
head round ; muzzle turned up ; nose prolonged ; eyes very
large, separated by a very thin bony partition ; ears short
and hairy; four pectoral mammse, from two mammary glands ;
no tail ; bones of the arm and leg distinct ; tibia larger than
the femur ; tarsus and metatarsus of equal length.

L. gracilis, Geoff. Desm. Slender Loris. Fur reddish, with a
white spot on the forehead. Body about 7i inches long — Shaw, i.
pi. 31.

A melancholy and patient animal, very slow in its movement, sleeping during the
day, and feeding at night on fruits, eggs, insects, &c. — Inhabits Ceylon.

Gen. 20. NYCTICEBUS, Geoff.— -Lemur, Lin. — Loris, Cuv.

Incisors ^-^, canines J-J, molars f-f = 34 or 36. Inter-
mediate incisors separate ; lateral small or none ; anterior
molars with one point ; those at the bottom with a large
crown, hollow in the centre, and tubercles at the angles ; body
thick ; members robust ; head round ; muzzle short, not turn-
ed up ; eyes very large, approaching, and directed forwards ;
ears short and hairy ; two pectoral mammae ; a very short
tail ; bones of the leg and arm distinct ; tibia longer than
the femur ; tarsus and metatarsus of equal length — Inhabits
Bengal, Ceylon, and Java.

N. Bengalensis, Geoff. Desm. (Lemur tardigrada, Lin.) Slow Le-
mur. Fur red ; a brown dorsal line ; four upper incisors ; tail

62 MAMMALIA. QUADRUMANA.

very short. About a foot in length. Inhabits Bengal.— Shaw, i.

pi. 29.

A nocturnal animal, very slow in its motions, and emitting a monotonous cry.

N. Javanicus, Geoff. Desm. Javanese Loris. Fur red ; with a deep-
er-coloured dorsal line ; muzzle narrow ; only two upper incisors ;
tail short. Size of the preceding — Inhabits Java.

N. Ceylonicus, Desm. Geoff. (Cercopithccus Zeylonicus, Seba.) Cey-
lon Loris. Fur blackish-brown, entirely black upon the back

Inhabits Ceylon.

Gen. 21. GAL AGO, Geoff. Cuv. Lacep.

Incisors — y-^, canines ^-^, molars f-f — 34 or 36. Superior
incisors separated in the middle, and within the canines ; the
inferior ones inclined, the two external being the largest ; mo-
lars with sharp points, the first on each side above and be-
low having but one ; two pectoral mammae ; bead rounded ;
muzzle short ; ears large, membranous, and naked ; eyes very
large, approaching ; posterior members very long ; tail long,
covered with hair, not prehensile.

The Galagos are nocturnal animals, and have much of the manner of monkeys
and squirrels. They are in general gentle, perch constantly on the branches of trees,
where they catch insects with their hands and devour them quickly. They make
their nests in the branches of the trees, and cover a bed with grass and leaves for
their young. With the natives of Senegal they are an article of food.

G. Madagascariensis, Desm. Geoff. {Lemur murmus, Penn.) The
little Galago. Fur red ; ears a half as long as the head ; tail longer
than the body, covered with short hair; four superior incisors,
body about six inches long — Brown, Illus. Zool. pi. 44.

G. crassicaudatus, Desm. Geoff. The great Galago. Fur of a gray-
red ; ears two-thirds of the length of the head ; tail much tuft-
' ed; four upper incisors. About the size of a rabbit — Cuv.
Regne Anim. iv. t. 1.

G. Gumensis, Desm. (Lemur potto, Lin.) Fur red, ash-coloured
when young ; tail of medium length. — Inhabits Guinea.

G. Demidoffii, Geoff. Desm. Fischer. Fur red-brown ; ears not so
long as the head ; tail longer than the body, reddish and tufted.
Size less than the common rat ; only two upper incisors — Sup-
posed from Senegal.

G. Senegalensis, Geoff. Desm. Fur gray-red ; ears as long as the
head ; tail longer than the body, red and tufted ; two upper in-
cisors. Size of the rat.— Inhabits Senegal.

Gen 22. TARSIUS, Cuv. Geoff. — Lemur, Pallas. — Didelphis,

Lin.

Incisors f , canines ^-j, molars f-£ = 34. Superior incisors
contiguous, unequal ; the intermediate ones large ; the infe-
rior small and crowded by the neighbouring teeth ; canines

TARSIUS. MAMMALIA. (53

less strong than the two intermediate incisors above ; ante-
rior molars with one point, the others with a large crown,
deeply hollowed ; head round ; muzzle very short ; eyes ex-
cessively large, contiguous ; ears long, naked, and membran-
ous ; tarsus three times longer than the metatarsus ; tail
very long.

T. spectrum, Geoff. Desm. {Lemur spectrum, Pallas. Woolly Ger-
boa, Penn.) Fur red ; ears a half shorter than the head ; hind
legs larger than the body. Size of the field mouse. Inhabits
Amboyna and East India Islands. — Shaw, i. pi. 35.

T. fuscomanus, Geoff. Fisch. Yellow Bearded Tarsier. Fur of a
clear brown ; gray-white below ; ears two-thirds the length of
the head. A little larger than the preceding.— Madagascar.

T. Bancanus, Horsfield. Fur brown ; ears rounded horizontal,
much shorter than the head ; tail very slender ; no intermediate
incisors in the upper jaw. Inhabits the island of Banca — Hors-
Jield, Zool. Research, fasc. ii.

Gen. 23. CHEIROMYS, Cuv. Geoff. — Lemur, Shaw — Sciurus,

Lin.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars |-| = 18. Incisors very strong,
excessively compressed, corresponding perfectly in both jaws
like the incisors of the gnawers ; molars with a flat crown ;
foot pentadactyle ; anterior members short ; hands with the
thumb short and free, the other fingers very long ; thumb of
the posterior hands short, opposable, and furnished with a
flat nail ; long bushy tail ; two inguinal mammae ; muzzle
short and pointed ; eyes and mouth large.

C. Mfidagascariensis, Desm. (Sciurus Madag. Lin.) The Aye- Aye.
Fur brown, thick ; tail black, formed of large hairs, not disti-
chous, as those of the tails of squirrels. About a foot and a half
long.
A nocturnal animal, living on insects and worms. Inhabits Madagascar. — Shaw, i.

pi. 34.

The genus Chdrogaleus of M. Geoffroy, established from the drawings of Com-

merson, M. Desmarest excludes from his series as not being perfectly ascertained.

It includes three species, major, medins, and minor.

ORDER III.— CHEIROPTERA.

GENERAL form disposed for flight. Incisors variable in num-
ber ; canines more or less strong ; molars sometimes covered
with points, sometimes furrowed longitudinally ; a fold of
skin between the four members and the fingers of the anterior

64 MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.

feet ; two pectoral mammae ; very strong clavicles ; scapulae
large; fore -arms not capable of rotation.

The distinctive character of this order is the membrane extended between their
fore-feet and fingers, which supports them in the air, and permits them to fly when this
membrane is sufficiently developed. This arrangement demands powerful clavicles and
large shoulder-blades to give the parts the requisite solidity ; but it is incompatible
with the rotation of the fore-arms, which in this order are fixed. All of these animals
have four large canine teeth, but the number of the incisors vary. Their pectoral mam-
ma? and male organ of generation connect them with the order Quadrumana, while
the other details of their structure equally approach them to the quadrupeds. The
early writers seem sufficiently puzzled in what class to arrange this singular group.
Aristotle conceived them to be birds with membranous wings ; Pliny notices them
as viviparous birds ; and Aldrovandus made one family of the bat and the ostrich.
The Cheiroptera are nocturnal animals, and feed chiefly on insects and fruits. Their
power of locomotion on the ground is very limited, and consists in dragging them-
selves forward in an awkward manner by the thumbs of their wings. They pass
a greater part of the year in a state of lethargy, fastened to the roofs of caverns by
their hinder feet.

FAMILY I.— GALEOPITHECI.

Fingers of the hands furnished with very crooked nails ; den-
tal system anomalous ; skin of the flanks covered with hair
both above and below.

Gen. 24. GALEOPITHECUS, Geoff. Pall. Desm. — Lemur, Gm.

Incisors |, canines \-\, molars |-| = 36. Upper intermediate
incisors very small ; lateral ones long, compressed, edged,
with a little tubercle on each side at their base. • Inferior
incisors inclined and dentated ; posterior molars rough, with
points and dentations ; muzzle pointed ; ears small, round-
ed ; tail of medium length ; a membrane enveloping the neck,
the extremities, and even the fingers and tail ; fingers of the
hands short ; nails lunated, very slender ; two pectoral mam-
mae ; caecum much developed.

The Galeopitheci are but imperfectly known. They hing suspended by their hind
legs from the branches of trees ; feed on insects, and probably small birds. They
move with difficulty on the ground, but climb trees with surprising facility, and
spring from the one to the other, supported in their flight by the extension of the
membrane around their body. The largest species known is not bigger than a young
cat. The extremities are entirely enveloped in this singular membrane, which ex-
tends even to the nails of the toes. They are nocturnal or crepusculous animals,
and suspend themselves during the day as the bats. They inhabit some of the
islands of the Indian Archipelago.

G. rufus, Geoff. Desm. (Lemur volans. Lin.) Fur red, without
spots. About a foot long. Pelew Islands.-— Audeb. Hist. Galcop.

pi. i.

G. variegatus, Geoff. Desm. Cuv. Fur red-brown, variegated
! above, spotted with white on the extremities. About six inches
long. Supposed by some naturalists to be merely a variety of
the preceding. The Moluccas — Audeb. Galeop. pi. 2.

PTEBOPUS. MAMMALIA. 65

G. TernatensiSj Geotf.^Desm/ Fur of a gray red, deeper above than
below ; tail slightly spotted. Smaller than the preceding. Isle of
Ternate Seba, i. t. 58, fig. 2, 3.

FAMILY II.— VESPERTILIONES.

Fingers of the hands excessively elongated, and supporting very
fine membranes, with the thumb alone separate, but not op-
posable.

This family have their fore-arms and their fingers excessively lengthened, forming
with the membrane by which they are connected wings similar to those of birds.
Bats fly very high and very quick. Their pectoral muscles have a thickness pro-
portioned to the movements they are intended to execute, and the sternum has a
ridge for their attachment, as in birds. The thumb is short, and armed with a
crooked nail, by which these animals suspend themselves and climb. The hind
feet are feeble, divided into five unequal toes, all furnished with nails. Their in«
testines have no coecum. Their eyes are excessively small, but their ears are often
very large, and form witli their wings a large membranous surface, almost naked,
and so sensible, that bats are able to direct their flight, probably by the different
impressions of the air, even after their eyes have been extracted. Bats are noctur-
nal animals, which in our climate are torpid in winter. They suspend themselves
during the day in dark or obscure places. They bring forth usually two young,
which they hold fast to their breast.

1 st Division. — Molar teeth without sharp points.
Gen. 25.PTEEOPUS, Briss. Cuv. Geoff. Desm. — Vespertitio,lAi\.

Incisors f, canines £-}, molars f-£ = 34. Molars with the
crown truncated obliquely, and marked with a longitudinal
furrow ; head long and conical ; ears short, simple, without
auricles ; no crest or nasal appendage ; tail short or none ;
interfemoral membrane sloped off. An additional phalange
and nail on the index finger of the wings ; tongue papillous.

This genus is distinguished by their long and conical head, their slender and
pointed muzzle, their small and simple ears, and by the smallness of the interfemo-
ral membrane. They have little or no tail, and the posterior extremities are simply
bordered, but not united. They are the only bats which have the second and third
finger of the hand provided with a nail, and with the phalanx belonging to it, and
the only ones which are deprived of the second external ear. Their tongue is rough
and papillous, and their teeth resemble those of apes.

* Without a tail

P. Javanicus, Desm. Leschenault. The Javanese Bat. Neck above
of a smoky red ; remainder of the fur black ; white hairs mixed
with the black hairs of the back.

The Pteropus Javanicus is the largest of the genus, in adult subjects the spread of
the wings being fully five feet, and the length of the body one. It is extremely
abundant in the lower parts of Java, and lives in society. Numerous individuals
select a large tree for their resort, and, suspending themselves with the claw of their
posterior extremities to the naked branches, afford a very singular spectacle. They
pass the greater part of the day in sleep, hanging motionless. Soon after sunset
they gradually quit their hold, and direct their course to the forests, villages, and
plantations, devouring indiscriminately every kind of fruit not protected from their
incursions.

P. edulis, Geoff. Desm. The Eatable Bat. Entirely blackish ; back

VOL, I. E

66 MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.

covered with close and shining hair. Body ten inches long, the
extended wings about four feet — Indian Islands.
The flesh of this species is white, delicate, and remarkably tender, and is regarded
by the inhabitants of Timor as a delicacy.

P. Edwardsii, Desm. (Vespertilio vampyrus, Lin.) Large Bat of
Madagascar. Fur red ; back of a chestnut-brown. — Edwards*
Birds, pi. 180.

P. vulgaris, Geoff. Desm. (Vesp. vampyrus, Lin.) The common
Roussette. Body covered, particularly on the belly, with thick
and coarse hair, of a deep black ; face reddish, as well as the
sides of the back. Body about ten inches long ; wings extended

three feet Buff. x. t. 14.

Var. A. Of a bright chesnut or pale yellow.— Mauritius.

P. rubricollis, Geoff. Desm. (Vesp. vampyrus, Lin.) The red-
collared Roussette. Fur of a gray brown ; neck red. Body about
eight inches long ; extended wings two feet. Inhabits Isle of
France — Buff on, x. pi. 17.

P. griseus, Geoff. Desm. The gray Roussette. Fur of a gray red;
head and neck red. About six and a half inches long; extended
wings about 18 inches. — Inhabits the Isle of Timor. — Ann. Mus.
xv. pi. 6.

P. Leschenaultii, Desm. Fur of a fawn ash-colour on the back ; a
little variegated with white under the belly ; whitish points at
the base of the membranes of the wings ; extended wings about
18 inches. — Inhabits Pondicherry.

P. restrains, Horsfield, Desm. The Dog-bat of Java. Muzzle
elongated ; no tail ; fur of a pale brown. Body three inches long ;
extended wings 11 inches — Inhabits Java.

** With a tall

P. stramineus, Geoff. Desm. Lesser Ternate Bat, Penn. Fur red-
dish yellow; tail very short. Body about five inches long ; extend-
ed wings two feet wide. Inhabits Timor and Ternate — Penn.
Synop. t. 31, fig. 1.

P. JEgyptiacus, Geoff. Desm. Egyptian Roussette. Hair woolly,
and of a brown gray-colour. Body about five inches long ; ex-
tended wings 20 inches.

P. amplexicaudatus , Geoff. Desm. Long-tailed Roussette. Fur
reddish gray ; tail the length of the thigh, and half enveloped in
the interfemoral membrane. Four inches long ; extended wings
16 inches. Inhabits Timor. — Ann. Mus. xv. pi. 4.

P. marginatus, Geoff. Desm. Fur olive brown ; a white band around
the ears. Length three inches ; extended wings 11 inches — Ann.
Mus. xv. pi. 5.

P. minimus, Geoff. Desm. The Kiodote. Hair woolly and of a lively
red ; tongue extensible. Body three inches long ; spread of the
wings ten inches — Inhabits Java.

CEPHALOTES. MAMMALIA. 67

*** With wings upon the back.

P. pallialus, Geoff. Desm. Membrane of the wings attached to the
dorsal line, having the appearance of a mantle. Body about four
inches long ; wings 14 inches ; length of tail 6| inches.

Gen. 26. CEPHALOTES, Geoff. — Vespertilio, Pallas. Gmel.

Incisors £, canines f-J, molars f-f, = 32. Superior incisors
isolated, lower incisors nearer together; the posterior mo-
lars with a large crown without tubercles or ridges ; head
conical; no crests or nasal leaf; ears short; index finger
short, and wanting the nail in one species ; tail very short ;
membrane of the wings rising from the dorsal line ; tongue
papillous.

G. Peronii, Geoff. Desm. No nail on the index finger of the hand ;
about six inches long ; extended wings about two feet. — Timor.

C. Pallas&ii, Geoff. Desm. ( Vespertilio ccphalotcs, Lin.) With a nail
in the index finger of the hand. Three inches and a half long ;
spread of the wings 14 inches. Inhabits Moluccas.— Pallas,
Spic. Zool. fas. iii. t. 1 and 2.

2d Division. — With pointed molars.
Gen. 27. MOLOSSUS, Geoff. Cuv. — Vespertilio^ Lin.

Incisors f , canines J-J, molars f-J = 26. Superior incisors bi-
fid, converging, inferior very small, crowded before the ca-
nines, and each terminated by two little points ; molars large,
the crown rough with points ; head large ; muzzle naked, gib-
bous ; nostrils open before, bordered ; ears large and united ;
no crest or nasal leaves; tongue soft ; interfemoral membrane
narrow and terminated squarely; tail long.

M. rufus, Geoff. Desm. Fur deep chesnut above, lighter below ;
muzzle short- and thick. Body about three inches long ; spread of
the wings about a foot.

M. ater, Geoff. Desm. Fur black, shining above ; muzzle more
slender than the preceding. About three inches long.

M. obscurus, Geoff. Desm. Fur blackish brown above, obscure be-
low, the hairs being white at their origin. Nearly four inches
long ; spread of the wings nearly a foot. — Inhabits Paraguay.

M. longicaudatus, Geoff. Desm. Bull-dog Bat. ( Vespertilio molos-
susj Lin.) Fur fawn ash-coloured ; a band of skin extending
from the point of the muzzle to the forehead ; tail almost as long
as the body. About two inches long. Inhabits Martinique. —
Schreber, t. 59.

Mifusciventer, Geoff. Desm. (Vesp. molossus, Lin. var. /3) Fur
ash brown above, cinereous below, except the belly, which is brown
in its middle. Body two inches long.

68 MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.

M. castaneus, Geoff. Desm, Fur chestnut above, whitish below ; a
band extended from the muzzle to the forehead. Body nearly five
inches long; spread of the wings 13 inches. — Paraguay.

M. laticaudatus, Geoff. Desm. Fur obscure brown above, less deep
below ; tail bordered on each side by a prolongation of the inter-
femoral membrane. Body about four inches long. — Paraguay.

M. crassicaudatus, Geoff. Desm. Fur brown cinnamon- colour,
brighter below than above ; tail bordered on each side by a pro-
longation of the interfemoral membrane. Three inches and a
half long ; spread of the wings about ten inches — Paraguay.

M. amplexicaudatus, Geoff. Desm. Fur blackish, fainter below
than above ; tail entirely enveloped in the interfemoral mem-
brane. Size of the common bat. Cayenne — Buff. Supp. vii. pi. 75.

M. acuiicaudatusy Desm. Tail long, almost entirely enveloped in
the interfemoral membrane ; fur brown black. Body about an
inch and a half long ; wings very long. — Brazil.

M. ursinus, Spix. Body black ; jaws robust ; ears falling over
the forehead. Inhabits Brazil. — Spix, Braz. t. 35, fig. 4.

M. nasntus, Spix. Nose elongated ; ears falling over the fore-
head ; body above brown black, below brown ; tail half enveloped
in the membrane. Inhabits Brazil.— Spix, Braz. t. 35, fig. 7-

M. fumarius, Spix. Body blackish brown ; face, ears, and wings
very black. Inhabits Brazil. — Spix, Braz. t. 35. fig. 5, 6.

Gen. 28. NYCTINOMUS, Geoff.

Incisors f, canines J-J-, molars f-f, = 28. Upper incisors co-
nical and contiguous ; inferior very small ; molars with point-
ed tubercles ; nose flat, on a level with the lips, which are
deeply cleft and wrinkled ; ears large, united, and lying on
the face ; auricle exterior ; tail long, enveloped by the mem-
brane at its base ; wings large ; thumb very short ; index
finger without phalanges ; hind feet covered with very long
hair.

N. Mgyptiacus, Geoff. Desm. Fur red above, brown below ; tail
slender ; no muscular bands in the interfemoral membrane, which
envelopes the half of the tail. Body about three inches long.
Inhabits Egypt — Geoff. Egypt, pi. 2, No. 2.

N. Bengalensis, Geoff. Desm. Tail pretty thick ; muscular bands
in the interfemoral membrane. Size of the preceding. Two in-
cisors in each jaw according to Buchanan. — Lin. Trans, v. t. 13.

N. acetabulosus, Geoff. Desm. Fur of a brown black ; interfemoral
membrane enveloping two-thirds of the tail. About ten inches
long. Island of Mascareigne.

N. dilalns, Horsfield. Blackish brown, paler underneath ; wings
dilated ; tail slender, half enveloped in the interfemoral mem-
brane, which is furnished with a few muscular bands. — Java,

CHBIEOMELES. MAMMALIA. 69

N. tennis, Horsfield. Blackish brown ; wings of great length, and
very narrow ; tail slender, half enveloped in the interfemoral
membrane, the edge of which is folded and furnished with mus-
cular fibres — Inhabits Java.

N. Braziliensis, Geoff. Of a cinereous brown colour, lighter on
the lower parts, varying also from yellow to black in different
individuals. Upper lip not so deeply notched as in the Egyp-
tian species ; ears with folds or wrinkles. — Isid. Geoff. Ann. des
Sciences, 1824.

N. ? miirinus. Body blackish above, brown underneath ; wings,
ears, and head black. Interfemoral membrane destitute of mus-
cular bands. Described by Griffiths from Gray's MSS.

Gen 29. CHEIROMELES, Horsfield.

Incisors f , canines ^-j, molars J-| , = 26. Face conical ; ears
distant and spreading; operculum short, semicordate; blunt ;
interfemoral membrane short ; tail exserted ; thumb distinct,
claw flat, fringed on the edge with bristles.

C. torquatus, Horsfield. Neck covered with longish hairs ; back na-
ked and dotted. Indian Archipelago. — Horsf. Java, No. vii.

Gen. 30. STENODERMA, Geoff.

Incisors |, canines j-J, molars f-f , = 28. Nose simple ;
ears of medium size, lateral and isolated ; auricle interior ; in-
terfemoral membrane rudimentary, bordering the legs ; no tail.

S. rufa, Geoff. Desm. Fur red uniform chestnut ; ears medium
size, oval, a little hollowed at the external border. Body about
three inches long ; spread of the wings ten inches.

Gen. 31. NOCTILIO, Geoff. Cuv. — Vespertilio, Lin.

Incisors f, canines J- , molars f-f, = 26. Canines very
strong ; molars crowned with pointed tubercles ; muzzle short,
gibbous, cleft, and furnished with warts or fleshy tubercles ;
nose without appendages ; ears small, lateral ; interfemoral
membrane very large ; tail enveloped at its base ; nails of the
hind feet very robust.

N. unicolor, Geoff. Desm. ( Vespertilio leporinus, Lin.) Peruvian
Bat, Shaw. Fur of a uniform reddish fawn colour. Size of a
rat. Inhabits Brazil, Paraguay, &c. — Sliaw, i. pi. 41.

N. dorsatus, Geoff. Desm. (Pteropus leporinus, Erxleb.) Fur of
a yellowish fawn colour, with a whitish band along the back ; bo-
dy four inches long ; spread of the wings 16 inches. — S. America.

N. albiventer, Geoff. Desm. Back reddish ; belly white. A little

smaller than the preceding.

Griffith supposes the last two to be only varieties of the Noctilio unicolor, and
makes a separate species of the N. albiventer, Spix, on the authority of his figure.

70 MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.

N. rujus, Spix. Body red ; the legs and ears nearly naked. In-
habits Brazil — Spix, Braz. f. 35, f. 1.

Gen. 32. PHYLLOSTOMA, Geoff. Lin. Cuv.

Incisors f , canines |-{, molars f-f , or g-g, =: 32 or 34. La-
j teral incisors very small, the intermediate ones broader;
head long and conical ; nose with two nasal crests, one like
a leaf, the other of a horse-shoe form ; ears large, naked,
not united. Auricle internal, dentated ; eyes small and late-
ral ; tongue rough with horny papillae ; tail and interfemoral
membrane more or less developed.

These bats occasionally suck the blood of animals, but the wounds they make
are neither very dangerous nor painful. " Sometimes," says d'Azara, " they
will bite the crests and beards of fowls while asleep, and suck the blood. The fowls
generally die in consequence of this, as a gangrene is engendered in the wounds.
They bite also horses, mules, apes, and horned cattle generally on the buttocks,
shoulders, or neck, as they are better enabled to arrive at these parts from the faci-
lities afforded them by the mane or tail. Nor is man himself secure from their at-
tacks. On this point, indeed, I am enabled to give a very faithful testimony, since
I have had the endfc of my toes bitten by them four times while I was sleeping in
cottages in the open country. The wounds which they inflicted, without my feeling
them at the time, were circular, and rather elliptical, their diameter was trifling,
and their depth so superficial as scarcely to penetrate the cutis. It was easy also,
on examination, to perceive that these wounds were made by suction, and not by
puncture, as might be supposed. The blood that is drawn in cases of this descrip-
tion does not come from the veins or from the arteries, because the wound does not
extend so far, but from the capillary vessels of the skin, extracted thence, without
doubt, by these bats, by the action of sucking or licking. No one in our neigh-
bourhood fears these animals, or gives himself any trouble about them ; notwith-
standing a prevalent and most absurd report, that, previously to sucking the blood
of their victim, they flap their wings upon the part intended for banquet, for the
purpose of lulling and deadening its sensibility — Hist. Nat. of Paraguay, ii. 273.

* With a tail, but always shorter than the interfemoral membrane.

P. crenulatum, Geoff. Desm. Nasal appendage with dentated mar-
gins ; end of the tail free. About two inches long ; extended
wings about a foot. — Ann. Mus. xv. pi. 10.

P. elongatum, Geoff. Desm. Nasal leaf with smooth margins ; end
of the tail free. About three inches long ; spread of the wings
15 inches — Ann. Hits. xv. pi. 9.

P. hastatum, Geoff. Besm. (Vesperlilio hastaius, Lin.) Nasal leaf
with smooth borders ; tail wholly enveloped in the interfemoral
membrane. Nearly four inches long; spread of the wings about a
foot and a half. A series of warts in the form of a V on the base
of the under lip. Inhabits Guiana.-— A nn. Mus. xv. pi. 11.

P. planirostra} Spix. Head thick,, depressed above ; side of the
nose tubercular ; front of the nasal leaf free, pendulous ; lips an-
nulated on the edges ; chin short, flattish. Body nearly four in-
ches long. Inhabits Brazil — Spix, Braz. 36. f. 1.

** Without a tail.
P. perspicillatus, Geoff. Desm. (Vesp. perspicillatum, Lin.) Spec-

VAMFYRUS. MAMMALIA. 71

tacle Bat. Nasal leaf short, hollowed near its point ; two white
bands from the nostrils to the ears. About three inches long ;
extended wings 17 inches — Buff. Sitpp. vii. pi. 74.

P. lineatum, Geoff. Desm. Nasal leaf entire ; four whitish stripes
upon the face, and one on the back. Body nearly three inches
long ; spread of the wings 13 inches. — Inhabits Paraguay.
The number of teeth in this species presents an anomaly ; according to Azara there

are no incisors in the lower jaw.

P. rotundum, Geoff. Desm. Nasal leaf entire, rounded at its ex-
tremity ; fur reddish brown. About three inches long; spread of
the wings nearly 14 inches — Inhabits Paraguay.

P. liliwn, Geoff. Desm. Nasal leaf entire,- as high as broad, and
narrow at its base ; jaws elongated. Two inches three lines long;
spread of the wings one foot — Inhabits Paraguay.

P. spectrum, Geoff. Desm. ( Vespertilio spectrum, Lin.) The Vam-
pyre. Nasal leaf entire, less broad than high, jaws elongated.
Five inches and a half long — Inhabits South America.
This species, the largest of the genus, is celebrated in the narratives of travellers

for sucking the blood of men and animals while asleep.

Gen. 33. VAMPYRUS, Spix.

Incisors f , canines \-\, molars f-f , = 28. Incisors conical,
the two intermediate in the upper jaw being largest ; the
first molar with one tubercle, the others with three ; mouth
rather obtuse, lower jaw verrucose; tail short, involved in the
membrane, except the apex.

V. cirrhosus, Spix. Bearded Vampyre. Head oblong ; nasal leaf
pendulous ; lips and chin bearded ; spread of wings 4 J inches. In-
habits Brazil Spix, Braz. f. 36.

V. soricimiSj Spix. Body less robust than the preceding; mouse-
colour on the back, brownish gray underneath ; chin smooth. In-
habits Brazil — Spix, Braz. f. 36. fig. 2, 6.

V. bidens, Spix. Two incisors in the lower jaw ; blackish brown
above ; mouse-coloured underneath.— Spix9 Braz. f. 65.

Gen. 34. GLOSSOPHAGA, Geoff. Desm. — Phyllostoma, Cuv.

— Vespertilio, Pall. Lin.

Incisors f, canines J-J, molars f-f, = 24. Incisors regular-
ly arranged ; canines of medium size ; molars similar to the
Phyllostomse; head long and conical; tongue very long, nar-
row, extensible ; nose supporting a little spear-shaped crest;
tail more or less long, sometimes wanting; interfemoral mem-
brane very small or none.

G. soricina, Desm. Geoff. (Vesp. soricinus, Lin.) Interfemoral
membrane broad ; no tail. Body two inches long ; spread of the
wings eight inches. Inhabits Surinam — Ann. Mus. xv. pi. 11.

G. amplexicaudata, Geoff. Desm. Interfemoral membrane broad ;

72 MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.

tail short and terminated by a nodosity; fur blackish brown. In-
habits Brazil and Rio de Janeiro. — Mem. du Mus. iv. pi. 18.

G. caudifer, Geoff. Desm. Interfemoral membrane very short ;
the tail extending beyond it j fur blackish brown. Inhabits
Brazil. — Mem. du. Mus. iv. pi. 17-

G. ecaudata, Geoff. Desm. Interfemoral membrane very short ; no
tail ; colour obscure brown. Inhabits Brazil. — Mem. de Mus.
iv. pi. 18.

Gen. 35. MORMOOPS, Leach.

Incisors £, canines f-i, molars f-f , — 32. Two intermediate
incisors in upper jaw largest ; ears large, close, furnished
with auricles ; nasal appendage erect, confluent with the
ears ; index finger two joints, middle finger four, the others
three ; tail enveloped in membrane except the last joint.

M. Blainvillii, Leach. Nasal leaf plaited ; ears bilobed above ;
labial processes divided. Inhabits Jamaica. — Lin. Trans, xiii. pi. 7-

Gen. 36. MEDATEUS, Leach.

Incisors f , canines i-i, molars f-J, — 30. The two interme-
diate incisors in the upper jaw largest ; two nasal appen-
dages, one vertical, the other lunate and horizontal ; no tail ;
lips warty.

M. Lewisu, Leach. Blackish ; nasal leaf vertical, spear-shaped ;
ears rounded ; spread of wings seventeen inches. — Lin. Trans.
xiii. 81.

Gen. 37. MEGADERMA, Geoff. Cuv. Desm. — Vespertilio,
Lin. Shaw.

Incisors f , canines {-|, molars |-|, = 26. Superior canines
triangular, the inferior bent backwards ; ears very large, and
united upon the forehead ; auricle much developed ; nasal
crests to the number of three, one vertical, one horizontal or
folliculated, and the third of a horse shoe form ; no tail ;
interfemoral membrane truncated ; wings very large, with the
third finger without the nail joint.

M. trifolium, Geoff. Desm. Nasal leaf oval, follicle large, each
the fifth of the length of the ears ; auricle of a trefoil shape ;
body about three inches long ; spread of the wings ten inches.
Inhabits Java. — Ann. Mus. xv. pi. 12.

M. spasma, Geoff. Desm. (Vesp. spasma, Lin.) Leaf heart-shaped ;
follicle large and similar ; auricle of a half heart shape. Nearly
four inches long. Inhabits Isle of Ternate — Shaw, i. pi. 42.

M. lyra, Geoff. Desm. Leaf rectangular ; follicle one half smaller ;
body nearly three inches long ; spread of the wings about a foot.
— Ann. Mus. xv. pi, 12.

KHINOLOPHUS. MAMMALIA. 73

M. frons, Geoff. Desm. Nasal leaf oval, half the length of the
ears. Above two inches long. — Inhabits Senegal.

Gen. 38. RHINOLOPHUS, Geoff. Cuv. — Vespertilio, Lin.

Incisors f , canines ±-\9 molars f-f , = 30. Superior incisors
very small, separated, and often falling, inferior bilobed ;
molars with sharp-pointed crowns ; nose with a crest of a
horse shoe form before, surmounted by a leaf; ears distinct ;
interfemoral membrane large ; tail long and entirely envelop-
ed ; two pectoral mammas, and two pubial warts, having the
appearance of mammae, but without lactiferous glands.

R. unikastatus, Geoff. Desm. (Vesperiilio ferrum-equmum, Lin.
Var. A.) Nasal leaf double ; the posterior spear-shaped ; the
anterior sinuous at the margin and extremities. Nearly three
inches long ; spread of the wings 14 inches. Inhabits old quarries
and caves in Europe. — Buff, viii. pi. 20. fig. 1 and 2.

R. bihastatns, Geoff. Desm. ( Vesp. ferrum-equinum, Lin. Var. B.
Vesper minutus, Mont.) Nasal leaf double, both spear-shaped ;
ears deeply hollowed. Generally smaller than the preceding.
Europe. B. — Leach, Zool. Mis. iii. p. 121.

I. Iridens, Geoff. Desm. Nasal leaf simple, terminated by three
points ; body about two inches long ; spread of the wings nearly
nine inches. Inhabits Egypt. — Geoff. Egypt, ii. pi. 2.

R. speoris, Desm. (Rkinolopc crumenifere, Peron and Lesueur —
Vesp. speoris, Sclm.) Nasal leaf simple, with the terminal mar-
gin rounded ; a purse or cavity on the forehead. Island of Timor.
— Peron, Voy. pi. 35.

R. diadema, Geoff. Desm. Nasal leaf simple, terminal border
rounded ; no purse on the front ; tail the length of the leg ; body
about four inches long. Island of Timor. — Ann. Mus. xx. pi. 6.

R. Commersonii, Geoff. Cuv. Nasal leaf simple, the terminal mar-
gin rounded ; no pouch on the forehead ; tail one half less long
than the leg. A little smaller than the preceding. Near Fort
Dauphin, Madagascar. — Ann. Mus. xx. pi. 5J5*

R. affinis, Horsf. Yellowish brown above, yellow underneath, deep-
er on the throat and breast ; tail shorter than the legs ; septum of
the nose crooked ; ears large, with an accessory lobe at the base.

R. minor, Horsf. Lead-colour or silvery above, gray below ; sep-
tum, tail, and ears like the preceding ; spread of wings 9 inches.

R. nobilis, Horsf. Brown above varied, with gray underneath ;
nasal membrane extended across the nose in the form of a shelf ;
tail as long as the legs ; spread of wings 19^ inches.

R. larvatus, Horsf. Deep-brown above, with a golden lustre ;
membrane blackish-brown with a yellowish tint, varying accord-
ing to the disposition of the light ; spread of wings 12£ inches.

74 MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.

R. vulgaris, Horsf . Brown above, uniform gray beneath ; tail a little
longer than the leg ; upper nasal membrane transverse ; ears pa-
tulous, with a hairy lobule at the base ; spread of wings 12^ inches.

R. deformis, Horsf. Brown above, gray underneath ; skull elon-
gated and depressed ; upper nasal membrane transverse ; large,
erect, approximate ears. Spread of wings 1 2 inches.

R. insignis, Horsf. Dark brown above ; tail a little longer than
the legs ; an elongated frontal sinus ; mouth contracted, ascend-
ing transversely ; ears large and patulous, with the extremity cir-
cular. This and the six preceding species inhabit Java.

Gen. 39. NYCTERJS, Geoff. Cuv. — Vespertilio, Lin.

Incisors |, canines \-\, molars £-£ = 30. Superior incisors
bilobed, very small, contiguous ; inferior trilobed; molars with
pointed tubercles ; a deep longitudinal furrow on the fore-
head ; nostrils covered each by a moveable operculum ; inter-
femoral membrane large, and comprising the tail, which is ter-
minated by a bifurcated cartilage in form of a T.

N. Geoffroyi, Desm. Ears very large; tragus spiral; under lip
with a large wart at its extremity, between two elongated cushions
in the form of the letter V ; fur of gray brown above, lighter
gray below. Nearly two inches long ; spread of the wings nine
inches. Senegal, £c. in Africa — Geoff. Egypt, ii. pi. 1. fig. 2.

N. Daubentonii, Geoff. Desm. ( Vespertilio hispidus, Gmel.) Ears pretty
large ; tragus very small ; inferior lip simple ; fur of a reddish
brown above, yellowish white below. About 1| inch long; spread
of the wings about seven inches. — Buff. x. pi. 20. fig. 1, 2.

N. Javanicus, Geoff. Desm. Fur of a bright red on the upper parts
of the body, of a reddish ash-colour upon the inferior. About
2 2 inches long — Inhabits Java.

Gen. 40. RHINOPOMA, Geoff.

Incisors f , canines £-4, molars f-f , — 28. Inferior incisors
separated ; nose long, conical ; truncated at the extremity,
and surmounted by a little leaf; nasal openings narrow,
transverse and operculated ; forehead concave ; ears large,
united, and lying on the face ; interfemoral membrane nar-
row and truncated ; tail long, enveloped only at its origin.

R. microphylla,~Desm.('Fesp.microphyftus,'Brumch.) Fur ash-colour-
ed ; tail very long and slender ; nostrils with a valve as in seals.
Two inches long; spread of the wings seven inches. — Egypt.

R. Caroliniensis, Geoff. Desm. Fur brown ; tail long, and pretty
thick. About two inches long, spread of the wings eight inches.
— Inhabits South Carolina.

Gen. 41. TAPHOZOUS, Geoff. Desm. — Vespertilio, Schreb.
Incisors f , canines J-£, molars f-|, = 26. A furrow on the

MYOPTERIS MAMMALIA. 75

nose, as in the two preceding genera, but not provided with
operculi ; upper lip very thick ; tail composed of six vertebrae,
free above the membrane ; interfemoral membrane large.

T. Senegalensis, Geoff. Desm. Fur brown above ; brown ash-co-
loured below ; auricle rounded. Body 2| inches long. — Africa.

T. Mauritianus, Geoff. Desm. Fur chestnut above, reddish below ;
auricle terminated by a sinuous border. Body 3 \ inches long ;
spread of the wings above nine inches — Isle of France.

T. perforatus, Geoff. Desm. Fur gray red above; ash-coloured
below ; auricle dolabriform. Three inches long, spread of the
wings nine inches. Inhabits Egypt at Ombos and Thebes, in the
tombs of the kings — Geoff. Egypt, ii. pi. 3. fig. 1.
M. Desmarest is of opinion that this and the T. Senegalensis are the same.

T. lepturus, Geoff. Desm. (Pespertilio lepturus, Schreb.) Fur gray,
paler below than above; auricle very short and obtuse; a fold
towards the tail, formed by the membrane of the wings. Body
about an inch and a half long. Surinam. — Schreb. Saugh. i. pi. 57.

T. rufus, Harlan. Fur of a reddish cream colour ; membranes of a
dusky red. Four inches long ; spread of the wings 12 inches.
Inhabits Pennsylvania. — Harlan, Faun. Amcric. 23.

Gen. 42. MYOPTERIS, Geoff.

Incisors f , canines |-£, molars f-£, = 26. Inferior incisors
bilobed ; nose simple ; forehead flat, without leaves, mem-
branes, or furrow ; muzzle short and thick ; ears large, tail
long, half enveloped at its base, free at the extremity.

M. Daubentonii, Geoff. Desm. Upper part of the head and body
of a brown colour ; below of a dirty white, with a slight tint of
fawn colour. Body three inches in length. — Country unknown.

Gen. 43. CEL^NO, Leach.

Incisors f , the upper acuminated and simple, the lower formed
as it were of four columns ; molars f , the anterior teeth in
both jaws acuminated, the three posterior acutely tuberculated.

C. Brooksiana, Leach. Back ferruginous ; belly and shoulders
yellowish ; membrane black ; ears acuminated, distinct. — Lin.
Trans, xiii. 70.

Gen. 44. AELLO, Leach.

Incisors f , molars T8I? the two upper acuminated, the third bi-
fid, and the fourth with three edges ; in the lower jaw, the
three anterior acuminated, the three posterior bifid.

A. Cuvieri, Leach. Isabella ferruginous yellow ; wings dark brown ;
ears short, approximate, broad ; no auricle ; tail not reaching be-
yond the membrane — Lin. Trans, xiii. 71.

76 MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.

Gen. 45. SCOTOPHILUS, Leach.

Incisors | ; in the upper jaw the two lateral teeth shorter ;
molars f , furnished with acuminated processes.

S. Kuhlii, Leach. Ferruginous,, with the ears, nose, and wings brown;
ears distinct, auricle small ; tail reaching to the end of the mem-
brane.— Lin. Trans, xiii. pi. 1.

Gen. 46. ARTIBEUS, Leach.

Incisors f , the two intermediate in the upper jaw largest ; in
the lower jaw truncated, the intermediate ones reeded in front ;
molars T8<j, the posterior ones small.

A. Jamaicensis, Leach. Dark-coloured above, mouse-coloured below ;
ears, nasal appendages, and membranes dark brown ; two nasal
appendages, the one horizontal, the other vertical and acumina-
ted ; no tail. Inhabits Jamaica. — Lin. Trans, xiii. pi. 1.

Gen. 47. DIPHYLLA, Spix.

Incisors f , canines J-f , scarcely exserted; molars f-f ? or f-f ?
short, apex erenulated ; nose with two short erect truncated
leaves placed close together ; posterior legs nearly as long
as the arms ; tail and interfemoral membrane deficient.

D. ecaudala, Spix. Body with woolly, hair back fuscous brown ;
head and abdomen brownish gray ; wings blackish, nearly naked;
face near the ears naked. Brazil. — Spix, Sim. Braz. 136, fig. 7-

Gen. 48. MONOPHYLLUS, Leach.

Incisors §, the two intermediate the largest, canines j-£, mo-
lars £-f , the two first in the upper jaw distant, the rest tu-
berculated on both edges ; the second and third in the lower
jaw with a space between them.

M. Redmani, Leach. Brown above, mouse-coloured below ; mem-
branes, ears, and nasal appendage brown ; nasal leaf erect, acute ;
ears round; beard elongated. Jamaica. — Lin. Trans, xiii. pi. 1.

Gen. 49. DYSOPES, F. Cuv.
Incisors f, upper close, elongate, elliptical ; canines f-}, molars

*-*•

D. mops. Inhabits India. — F. Cuv. Denis, de Mam. 49.
Gen. 50. NYCTOPHILUS, Leach.

Incisors f, canines |-J, molars |-|. Upper incisors short
and conical, the under equal ; first molar in the upper jaw
acute, with one tubercle ; the second and third with four tu-
bercles, and the fourth with three.

N. Geoffroyii, Leach. Back dirty brown, under parts whitish ; ears

THYROPTERA. MAMMALIA. 77

broad ; membrane blackish ; two nasal appendages, erect, the pos-
terior one largest ; tail as long as the interfemoral membrane

Lin. Trans, xiii. pi. 1.

Gen. 51. THYROPTERA, Spix.

Teeth ? Body slender ; nose simple ; wings very narrow, ex-
tending to the tarsus ; interfemoral membrane not extending
beyond the feet ; tail long, free.

T. tricolor, Spix. Body above fuscous brown, beneath pure white ;
wings and legs black. Brazils. — Spix, Sim. Braz. t. 36. f. 69.

Gen. 52. PROBOSCIDEA, Spix.

Incisors |, canines J-^, molars f-f. Upper incisors small and
diverging, the under ones lobed ; the front molar small, the
others tuberculated ; wings narrow ; tail long ; half involved
in the membrane.

P. saxatilis, Spix. Body above variegated with gray and brown,
below mouse-coloured ; wings and feet fuscous brown. Inhabits
rocky places on the shores of St Francis, Brazil.— Spix, Sim.
Braz. t. 35. f. 8.

P. r'walis, Spix. Body smaller ; above fuscous brown, beneath pale

brown. Inhabits shores of the Amazons, Brazils Spix, Sim.

Braz. 62.

Gen. 53. VESPERTILIO, Lin. Pall. Cuv. Geoff.
Incisors |, canines f-i, molars f-|, or f-f , = 32 or 36. Su-
perior incisors separated in pairs, cylindrical and pointed ;
inferior near together, with a bilobed edge, bent forwards ; ca-
nines of medium size ; anterior molars simply conical ; pos-
terior crowned with points ; nose without membranous leaves
or furrows, or wrinkles; tongue smooth, not protractile ; mem-
branes much extended ; tail entirely enveloped in the inter-
femoral membrane ; fur soft and thick ; sebaceous glands un-
der the skin of the face of different forms and dimensions, ac-
cording to the species.

Sub-Gen. 1. VESPERTILIO, Geoff. Ears of medium size, lateral
and isolated ; four, tfive, or six superior molars, and three or six
inferior, on each side.

V. murinus, Lin. The Common But. Ears oval, the length of
the head ; auricles falciform ; fur of the adults reddish brown
above, gray white below ; of the young ash-coloured. Body 31
inches long; spread of the wings, 15 inches. Inhabits Europe
in church towers, &c. but never in trees. — Penn, Brit. Zool.

V. Bechsteinii, Leisler, Kuhl, Desm. Ears rounded at the extre-
mity, longer than the head ; auricle falciform, a little bent out-
wards towards its point ; upper part of the body of a red-gray,

78 MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.

under part white. Body about two inches long ; spread of the
wings 11 inches. Inhabits Germany on trees in forests, never
in houses — Kuhl, Deutch. Flederm. pi. 22.

V. Naltereri, Kuhl,, Desm. Ears oval, pretty broad; a little longer
than the head ; fur of a gray brown colour above, white below ;
members of a smoky gray ; interfemoral membrane festooned.
Two inches long, spread of the wings 9J inches. — Kuhl, pi. 23.

V. Caroliniensis, Geoff. Desm. Ears oblong, of the size of the
head, tragus semicordate ; fur chestnut brown above, and yellow
below. Body about two inches long; spread of the wings 9^ in-
ches. Inhabits South Carolina. — Ann. Mus. viii. pi. 47.

V. noclula, Lin. Desm. Ears oval-triangular; shorter than the
head, body fawn-colour ; membranes brown black. Body about
three inches long ; spread of the wings 14J inches. Inhabits
Europe — F. Cuv. No. 38, t. 3.

V. serotinus, Lin. Desm. (Vespert. noclula, Geoff.) Ears oval-tri-
angular, shorter than the head, auricles semicordate ; fur dark
chestnut in the males, and lighter in the females ; membrane of
the wings black. Nearly three inches long ; spread of the wings
about 13 inches. Inhabits Europe. B. — Ann. Mus. viii. pi. 47* 48.

V. Leisleri, Kuhl, Desm. Ears oval-triangular, short ; hair long, of
a chestnut colour at the point and deep brown at the base ; in-
ferior surface of the membrane of the wings the length of the arm
very hairy. Body about 9J inches long ; spread of the wings 11
inches. — Inhabits Germany.

V. Schreibersii, Kuhl, Desm. Ears small, with an internal hairy
border ; fur gray ash-colour, paler below, and often mixed with
yellowish white. About 2 J inches long ; spread of the wings 10
to 11 inches. — Inhabits Germany.

V. discolor, Kuhl, Desm. Ears short rounded, oval ; hair, of the
back brown, with the point white ; that of the under part of the
body of a dirty white. Body about two inches long ; spread of
the wings 10 or 1 1 inches. Inhabits South of Germany — Kuhl, 43.

V. pipistrellus, Lin. Desm. Ears oval-triangular, shorter than the
head ; hair blackish brown above, belly of a brown fawn-colour.
Body little more than an inch long ; spread of the wings upwards
of six inches. — Inhabits France, Germany, and Italy .
Var. A. with the points of the hairs ash-coloured. — Geoff. Egyp. \. fig. 3.

V. emarginatus, Geoff. Desm. Ears oblong, size of the head, and
furrowed at their exterior border ; fur reddish gray above, ash-
coloured below. Two inches long ; spread of the wings nine in-
ches. Inhabits England. — Ann. Mus. viii. pi. 47. 48.

V. mystacinus, Kuhl. Desm. Ears pretty large, oblong, wrinkled
and furrowed exteriorly ; hair fine and close set, forming on
each side of the upper lip a kind of moustache ; fur brown, tip-
ped with brown red. About If inch long; spread of the wings
seven to eight inches. Inhabits Germany.

VJSSPERTILIO. MAMMALIA. 79

V. Kuhlii, Natterer, Desm. Ears simple, almost triangular ; fur
of a bright red, brown above, fawn-coloured below ; interfemoral
membrane very hairy. About If inch long; spread of the wings
8^ inches. — Found near Trieste in Germany.

V. Daubentonii, Kuhl, Desm. Ears small ; fur of a red-gray above,
and whitish below. Body about two inches long ; spread of the
wings 9 to 9 1 inches. Inhabits Germany. — Kuhl, t. 25. fig. 2.

V. pictus, Lin. Desm. Striped Bat, Penn. Ears oval, shorter than
the head ; fur of a bright red yellow on the back ; two bands of
bright yellow along the fingers of the wings, which are of a
chestnut colour. Body two inches long ; spread of the wings seven
inches. E. Indies. — Ann. Mus. viii. pi. 48.

V. lasiurus, Lin. Desm. Rough-tailed Bat, Penn. Ears oval, short-
er than the head ; fur variegated . with yellowish gray and live-
ly red. Nearly two inches long. Cayenne — Ann. Mus. viii. pi. 47»

V. Borbonicus, Geoff. Desm. Ears oval-triangular, a half shorter
than the head ; fur red above and whitish below. Body nearly
three inches in length. Isle of France. — Ann. Mus. viii pi. 46.

V. Nigrita, Geoff. Gmel. Senegal Bat, Penn. Ears oval-triangu-
lar, very short ; the third of the length of the head ; fur fawn-co-
loured above, ash-brown below. Body about four incheslong ; spread
of the wings 18 inches. Inhabits Senegal.— A nn. Mus. viii. pi. 47.

V. maximus, Desm. (V. nasutus, Shaw.) Ears oval, shorter than the
head ; muzzle long and pointed ; fur chestnut above ; of a bright
yellow on the flanks, and of a dirty white on the belly. Body
about 5| inches long ; spread of the wings nearly 18 inches. In-
habits Guiana — Buff, vii. pi. 73.

V. pygmceus, Leach. Brown deeper on the back and head ; muzzle
short and obtuse ; ears shorter than the head, broad at the base,
rounded; tragus linear. Expanded wings about five inches. In-
habits England. — Zoo/. Journ. iv. f. 22.

V. Braziliensis, Spix. With black wings. Inhabits Brazil. — Spix,
Braz. t. 36, f. 8.

V. Hilarii, Isid. Geoff. Ears small and triangular ; tail as long as
the fore-arm ; interfemoral membrane naked. Inhabits Brazil.
— Ann. des Sciences Nat. iii. 440.

V. Polythrix, Isid. Geoff. Ears small, notched at the external mar-
gins ; tail as long as the fore-arm ; interfemoral membrane with
scattered hairs on the upper side ; face hairy. Inhabits Brazil.
— Ann. des Sciences Nat. iii. 440.

V. Icevis, Isid. Geoff. Ears long; tail as long as the body; face
partly naked. Inhabits Brazil. — Ann. des Sciences Nat. iii. 445.

V. Temmmcku, Horsfield. Incisors •§• . Head cuneate, top and
sides flat ; ears shorter than the head, oblong, rounded ; tragus
elongate, falcate ; fur silky ; hair very short, olive brown, beneath
dirty yellow. Inhabits Java. — Horsfield' s Java, No. 8.

80 MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.

V. adversus, Horsfield. Incisors £, canines }— }, molars |-|. Head
wedge-shaped, high behind ; muzzle broad ; ears erect ; tragus li-
near ; fur rather woolly, above shining brown, below whitish ash-
coloured. Inhabits Java. — Horsfield's Java, No. 8.

V. Hardwickii, Horsf. Incisors £,. canines \-{, molars f-|. Head
globose ; tumid ; muzzle short, depressed ; ears very broad, con-
cave ; tragus linear, erect ; fur woolly, above brown ash-coloured,
below dirty gray. Inhabits Java — Horsfield's Java, No. 8.

V. tralatitius, Horsf. Incisors $, canines {-^, molars |-|. Head
wedge-shaped ; face bristly ; ears large, flat ; tragus linear, erect,
blunt ; fore-arm long ; fur soft, sooty black. Body three inches
long; expanded wings ten inches. Java. — Horsf. Java, No. 8.

V. imbricatuSj Horsf. Incisors %, canines \—\, molars 4-£. Head
and muzzle short, broad ; ears broad, obtuse ; tragus short, semilu-
nar ; fur shining, fulvous. Inhabits Java.— -Horsf. Java, No. 8.

V. villosissimus, Geoff. Desm, Ears like those of a rat ; inter femo-
ral membrane hairy in its middle ; fur of a pale brown. Body
about four inches long ; spread of the wings 11 inches — Inhabits
Paraguay.

V. ruber, Geoff. Desm. Ears much pointed ; hair short, cinnamon-
coloured on the upper parts, and fawn-coloured on the inferior
parts. Body about three inches long ; spread of the wings about
nine inches. — Inhabits Paraguay.

V. albescens, Geoff. Desm. Ears sharp pointed ; fur almost black,
spotted with white above, and obscure below. Body about 2J
inches long ; spread of the wings nearly nine inches. Inhabits
Paraguay. — Ann. Mus. viii. pi. 18.

V. Brasiliensis, Desm. Ears medium size, of an elongated form ;
membranes narrow and black ; fur dark brown, very soft, and sil-
ky, shaded with chestnut. Spread of the wings 11 to 12 inches
— Inhabits Brazil.

Sub-Gen. 2. PLECOTUS, Geoff. Ears larger than the head, often
much developed, united to one another by their base ; four or Jive
superior molars, and four to six inferior, on each side.

V. auritus, Lin. Geoff. Desm. The Long-eared Bat. Ears almost
as long as the body ; fur gray, deeper above than below. Body
nearly two inches long ; spread of the wings 10J inches. Inha-
bits Europe. B. — Shaw, i. pi. 40.

Var. A. Smaller than the preceding, with a redder fur. Egypt.
Var. B. Larger than the specimens found in France, and the colour deeper. Austria.

V. barbastellus, Lin. Geoff. Desm. Ears very large, united, trian-
gular, hollowed at their exterior margin ; fur of deep brown ; the
points of the hairs yellow ; membranes of a brown black. Body
two inches long ; spread of the wings 10^ inches. Inhabits France
and Germany. — Ann. Mus. viii. pi. 46.

4

ATALAPHA. MAMMALIA. 81

V. Maugei, Desm. Ears very large, united ; hollowed exteriorly to-
wards the point, which is rounded ; fur of a blackish brown above,
and of a clear brown below ; posterior parts of the body white ;
membranes gray. A little larger than the preceding. — Porto- Rico.

V. TimorensiSj Geoff. Desm. Ears large, united at their internal
base by a little membrane ; fur blackish brown above and ash-co-
loured brown below. About 2| inches long j spread of the wings
10 inches. Island of Timor. — Ami. Mus. viii. pi. 47.

V. velatus, Isid. Geoff. Chestnut-coloured above, grayish-brown
beneath ; tail as long as the body, entirely involved in the mem-
brane ; ears long, with two longitudinal plaits hanging over the
face ; spread of wings 13^ inches. — Ann. Sei. Nat. iii. 446.

Gen. 54. ATALAPHA, Rafinesque. — Vespertilio, Gmel. Geoff.

No incisors ; nose simple, without crests or membranes ; ears
separate, and furnished with auricles ; tail long, surpassing
the interfemoral membrane a little, or comprised in it.

A. Americana, Rafinesque. (Vesp. Noveboracensis, Penn.) New
York Bat. Ears short and broad, rounded ; tail comprised en-
tirely within the interfemoral membrane.— United States.

A. sicula, Rafinesque. Ears as long as the head ; tail projecting by
an obtuse point, — Inhabits Sicily.

ORDER IV.— FERJE. Carnassiers, Cuv.
Four extremities proper for walking ; three kinds of teeth ;
mammae abdominal, varying in number ; stomach simple,
membranous ; intestines short.

This order is composed of unguiculated quadrupeds, which possess, in common
with Man and the Quadrumana, three kinds of teeth. They all live chiefly on ani-
mal matter, and this more exclusively as their molar teeth are more or less formed
for cutting. Those which have these teeth in part or wholly tuberculous, subsist
more or less on vegetable substances ; and those which have them covered with conical
points live chiefly upon insects. The articulation of their inferior jaw, directed
cross-wise, and shutting as a hinge, prevents its having a horizontal movement, the
motion being limited to shutting and opening. Their brain, though furrowed, has
no third lobe ; their orbit is not separated by a temporal depression ; their cranium
is confined, and the zygomatic arch widened and raised, to give more room and
strength to the muscles of the jaws. Their predominating sense seems that of
smell, and the pituitary membrane is generally extended upon numerous bony la-
minae. Their fore-arm turns with less facility than among the quadrumanous ani-
mals. Their intestines are also less voluminous, on account of the substantial na-
ture of their aliment, and to avoid the putrefaction which animal matter would ex-
perience in remaining too long in an elongated canal.

FAMILY I— INSECTIVORA.

Feet short, armed with stout nails ; those of the hind feet al-
ways with five toes, having their sole entirely bearing upon

VOL. I. F

82 MAMMALIA. FER.E.

the ground ; fore-feet generally with five toes ; molar teeth
crowned with pointed tubercles ; canines sometimes very long,
sometimes very short ; incisors variable in number ; body
covered with hair or prickles.

1st Division. — Two long incisors in front, followed by other
incisors, or false canines, shorter than the molars.

Gen. 55. ERINACEUS, Lin. Pall. Geoff. Cuv. &c.

Incisors f , canines \-{9 molars f-f , = 34. Intermediate up-
per incisors separate, cylindrical ; canines smaller than the
molars ; body thick, covered with prickles above and stiff
hairs below, capable of rolling up into a ball ; muzzle pointed ;
ears medium size, or very short and rounded ; toes armed
with strong nails ; tail short, or none ; ten mammae, six
pectoral, and four ventral ; no ccecum ; clavicles complete.

E. Europceus, Lin. Common Hedgehog. Ears short ; prickles

about an inch long, in diverging clusters, with the points white.

About a foot long.— Penn. Quad. tab. 28, fig. 3.

Var. A.— Nose prolonged like that of a hog.

Var. B — Nose shorter, spinous mantle less extended.

The hedgehogs are nocturnal animals, concealing themselves during the day, and
coming out at night to feed. Their food is chiefly insects and their larvae, snails,
eggs, and fruits, and some even eat with impunity the cantharides and other ve-
sicating insects. They become extremely fat towards autumn, and pass the winter
in torpidity in holes previously prepared. Their gait is heavy, and their intel-
ligence very limited. Their period of gestation is not exactly known ; but the
young at birth have their eyes and ears closed. When alarmed they roll themselves
up like a ball, and present a surface of erected spines to their enemies. The com-
mon hedgehog is found in all the temperate parts of Europe.

E. auritus, Geoff. Pallas. Hedgehog of Egypt. Muzzle short ; ears
two- thirds the length of the head. A little smaller than the
hedgehog of Europe. Astracan, Egypt, &c — Griff. An. King. 170.

E. Malaccensis, Lin. Desm. (Hi/strix brachyura Lin.) Muzzle
short; ears pretty short, pendant; spines very long, directed paral-
lel to one another. Eight inches long. Java, &c — Shaw, i. pi. 121.

Gen. 56. SOREX, Lin. Cuv. Desm.

Incisors §, spurious canines, or lateral incisors |-|, or |-|, true
molars |-|, = 28 or 30. Upper middle incisors hooked and
dentated at the base ; molars crowned with points ; head
much elongated ; nose prolonged and moveable ; ears short,
rounded ; eyes small, but perceptible ; tail more or less long,
often angular ; feet with weak toes, separated, furnished with
crooked nails; teats six or eight; sebaceous glands on the flanks.

S. araneus, Lin. Shrew Mouse. Ears large and naked, with two
folds or lobes within; fur mouse-coloured, paler below; tail
square, a little shorter than the body. About two inches long,
weighing three drachms. Inhabits Europe. B — Shaw, i. pi. 118.

SOREX. MAMMALIA. 83

S. Daubentonii, Blumenbach, Geoff. (S. fodiens, Pall.) The Wa-
ter Shrew. Ears provided with three small valves, capable of shut-
ting it entirely ; toes of the feet bordered with stiff hairs ; tail
square-shaped, a little shorter than the body ; fur blackish above,
white below. Three inches long. Europe. — Shaw, i. pi. 118.

S. tetragonuruSj Geoff. Desm. Square-tailed Shrew. Ears short ;
fur blackish above and ash brown below ; tail long, square. Two
inches three lines long. France — Ann. Mus. xvii. pi. 2. fig. 3.

S. constrictus, Hermann, Desm. Flat-tailed Shrew. Ears very-
small, entirely concealed by the hair ; fur of a black ash-colour ;
tail flattened at its base and point, round in its middle. Two inches
seven lines long. Inhabits France. — Ann. Mus. xvii. pi. 3. fig. 1,

S. leucodon, Hermann, Desm. Back brown ; belly and flanks
white; tail slightly tetragonous. Two inches ten lines long.
Environs of Strasburg — Ann. Mus. xvii. 181.

S. lineatus, Geoff. Desm. Tail round, strongly carinated below ;
fur of a blackish brown, paler below ; throat, ash-coloured ; a spot
upon each ear, and a little white line upon the forehead. Two
inches long. Inhabits France — -Ann. Mus. xvii. 181.

S. remifer, Geoff. Desm. Tail square at its base, compressed at its
point ; fur of a blackish brown above, lighter beneath. — Ann. Mus.
xvii. pi. 2. fig. 1.

S. collaris, Geoff. Fur black ; a white collar around the neck. In-
habits the islands at the mouth of the Meuse.— Mem. Mus. i. 309.

S. Indicus, Geoff. Desm. Tail round, half as long as the body; fur
short, gray brown, tinted above with red ; ears naked. Six inches
long, the largest of the genus. Inhabits India. — Mem. Mus.i. pi. 15.

S. Capensis, Geoff. Desm. Tail round, red, half as long as the
body ; fur ash-coloured, shaded with fawn-colour. Three inches
eight lines long. Cape of Good Hope. — Petiver, t. 23. fig. 9.

S. myosurus, PalK Geoff. Tail round, thick, almost naked; muzzle
, . gibbous ; fur white. Three inches nine lines long — Ann. Mus.
xvii. pi. 3. fig. 2, 3.

S. parvus, Say. Brownish cinereous above, beneath cinereous ;
teeth blackish ; tail short. About 2 J inches long. Inhabits Mis-
souri.— Long's Exped. i. p. 163.

S. brevicaudus, Say. Blackish plumbeous above, lighter beneath ;
teeth blackish ; tail short, robust. Inhabits Missouri. — Long's
Exped. i. 164.

S. Etruscus, Savi. Ashy gray, white underneath ; ears round ; tail
large, subquadrate. Inhabits Tuscany. — New Givrnal, i. 60.

Gen. 57. MY GALE, Cuv. Geoff. — Castor, Lin. — Sorex^ Pallas.

Incisors f, canines \-\, molars J-J = 44. Inferior incisora
with the two middle ones smallest ; canines not distinct in

84 MAMMALIA.

their form from the lateral incisors and first molars ; muzzle
prolonged, moveable, and endowed with great sensibility ; no
external ears ; eyes very small ; toes palmated ; nails long and
crooked; tail scaly, compressed laterally,

M. Moscovitica, Geoff. (Castor moschaius, Lin.) Musk Rat of Rus-
sia. Tail shorter than the body,, scaly, almost naked, striated at
its base ; fur brown above, white below. Eight inches long. In-
habits Southern Russia — Sckreb. t. 159.

M. Pyrenaica. Tail longer than the body, cylindrical for the greater
part of its length, but vertically compressed at its extremity ; fur
brown above and gray below. Body four inches long. Inhabits
the Pyrenees. — Ann. Mus. xvii. pi. 4. fig. 1.

Gen. 58. TUPAIA, Raffles.

Incisors §, canines |-j, molars J-|, — 38. Body elongated ;
head triangular, attenuated, blunt ; eyes projecting, and ears
large ; tail very long ; four ventral teats ; diurnal.

T. tana, Raffles. Head long ; muzzle pointed ; fur above reddish
brown, spotted with black beneath, and an oblique red line on
each shoulder. Inhabits Sumatra. — HorsfielcTs Java, No. 3.

T. Javanica, Raffles. Head long ; muzzle slightly pointed ; tail
very long; fur brown, speckled with gray above, gray below, with
a whitish gray oblique line on the shoulder. Inhabits Java.—
Horsfield's Java, No. 3.

T.jerruginea, Raffles. Muzzle slightly pointed; fur ferruginous.
Inhabits Java.—Hors/ield's Java, No. 3.

Gen. 59. SCALOPS, Geoff. Cuv. — Soreoc, Lin. — Talpa, Penn.

Incisors f , conical teeth f— §, molars f— f = 30. Lower in-
cisors conical, straight, with two very small intermediate in-
cisors ; first and third upper conical teeth on each side larger
than the second ; molars crowned with sharp tubercles ; muzzle
prolonged and cartilaginous ; eyes very small ; external ears
none ; feet short, pentadactyle, the anterior very broad ; nails
long, flattened, proper for digging ; tail short.

S. Canadensis, Desm. (Sorex aquaticus, Lin. Talpafusca, Penn.)
A Nose much prolonged, terminated by a cartilaginous button ; feet
and tail of the mole ; fur gray brown. About six inches long.
— Inhabits United States from Canada to Virginia.

Gen 60. CHRYSOCHLORTS, Cuv. Geoff. Desm. — Talpa, Lin.

Incisors f , conical teeth f-f , molars f-f = 40. Intermediate
lower incisors very small ; fore-feet short, with three toes
armed with strong nails ; hind-feet pentadactyle ; eyes very
small ; no external ear ; no tail.

C. Capensu, Desm. (Talpa Asiatica, Gmel.) Fur brown, with

CONDYLURA. MAMMALIA, 85

under certain aspects brilliant copper and green metallic reflec-
tions; five toes on the hind-feet; no tail. About 4^ inches in
length. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope — Schrel. tab. 157-

C. rufa, Desm. (Talpa rubra, Lin.) Red Mole. Fur of a reddish
approaching to bright ash-colour ; hind feet with four toes ; tail
short. A little larger than the mole of Europe. Inhabits Ameri-
ca.—Peww. Quad. 486,

Gen. 61. CONDYLURA, Illiger, Desm. — Sorex, Lin. — Scalops,
Geoff. — Talpa, Cuv.

Incisors f, conical teeth or spurious molars f-f , true molars
|-f = 40. Six superior incisors anomalous, the two inter-
mediate very broad ; muzzle much prolonged, furnished with
membranous crests around the opening of the nostrils ; no ex-
ternal ears ; eyes excessively small ; body thick ; feet penta-
dactyle ; the nails on the fore-feet strong.

C. cristata, Desm. (Sorex crlstatus, Lin.) Radiated Mole. Nostrils
surrounded by a circular membrane of a stellated form; tail
shorter than the half of the body. About four inches long. In-
habits Canada and United States. — Penn. Quad. tab. 28. fig. 1.

C. longicaudata, Desm. (Talpa longicaudata, Erxleb.) Long-
tailed Mole. No nasal crests ; tail half the length of the body.
Body from four to six inches long. Inhabits North America.—
Penn. Quad. tab. 18. fig. 2.

C. macroura, Harlan. Nose surrounded by a circular fringed mem-
brane ; tail nearly the length of the body,, strangulated at its base,
slightly compressed, tapering. Five inches long — Faun. Amer. 39.

2d Division. — Four large separated canines with small in-
cisors between them.

Gen. 62. TALPA, Lin. Cuv. Desm. &c.

Incisors f, canines J-J, molars |-| = 44. Body thick; head

- elongated, pointed ; muzzle with cartilaginous button ; eyes

very small ; no external ears ; pentadactylous ; fore-feet very

large, with toes united to the nails, which are strong and

slightly arched.

T. Europea, Lin. Desm. The Mole. Fur soft, black, shining; tail

short. About five inches long. — Shaw, i. pi. 117.
Var. A. Skin marbled with white and black spots — Var. B. Fur entirely white.
Var. C. Fur yellowish. — Var D. Fur ash-coloured.

Gen. 63. CENTENES, Illig. Desm. — Setiger, Cuv. Geoff.

Erinaceus, Lin.

Incisors f or f , canines i-i, molars f-f — 38 or 40. Canine
teeth very strong ; body covered with spines, but not capable
of being formed into a ball ; feet pentadactyle ; no tail.

C. setosus, Desm. (Erinaceus setosus, Lin.) Spines long and flexi-,

86 MAMMALIA. PER*.

ble ; four hollowed incisors in each jaw. From ten inches to a
foot long. Madagascar and the Isle of France — Buff, xii. pi. 56.

M. F. Cuvier has found in a young individual of this species two small super-
numerary incisors in the upper jaw, situated before the canines, which he presumes
fall out with age.

C. spinosus, Desm. (Erinacens ecaudaius, Lin.) Spines short and
stiff on the upper parts of the body, bristles and hair on the lower
parts ; four incisors only in the lower jaw. Inhabits Madagascar. —
Buff. xii. pi. 57.

C. semispinosus, Desm. (Erinaceus semispinosus, Cuv.) Body co-
vered with bristles and spines, mixed,, banded with yellow and
black ; six incisors above and below ; canines slender and crooked.
Four inches long. Inhabits Madagascar. — Buff. Sup. iii. pi. 37»

FAMILY II.-— CARNIVORA.

Six incisors in each jaw ; molars generally edged, sometimes
tuberculous, never rough with pointed tubercles on their
crown ; canines very strong.

1st TRIBE. PLANTIGRADA. — Sole of the foot entirely resting

on the ground.
Gen. 64. URSUS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff., &c.

Incisors £ , canines J-{, molars ^-7 = 82 to 44. Incisors of
the lower jaw on the same line ; posterior molars very strong^
with a square crown and blunt tubercles ; feet pentadactyle,
armed with strong nails ; body thick ; tail short ; mammae
six, two pectoral and four ventral.

U. Arctos, Lin. Common Brown Bear. Forehead convex above the
.7 eyes ; muzzle truncated ; fur brown. Upwards of four feet long.

Inhabits Europe, and temperate parts of Asia. — Shaw, i. pi. 102.

The bear lives in solitary places and in the deepest recesses of forests. In winter
it retires to caverns or the hollow trunks of large trees, where it exists in a kind of
torpidity, occasionally sucking its fore-paws. Its food consists chiefly of vegetable
substances ; and it never attacks man or animals but when pressed by hunger. In
fighting it raises itself upon its hind legs, and presses its enemy by its fore-feet to its
breast.

Var. A. — White bear of Europe ; an albino variety.

Numerous other varieties of this species are noticed, founded upon shades of colour
more or less black, fawn-coloured, or white.

U.cinereus, Desm. (Ursusferox, Lewis and Clark.) Gray Bear. Fur
long, cinereous gray, very thick, especially around the neck and
back of the head. About 8J feet long — Inhabits United States.

U. Americanus, Pall. Desm. Cuv. Black Bear. Nose on the same

fj t line as the forehead, which is gibbous ; fur black, shining, not

curled. Four feet eight inches long. Inhabits North America.

U. maritimus, Lin Desm. The Polar Bear. Head elongated ; cra-
nium flattened ; neck long ; hair long, soft, and white. About
7| feet long. Inhabits coasts of the Polar Sea — Shaw, i. pi. 103.

PROCYON. MAMMALIA. 87

U. labiatus, Blainville, Desm. (Brmdypu* ursinus, Shaw.) Lips
extremely long and extensible; hair black; passing in some places
to brown. Size of the brown bear. India — Shaw, i. pi. 47-

U. Malay anus s Raffles. Malay Bear. Black, with a large heart-
4. shaped patch of yellowish white on the throat. Fur short and
smooth. Inhabits India. — Horsfield's Java, No. 4.

U. Thibetanus, F. Cuv. The Thibet Bear. Black, with the under
jaw white ; pectoral patch forked, and continued to the middle of
the belly. Inhabits Thibet. — F. Cuv. Mam.

U. spelosus, (fossil.) Blumen. Cuv. Forehead much elevated above
the root of the nose, presenting two convex projections. In calca-
reous caverns of Germany — Cuv. Oss. Foss. iv. pi. 3. figs. 1, 2.

U. Arctoideus, (fossil.) Blumen. Cuv. Cranium similar to that of the
black bear of America, but with less vertical elevation, and the
muzzle more elongated. Found in the same places as the fore-
going.— Cuv. Oss. Foss. iv. pi. 3, figs. 3, 4.

Gen. 65. PROCYON, Storr. Cuv. Desm, — Ursus, Lin.
Incisors §, canines ^-j, molars g-§ — 40. Lower incisors on
the same line ; the three posterior molars tuberculous ; feet
pentadactyle ; nails sharp ; muzzle pointed ; ears small ; tail
long ; six ventral mammae.

P. lotor, Cuv. Desm. ( Ursus lotor, Lin.) The Raccoon. Fur brown
gray ; muzzle white, with a brown streak across the eyes ; tail
annulated with brown and white. Body about two feet long.
Inhabits N. America, Mexico, and West Indies. — Shaw, i. pi, 105.
Var. A. White where the others are gray or yellowish, and lively red where
they are black — Var. B. With a brown spot on the throat Var. C. Body co-
vered above with thick white hair ; below with whitish yellow.

P. cancrivorus, Geoff. Desm. ( Ursus cancrivorus, Cuv.) Fur
fawn-coloured, mixed with gray and black, pretty uniform above,
of a whitish yellow below ; annulations of the tail faintly marked.
About 2J feet long. Inhabits S. America. — Buff. Suppl. vi. pi. 32.

Gen. 66. NASUA, Storr. Cuv. — Ursus, Briss. — Viverra, Lin.

Incisors f , canines £-}, molars §-§ = 40. Lower incisors on
the same line ; three posterior molars tuberculous ; feet pen-
tadactyle, armed with strong nails ; nose much prolonged, and
moveable ; tail long ; six ventral mammae.

N. rufa, Desm. F. Cuv. The Red Coati. Fur generally of a bril-
liant red ; muzzle grayish black, with three white spots about
each eye. About a foot long. S. America — F. Cuv. Mam. liv. 1.

N. fusca, Desm. ( Viverra nasica, Lin.) The Brown Coati. Fur
brown or fawn-coloured above, of a yellowish-gray or orange yel-
low ; three white spots about each eye ; a longitudinal white line
along the nose. Size of the preceding. S. America. — Schreb. 1. 1 18.
Var. A.— Fur more fawn-coloured than brown. The Coati Mondi of Marcgrave.

88 MAMMALIA. FER.E.

Gen. (>7. POTOS, Geoff. Desm. — Viverra, Gmel. Schreb. —
Lemur, Penn.

Incisors f canines ^-f, molars f-f = 36. Lower incisors on
the same line ; the three posterior molars with tuberculous
crowns ; pentadactyle ; toes armed with crooked nails ; muzzle
short ; head rounded ; tail long and prehensile.

P. caudivolvulus, Desm. (Viverra caudivolvula, Schreb.) Yellow
Maucoco, Penn. Fur silky, of a brownish very bright fawn-co-
lour. About 19 inches long. S. America. — Penn. Quad. t. 16.

Gen. 68. TAXUS, Geoff.— Meles, Storr. Cuv. — Ursus 9 Lin.

Incisors, f, canines ^-i, molars |-| = 88. The first molar
very small, the second and third pointed, the fourth cutting
on the external side, the fifth tuberculous and large ; body
low upon the legs ; pentadactyle ; nails robust ; tail short ;
an anal pouch, containing a fetid secretion.

T. vulgaris, Desm. (Ursus meles, Lin.) The Badger. Fur of a
gray brown above, black below ,• a longitudinal black band on
each side of the head, passing around the eye and ear. About
two feet three inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Shaw,i. pi. 106.

T. Labradorica, ( Ursus Labradoricus, Gm.) Pale yellowish-gray ;
belly and throat white, with a longitudinal band on the side of
the head, passing over the eye and the ear. Inhabits Hudson's
Bay Shaw, i. pi. 106.

Gen. 69. GULO, Cuv. Illig. — Mustela, Ursus, Lin.

Incisors §, canines \-\, molars |-f or f-f — 36 or 38. Mo-
lars, the three first in the upper, and the four in the lower
jaw, small, succeeded by a large carnivorous tooth, and a
small tuberculous one at the back ; body low, head mode-
rately elongated ; ears short and round ; tail short ; penta-
dactyle ; toes with crooked nails ; no anal pouch.

G. arcticus, Desm. (Ursus gulo, Lin. Pall.) The Wolverene,
Penn. Body pretty thick ; fur of a fine deep chestnut-colour,
with a disc, almost black upon the back. About 2@ inches long.
Inhabits northern Europe and America. — Shaw, i. pi. 104.

Var. A. Differs from the preceding in the colours being paler.
The voracity of this animal, though excessive, has been greatly exaggerated. It
is about the size of the badger, and the body is heavy. When a sufficient supply of
small quadrupeds and birds cannot be procured, it is said to conceal itself on the
horizontal branch of some tree, where it will drop on deer or other animals passing
beneath, holding its situation and sucking their blood till exhaustion renders them
an easy prey. According to Dr Richardson, it is extremely annoying to the hunters,
by devouring their stores of provision and carrying off the baits of their marten
traps. It has been known to visit daily a line of traps extending upwards of two
miles, and to rob the whole of them of the baits, and of such animals as had been
caught.

GULO. MAMMALIA. 89

G. vittatus, Desm. ( Viverra vittata, Lin.) Body much elongated ;
, fur black, spotted with white ; top of the head and neck gray ; a

white band running from each side of the forehead to the shoulders.

About one foot long. S. America. — Wern. Mem. iii. pi. 19, fig. 5.

G. barbatus, Desm. (Mtistela barbata, Lin.) Body elongated;
fur of a black brown ; a large spot of a yellowish white colour
covering the under part of the neck and throat. Inhabits Gui-
ana, Brazil, &c. — Browns Jamaica, pi. 49, fig. 1.*

G. Capensis, Desm. (Viverra Capensis, Lin.) Body thick and
short ; fur gray above, black below, with a longitudinal white
line on each side from the ears to the origin of the tail. About
three feet four inches long. Inhabits Cape of Good Hope. —
Sparman, Act. Stockh. 1777, tab. 4, fig. 3.

G. orientalis, Horsfield. Fur glossy reddish brown ; white patches
about the head and throat, and a long pyramidal white patch
from the top of the head to the middle of the spine. Body 16
inches long. Inhabits Java. — Horsf. Java.

G. larvatus, Griff. The Masked Glutton. Fur olive brown and
gray ; tip of the tail and feet black ; white patches about the
face. Larger than the polecat — Griffith's Anim. King. ii. 281.

G.ferrugineus, Griffiths. Fur chestnut colour ; tail black ; head
broad and depressed ; eyes near the nostrils.— <An. King. ii. 282.

2d TRIBE. DIGITIGRADA. — Walking on the toes.

1st Division. — With one tuberculous tooth behind the great
carnivorous tooth of the upper jaw.

Gen. 70. MUSTELA, Lin. Cuv. Illig. Desm.
Incisors f , canines }-}, molars |-f , or f-f , = 34 or 38. Bo-
dy elongated ; head small and oval ; ears short and round ;
legs short; feet pentadactyle, armed with sharp hooked
claws ; no anal pouch.

Sub.-Gen. 1. PUTORIUS, Cuv. — Two false molars above, and three
below ; no interior tubercle on the great canine below; muzzle
short ; emit a fetid odour.

M. putorius, Lin. Desm. The Polecat, Penn. Fur brown ; the in-
terior hairs of a yellowish white ; some white spots at the head and
muzzle. About 18 inches long. Europe. B. — Penn. Quad. p. 213.

M.furo, Lin. Desm. The Ferret, Penn. Fur yellowish; eyes red-

/ coloured. M. Cuvier thinks that the ferret is only a variety of
the polecat. Body nearly 14 inches in length. — Penn. Quad. 214.

Arar. A. Fur variegated with white, black, and fawn-colour.
Common in Spain, where it was imported from Africa. In Great Britain it exists
only in a domesticated state.

^ M, Sibirica, Pall. Schreb. Desm. Fur of a pale fawn-coloured
yellow on the lower parts ; muzzle brown, around the nose white.

90 MAMMALIA. FEU*.

Similar in size to the preceding. Inhabits thick forests in Sibe-
ria.— Pallas, Spic. Zool. pi. 4, fig. 2.

M. Sarmatica, Pall. Desm. Fur of a ferruginous brown, spotted
with yellow above ; throat and belly black. About 13 inches
long. Inhabits Poland and Russia. — Pall. Spic. xiv. t. 4, fig. 1.

M. vulgaris, Lin. Desm. The Weasel. Fur of a reddish brown
above, white below. Body about 6^ inches in length. Inha-
bits Europe, &c. B. — Shaw, i. pi. 98.

Var. A. (M. nivalis, Lin.) White, with some black hairs at the extremity of the tail.
A voracious animal, inhabiting the temperate and northern parts of the old world

and North America. The white variety is found in "YVestrobothnia, Sweden, and in

Russia and Siberia.

M. Africana, Desm. Body above of a reddish brown ; below of a
pale yellow, with a longitudinal narrow band of the first colour
in the middle of the belly. Ten inches long. Inhabits Africa.

M. erminea, Lin. Desm. The Ermine in winter — The Stoat in
summer. Fur in summer of a brown chestnut, paler above,
white below ; in winter fur white ; tail always black at its ex-
tremity. About 9J inches in length. Common in the north of
Europe. — Shaw, i. pi. 99.

M. lutreola, Pall. Desm. The Mink. Fur of a blackish brown ;
upper lip, chin, and under part of the neck white ; feet semipal-
mated. Nearly a foot long. Europe — Pall Spic. Zool. xiv. pi. 31 .

M. alpinus, Gebler. The Alpine Polecat. Fur sulphur yellow,
brownish above ; chin white. About a foot in length. Inhabits
the Altaic Mountains. — F. Gebler. Mem. Moscou, vi. 213.

M. nudipes, F. Cuv. Java Ferret. Fur brilliant golden yellow ;

ff forehead and tip of tail yellow white ; soles of the feet naked.

About 11 inches long. Inhabits Java. — F. Cuv. Mam. No. 32. t. 3.

M. lutreocephala, Harlan. Fur brownish white, paler beneath ;
tail ferruginous brown. About 20 inches long. Inhabits United
States. — Harlan, Faun. Amer. p. 63.

Sub.-Gen. 2. ZORILLES. — Muzzle short ; two Jalse molars above,
three below ; nails of the fore feet strong, and proper for digging.

M. zorilla, Lin. Desm. (Mustela zorilla, Lin.) Fur irregularly
variegated with longitudinal black and white bands. Cape of
Good Hope.— Shaw, i. 391.

Sub.-Gen. 3. MARTES. — A little tubercle on the lower large carnivo-
rous tooth; a false molar above and below more than the Putorlus.

M. martes, Lin. The Pine Marten. Fur brown, with a bright yel-
!? low spot under the throat. About 18 inches long. North of

Europe. B — Shaw, i. 410.
M./owa, Lin. The Beech Marten. Fur brown, below the throat

and neck whitish. About 16 inches long. Europe and Western

Asia. B. — Buff. vii. pi. 18.

MUSTELA. MAMMALIA. 91

M. zibellina, Lin. The Sable. Fur brown., whitish on the head,
and gray on the throat ; feet covered with fur to the ends of the
toes. About 18 inches in length. Northern Asia. — Schreb. t. 136.

M. vison, Lin. Fur brown, with the point of the inferior jaw
white, and the tail brown black ; feet semipalmated. About 15
inches long. Inhabits Canada — Schreb. t. ]27.

M. Canadensis, Lin. Pekan Weasel, Penn. Head, neck, shoul-
ders, and upper part of the back mixed gray and brown ; nose,
croup, tail, and members of a blackish brown ; often a white spot
on the throat. About 18 inches long. Canada. — Schreb. t. 134.

M. rufa, Desm. Geoff. Fur of a red chestnut, deeper above than
below, and composed of hairs annuJated with brown, chestnut, and
yellow; tail brown at the tip. Probably a variety of the preceding.

M. Pennantii, Erxleb. The Fisher Weasel, Penn. Fur yellow-
ish, topped with black ; throat, belly, and legs brown ; ears short,
lighter at the tips; tail black, shining. About 2J feet long.
North America — Penn. Quad. No. 202.

M. leucotis, Griffiths. Fur dark brown ; inside of ears white

Griff. An. King. ii. 297-

M. sinuensis, Humb. The Zorra. Fur of a uniform blackish-gray ;
belly and interior of the ears white. About two feet two inches
in length. Inhabits the warmer parts of New Grenada.

Gen. 71. MEPHITIS, Cuv. — Viverra, Lin.

Incisors f , canines ^-J, molars |-| = 34. Body elongated,
arched; toes of the foot separated and armed with strong nails,
the anterior formed for digging ; tail long and bushy, or none.

The mephitic weasels are rather clumsy and not nearly so active as their congeners,
and as their means of flight are limited, nature has provided them with a singular
mode of defence in the ejection of a fetid liquor from their body. Young sporting
dogs, unacquainted with the animal, sometimes pounce on them ; but the dash of fetid
liquid instantly forces them to retire. They whine, rub their noses in the earth,
and will never again pursue another of the same species. The smell of this offen-
sive liquor is so penetrating, that washing and baking clothes upon which it has been
injected is found insufficient, and the intolerable smell is diffused to a considerable
distance. Azara declares he was not able to endure the disgusting smell which a
dog that had received it from one of the species a week before communicated to
some furniture, although the dog had been washed and scrubbed with sand above
twenty times.

M. Americanus, Desm. The Chinche. Fur soft, shining, marked
with white longitudinal bands upon a blackish-brown ground ;
tail covered with very long tufted hair. About the size of the
domestic cat — Shaw, i. pi. 94.

Var. A. — With many white bands. The Ysquiepalt of Hernandez.

Var. B — With nine white lines, and digitigrade. The Putois of Catesby.

Var. C — With six white bands, and said to be plantigrade. Moufette Conepatl, Buff.

Var. D — With two white bands along the tail. Conepatl, Hernandez.

Var. E — Glauton Mapurito, Humboldt. Fur of a deep-black ; back with only

one white band, which commences at the forehead and terminates at the half of

the body. Its odour is insupportable.

92 MAMMALIA. FERJE.

Var. F. — Mephitis Chiliensis, Geoff. With two white bands on the sides of the
body, uniting behind the head and forming a crescent

Var. G. — Viverra mephitis, GmeL or Chinche of Buffon. With two very broad
white bands posteriorly ; forehead marked with a longitudinal white band.

Var. H Feulilee's Chinche. With two white bands, which spread and terminate

on the sides.

Var I. — Moufette Yagouare of Azara. Fur of a brown-black and two white bands.

Var. K Polecat of Kalm. The Skunk. Fur brown-black, with one longitudinal

white line on the back and one on each side.

Var. L Moufette Zorille. Fur black and white, with a fine tail.

Var. M. — Body spotted with white and black. Mafutiliqui of the Indians.

Var. N. Male black; female black bordered with white. Louisiana.

Var. O White, black, and fawn-coloured. Orthula of Mexico.

Var. P. — Tail with black and white rings. Tepemaxtla, Hernandez.

Var. Q Gulo Quitensis, Humboldt. Plantigrade. Body black and marked

with two white bands, which extend from the top of the head to the tail.

Var. R. — Mephitis interrupt^ Rafinesque. Brown, with two short white bands,
parallel to the head ; eight bands on the back, of which the four anterior are
equal and parallel, and the four posterior rectangular, and disposed in an op-
posite direction. About a foot long — Louisiana.

M. Javanensis, Desm. ( Telagon, F. Cuv.) Fur deep-brown ; fore-
head with a white spot, extended into a dorsal line ; tail very
short, and covered with long hair. Body about 16 inches in
length. Inhabits Java. — Horsf. Zoo/. Res. vi.

Made a new genus by Dr Horsfield, under the name of Myadeus.

Gen. 7£. LUTRA, Desm. Cuv. Shaw, &c. — Mustela, Lin.

Incisors §, canines £-£, molars f-f, or f-f, — 36 or 38.
Head large, and flattened ; ears short ; body long, low up-
on the legs, toes webbed ; nails crooked ; tail long, flattened
horizontally.

L. vulgaris, Desm. (Mustela lutra, Lin.) The Otter, Penn. Fur
brown above, and whitish below ; tail more than half as long as
the body. Inhabits Europe. B — -Shaw, i. pi. 100.

Var. A.— With a number of small round white spots on the flanks.

L. Brasiliensis, Geoff. Desm. (Mustela lutris Brasiliensis, Lin.)
Fur brown, or fawn-coloured, with the throat white or yellowish.
Rivers in Guiana, &c. — Cuv. Reg. Anim. iv. t. 4, fig. 3.

L. Canadensis, Sabine. {Mustela Hudsonica, Lacepede.) Canadian
Otter. Fur glossy-brown ; chin and throat dusky white ; neck
and head long ; legs short ; tail pointed, and as long as the body.
Inhabits Copper Mine River. — Franklin, Voy. Ap. 653.

L. insularis, F. Cuv. Hairs scattered ; body clear chestnut-brown ;
throat and chin yellowish-white. Inhabits Isle of Trinity.—
Diet. Sc. Nat. xxvii.

L. lataxina, F. Cuv. Fur long, twisted, thick ; brown-black above,
pale bluish-gray below. Inhabits Carolina. — Diet. Sc. Nat. xxvii.

L. enudris, F. Cuv. Fur above clear bay, paler beneath ; throat,
and sides of the face nearly white — Diet. Sc. Nat. xxvii.

L. nair, F. Cuv. Fur long, deep chestnut ; lower part of the neck,

CANIS. MAMMALIA. 93

throat, and belly clear reddish-white ; a brown band on the cheeks
under each eye. Inhabits Pondicherry. — Diet. Sc. Nat. xxvii.

L. inmiguis, F. Cuv. Fur chestnut-brown above,, deeper on the
buttock, tail, and legs ; lower parts white ; toes large, semipal-
mated, without claws. Cape of Good Hope — Diet. Sc. Nat. xxvii.

L. leptonyx, Horsf. Fur shining fulvous brown; throat dull yellow;
claws short, blunt, nearly laminar. Inhabits Java. — Horsf. Jav. vii.

L. marina, Erxleb. Desm. The Sea Otter. Fur blackish, shin-
ing ; body very long ; tail about a third of the length of the bo-
dy ; hind feet very short — Shaw, i. pi. 101.

Var. A. With white head — Dr Fleming, in his Philosophy of Zoology, makes a
separate genus of this species under the name of Enhydra, and places it and
the genus Lutra alongst with the seals.

2d Division. — Two tuberculous flat teeth behind the great
carnivorous tooth in the upper jaw.

Gen. 73. CANIS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff.

Incisors £, canines J— J, molars f-f =. 42. The three first
molars in the upper jaw, and the four in the lower, small,
edged ; the great carnivorous tooth above bicuspid, with a
tubercle on the inner side ; two tuberculous teeth behind
each of the large carnivorous ones ; muzzle elongated ; tongue
soft ; ears erect ; fore-feet pentadactylous ; hind feet tetra-
dactylous ; teats inguinal and ventral.

* DOGS. — Pupils of the eyes round.

C. familiar is, Lin. Desm. Tail curved upwards; muzzle more or
less lengthened ; fur varying in the nature of the hair, and of
various colours ; tail generally tipped with white.

The dog, distinguished by its curved tail, runs into endless varieties in point of
size, form, and the colour and quality of the hair. The domestication of this animal
is, in Cuvier's opinion, the most complete, the most singular, and the most useful con-
quest man has ever made. All the species has become his peculiar property ; and
each individual, devoted to his master alone, accommodates itself to his manners,
protects his goods, and remains attached to him till death. This connection arises
not from constraint, nor from the want of man's protection ; for the dog has natu-
rally powers of defence and attack superior to most of the quadrupeds, but from a
species of confidence approaching to friendship. Its strength, its speed, and its smell,
have made it a powerful ally in the subjugation of the other animals, and it is the
only animal which has followed man through every quarter of the globe, and the
only one whose existence and propagation does not seem to be determined by certain
limitations of latitude.

Some naturalists have thought that the dog is derived from the wolf, and others
that it has originated from a domesticated chacal, and there is no doubt but that both
of these animals are capable of being tamed and rendered useful ; but dogs which
have been left in uninhabited islands and become completely wild, neither resemble
the one nor the other, The wild dogs, and those of people in the first stage of civi-
lization, such as the inhabitants of New Holland, have their ears erect ; which has
led to the supposition that the European races neatest the original type are the shep-
herd's dog and the Pomeranian dog ; but the comparison between their craniums
approach them more to the matin of Buffon (C. laniariiu, Lin.) and the Danish dog,
the harrier, the pointer, and the turnspit, which differ but little from them except

94 MAMMALIA. FEE*.

in size and the proportion of the members. The greyhound seems most removed.
The shepherd's dog and the Pomeranian wolf dog have the erect ears of the wild
dogs, but with a greater developement of the cranium, which is still further develo-
ped in the Spaniel family, and with an increase of intelligence. M. Desmarest, from
having remarked in an immense number of domesticated individuals, that when white
is one of the colours of the tail, the tip is always white, and from having also remar-
ked that all the wild species have the end of the tail white, is inclined to believe that
this marked character is derived from the primitive race, and has descended to our
domestic varieties. The Antarctic dogs lately brought to Europe were distinguish-
ed by the tip of the tail being white.

The young are born blind, and they attain their growth in two years. The period
of gestation is two months, and they bring forth from six to twelve young. The
dog is old at 15 years, and seldom lives beyond 20.

M. F. Cuvier divides the varieties of the dog into three groups, each differing
materially in the shape of the head, and the length of the jaws and muzzle.

Section 1. Matins.— <Head more or less elongated; parietal bones
approaching in an insensible manner ; coiidyles of the lower jaw
in a line with the upper molar teeth.

Var. A. — C. F. Australasias, Desm. The Dingo. Size and form of the shepherd's

dog, with the head resembling that of the fox.
Var. B. — C. F. Sitmatrensis, Hardwicke. Muzzle like the fox : nose pointed, eyes

oblique, ears rounded, very hairy ; tail bushy, pendulous — Shaw, i. t. 78.
Var. C. — C. F. laniarius, Lin. The Matin. Head elongated, forehead flat, ears erect

at their base and half drooping. Crossed with the bull-dog the offspring is the

English mastiff.
Var. D. — C. F. danicus, Desm. Body generally white, marked with numerous small

round black spots.
Var. E C. F. grajus, Lin. The Greyhound. Forehead very low ; muzzle

much elongated ; limbs long and slender, feet frequently wanting the fifth toe.
To this family belong the following subvarieties : — 1. The Irish greyhound, of a

brownish white colour and of large size. — 2. The Scottish greyhound, with the hairs

slightly curled and wiry. — 3. The Russian greyhound, with long and thick hair,

and tail twisted spirally — 4. The Italian greyhound. — 5. The Turkish greyhound,

with the skin nearly naked.

Section 2. Spaniels. — Head moderately elongated ; parietal bones

diverging.

Var. A. — C. F. Extrariux. The Spaniel. Ears large and pendant ; tail elevated ;
fur of varying length in different parts of the body ; colour whitish, with brown
or black patches. Employed in the chase as a setter, for which it is qualified by
its exquisite powers of smell.

The subvarieties are the Alpine Spaniel, the Newfoundland Spaniel, the Calabrian
dog, all of large size, and a number of smaller races: The group of Spaniels seem
to have been originally from Spain, whence the name.

Var. B — C. F. aquations, the Barbet Great Water Spaniel, or poodle. Two sub-
varieties, the Little Barbet and the Griffon.

Var. C. — C. Gallicus. The Harrier. Peculiar for its fine scent.

Var. D. — C. avicularius, the Pointer.

Var. E. — C. vertagus, the Turnspit.

Var. F. — C. domesticus, the Shepherd's dog.

Var. G — C. Pomeranus, the Wolf dog.

Var. H — C. Sibiricus, the Siberian dog.

Var. I. — C. Borealis the Esquimaux dog.

Var. K. — C. Americanus, the Alco.

Section 3. Muzzle more or less truncated ; cranium much elevated ;
frontal sinuses large ; condyles of the lower jaw placed above the
line of the upper molars*
Var. A— C. molossus, the Bull-dog.

CANIS. MAMMALIA. 95

Var. B — C. Angliats, the Mastiff.

Var. C, — C. Jricator^ the Pug-dog.

Var. D — C. Islandicus, the Iceland dog.

Var. E. — C. varicgatus, the little Danish dog.

Var. F, — C. liylridus, the shock dog.

Var. G. — C. Britannicus^ the black and tan terrier. Sub-var. the Scottish terrier.

Var. H. — The Artois dog.

Var. I. — C. Andalusia^ the Alicant dog.

Var. K — C. JEgyptius, the Egyptian clog.

C. lupus, Lin. Desm. The Wolf. Tail straight ; fur gray fawn-
coloured, with a black stripe on the fore legs of the adult ; eyes
oblique. Body about 3J feet long, Inhabits the forests of Eu-
rope.—-Sham, i. pi. 75.

Var. A With the fur white. The hair of wolves turns white with age, and those

in northern latitudes become white in winter.

However ferocious in its savage state, an instance related by M. F. Cuvier de-
monstrates that by education the wolf is susceptible of affection. A young wolf,
brought up like a dog, became familiar with every person he was in the habit of
seeing. He followed his master everywhere, seemed to suffer from his absence, was
obedient to his voice, and differed in nothing from the tamest of domestic dogs.
His master being obliged to travel made a present of him to the Royal Menagerie
at Paris. Here he was shut up in a compartment, and remained for many weeks
without exhibiting the least gaiety, and almost without eating. In time, however,
he attached himself to his keepers, and seemed reconciled to his fate, when after an
absence of eighteen months his master returned. At the first word he uttered the
wolf, though it did not see him in the crowd, recognized his voice, and testified his
joy by his motions and cries. Being set at liberty he overwhelmed his old master
with caresses like the most attached dog. His master being obliged to quit him a
second time, the same symptoms of regret appeared. Three years more elapsed, and
the wolf was reconciled to his confinement and to the company of a young dog which
had been given him for a companion. About this time, which would have obliterated
in most dogs the remembrance of their master, the gentleman again returned. It
was evening, and all was shut up. But the moment the creature heard his former
master's voice, he indicated his recognition by the most impatient cries. The place
being opened, the wolf rushed forward, placed his fore-feet on the shoulders of his
earliest friend, licked every part of his face, and threatened with his teeth his keepers
who approached, and to whom previously he had been testifying the warmest affec-
tion. A separation having again taken place the affectionate animal became in con-
sequence sad and immoveable, refused sustenance, and his death was feared as the
result. At the end of a week he was so reduced as was scarcely to be known. Time,
however, again soothed his feelings, and his keepers gradually acquired his confidence.

C. Lycaon, Lin. Desm. The Black Wolf. Tail straight ; body all

black. Inhabits the mountainous parts of Europe, and North

America. — Griffith's An. King. ii. 348.

Var. A. — Americana. Black, with a white spot on the breast.
C. Javanicus, Desm. Fur of a brown fawn-colour, blackish on the

back, feet, and tail ; ears pretty small. Java. — F. Cuv. Diet. Sc.

Nat. viii. p, 557.

C.jubatus, Desm. The Red Wolf. Fur of a cinnamon red; a
short mane along the back of the spine. Body four feet four in-
ches long. Paraguay. — Cuv. Reg. An. iv. pi. 1.

C. Mexicanus, Desm. Fur ash-coloured, variegated with yellowish
spots, and black lateral stripes. — Inhabits South America.

C. pictus, Desm. (Hyena picta, Penn.) Fur variegated with large

90 MAMMALIA. FEILE.

spots of black, brown, and white. Size of the European wolf,
-—Inhabits the South of Africa.

This species forms the type of a genus, according to Mr Brookes, under the name
of Lycaon.

C. Antarctica.?, Shaw, Desm. Fur reddish ; tail at base red, mid-
dle black, tip white. Falkland Islands. — Penn. Quad. t. 29.

C. cancrivorus, Desm. Fur ash-coloured, waved with black above,
yellowish white underneath. Guiana — Buff. Sup. vii. pi. 38.

C. aureus, Lin. The Chacal or Jackal. Yellowish gray above,
whitish below ; tail bristly, black at the extremity. Inhabits the
warmer parts of the Old Continent — Buff. Sup. vi. pi. 16.

C. corsac, Lin. Fur gray fawn-colour above, yellowish white be-
neath ; tail very long, black at the tip. Inhabits deserts of
Tartary — Buff. Sup. iii. pi. 17-

C. mesomelas, Desm. The Cape Chacal. Fur fulvous brown, with
a triangular blackish gray patch from the shoulders to the tail ;
tail touching the ground. Cape of Good Hope. — Shaw, i. pi. 79.

C. anthus, Desm. Fur gray, sprinkled with yellow spots ; tail
fawn-coloured, with a longitudinal black line at its base. Inha-
bits Senegal — F. Cuv. Mam. xvii.

* * FOXES — Pupils of the eyes long ; tail long and bushy.

C. vulpes, Lin. The common Fox. Fur fawn-coloured above,
white beneath ; behind the ears black ; tail bushy and terminat-
ed by black hairs. Inhabits the Northern parts of the Old and
New Continent. — Shaw,

Var. A. — C. alopex. Fur thicker, and of a deeper red.

Var. B C. crucigera. With a black cruciform mark across the shoulders and

down the spine.

The fox is one of the most widely distributed animals, and is found in all the
temperate and northern regions of the old and new world. With one exception the
structure of the eye, the organization of the fox and dog are similiar. The pupil
contracts in a strong light, and assumes a circular form only during twilight or at
night. Hence the fox preys by night ; and notwithstanding the persecution he un-
dergoes, the extreme cunning of the fox, which has become proverbial, enables him
to preserve his race where other animals would have been extirpated. The fox
passes the day in his hiding-place, and sallies forth at night along the fields to sur-
prise the partridge on her nest, or the hare in her form. He lies in ambush near the
burrows of rabbits, and when game of this description fails, he approaches the farm-
yards and carries off the poultry, or feeds on the refuse of the kitchen. Distrustful
to excess, he is not to be deceived by the snares which may be laid for him ; and the
severest hunger will not prompt him to approach a bait which may lead him into a
snare. Gestation continues from sixty to sixty-four days ; at three or four months
the young foxes quit their burrow ; and at two years their growth is completed.

C. lagopus, Lin. The Arctic Fox. Fur very long, thick and soft,

uniformly ash-coloured or brown in summer, white in winter.

Inhabits the Arctic Regions — Bewick, Quad.
C. argentatus, Desm. Silvery Fox. Fur soot black, spotted or

shaded with white ; extremity of the tail white. Inhabits North

America and Asia* — F. Cuv. Mam. v.

VIVEREA. MAMMALIA. 97

C. decussalus, Geoff. Fur variegated with black and white above,
with a black cross on the shoulders. — Inhabits North America.

C. Virginianus, Gmel. Gray Fox. Body entirely silvery gray, with
a shade of red about the ears. North America — Catesby,ii. t. 78.

C.falvus, Desm. Fur reddish or fulvous ; breast gray ; face of the
fore-legs and feet black, with fulvous toes ; tip of the tail white.
United States — Mam. p. 203.

C. velox, Say. Fur fulvous ; head above ferruginous. About one-
half the size of the preceding — Long's Exped. i. p. 486.

C. cinereo-argenteus, Lin. Upper part of the body grayish black ;
ears and sides of the neck bright red ; throat and cheeks white ;
tail yellow, mixed with black. N. America. — Schreb. tab. 92, A.

C. Nilolicus, Geoff. Body reddish above, gray below, behind the
ears black ; legs fulvous. Inhabits Egypt — Desm. Mam. 204.

C. megalolis, Cuv. Fur gray ; ears very large, broad and long ; a
line of longer blackish hairs on the spine ; feet black. Cape of
Good Hope.— Griff, ii. 374.

C. Brucei, (Fennecus Brucei, Desm.) Bruce's Fennec. Fur dirty
white, belly lighter ; ears thin, margined with white hairs. In-
habits Abyssinia. — Shaw, i. pi. 80.— M. Desmarest makes a ge-
nus of this species under the name of Fennecus.

Gen. 74. VIVERRA, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. Desm.

Incisors J, canines }-J, molars §-£ = 40. Three false molars
in the upper jaw, conical and compressed, a large carnivorous
bicuspid tooth, and two tuberculous ones ; in the lower, four
false molars, one bicuspid and one tuberculous ; head long ;
muzzle pointed; feetpentadactyle; claws semiretractile ; anal
pouch more or less deep.

Sub-Gen. 1. CIV.ETTES, proper. Anal pouch very deep, divided into
- two sacsjjilled with a musky secretion.

V. civetta, Lin. The Civet. Fur gray, with brown or black stripes
and spots; a mane along the dorsal line. Inhabits Africa. —
i Shaw, i. pi. 95.

The odoriferous substance produced by the Civet forms in the east an object of
commerce. This substance is secreted in a bag or pouch between the anus and parts
of generation, and is similar in both sexes. It opens externally by a narrow cleft,
which conducts into two cavities, each of which might contain an almond. The in-
ternal surface of these bags is slightly covered with hair and porous, and the musk
is exuded from these pores into the bag. When the bag is nearly full the animal
has the power of compressing it so as to extrude the superfluous part of the secretion.

V. zibetha, Lin. The Zibet. Fur gray ; legs transversely spotted
with brown ; throat white, with two black bands on each side ;
no mane ; tail annulated with black. India. — Shaw, i. pi. 95.

V. rasse, Horsf. Fur yellowish gray ; neck obscurely banded with
black lines ; feet brown. Inhabits Java. —Horsf. Java, vi.
VOL. I. G

98 MAMMALIA. >

Sub.-Gen. 2. Anal pouches reduced to a simple fold of the skin.

- V. genetta, Lin. Fur gray, with small round and elongated black
spots ; tail annulated with black. Inhabits South of Europe. —
Shaw, i. pi. 96.

It is probable, from the different synonyms applied to this animal, and the very
different parts of the world where it is found, that the individuals described are more
than simple varieties, though Baron Cuvier is inclined to consider them as such,

V. fossa, Lin. Fur reddish gray, with yellowish brown spots, and
four longitudinal lines on the back. Madagascar. — Shaw, i. pi. 96.

V.fasciata, Desm. Fur yellow brown., with brown spots disposed
longitudinally. — Shaw, i. pi. 97-

V. musanga, Raffles. The Musang. Fur variegated with ash-co-
lour and black ; back with faint black bands ; head, feet, and tail
black; point of the muzzle white. Sumatra. — Lin. Trans, xiii. 253.

V. Indica, Geoff. Desm. Fur yellowish white, with eight narrow-
longitudinal brown bands. India — Shaw, i. pi. 96.

V. gracilis, Desm. (Prionodon gracilis, Horsf.) Fur clear fawn-
coloured, with four broad brown transverse bands ; tail annulated

with black ; head elongated ; muzzle pointed. Inhabits Java

Horsf. Zool. Res. fas. i.

V. striata, Desm. (Viv. fasciata, Lin.) Fur marked with six

brown bands, pretty broad, upon a yellowish bottom. Coroman-

del. — Buff. Supp. vii. pi. 57-
V. Bondar, Blainv. Fur yellowish, hairs tipped with black ; dorsal

line, and two narrow parallel lines on each flank black. Bengal,

Desm. Mam. p. 210.

V. hyenoides, Cuv. (Proteles Lalandii, Isid. Geoff.) General as-
pect of the hyena. Fur gray ; small mane ; narrow transverse
black bands on the flanks, thighs and legs,, Cape of Good Hope.
— Mem. Mus. ii. 5.

Sub-Gen. 3. PARADOXURUS, F. Cuv. — No anal pouchy plantigrade >
claws half retractile, tail convolute.

V. nigra,'(Paradoxurustypus,F.Cuv. — V, musanga, Raffles.) Body
blackish ; a white spot above and below the eyes ; tail black. In-
dia.— Griff, ii. 412.

V. albifrons, (Par. albifrons, F. Cuv.) The Bintourong, Raffles.
Fur formed of a mixture of long white and black bristles, except
the head and limbs, where it is short ; forehead and muzzle nearly
white ; a black spot inclosing the eye. India. — Lin. Trans, xiii.

V. aurea, (Par- aureus, F. Cuv.) Fur uniform golden yellow, hair
very long — Griff. Syn. 159.

V. prehensilis, Blainv. (Par. prehensilis. F. Cuv.) Fur yellowish
green, with dorsal line, tip of the tail and spots black — Bengal.

Gen. *]5. HERPESTES, Illig. — Viverra and Mustela, Lin. —

Ichneumon) Lacep.
Incisors §, canines J-J, molars f-f = 36. Body elongated ;

HEBPESTES. MAMMALIA. 99

anal pouch large ; feet pentadactyle, semipalmated, with nails
partly retractile.

H. Mungos, Desm. (Fiv. Mongoz, Lin.) Indian Ichneumon. Fur
marked on the back with 12 or 13 brown transverse bands, separated
by as many reddish bands ; tail pointed. India. — Buff. xiii. pi. 19.

H. Edwardsii, Desm. Back and tail olive, annulated with brown ;

muzzle reddish brown ; tail pointed. Inhabits India.— Edwards'

Birds, t. 199.

H. griseus, Desm. (Fiv. Cafra, Lin.) Fur brownish gray and uni-
I ' formly speckled with reddish brown from the annulations of the

hair ; tail pointed. Southern Africa. — Buff. Sup. iii. pi. 27-
H. galera, Desm. (Mustela galera, Lin.) Guinea Weasel, Penn.

Fur deepish brown, speckled with yellow ; fur of the tail of equal

thickness its whole length. Madagascar.— Pen n. Quad. ii. 53.

II. Javanicus, Geoff. Fur chestnut brown, spotted with yellow
white ; head and legs chestnut. Java. — Desm. Mam. 212.

H. ruber, Geoff. Fur very bright ferruginous red, especially on

the head Geoff. Hist. Nat. ii. 139.

H. major, Desm. (Ichneumon major, Geoff.) Large Ichneumon.
Fur chestnut brown ; hair annulated with yellow ; tail brown,
pointed. — Buff. Supp. iii. pi. 26.

H. Pharaonis, Desm. ( Viv. ichneumon, Lin.) The Ichneumon.
Fur of chestnut and fawn colour, each hair being annulated al-
ternately with these tints ; feet and muzzle black ; tail long,
tufted. Inhabits Egypt — Shaw, i. pi. 92.

The Ichneumon was well known to the ancients, and was venerated in Egypt for
its destruction of the reptile species, and particularly of the eggs of the crocodile. In
Egypt it is often seen at the close of the day gliding through the ridges or inequali-
ties of the ground in search of its prey. It never limits itself to the momentary
gratification of its appetite, but destroys every living thing within its reach, which is
too feeble to offer effectual resistance. In domestication it acquires an attachment
to the houses into which it is introduced, never wanders, recognizes the voice of its
master, and is pleased with the caresses bestowed on it.

Gen. 76. Sun ic AT A, Desm. — Viverra, Lin.

Incisors |, canines ^-j, molars g-g = 40. Body elongated ;
feet tetradactyle, with strong nails for digging ; ears small ;
pouch around the anus ; tail long and slender.

S. Capensis, Desm. ( Viv. tctradactyla, Lin.) Hairs annulated with
brown, white, yellowish, and black. About a foot long. Cape of
Good Hope — Shaw. i. pi. 93.

3d Division.— Without a tuberculous tooth behind the great
carnivorous tooth in the lower jaw.

Gen. 77. HYAENA, Cuv. Briss. Geoff. — Canis, Lin. Erxleb.

Incisors §, canines £-i, molars f-f = 34. Feet tetradactyle ;
nails not retractile ; legs long ; eyes projecting ; ears large ;
a glandular pouch at the anus.

100 MAMMALIA. FEK.E.

H. vttlgaris, Desm. (Canis kycena, Lin.) The striped Hyaena.

Fur dirty gray, striped transversely with brown on the flanks and

legs ; a ridge of stiff hairs along the dorsal line. Inhabits J3ar-

bary, Egypt, &c. — Shaw, i. pi. 78.

The voracity of this animal, and its preference of the flesh of dead carcasses to
living prey, have been often noticed by travellers. But its ferocity has been overrated,
for it is capable of being tamed ; and according to Barrow the spotted hyaena is used
in the district of Schneeberg at the Cape of Good Hope for the purposes of hunting.
In some countries it is by no means uncommon to see chacals, hyaenas, dogs, and
vultures feeding on the same carcase.

H. CapensiSj Desm. (Canis crocuta, Lin.) Spotted Hyaena. Fur
dingy gray, with round brown spots on the flanks and thighs ;
stiff hair 011 the dorsal line. Inhabits Cape of Good Hope.-—
Penn. Quad. pi. 17.

H. rufa, Cuv. Fur red, spotted with blackish. — Country unknown.

Hfossilis, Cuv. The Fossil Hyaena. About a third larger than
the common hyaena. Bones found in various caverns in Europe.
B. — Cuv. Reck. iv. part. 4, pi. 1.

Gen. 78. FELTS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. &c.

Incisors f, canines ^-J, molars |-|, or f-f, = 30 or 28.
Five toes on the fore-feet ; hind-feet tetradactyle ; nails re-
tractile ; head short ; four molars on each side of the upper
jaw, the last tuberculous and very small ; three in the lower
jaw ; ears large pointed.

1. Fawn-coloured) and without spots.

F. Leo, Lin. The Lion. Fur fawn-coloured, with a tuft at the
extremity of the tail ; neck of the male furnished with a long
thick mane. Body from five to eight feet long. Inhabits Africa
and some parts of Asia.

Var. A. — The Senegal lion. Fur lighter and brighter.

Var. B — South African lion. With a black mane.

Var. C— Asiatic lion. Rather less than the lion of Africa ; mane yellow, and
much more scanty.

The bodily strength of the lion, his carnivorous regimen, and predaceous habits,
place him at the head of the beasts of prey. Less savage than the tiger and other
carnivorous animals, the lion seems to derive no gratification from the destruction
of animal life beyond the immediate cravings of appetite ; and hence, compared with
the cruel dispositions of many of the minor inhabitants of the forest, he has acquired
a character of generosity superadded to his courage, which has long made him be re-
guarded as the noblest of the feline race. Unlike the tiger, whose social attachment
lasts only during the period of reproduction, and whose thirst for blood often leads
him to destroy his own issue, the lion is permanently attached to his mate ; while
the maternal feeling of the lioness is strikingly displayed in the subsequent fury of
this noble animal when by any accident she is ' ' bereaved of her whelps."

The roar of the lion is said to be tremendous, and travellers in Africa have often
witnessed its appalling effect on the oxen of their waggons and other animals, though
in comparative safety. When in the act of seizing his prey, this roar is heightened
into a scream on the fatal leap. This power of voice is said to be useful to the
lion, as the terrific sound raises the other animals from their hiding-places, and, as
lie does not hunt by scent, exposes their distracted flight to their enemy. The
mode of his attack is generally, however, by surprise. Approaching slowly and si-
lently till within a leap of his prey, the lion springs witli a force which is thought

FJSLIS. MAMMALIA. 101

in general to deprive its victim of life. The muscular strength of the lion is such,
that he is capable of carrying off a horse or a buffalo ; and by the power of his
limbs alone he is said to be able to break the spine of a horse.

In confinement the lion shows unequivocal marks of gratitude and affection to
the person who serves him with food. The instance mentioned by Seneca, and of
which he waf personally a witness, of a lion recognizing its former keeper in the
Amphitheatre at Rome, where he was exposed for destruction, and protecting him,
is well known ; and instances are not wanting of their attachment to other animals.
To the well-known case of a lion in the Tower of London, which refused all suste-
nance and died, on the occasion of the death of a little dog which had long shared
his den, many others might be added ; and Mr Griffith states on the authority of
Major Smith, that that gentleman " had met with eleven instances of different lions
which have protected and fostered dogs, and but a single one of the tiger exhibiting
a similar kindness of disposition." The exhibition of a young lion and a lamb
in one inclosure of a travelling menagerie, may be mentioned as a proof how far
early education can overcome the carnivorous propensity in an animal not cruel be-
yond the imperious necessity of supplying itself with food.

The lion is.now found chiefly in Africa ; in Asia,' excepting some districts between
India and Persia, and some parts of Arabia, they are rare. The Asiatic variety is
of a uniform yellow colour, and the mane, more scanty than in the African species, is
also yellow. The progress of population, and the destruction of game, has diminished
the number of species, or extirpated them entirely in countries where they formerly
abounded, and few are now seen in Europe in comparison to the numbers which
were exhibited in the Roman Circus. Scylla caused one hundred, all males, to be
turned out for the amusement of the Roman people ; Pompey six hundred, of which
one hundred and fifteen were males; and Caesar four hundred. The numbers seem
not to have been much reduced under the first Emperors. Adrian often exhibited
one hundred in the Circus ; Antonine on one occasion one hundred, and Marcus
Aurelius a like number ; Gordian the third had seventy which were trained ; and
Probus had one hundred of both sexes.

The period of gestation in the lioness is about one hundred and eight days. They
are brought forth with the eyes open ; but the ear does not become completely erect
for two months. They arrive at maturity in five years, and are then nearly eight
feet long. When young, the lion has no trace of the mane or of the tuft at the end
of the tail. A male lion and tigress confined in one compartment, in the menagerie
of Mr Atkins, has twice produced cubs, of which excellent figures are given in
Griffith's Animal Kingdom, ii. 447-

F. concolor, Lin. The Puma or American Lion. Fur fawn-colour-
ed; without mane or tuft at the end of the tail. About 3| feet
long. Inhabits the warm and temperate parts of America. —
" Wilsons Illustrations of Zoology, No. i. pi. 1.

2. Large, with transverse bands of a darker colour.

F. tigris, Lin. The Tiger. Fur clear fawn-colour above, white be-
low, striped on the body with irregular narrow black bands; hairs
about the cheeks very long. Body about five feet long. Inhabits

Bengal, &c Griff, i. 440.

Var. A. white, with the stripes of a more opaque white.— Griff. An. King. ii. 444.
This animal is the scourge of Asia and the Indian islands. Ferocious in a very
high degree, its speed and strength is such as to enable it to seize a man on horse-
back, and drag or rather carry him in its mouth by bounds or leaps to the nearest
jungle or forest. The tiger, unlike the lion, does not confine itself to killing single
prey, but attacks, with a cruel avidity for blood, all within its reach. In confine-
ment, however, when taken young, it grows familiar, and exhibits affection and
gentleness to its keeper.

3. Large, fawn-coloured, with brown or black round spots.
F. onca, Desm. Gmel. The Jaguar. Fur fawn-coloured above, whit-
ish beneath : body marked with open circles of black, containing

102 MAMMALIA. FEE*.

a central spot, the circles disposed in five or six parallel horizon-
tal lines. Inhabits America.— -Shaw, i. pi. 84.

Var. A. Felit nigra, Gmel. Fur blackish, with the spots deeper black.
The Jaguars are solitary animals, or are met with only in pairs. They inhabit
thick forests in the neighbourhood of great rivers, and if driven by their wants to
seek for food in the cultivated country they generally do so by night. They will
attack cows and even bulls of four years old ; but horses seem their favourite prey.
During the residence of D'Azara in Paraguay no less than six men were destroyed
by this formidable animal, two of whom were at the time before a large fire.
F. nebulosa, Griff. (F. microcclis, Horsf.) The Clouded Tiger. Head
small ; body long, heavy; tail thick and annulated ; body covered
with large irregular patches, deeper than the ground colour. In-
habits Sumatra. — Griff. An. King. p. 450.

F. pardus, Lin. The Panther. Fur pale fawn-colour above, with
,f\ six or seven rows of rose-formed spots, forming on the flanks
clusters of five or six spots. Inhabits Northern Africa. — Shaw, ii,
pi. 84.

F. leopardus, Desm. The Leopard. Fur fawn-coloured above, white
beneath, with at least ten rows of rose-formed black spots on
each flank. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw. i. pi. 85.

F.julata, Lin. The Hunting Leopard. Fur fawn-coloured, cover-
ed with small black round spots, not running into one another ; a
slight mane. Inhabits Asia.— Shaw, i. pi. 86.

The Hunting Leopard, it is said, is conveyed in a cs-rriage, or on a pad behind
the saddle of a horseman, with a hood over the eyes, to the field, and when an ante-
lope is started the hood is taken off, and it is dispatched in pursuit. It follows by
leaps or bounds, and if unsuccessful in taking its prey after a few efforts, declines
the pursuit and returns to its keeper. A tame specimen described by M. F. Cuvier
was accustomed to go at large in a park, and associated with children and domestic
animals, purring like a cat when pleased, and mewing when he wished to call at-
tention to his wants.

F. venatica, Griff. Brighter yellow than the last ; no mane. In-
habits India.— Grz/. Syn, 166.

F. uncia, Gm. The Ounce. Body whitish, covered with irregular
black spots. Inhabits Persia.— Griff. An. King. ii. 469.

F. chalybeata, Griff. Fur wholly grayish liver colour, with nume-
rous dark brown simple spots. Inhabits Chili — Griff, ii. 473.

4. Middle-sized, with stripes and spots.

F. mitis, Desm. (F. cliatl, F. Cuv.) The Chibigouazou. Fur with
a fawn-coloured ground, with four rows of black dorsal spots ;
spots on the flanks small, bordered. Inhabits S. America.— Penn.
Quad. pi. 31, fig. i.

Var. A.— Spots more numerous and smaller, with a large one on each cheek.
Var. B. — Parallel streak from the eye to the ear, with spots within it ; tail annulated.
Var. C. — (F. catenata, Griff.) Body with long chain-like markings ; belly and
throat with black streaks.

F. pardalis, Lin. The Ocelot. Ground colour of the fur gray,
with large fawn-coloured spots bordered with black, forming
oblique bands on the flank. South America — Shaw, i. pi. 88.

FELIS. MAMMALIA. 103

F. macrourus, Major Smith. Ground colour ochrey gray, streaked
with long patches ; two streaks from the eye to the jaw. Inhabits
Brazil Griff. An. King. ii. 478.

F. colocolo, Major Smith. Head flat and broad; body whitish gray,
covered with lengthened streaks of black and tawny. Inhabits
America. — Griff, An. King. ii. 479.

F. melas, Peron and Lesueur. {Melas, Cuv.) Fur black above
and below, spotted with deeper black; eyes of a silvery gray, al-
most white. Java. — Ann. Mus. xiii. 152.

5. Middle-sized, high on the legs, with broad and long ears, often ter-
minated by a pencil of hairs ; three upper molars without tubercles.

f.LynXjIAii. The Lynx. Fur reddish yellow, with small dark brown
spots ; tail short, black at the extremity ; long pencilled ears.
Asia, Africa, and Europe. — -Buff', ix. pi. 21.

F. Canadensis, Geoff. The Canada Lynx. Fur grayish, with long
hair ; some black lines on the head. Canada.-— Buff. iii. pi. 44.

F. rufa, Gmel. The Red Lynx. Fur reddish yellow, spotted with
brown; tail short, white at tip. United States. — Schreb. 1. 109, B.

F. fasciata, Desm. {Lynx fascialus, Rafmesque.) Fur reddish
brown, with blackish stripes and spots above. — N. America.

F. montana, Desm. (lynx montanus, Rafmesque.) Fur grayish,
without spots above, whitish with brown spots below ; no pencils
on the ears. United States — Mam. 225.

F. Floridajius, Desm. {Lynx Floridanus, Rafinesque.) Fur gray-
ish, flanks varied with spots of yellowish brown, and undulated
black stripes ; ears without pencils of hair. Florida Mam. 225.

F- aurea, Desm. {Lynx aureus, Rafinesque.) Fur bright yellow,
dotted with black and white spots ; belly of a pale yellow without
spot. Ears without pencils of hair. N. America. — Mam. 225.

F. caracal, Lin. The Caracal ; The Lynx of the ancients. Fur
wine-red above, white below ; tail reaching to the heels ; ears
strongly pencilled, black on the outside, white within. Inhabits
Africa and Asia.— Shaw, i. pi. 91.

There are several varieties of this species, of which the chief are, 1. The Caracal
of Algiers, described by Bruce, without pencils of hair at the ears, and with longitu-
dinal stripes. 2. The Caracal of Nubia, of the same author, with the ears black
on the outside ; and 3. The Caracal of Bengal, of Edwards, with the tail longer
than ordinary.

F. chaus, Guldenstadt, Desm. {Felis Lybicus, Oliv.) The Booted
Lynx. Fur of a uniform gray yellow; hind part of the legs
black ; ears terminated by a pencil of black hairs. Inhabits
Abyssinia. — Bruce's Travels, pi. 30.

6. Ears without pencils of hair, legs not very long— of small size.

F. Serval, Lin. Fur fawn-coloured above, white beneath, with
numerous round black spots disposed in rows on each side ; tail
simulated. Inhabits Southern Africa. — Schreb. tab. 108.

104 MAMMALIA. FEB.E.

F. galeopardus, Desm. (Serval, Cuv.) Fur fulvous above, whitish
beneath, with black spots, of which those on the middle of the
back are in four rows ; tail annulated. — F. Cuv. Mam. liv. 1.

F. Capensis, Forster, Desm. Fulvous, with black spots of different
sizes, and bands on the shoulders, back, and fore-legs ; tail annu-
lated ; ears large, without pencils of hair. Cape of Good Hope.
— Penn. Quad. i. pi. 1.

F. Cafra, Desm. Fur gray fawn-coloured above, lighter beneath ;
twenty brown transverse stripes upon each flank ; feet banded
with black. — Cape of Good Hope.

F. mannl, Pallas, Gmel. Fur of a reddish uniform fawn-colour,
with two black spots on the top of the head, and two stripes on
the cheeks. — Inhabits Tartary.

F. Javanensls, Cuv. Desm. Fur gray-brown above, whitish be-
neath ; four rows of elongated spots along the sides. Inhabits
Java.— Horsficld's Java, No. 1.

The F. Bengalensis of Desmarest appears to be a variety of this species.

F. undala, Desm. Fur of a dirty gray, with numerous transverse
brown or black bands ,* convexity of the ears reddish. Java, £c.
—Vosmaer, Monog. t. 13.

Var. A. — Spots much more irregular.— F. Sumatrana, Horsfield.
F. obscura, Fred. Cuv. Fur of a very deep brown black, with
transverse numerous stripes, entirely black.— Cape of Good Hope.

F. yagouaroundi, Desm. Fur black brown, spotted with pale white.
Inhabits S. America.— Azara, Voy. pi. 10.

F. Mexicana, Desm. Fur of a uniform bluish-gray, spotted with
black. S. America — Buff. Sup. iii. pi. 43.

F. pajeros, Desm. Fur bright gray brown above, with reddish
transverse bands on the throat and belly, and faint annulations
on the feet.— Inhabits S. America.

F. eyra, Desm. Fur bright red, a white spot on each side of the
nose ; tail more bushy than the domestic cat — Paraguay.

F. tigrina, Lin. Fur fawn-coloured above, whitish beneath ; with
five rows of longitudinal spots on the back, and oblique upon the
flanks ; tail irregularly annulated, Brazil. — Schreb. t. 106.

F. catus, Lin. The Domestic Cat. Ground colour of the fur of a
gray more or less marked ; with blackish longitudinal bands upon
the back and transverse ones upon the flanks ; lips and soles of
the feet black ; tail annulated, with the tip black.

The wild variety has long and tufted hair, particularly on the cheeks ; upper part of
the body of a deep yellowish gray or brown, the under parts whitish ; the back mark-
ed with a longitudinal black line, from which arise numerous indistinct transverse
lines, extending parallel to one another to the flanks, the shoulders, and the thighs ;
similar smaller lines on the face and top of the head, and one across the cheeks from
the external angle of the eyes ; tail bushy, annulated with black, and with its tip of
the same colour ; ears stift and erect ; and the pupils of the eyes contracting longitudi-
nally. The wild cat lives in woods isolated or in pairs ; climbs trees with facility, ami

PHOCA. MAMMALIA. 105

preys on birds, leverets, rats, and other small quadrupeds. Numerous varieties occur
in domestication, distinguished by the arrangement of the colours, spots, or stripes.
The most remarkable are those totally white or completely black; but the va-
rieties most valued are those where the stripes are well-marked, hence called the tiger
cat, and the spotted cat of Spain. The fur of this last is short and brilliant ; the feet
and lips flesh-coloured ; and the fur spotted with irregular patches of pure white,
lively red, and deep.black. Desmarest, however, has remarked in a number of instan-
ces that the females of this race are alone spotted with the three colours.

FAMILY III.— AMPHIBIA.

Feet short, enveloped in the skin, in form of fins ; the posterior
in the direction of the body ; number of incisors variable ;
often six and sometimes four above, more generally four ;
and sometimes two below.

Gen. 79. PHOCA, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. — Otaria, Peron.

Incisors J or | or £, canines £-{-, molars £-f or f-| or Jj-f ,= 30,
32, 34, 36, to 38. Molars all cutting or conical ; five toes
on all the feet ; tail short ; eyes large ; nostrils closing at the
will of the animal ; head round ; external ears wanting ; four
abdominal mammae.

In arranging the seals as a family of his Carnasslers, Cuvier seems to have been
led by the structure of their teeth rather than their general form and habits, which
seem to connect them with the Cetacea. The "structure of the seal is admirably
adapted to its aquatic life. The nostrils are habitually closed, and the ears are shut
when the animal dives. All its movements on land are slow and painful. In walk-
ing, or rather crawling, it presses the fore and hind parts of the body alternately on
the ground, bending its back upwards. The claws of the anterior extremities assist
it in climbing, but the hind feet are only used in swimming. Seals are easily tamed ;
and one of the individuals of the species P. vitulirut^ preserved alive in the Menage-
rie at Paris, lived familiarly with two young dogs which were shut up with him ;
and when they leaped upon his back, barked and run from him, used to share in
their amusement, trailing himself with painful effort along the stones and mud to
approach them. In cold weather the dogs and seal lay closely together to keep each
other warm.

Seals bring forth annually one or two young, which they suckle on land with much
apparent tenderness. They live in numerous flocks, and in the coupling season fu-
rious battles are fought by the males for the possession of the females. They inhabit
every sea, but chiefly those of the polar regions, and are killed in numbers for their
skins and oil. The appearance of the seal on a desolate rock suckling its young has
perhaps given rise to the fable of the Mermaid.

Sub-Gen. 1.— PHOCA, Peron. No external ears; incisors with a
simple edge ; molars edged ; toes of the hind feet terminated by
pointed nails, placed on the border of the membrane.

* Head furnished with cutaneous appendages, or a kind of trunk.

P. proboscidea, Peron. The Sea Elephant. Hair very thinly scat-
tered, gray ; claws of the fore-feet small ; occipital and sagittal
ridges very prominent ; incisors }. Twenty to thirty feet in
length. Seas of New Holland — F. Cuv. Mem. Mus. vi. t. 3, fig. 1.

P. Ansonii, Desm. (Phoca leonina, Lin.) Hair short, clear yellow ;
feet and tail black; claws of the fore-feet strong; incisors f.
From 12 to 20 feet long. Pacific Ocean.— Schrcb. tab. 83, A.

106 MAMMALIA. FEE*.

P. Byronii, Blainville. The occipital and sagittal ridges and the
mastoidal apophyses very prominent ; incisors §, the upper ones
next the canines larger than the others — Island of Tinian.

P. cristata, Desm. (Phoca leonina, Fab.) The Crested Sea Lion.
Top of the forehead furnished with a moveable hood, susceptible
of erection, and of covering the eyes and muzzle ; incisors \.
Seven or eight feet long. Northern Seas. — Shan;, i. pi. *J3.

** Species without trunk or hood.

P. albiventer, F. Cuv. (P. leptonyx, Desm. P. bicolor, Shaw.) Fur
above gray, variegated with yellow ; yellowish white beneath ;
whiskers rigid ; claws, especially those of the hind feet, small —
Shaw, i. pi. 71 •

P. Grcenlandica, Muller, ( P. oceanica, Cuv.) The Greenland
Seal. Fur of the adult males whitish, marked ^vith a large brown
spot on the shoulders ; claws strong, black ; females and young
covered with unequal, distant, angular spots. Inhabits the North
Sea Shaw, i. pi. 7L

P. leporina, Desm. Fur yellowish ; head and body covered with
long and soft white hairs ; claws of the fore-feet very strong.
Inhabits the Northern Ocean. — Mam. 243.

P. lagura, Cuv. Fur gray, clearer on the sides and belly ; whiskers
black ; tail long, thin, white. — Oss. Foss. v. 206.

P. minima, Lin. The Common Seal. Fur yellowish gray, thick,
more or less waved or spotted with brown, according to the age ;
incisors | ; claws strong. North Seas. Shaw, i. pi. 70.— --There
are numerous varieties of colour in this species.

P.fcetida, Mull. Fur of a pale brown, variegated with white
above, dirty white beneath ; hair rough; claws strong; incisors |.
Inhabits the North Seas. — Buff. Sup. vi. pi. 45.

P. barbata, Mull. The Bearded Seal. Fur blackish ; thumb of
the hand shorter than the fingers ; incisors J. Inhabits the
North Seas — Buff. vi. pi. 45.

Sub.-Gen. 2 — OTARIA, Peron. Incisors J, canines {-{, large;
molars J~§-, root simple, and a prominent conical point ; external
ears distinct.

P.jubata, (Otaria jubata, Desm.) Sea Lion. Fur yellow ; neck
of the male with a large mane ; hind feet with the termination
lobed. Inhabits the Pacific Ocean — Shaw, ii. pi. 174.

P. ursina, Lin. (Otaria ursina, Desm.) Common Sea Bear. Fur
brown ; males maneless ; the hind- feet furnished with long flaps
of skin. Kamtschatka. This is the type of M. F. Cuvier's ge-
nus Arctocephalus. — Buff. Sup. vi. pi. 47«

P. Peronii. (Otaria Peronii, Desm.) Fur soft, blackish ; the hind
feet having only three claws apparent in the middle, ending in a
five lobed membrane. Cape of Good Hope.— Buff\ xiii. t. 53.

3

TRIOHECUS. MAMMALIA. 107

P. coronata, Blain. (Otaria coronata, Desm.) Fur black, with
yellow spots ; a yellow band on the head and a spot on the muz-
zle ; hind feet with five claws.

P. cinerea. (Otaria cmerea, Peron, Desm.) Fur ash-coloured, thick
and rigid. Coast of New Holland.

P. albicollis. (Otaria albicollis, Peron, Desm.) Fur with a large
white spot on the top of the back. — New Holland.

P.jlavescens, Shaw. (Otaria flavescens, Desm.) Fur of a pale yel-
low ; no nails apparent on the fore-feet ; the hind feet with claws.
Straits of Magellan.— £^a/y i. pi. 73.

P. Falklandica, Shaw. (Otaria Falklandica, Desm.) Fur ash-co-
loured, shaded with white ; fore-feet clawless ; hind feet with four
claws.— Inhabits Falkland Islands.

Gen. 80. TRICHECUS, Lin. Cuv. Desm.

Incisors §, canines £-§, molars f-f = 24. Incisors small,
deciduous; superior canines or tusks of large size, longer
than the head, compressed laterally and arched ; molars cylin-
drical, crown truncated obliquely ; body elongated ; head
round ; muzzle large ; no external ears ; tail very short ; fore-
feet like fins, with five toes ; hind feet horizontal ; toes enve-
loped in the skin.

T. rosmarus, Gmel. (7". manatus, Lin.) The Morse. Lips very thick;
bristles rigid ; hair very thin, short, reddish ; two enormous ca-
nines projecting downwards. Northern Ocean. — Shaw, i. pi. 78.
The Morses or Walruses are animals of very large size, sometimes eighteen feet long,
and closely resemble the Phoca in their mode of life. They inhabit similar places, and
are generally found together. They are gregarious animals, and are sometimes seen
in vast multitudes on masses of floating ice in the Northern Seas. " They lie," says
Captain Cook, " in herds of many hundreds upon the ice, huddling one over the other
like swine, and roar or bay very loud, so that in the night, or in foggy weather, they
gave us notice of the ice before we could see it. We never found the whole herd
asleep, some being always on the watch. These, on the approach of the boat, would
wake those next to them, and the alarm being gradually communicated, the whole
herd would be awake presently. But they were seldom in a hurry to get away till
after they had been once fired at. Then they would tumble one over the other into
the sea in the utmost confusion." — " The female will defend her young to the very
last, and at the expence of her own life, whether upon the water or upon the ice.
Nor will the young one quit the dam though she be dead, so that if you kill one,
you are sure of the other. The dam when in the water holds the young one between
her fore-fins." These animals are killed for the sake of their oil.

ORDER V.— MARSUPIALIA.

Teeth different in the different genera. Young brought forth
prematurely, often in a pouch formed by a fold of the skin of
the abdomen of the females, inclosing the mammae ; marsu-
pial bones in both sexes ; thumb of the hind feet sometimes

108 MAMMALIA. MARSUPIALIA.

wanting, sometimes very distinct, without nail, opposable to
the other toes ; scrotum of the males before the organ of
generation.

The general character of this Order is the marsupial pouch in the ahdomen of the
female, in which the imperfect germs of the young are deposited till their further
developement. In this pouch the mammae also are placed. Linnaeus arranged all
the species which he knew under one genus, Didctyhis, and their general resem-
blance afforded sufficient grounds for this arrangement. But on the discovery and
examination of new species from Australasia, it was found that no common character
could be formed from their teeth, feet, and organs of digestion, and that the differ-
ences in structure of these made it impossible to include them in anj^ of the exist-
ing Orders. The presence of the abdominal pouch, therefore, and marsupial bones in
both sexes, separating them from all the other quadrupeds, Cuvier arranged these
singular animals in a separate family of his Carnassicrs, but suggested their forming
the type of a larger division ; and we have accordingly followed Latreille in arrang-
ing the species as a separate Order. 4

Gen. 81. DIDELPHIS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. Desm.

Incisors y*, canines J— |, molars ?-?, or f-?, = 50 or 48. Two
superior intermediate incisors larger than the others ; lower
incisors equal ; canines strong, compressed ; molars, the three
first in the upper jaw triangular ; the others crowned with
points ; head long and conical, muzzle pointed, mouth much
cleft ; ears large, rounded, almost naked ; five toes on all the
feet, nails long and bent ; hind feet plantigrade, with the
thumbs opposable, but destitute of nails; tail long, scaly, most-
ly deprived of hair.

* Females with an abdominal pouch.

D. Virginiana, Desm. Gmel. Virginian Opossum, Shaw. Fur
woolly, fine, mixed black and white, with white lines ; head near-
ly white ; size of a rabbit. America. — Shaw, i. pi. 107-

D. Azarce, Tern. Fur of two sorts, one cottony underneath, and
black at the tip ; the other rigid and white ; black round the
eyes ; the legs black ; half of the tail hairy, the rest scaly. South
America. — Tern. Monog. Mam. p. 30.

D. cancrivora, Lin. Desm. The Crab-eating Opossum. Fur yel-
lowish, mixed with brown ; forehead brown. Surinam.— Stiff'.
Sup. vi. pi. 54.

D. Quica, Tern. Fur above blackish yellow ; upper part of the
head blackish, with three white bands ; cliin white ; belly red-
dish. Size of a polecat. Brazil, — Tern. Mam. p. 36.

D. Opossum, Lin. Fur fawn-coloured above, whitish below ; a
pale white spot above each eye ; tail partly hairy. S. America.
—Shaw, i. pi. 108.

D. Philander, Schreb. Fur spotted with brown ; head very short,
muzzle blunt ; head with a red central longitudinal band ; eyes
placed in a gray spot ; tail naked. — Schreb. vii, t. 147-

4

DIDELPHLS. MAMMALIA. 109

** Females without a pouch.

D. nudicaudata, Geoff. Desm. Fur gray, brown above, whitish un-
derneath ; a pale yellow spot over each eye ; tail longer than the
body, naked. — Inhabits Cayenne.

D. crassicaudata, Desm. Fur fawn or cinnamon-coloured, brighter
over the eyes ; tail thick at its origin, covered for a third of its
length. — Paraguay.

D. ccujopollin, Lin. Desm. Mexican Opossum. Fur yellowish gray
above, whitish underneath, round the eyes and upon the nose ; tail
brown, spotted with blackish, much longer than the body. Mexico.
—Buff. x. pi. 55.

D. lanigera, Desm. Fur woolly, almost the colour of tobacco above,
whitish below ; tail nearly triangular at its base, longer than the
body, partly naked on its upper side. Eight inches long. — Paraguay.

D. murina, Lin. Desm. Fur yellowish gray above, paler under-
neath ; eyes surrounded with brown ; tail naked, as long as the
body. Surinam Buff. x. pi. 52, 53.

D. cincrea, Tern. Fur short, ash-gray in the males, yellowish gray
in the females, white beneath ; tail much longer than the body.
Brazils.— Tern. Mon.

D. dorsigera, Tern. Fur of a uniform brown colour ; head long ;
tail hairy at the base — Tern. Mon.

D. tricolor, Geoff. (D. brachyura, Pallas.) Fur of a blackish brown
on the back, reddish on the flanks, and white below ; tail very
short, all hairy. — Pall. Ac. Petrop. ii. t. 5.

D. brachyura, Geoff. Gmel. Fur deep red, brown above, and on the
flanks, whitish below ; tail half as long as the body. — Seba, i. t. 31.

D. pusilla, Desm. The Dwarf Opossum. Fur mouse-colour, whit-
ish below ; tail longer than the body, naked, and of a white co-
lour. Body three inches long. — Paraguay.

Gen. 82. CHIKONECTES, Illiger. — Didelphis, Geoff. Cuv.

Incisors \°9 canines ^-£, molars \-l, = ? probably 50, as in
the Didelphi. Anterior molars pointed and cutting ; muzzle
pointed ; ears naked ; feet pentadactyle, the posterior planti-
grade and palmated ; thumb without a nail ; nails of the
toes sharp and bent ; tail long, cylindrical, naked, scaly, and
prehensile ; abdominal pouch in the female.

G.palmata, Geoff. The Yapock. Fur brown above, with three

gray transverse patches or bands ; white beneath. Guiana.

Griff An. King. iii. 35.

Gen. 83. DASYUIIUS, Geoff. Cuv. Desm. — Didelphis, Shaw.
Incisors f , canines £-£, molars J-g = 4£. Two first molars
compressed and cutting, the others rough with points ; head

110 MAMMALIA. MARSUPIALIA.

conical ; five toes on the fore-feet, with crooked nails ; four
on the hind-feet, and short thumb without a nail ; tail long,
covered with hair ; an abdominal pouch in the females.

D. cynocephaluff Geoff. Desm. Fur yellowish brown ; crupper
marked with transverse black bands ; tail compressed. Nearly
four feet long. Van Dieman's Land — Lin. Trans, ix. pi. 19.
M. Temrrunck makes a new genus of this species under the name of Thylacynus.

D. ur sinus, Geoff. Desm. Shaw. Fur black ; tail not very long,
slightly prehensile, naked below. Van Dieman's Land. — Lin.
Trans, ix. pi. 19.

D. macrourus, Geoff. (Vivcrra maculata, Shaw.) Fur chestnut-co-
loured, spotted with white ,* tail also spotted. About the size of
a cat. New Holland — Peron, Alias, pi. 33.

D. Maugeiy Geoff. Fur olive-coloured, spotted with white ; tail
without spots. — New Holland.

D. Vivcrrinus, Geoff. Fur black, spotted with white ; tail without
spots. About the size of a rat. New Holland. — Shaw, i. pi. 111.

D. tafa, Geoff. (Viverrine Opossum, Shaw.) Fur uniform grayish
brown, without spots. New Holland — Shaw, i. pi. 111.

D. penicillatus, Geoff. (Didelphispenicillata, Shaw.) Fur ash-colour-
ed, not spotted ; tail black and tufted. New Holland — Shaw, i.
pi. 113.

D. minimus, Geoff. Fur red, not spotted, with tail of the same co-
lour.— Van Dieman's Land.

The last two species form the genus Pltascogale of Temminck.

Gen. 84. PERAMELES, Geoff. — Didelphis, Shaw.

Incisors \°, or 15°, canines |-}, molars ?-?, or g-g, — 50.
Crowns of the molar teeth acutely tubercular ; head very
long ; muzzle pointed ; eyes lateral ; fore-feet with five toes,
the three middle ones largest ; the thumb rudimentary ; hind-
feet very long, with four toes, two internal and very small,
the third very robust ; tail long, pointed ; base thick and
naked beneath, not prehensile.

P. nasuta, Geoff. Desm. Head very long ; muzzle slender ; nose
prolonged ; fur grayish brown, white beneath. Incisors *g° . New
Holland. — An. Mus. iv. pi. 44.

P. Bougainvillii, Gaimard. Head long ; ears ovate, acute ; body red
above, gray beneath. — Griff. Syn. 195.

P. obesula, Geoff. (Didelphis obesula, Shaw.) Incisors \p ; head
rather short ; forehead convex ; fur reddish yellow, white below.
New Holland. — An. Mus. iv. pi. 45.

Gen. 85. PHALANGISTA, Geoff. Cuv.— Didelphis 9 Shaw, Gmel.
Incisors |, canines J-J, or g-g, false molars or false canines

PHALASGISTA. MAMMALIA. Ill

§-§, or f-§, molars f-f, or |-f,=r38 or 40. Forehead
convex ; feet pentadactyle, not united to the body by the
skin of the flanks ; anterior toes separate, armed with strong
crooked nails ; posterior with a large nailless thumb ; tail na-
ked, or covered with hairs ; abdominal pouch in the females.
* Tail naked, scaly, and prehensile.

P. maculata, Geoff. (Didclphis orientalis, Lin.) Fur whitish, spot-
ted with brown or black ; size of a cat. Java — Buff- xiii. 1. 1 1.

P. rufa, Geoff. ( Did. orientalis, Lin.) Fur reddish or whitish, with
a darker dorsal line. Java. — Buff. xiii. t. 10.

P. Papuensis, Desm. Fur gray, yellowish, white beneath ; ears
very small, hairy. — New Guinea.

P. ursina, Tern. Fur thick, black, with a yellowish shade. — Tern.
Mam. t. 8.

P. Chrysorrhos, Tern. Fur blackish gray, with a black line on each
flank, thick, cottony ; head pale ash-gray ; rump and tip of the tail
golden yellow. Island of Celebes — Tern. Mam. p. 12.

** Tail hairy.

P. vulpina, Desm. The Lemurine Opossum. Fur grayish brown
above ; yellow gray on the head and shoulders ; grayish beneath ;
tail tufted; tip black. New Holland. — Shaw, i. pi. 110.

P. Cookii, Cuv. Desm. Fur brown, or reddish gray above, white
beneath ; tail brown ; the tip white ; size of the polecat. Van
Dieman's Land. — Cook's Voy. iv. pi. 8.

P. nana, Geoff. Desm. Fur reddish gray above, white below ; tail
brown. Van Dieman's Land. — Desm. 268.

Gen. 86. PETAUKISTA, Cuv. Geoff. — Didelphis, Shaw.

Incisors f , canines J-J, or J-J, molars g-g, or |-g, = 32 or
34. Head rather long; eyes small; ears long; feet short,
pentadactyle ; the hinder ones with a large nailless thumb,
and the two first toes short and united ; nails compressed,
arched, and very strong ; skin of the sides extended, and
uniting the extremities, so as to form a kind of parachute ;
tail long, hairy, not prehensile.

* Tail round.

P. taguanoides, Desm. (Didelph. petaurus, Shaw.) Fur very soft,
gray brown above ; throat and breast white j tail brown, paler at
the base. New Holland — Sham, i. t. 112.

P. macroura, Desm. (Did. macroura, Shaw.) Fur grayish brown
above, whitish beneath ; tail slender, longer than the body. New
Holland.— Shaw, i. pi. 113.

P.Jlaviventer, Geoff. Desm. Fur chestnut brown above, yellowish
white beneath ; tail round, a little longer than the body. New
Holland.— Desm. 269.

112 MAMMALIA. MAUSUPIALIA.

P. sciurea, Shaw. Fur ash-gray above ; edges of the membrane
and dorsal line deep brown, beneath white ; tail reddish gray at the
base., blackish at the extremity. New Holland.— Shaw, i. pi. 113.

P. Peronii, Desm. Body brown above, white beneath ; membrane
x>f the flanks brown ; legs and end of tail white. New Holland.
— Shaw, i. p. 500.

** Tail feathery.

P. pygmcea, Desm. Fur uniform, mouse-gray, with a reddish cast
on the back, whitish below. New Holland. — Shaw, L pi. 114.

Gen. 87. POTOROUS, Desm. — Macropus, Shaw.

Incisors f, canines J-J, molars |-| =: 30. Four posterior
molars in either jaw with blunt tubercles ; head long and
pointed ; ears large ; upper lip cleft ; fore-feet short, with five
toes ; hind-feet long, with four toes, two of which united and
small ; tail long, robust ; hair woolly ; an abdominal pouch in
the female.

P. murinns, Desm. (Macropus minor, Shaw.) Fur brownish above,
gray beneath. New Holland. — Shaw, i. pi. 116.

Gen. 88. KAN GURUS, Geoff. Lacep. Desm. — Macropus^ Shaw.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars f-f =. 28. Ears large, point-
ed ; eyes large ; fore-legs very short, with five toes and strong
nails ; hind legs long, robust, with four toes ; the two inter-
nal united and small, the central large with a strong claw
like a hoof, plantigrade ; tail very strong, with powerful
muscles, not prehensile, but serving for locomotion ; an abdo-
minal pouch.

K. labiatus, Geoff. (Macropus major, Shaw.) Large Kangaroo. Fur
ash gray above, white beneath ; a gray line across the chin ; legs
and upper part of the tail blackish. New Holland. — Shaw,\.^\. 115.

'K.fuliginosus, Peron, Geoff. Fur sooty brown above, grayish be-
low ; the legs and tail blackish. New Holland. — Desm. p. 273.

K. rufus, Desm. Fur woolly, clear red above, white beneath.
New Holland. — Mam. 541.

K. rufo-griseus, Desm. Geoff. Fur reddish gray above, paler be-
neath ; legs and end of the tail passing into brown ; tail reddish.
New Holland.— -Mam. 273.

K. nificollis, Geoff. Fur hare gray above, pure white beneath ;
neck and upper part of the shoulders red mixed with gray.
King's Island.— Maw. 274.

K. Eugenii, Desm. Fur grayish brown above ; front of the fore-
legs reddish, whitish below. New Holland. Perhaps the young
of the former species ? — >Mam. 274.

K.fasciatus, Desm. Fur gray with a brown band across the back
and loins. New Holland — Peron. Voy. t. 27-

PHASCOLARCTOS. MAMMALIA. 113

K. Billardierii, Desm. Ears short, oval, rounded; fur gray brown
above, reddish beneath ; upper lip reddish. — Van Dieman's Land.

K. Brunii, Desm. Fur brown above, fawn-coloured beneath. Aroe
Islands — Shaw, i. 402.

K. pencillatus, Geoff. Fur above gray, with darker tints, beneath
rufous brown ; tail as long as the body, and tufted at the end.
New Holland — Griff. An. King. iii. 48.

Gen. 89. PHASCOLARCTOS, Blainmlle.

Incisors f , false canines §-§, molars f-f = 28. Four inter-
mediate teeth between the incisors and the upper molars;
molars with four tubercles; ears large and pointed; feet
pentadactyle ; toes of the fore-feet in two groups, the thumb
and index finger on one side, the three others on the oppo-
site ; thumb of the hind-feet large, nailless ; the two next
toes united.

P.juscus, Desm. The Koala, Cuv. Fur of an uniform chocolate
colour, long and thick. Size of a moderate dog. New Holland.
— Cuv, Reg. An. iv. t. 1.

Gen. 90. PHASCOLOMYS, Geoff. Cuv. — Didelphis, Shaw.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars f-f = 24. Incisors strong and
thick ; molars with oval crown, divided by a furrow ; body
thick ; head large, flat ; ears short ; eyes much separated ;
feet with five toes, the anterior armed with crooked and ro-
bust nails for digging ; thumb of hind-feet very small, nailless ;
tail scarcely apparent ; an abdominal pouch in the female.

P. wombat, Peron, Desm. The Wombat. Fur uniform grayish co-
lour. Size of the badger. New Holland.— Desm. Mam. 276.

ORDER VI, GLIRES, Lin.— Rosores, Stoir.—Rodentia,

Cuv.

Two large incisors in each jaw, separated from the molars by a
vacant space ; no canine teeth ; molars with flat crowns or
blunt tubercles ; extremities, the posterior longest, terminated
by unguiculated toes, the number varying according to the
species ; mammae variable in number ; stomach simple ; in-
testines very long.

Section 1. — With complete clavicles.
Gen. 91. CASTOR, Lin. Cuv. Geoff.

Incisors f, canines g-§, molars £-£ = 20. Molars composed
of a flat crown, with sinuous and complicated ridges of ena-
mel ; five toes on each foot, the anterior short and close, the
VOL. r. H

114 MAMMALIA. GLIIIES.

posterior longer and palmated; tail broad, thick, flattened hori-
zontally, of an oval form, naked, and covered with scales.

C.Jiher, Lin. The Beaver. Fur consisting of two sorts of hair,

one coarse and brownish, the other downy,, more or less gray.

About two feet long. North America and Europe. — Penn. Brit.

Zool. i. pi. 9.

The Beaver has been long celebrated for its intelligence and social instinct. It
is found on the banks of rivers and lakes in North America, living in troops more or
less numerous in a kind of huts, constructed near the margin of the water. They
intercept the water, to form ponds attached to their dwellings, by strong arched dikes,
of which the convexity is opposed to the current. These dikes are formed of stones,
mud, and branches of trees. Their huts, composed of the same materials, are situ-
ate on the margin of the ponds, and generally of an oval form, with a rounded top,
the diameter of which is proportioned to the number of individuals who are its in-
mates. The entrance to this cabin is from the lowest part, descending into the water,
through which alone they enter, the principal part of the dwelling being above its
level. The beaver uses its teeth to cut the branches of trees necessary for its pur-
pose, as well as to transport the different materials of its structure ; and the com-
bination of means to this end in a number of individuals has approximated in the
minds of some the social instinct of animals to something approaching to reason.
But in captivity the beaver shows nothing of the social instinct, and very little in-
telligence. The period of gestation in the beaver is four months, and it brings
forth two or three young. They are at their full size in two years, and the dura-
tion of their life is about fifteen.

The beaver is subject to considerable variety of colour, and individuals have been
noticed from totally black to different shades of yellow or fawn-colour and white.

A fossil species, the C. trogontherium of Fischer, resembles in its characters the
present species, though its dimensions seem to have been much larger.

Gen. 92. FIBER, Cuv. Geoff.— Mm. Gmel.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars f-f =16. Molars with a flat
crown, and scaly angular zigzag plates of enamel ; fore-feet
with four toes and the rudiment of a thumb ; posterior with
five, edged with stiff and close bristles ; tail long, compressed
laterally, naked, except a few scattered hairs, and granular.

F. Zibethicus, Desm. (Castor Zibethicus, Lin.) The Ondatra or
Musk Rat. Fur clear brown, tinged with red above, cinereous be-
neath. About the size of a rabbit. Canada — Buff- x. pi. 1.

Gen. 93, AEVICOLA, Desm. — Mus9 Lin. — Lemmus, Geoff.

Incisors f , canines §-g, molars f-f = 16. Molars with a flat
crown and angular plates of enamel ; ears large ; anterior toes
with nails ; tail round, hairy, almost the length of the body.

A. amphibius, Desm. (Mus amphibius, Lin.) The Water Rat.
Fur blackish -gray, slightly mixed with yellowish, lighter beneath ;
tail black. A little larger than the common rat. Old and New
Continents. B. — Buff. vii. pi. 43.

Var. A. All black Var. B. With a large white spot on the shoulders.— Var. C.

Black, feet covered with white hairs.

A. Argentoratensis, Desm. Fur of a brownish black, mixed with
gray ; tail brown, almost naked. Six inches long. Found near
Strasbourg. — Buff. Sup. vii. pi. 70.

AEVICOLA. MAMMALIA. 115

A. Niloticus, Desm. Egyptian Arvicola. Fur brown, mixed with
yellow, above y ellowish, gray beneath $ ears large, naked. Mam. 28 1 .

A. albicaudaius, Desm. Fur brown, with the feet and upper side
of the tail white — Mam. 281.

A. vulgaris, Desm. (Mus agrestis, Lin.) The Field Mouse. Of a
reddish ash- colour above, paler below ; ears small and round. TCu-
rope and Northern Asia — Buff", vii. pi. 47*

A. fidvus, Desm. (Lcmmus fulvus, Geoff.) Aboxit four inches
long; reddish yellow; belly and feet paler ; tail not half the length
of the body. France — Mam. 282.

A. xanthognatus, Desm. Fur fawn-coloured, variegated with black
above, cinereous beneath; cheeks yellowish. Hudsons Bay. —
Leach, Nat. Mis. i. t. 26.

A. ceconomus, Desm. {Mus ceconomus, Gmel.) Fur brown above, pas-
sing into yellow on the flanks ; throat and belly white ; tail one-
fourth the length of the body. Siberia. — Pall. Glir. pi. 14, A.
These little animals construct their burrows below the surface of the turf in the
form of an arched chamber about a foot in diameter. To this chamber they make
numerous small holes or entrances, and near this principal apartment they form
magazines, in which they deposit in some cases from twenty to thirty pounds
of roots, collected by the females during summer for their winter provision. The
migrations of this species, like the Lemming, take place in vast phalanxes at
uncertain periods, is conducted in the same manner, and is probably caused by exces-
sive production and want of food. The natives of Kamtschatka often rob the hoards
of these provident little animals, leaving a ridiculous present at the place in return.

A. saxatilis, Desm. Fur brown, mixed with gray above, deep gray
on the sides, cinereous below ; tail as long as the body. Siberia.
—Pa.7/. Gf£r«,pL23,B.

A. alliarius, Desm. About four inches long ; fur ash-coloured
above, white beneath; ears large, almost naked. Siberia —
Pall. Glires, pi. 14, C.

A. rutilus, Desm.. Rather less than the preceding; fur reddish
above, dirty white below ; tail a third of the length of the body.
Siberia — Pall Glires, pi, 14, B.

A. gregalis, Desm. Fur pale gray on the back, mixed with long
black hairs ; belly white ; tail blackish, one-fourth the length of
the body. Three inches long. Siberia. — Pall. Glir. pi. 17.

A. socialis, Desm. (Mus gregarius, Lin.) Fur pale gray above,
white underneath ; ears short, broad, almost naked. About three
inches long ; tail one inch. Deserts near the Caspian Sea.—
Pall. Glir. pi. 13, B.

A. Astrachanensis, Desm. Fur yellowish above, cinereous below.
Four inches long ; tail one inch. Astracan. — Mam. p. 285.

A. pumilio, Desm. Fur bright brown above, with four longitudi-
nal black bands. Cape of Good Hope.— Shaw, ii. pi. 133.

A. hortensis, Harlan. Fur above ferruginous brown, sides lead-co-
loured, yellow beneath ; hair coarse ; ears broad, oval. Inhabits
Florida.— Faun. Amer. 138.

116 MAMMALIA. GLIHES.

A. palustris, Harlan. Fur dark grayish brown above, lead-coloured
below ; ears slightly edged with hair ; tail short, slightly hairy.
Inhabits the shores of the Delaware.— Faun. Amer. 136.

A. Pennsylvania, Ord. Fur brownish fawn-coloured above, gray-
ish white beneath ; eyes very small ; ears short and round.
Pennsylvania. — Wilson, Ornith. vi. t. 50, fig. 3.

A. Floridanus, Harlan. Fur lead-colour, mixed with black on the
dorsal line, yellowish on the flanks ; ears large and membranous.
Body about eight inches long. Florida — Faun. Amer. 142.
This is the type of the genus Neotoma of Messrs Say and Ord, which differs from

the Arvicola: in the teeth being furnished with roots.

Gen. 94. LEMMUS, Cuv. Geoff. — Mus, Lin.

Incisors f , canines §-g, molars §— g = 16. Molars with a flat
crown and angular plates of enamel ; ears very short ; fore-
feet in some species with five, in others four toes, proper for
digging ; tail short and hairy.

L. Norwegians, Desm. (Mus Lemmus, Lin.) The Lemming. Fur
of a red fawn-colour, variegated with black and brown ; five toes
on the fore-feet. Norway and Lapland — Pall Glir. t. 12, A, B.

The migratory habits of these animals are very remarkable. They inhabit the alpine
or mountainous parts of Lapland and Norway ; and at particular but uncertain
periods they descend into the plains in immense troops, devouring every thing in
their passage. Their migrations are continued in a direct line, and no obstacles in their
way have any effect in altering their route ; neither ravines, torrents, marshes, or lakes>
nor even fires, make them deviate from their line of march. If a rick of hay or corn
occurs in their passage they eat through it ; and insurmountable objects make them
only deviate till the obstacle is passed. The grass is destroyed to the very roots in
the line of their march, and the ground appears as if ploughed. The cause of these
periodical migrations is not known. They seldom happen more than once in ten years.
Want of food and excessive multiplication have been assigned as the probable
causes ; and it has been remarked that their migrations take place in the autumn of
such years as are followed by a severe winter. If the instinctive propensity arises
from the numbers being too great for the supply of food, the object is amply attained ;
for the greater part of these immense hosts is destroyed by various enemies, owls,
hawks, weasels, &c. and numbers perish in the waters which their blind instinct
impells them to cross. Few survive to return to their native mountains.

L. zokor, Desm. (Mtts aspalax, Pall.) The Daurian Rat, Penn.
Body reddish gray ; tail short ; fore-feet pentadactylous ; the
three intermediate nails very long ; eyes very small. Inhabits
the Altaic Mountains — Pall. Glir. t. 10.

L. Talpinus, Desm. Fur gray brown above, whitish underneath ;
fore-feet pentadactyle, with pretty strong nails ; eyes small ; tail
very short. Inhabits Southern Russia. — Pall. Glir. t. 11, A.

L. Hudsonius, Desm. Fur cinereous, with a dusky stripe down
the middle; fore-feet with four toes and the rudiment of a thumb;
the two middle nails very large, and apparently divided. Inhabits
Labrador — Pall Glir. t. 26. fig. A, B, C.

L. torquatus, Desm. Fur ferruginous, with a black dorsal line and
a white collar ; fore-feet pentadactylous ; nail of the thumb short
and rounded. Inhabits Siberia Pall Glir. t. 11, B.

ECHIMYS. MAMMALIA. 117

L. lagurus, Desni. Fur cinereous, with a black dorsal line and
no collar ; fore-feet pentadactyle ; tail very short. Inhabits Si-
beria.— Pall. Glir. t. 13, A.

L. terrestris, F. Cuv. Fur blackish gray, slightly variegated with
yellow, paler beneath ; tail black. Europe — F. Cuv. Mam.

Gen. 95. ECHIMYS, Geoff. Cuv.

Incisors f , canines {}-§, molars |-|, — 20. Molars simple,
with transverse plates united by twos at the end, or isolated ;
four unguiculated toes and the vestige of a thumb on the
fore-feet, five on those behind; tail long, scaly; the back more
or less covered with flat spines.

E. crislaius, Desm. Fur chestnut-coloured above; head deep brown,
with a narrow white stripe down the middle ; tail longer than
the body, black, with its last half white or yellowish. Surinam.
— Buff. Sup. vii. pi. 72.

E. daclylinus, Geoff. Fur of the back deep brown, mixed with gray
and yellow, reddish on the flanks ; two middle toes of the fore-
feet longest ; tail longer than the body. — S. America.

E. spinosus, Desm. Fur dark brown, mixed with reddish above,
j? white beneath; hairs on the back mixed with strong spines. Seven
inches long. South America. — Mam. 291.

E. hispidus, Geoff. Fur reddish brown, lighter underneath; head
fo reddish ; tail as long as the body, scaly ; hairs of the back very
rough. S. America. — Desm. Mam. 292.

E. didelphoides, Geoff. Fur brown upon the back, yellowish below ;
tail the length of the body, the greater part naked and scaly.
S. America — Desm. Mam. 292.

E. Cayennensis, Geoff. Fur red, passing to brown on the back, white
below ; hind-feet with long tarsi, and three middle toes equal.
S. America. — Desm. Mam. 292.

E. setosus, Geoff. Fur red, soft, with few spines, whitish below; end
of the feet white; tail rather longer than the body — S. America.

Gen. 96. MYOXUS, Cuv. Geoff.— Mus, Lin.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars f-f , — 20. Molars simple, with
transverse projecting lines ; fore-feet with four toes and the
rudiment of a thumb ; tail very long, round, with hair tufted
or depressed.

M. glis, Desm. (Sciurus glis, Lin.) The Fat Dormouse. Fur
brownish ash-coloured above, whitish below, with brown round

the eyes ; tail hairy. Six inches long. Europe Buff. viii. pi. 24.

The M. dry as of Schreber is considered a variety of the M. Glis.
The Dormouse resembles the squirrel in its manners and food. It couples
in spring, and the female brings forth four or five at a birth. On the approach of winter
this little animal retires into the crevices of rocks or cavities of trees, rolls itself
up into a ball and passes the winter in torpidity, awaking, however, to take food
when the temperature is raised. It is used for food in Italy, as it was by tlie ancient

!

'

t

118 MAMMALIA. GLIRES.

Romans, who fattened them for the table in receptacles called GKraria* The com-
mon Dormouse has the same habits.

M. nitela, Desm. Garden Dormouse. Fur gray brown above, whit-
ish below j a black spot round the eyes extending to behind the
ear ; tail long, black, with a white tuft at the end. Inhabits
Europe. — Buff. viii. pi. 24.

M. avellanarius, Desm. The Common Dormouse. Fur clear fawn-
colour above, whitish below ; tail the length of the body, flatten-
ed horizontally, the hairs distichous. Europe. B. — Schreb. pi. 227*

M. murimiSy Desm. Fur gray, paler beneath ; tail as long as the
body, flattened, with distichous hairs. Cape of Good Hope. —
F. Cuv. Mam. No. 17- '

M. Africanus, Shaw. Fur pale ferruginous above, whitish beneath,
with a white line above each eye ; tail black in the middle —
Shaw, ii. 172.

Gen. 97. HYDROMYS, Geoff. Cuv.— Mus. Gmel.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars f-f , =12. Molars with flat crown,
the plates of enamel having the appearance of the figure 8,
with two hollows ; ears small and round ; feet pentadactyle,
the toes of the hind-feet united by a membrane ; tail cylin-
drical, covered with hair and pointed.

H. chrysogaster, Geoflv Fur chestnut above, orange-coloured below.
One foot long. Van-Dieman's Land. — An. Mus. vi. pi. 36.

H. leucogastery Geoff. Fur brown above, white below. Van-Dieman's

Land. One foot long — An. Mus. vi. pi 36.
H. Coupusy Geoff. The Coypou. Fur brown chestnut on the back,

red on the flanks, and light brown on the belly. Twenty inches
' long. Inhabits South America. — An. Mus. vi. pi. 35.

This species is the type of M. F. Cuvier's genus Myopotamus. It is nearly al-
lied to the beaver, and its fur is known in trade by the name of Racoonda, and used
in the manufacture of hats* J^wcJ*"" {Jl^TA *""

Gen. 98. Mus, Lin. Cuv. — Rattus-, Penn.
Incisors f, canines g-g, molars f-f, — 16. Molars with tu-
berculous crowns ; four toes and rudimentary thumb on the
fore-feet ; hind-feet with five unguiculated toes ; ears oblong
or round, naked; tail long, naked and scaly ; fur with scattered
hairs, longer and stiffer than the others, sometimes forming
a kind of spines.

* Spineless rats of the Old Continent.

M. giganteuSy Hardwick. The Malabar Rat. Fur of an obscure
brown on the back, gray under the belly; feet black. Body above
a foot long. Inhabits Malabar— Lin. Trans, vii. t. 8.

M. Javanusy Desm. Fur brown red above, extremities of the feet
whitish ; tail shorter than the body ; feet not palmated. Nine
inches long. Inhabits Java. — Mam. 298.

Mus. MAMMALIA. 119

M. caraco, Pallas. Fur mixed with reddish and gray, deeper on
the back than the sides; feet and belly whitish; tail rather more
than half the length of the body; feet semipalmated. Seven in-
ches long. Inhabits Siberia. — Pall. Glir. t. 23.

M. decumanus, Desm. Norway Rat. Fur gray brown above, whit-
ish below; tail almost the length of the body; toes free. Nine
inches long. — Shaw, ii. pi. 130.

This well-known animal is originally from Persia or India, and was not known in
England previous to the year 1730. It is now naturalized in all the countries of
Europe, and in America, and in Britain has almost expelled the black rat

M. Indicus, Geoff. Fur reddish gray above, gray below ; legs red-
dish ; tail a little shorter than the body; feet not palmated.
Inhabits India. — Desm. Mam. 299.

M. Alexandrlnus, Geoff. Fur reddish gray above, cinereous below;
tail one-fourth longer than the body ; feet not webbed. Inhabits
Egypt— Geoff. Egijp. pi. 3. tig. 1.

M. rattus, Lin. The Black Rat. Fur blackish above, deep ash-
coloured below ; tail longer than the body. Seven or eight inches
long. Originally from India, but spread over the civilized world.
—Shaw, ii. pi 130.

M. sylvaticus, Lin. The Field Mouse. Fur reddish gray above,
whitish below ; tail shorter than the body. Five inches long.
Europe. B. — Shaw, ii. pi. 132.

M. campestris, F. Cuv. The Dwarf Mouse. Ears short, rounded ;
fur fawn-gray above, white below. About two inches and a-half
long. France. — Desm. Mam. 543.

M- musculus, Lin. The Mouse. Dusky gray above, cinereous be-
low ; tail about as long as the body. About four inches long.
Sometimes found all white. Europe. B. — Shaw, ii. pi. 131.

M. messorius, Shaw. The Harvest Mouse. Fur mouse gray, mix-
ed with yellowish above ; belly and feet white ; tail a little short-
er than the body. Two inches and a-half long. Inhabits Eng-
land.— Shaw, ii. frontispiece.
This is the smallest of British quadrupeds, two of them weighing about the third
of an ounce. They build their nests amidst the straws of corn, and sometimes in
thistles, and are often carried into the barn-yard with the sheaves.

M. agrarius, Pall. Fur reddish gray, with a black dorsal line ;
tail half the length of the body. About three inches long. Russia.
— Pall. Glir. pi. 24, A.

M. subtilis, Pall. Fawn-coloured, with a black dorsal line, ears
folded ; tail rather longer than the body. About three inches
long. Inhabits Tartary and Siberia — Pall. Glir. t. 22. fig. 2.
There are several varieties in colour of this species. They live in trees, which

they climb with ease. They have some analogy with the dormice, and like them

want the gall-bladder, but differ from them in having a crecum. Mr Gray has

formed them into a separate genus under the name of Sicista,

M. striatus, Lin. Fur reddish gray above, with lines of longitudi-
nal white spots. East Indies.—. Shaw, ii. pi. 133.

120 MAMMALIA. GLIRES.

M. Barbaras, Lin. Fur brown, with ten longitudinal whitish lines ;
three toes on the anterior feet. Northern Africa — Shaw, ii. 70

M. soricmus, Desm. Fur yellowish gray above, whitish below ;
muzzle elongated ; ears orbicular, hairy ; tail as long as the body.
2£ inches long. Vicinity of Strasbourg. — Shaw, ii. pi. 133.

M. minutus, Pall. Fur ferruginous above, whitish below j muzzle
slightly elongated. Body about two inches long. Inhabits Russia.
— Pall. Glir. pi. 24, B.

M.Jrugivorus, Raf. Fur reddish brown, with scattered long hairs.,
white below ; ears naked, rounded ; tail as long as the body. In-
habits Sicily, on trees. — Griff. Syn. 229.

M. dichrurus, Raf. Fur gray and brown ; head with a brown band ;
tail as long as the body. Inhabits Sicily. — Griff. Syn. 229.

M. setifer, Horsf. Fur bristly, back gray, blackish brown beneath ;
ears large, rounded, nearly naked ; tail long. Java — Horsf. Jav.

M. Islandicus, Thienemann. Iceland Rat. Fur black above ; red
gray, spotted with yellow on the sides ; tail nearly naked, scaly,
a little longer than body. N. of Europe. — Natur. Bemerk. i. t. 22.

M. Donovani, Griff. Fur blackish gray, with three small dorsal
bands ; tail rather hairy. Cape of Good Hope. — Nat. Rep. t. 35 »

** American Spineless Rats.

M. Angouya, Desm. Fur yellow brown above, whitish beneath ;
tail rather longer than the body ; ears rounded. — Paraguay.

M. rufus, Desm. Reddish fawn-colour, darker on the head and
back ; belly yellowish ; tail rather more than half the length of
the body. About six inches long. Inhabits Paraguay. — Mam. 305.

M. cephalotes, Desm. Head very large ; muzzle short ; fur brown
above, whitish below; tail as long as the body. Four inches
long. Inhabits Paraguay. — Mam. 305.

M. auritus, Desm. Head thick ; ears long ; fur mouse-colour,
lighter beneath ; tail shorter than the body. Four inches and
a-half long. Inhabits Buenos Ayres — Mam. 306.

M. nigripes, Desm. Head thick ; ears short and round ; yellow
brown above, white below ; feet deep black. Three inches and
a-half long. Inhabits Paraguay — Mam. 306.

M. Laucha, Desm. Muzzle pointed ; fur lead-colour, paler below ;
tail shorter than the body. 2£ inches long — Buenos Ayres.

M. leucopus, Desm. Brownish yellow above, white beneath ; ears
large ; feet white, tail as long as the body. Five inches long.
Inhabits United States. — Mam. 307.

M. nigricans, Desm. Fur black above, gray below ; tail black,
longer than the body. Six inches long. — United States.

*** Spinous Rats.
M. Perchal, Shaw. Fur reddish brown, mixed with spiny hairs,

CRICETUS. MAMMALIA. 121

grayish below ; tail not so long as the body. Body 18 inches long.
India — Buff- Supp. vii. pi. 69.

M. Cakirinus, Geoff. The Egyptian Rat. Fur ash gray, deeper

,/> above than below,, composed of rough spiny hairs ; tail as long

as the body. Four inches long. Egypt — Geoff. Egyp. pi. 5. tig. 2.

Gen. 99. CRICETUS, Lacep. Cuv. — Mus, Lin.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars f-f = 16. Crown of the mo-
lars with blunt tubercles ; fore-feet with four toes and a ru-
dimentary thumb ; hind-feet pentadactyle, with strong nails ;
tail short and hairy ; cheek-pouches.

C. vulgaris, Desm. (Mus cricetus, Lin.) The Common Hamster.
Fur reddish gray above, black below ; with three large yellowish
spots on each side ; a white spot on the throat and another under
the breast. Inhabits the northern and central parts of Europe
and Asia. Eight inches long.— -Shaw, ii. pi. 137-

The Hamster forms complicated burrows or excavations of a circular form from
one to five feet in diameter, communicating by horizontal passages. In one of these
is the retreat of the animal, furnished with dry herbs for its bed — the others are
magazines for its winter provisions, which frequently contain many bushels of corn
or other grain. These burrows are frequently sought, both to destroy the animal
which robs the agriculturist of so much produce, and to appropriate their supplies.
In the environs of Gotha it is said that in a single year 80,000 hamsters have been
killed. The hamster is larger than the common rat ; is provided with cheek-
pouches ; brings forth frequently, and from six to twelve young. On the approach
of winter the entrances to their burrows are closed up, and they are supposed to
pass this season partly in a state of torpidity.

C. migratorius, Desm. (Mus accedula, Pall.) Fur ashy gray above,
white on the muzzle, round the nostrils and feet ; ears notched ;
Length four inches. Siberia — Pall. Glir. pi. 18, A.

C. arenarius, Desm. (Musarenarius,Gme\.) Sand Hamster. Whit-
ish ash-coloured above, pure white beneath ; feet and tail white ;
ears round. Four inches long. Siberia. — Pall. Glir. pi. 16, A.

C. phceus, Desm. (Mus phceus, Gmel.) Fur brownish ash-coloured
above, whitish below ; ears oval and large. Inhabits Persia. —
Pall Glir. pi. 15, A.

C. songarus, Desm. (Mus songarus, Pall.) Fur ash-coloured on the
back, with a black dorsal line ; sides varied with white and brown.
Length three inches. Siberia — Shaw, ii. pi. 139.

C. furunculus, Desm. (Mu&furunculus, Pall.) Fur ashy above, with
a black dorsal line ; belly and feet white. — Pall. Glir. tab. 15, B.

C. bursarius, Desm. (Musbursarms, Lin. Trans.) Canada Hamster.
Fur gray ; fore-feet pentadactylous, with long digging nails ;
ears short. Length 11 inches. Canada. — Shan, ii. pi. 138.

C. laniger, Desm. (Mus. laniger, Gmel.) The Chinchilla. Fur gray
and white, the hair soft and downy j ears large and round ; tail
short, with long stiff hairs. 1 1 inches long. Chili. — Griff, iii. 138.

C. anomalus, Desm. Fur chestnut brown above, white below, some

122 MAMMALIA. GLIRES.

flat spines on the back ; tail nearly as long as the body, scaly and
black. Isle of Trinity, Gulf of Mexico — Mam. 313.

Gen. 100. DIPUS, Cuv. Geoff. Gmel.

Incisors §, canines g-g, molars f-f or \-\ = 16 or 18. Mo-
lars simple, with tuberculous crowns ; eyes large ; ears long,
pointed ; posterior extremities much elongated, with the num-
ber of toes variable, but having only one metatarsal bone ; tail
very long, tufted.

These singular animals, approaching something in form to the Kangaroo, but
very different in other particulars, were formerly supposed to walk solely upon their
hind-feet ; but subsequent observation has proved this to be wrong. They usually
walk on all-fours, but when alarmed endeavour to escape by prodigious leaps, spring-
ing from their hind-feeet by the assistance of their tail, their fore-feet being pressed
close to their breast on these occasions.

D. maximus, Blainv. The Great Jerboa. Fur bright gray above,
with a black line over each eye, uniting on the forehead ; four
toes on the fore-feet, and three on those behind. Size of a rabbit.

D. gerboa, Desm. (Musjaculus, Lin.) The Jerboa. Fur bright
fawn-colour above, white underneath ; tail tufted ; three toes on
the hind-feet, the middle one longest. About six inches long.
Barbary, Egypt, &c. — Shaw, ii. pi. 157.

D.jaculus, Desm. (Musjaculus, Pall.) Pale fawn-coloured above,
white below ; muzzle white, and a white band across the buttocks ;
five toes on the hind-feet ; ears long. Seven inches long. Tar-
tary Shaw, ii. pi. 158.

D. brachyurus, Desm. Pale fawn-coloured above, white below ;
a white crescent-shaped spot on the buttocks ; muzzle white at
its extremity, brown above ; tail and limbs thick ; ears short ;
hind-feet pentadactyle. Four inches and a-half long. — Siberia.

D. minutus, Desm. Fur pale yellowish gray, whitish underneath ;
the extremities and transverse stripe on the buttocks white ; hind-
feet pentadactyle. Four inches long. — Shores of the Caspian sea.

Gen. 101 . GERBILLUS, Desm. F. Cuv.

Incisors f, canines g-g, molars §-§ =16. Molars tubercu-
lous ; posterior extremities very long, with five toes, each
with its proper metatarsal bone ; tail long, covered with hair.

G. tamariscinus, Desm. (Mus tamariscinus, Pall.) Fur grayish yel-
low above, white below ; tail nearly as long as the body, annu-
lated with brown. Six inches and a-half long. Shores of the
Caspian Sea — Shaw, ii. pi. 160.

G. meridianus, Desm. (Mus longipes, Lin.) Fur grayish fawn-
colour above, white below, with a central line of red brown on
the belly. Body four inches long. Deserts near the Caspian
Sea — Shaw, ii. pi. 160.

G. Indicus, Desm. Fur chestnut above, sprinkled with small brown

ASPALAX. MAMMALIA. 123

spots longitudinally, white below ; tail a little longer than the
body, with a tuft of brown hair. Hindostan. — Desm. Mam. p. 321.

G. Mgyptius, Desm. (Dipus pyramidum, Geoff.) Upper part of
the body bright yellow, under part pure white ; tail a little longer
than the body, brown, and terminated by a few long hairs. About
the size of a mouse. Egypt. — Oliv. Voy. pi. 28. A, B, C.

G. Canadensis, Desm. Canadian Gerbo, Shaw. Fur yellowish
above, white below ; ears short ; tail almost naked, rather longer
than the body. Inhabits Canada. — Shaw, ii. pi. 161.

G. Labradorius, Sabine. Fur brown above, white beneath, without
a dividing line ; toes four before, five behind ; tail more than half
the length of the body. Labrador. — Faun. Amer. p 157«
M. Rafinesque has named six other species of Gerbilli as natives of North America.

These are the G. soricinus, megalops, leonurus^ Hudsonius, macrourus, and Irachy-

urus.

Gen 102. ASPALAX, Desm. Oliv. — Spalax, Cuv.

Incisors §, canines g-g, molars f-f, = 16. Molars simple,
with blunt tubercles ; body long, cylindrical ; eyes very small,
and concealed by the skin; no external ears ; feet short, penta-
dactylous ; no tail.

A. typhlus, Desm. (Mus lyphlus, Pall.) Fur ash-coloured, tin-
ted with reddish. Eight inches long. Asia Minor, &c. The
Aspalax or mole of the ancients. — Pall. Glir. pi. 8.

Var. with large irregular white spots.

Gen. 103. BATHYERGUS,CUV. — Mus9 Pal. — Orycterus. F.Cuv.

Incisors f, canines g-g, molars f-f, = 20. Incisors very long,
broad ; molars slightly tuberculous, notched on the edges ;
body thick and cylindrical ; head thick ; muzzle truncated ;
eyes small ; no external ears ; feet short, pentadactyle, with
strong nails ; tail very short.

B. maritimus, Desm. (Mus maritimus, Gmel.) Fur whitish gray ;
tail flat, covered with stiff hairs. About a foot long. Cape of
Good Hope. — Shaw, ii. pi. 140.

B. Capensis, Desm. (Mus Capensis, Pall.) Fur brown, with white
round the eyes and ears, on the tip of the head, and at the end
of the muzzle. About six inches long. Cape of Good Hope.—
Shaw, ii. pi. 140.

Gen. 104 PEDETES, Desm. — Dipus9Gme\. — Helamys, F.Cuv.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars f-f, = 20. Molars with a cy-
lindrical crown and a circle of enamel divided into two parts ;
head short, broad, and flat between the ears ; muzzle obtuse ;
ears long, thin, narrow, pointed; eyes large; no cheek-pouches;
whiskers large ; fore-feet short, with five toes and long nails ;
hind-feet very long, four-toed ; tail long, thick ; an abdominal
pouch, but not inclosing the teats.

MAMMALIA. GLIIIES.

P. Capensis,Desm. (Mus Cafer, Pallas.) Fur bright fulvous, mixed
with black above, white below ; legs brown ; tail slender, black at
the end. Cape of Good Hope — Buff. Supp. vi. pi. 41,

Gen. 105. ARCTOMYS, Geoff. Cuv. — Mus, Lin.

Incisors f, canines g-g, molars f-f, — 22. Incisors very
strong ; molars with ridges and blunt tubercles ; body thick
and heavy ; head large ; no cheek-pouches ; ears short and
rounded ; eyes large ; feet robust, those before with four
toes and a rudimentary thumb ; those behind with five toes,
the nails strong, compressed, and crooked.

* No cheek-pouches.

A. Bobac, Desm. (Mus arctomys, Pallas,) Fur yellowish gray,
with a red tint near the head ; under part of the body reddish.
15 inches long. Poland and Northern Russia. — Shaw, ii. pi. 144.

A. marmotta, Desm. (Mus alpinus, Pliny.) The Marmot. Fur yel-
lowish gray, top of the head and end of the tail black. Eighteen
inches long. Mountains in Europe and Asia. — Shaw, ii. pi. 143.
The Marmots live on the elevated sides of the highest mountains, near the limit of
perpetual snow They are found in families of from six to fifteen : and towards the
month of September dig a hole on a southern exposure, which at five or six feet
from its entrance divides into two branches, leading to chambers of from three to
seven feet in diameter, stored with hay and moss, where they hybernate. When
they leave their retreat to seek food, a centinel is placed upon a height to give the
alarm, which he does by a kind of whistle, when they retire to their holes. They
store up no provisions, their long torpor rendering this unnecessary ; but at the end
of autumn they are very fat, and are then taken in great numbers to be used as food.

A. monax, Desm. (Mus monax, Lin.) Fur brown above, paler
on the sides and belly ; muzzle bluish gray ; tail half as long as
the body, black. 16 inches long. N. America. — Shaw, ii. pi. 143.

A. empetra, Desm. Quebec Marmot, Penn. Fur blackish brown,
dotted with white above, red ferruginous below ; tail short. Ca-
nada.— Penn. Quad. ii. pi. 74, fig. 1.

A. brachyura, Rafinesque. Cinereous brown above, light red below;

tail short, flat, reddish. — Missouri.

Several other animals said to belong to this genus are excluded by Desmarest as
not being sufficiently ascertained.

** With large cheek-pouches. SPERMOPHILUS, F. Cuv.

A. citillus, Desm. (Mus citillus, Pall.) Fur gray brown above, waved
or spotted with white ; white below ; cheek-pouches. — Europe
and Asia.

There are three varieties of this species, distinguished by the undulations or spots
on the fur.

A. Franklinii, Sabine. Head broad; ears small; snout blunt; tail elon-
gated; body variegated, fuscous. Canada — Lin. Trans, xiii. t. 27-

A. Richardsonii, Sabine. Ears short ; snout acute ; body fuscous.
Canada. — Lin. Trans, xiii. t. 28.

A. Parryii, Richardson. Snout blunt ; ears short ; tail elongate, tip

SCJURUS. MAMMALIA. 125

black ; body marbled above with confluent black and white spots ;
beneath ferruginous. One foot long ; tail lour inches. Canada.
— App. Franklin's Voy.

A. Iridecimlineala, Harlan. (S. tridecimlineatus, Desm.) Fur deep-
chestnut above, striped with six white lines, alternating with an
equal number of longitudinal rows of white spots; white below.
— Faun. Amer. 164;

Gen. 106. SCIURUS, Lin. Cuv.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars f-f =r 22. Inferior incisors com-
pressed laterally ; molars tubercular ; body elongated ; head
small ; ears erect, rounded; eyes large ; fore-feet with four long
toes with compressed crooked nails and a tubercular thumb ;
hind-feet very large, with five toes ; tail long, often with hair
disposed in two rows ; two pectoral and six ventral mammae.
* Tail distichous.

S. vulgaris, Lin. The Common Squirrel. Fur reddish above, white
below; ears pencilled with long hairs. — Europe and North of Asia.

Several varieties of the squirrel have been noticed, varying in different shades of
colour and markings from fawn-colour to black. The colour sometimes changes
with the season — Buff. vii. pi. 32.

S. Alpimts, F. Cuv. Fur deep brown., varied with yellowish white
above, white beneath ; feet yellow, with a yellow band separating
the white of the neck and the gray of the limbs from the brown
of the back ; ears pencilled. Pyrenees — F. Cuv. Mam.

S. cinereus, Desm. The Gray Squirrel. Fur ash-coloured, white

below ; ears without pencils of hair. Ten inches long. N.

America — Shaw. ii. pi. 147.

Var. With a red line on the back. S. rnlrolineatus. Desm.
S. capi&tralus, Bosc. Body ashy ; head black ; muzzle, ears, and

belly white. S. Carolina — Brown, Illust. pi. 47.
Van A.— Colour all black. Var. B.— With a black belly. Var. C — Variegated

•with red, orange colour, and white.

S. rujiventer, Geoff. Fur gray above, bright red below; feet brown ;
tail shorter than the body. Size of the European Squirrel. —
North America.

S. Ludovicianus, Curtis. Body and upper part of the tail dark gray ;
belly, legs, thighs, and under part of tail reddish brown ; tail
longer than the body, very broad. N. America. — Bartons Jour-
nal, vi. 47.

S. grammurus, Say. Body cinereous ; fur very coarse ; three black
lines on each side of the tail. N. America. — Say and Long, vi«72.

S. laterally, Say. Fur brownish cinereous above ; sides marked
with dull yellowish stripes. N. America. — Say and Long, vi. 46.

S. quadrivittatus, Say. Head brownish, with four white lines; sides
fulvous, whitish beneath. N. America.— &?# and Long, vi. 45.

126 MAMMALIA. GLIRES.

S. magnicaudatus, Harlan. Fur mixed gray and black ; sides of
the head and orbits pale ferruginous ; tail large. Canada. —
Faun. Amer. 178.

S. Clarkii, Griff. Fur silvery gray above ; shoulders, flanks, and
belly white, with an ochry tint ; tail flat, terminating in a point.
N« America. — Griff. Syn, 255.

S. maximus, Desm. Upper part of the head, flanks, and legs purple
chestnut colour, with a black transverse stripe on the shoulders ;
lower part of the back, loins, and tail black ; under part of the
body and interior of the limbs pale yellow. Fifteen inches long.
Malabar — Shaw, ii. pi 146.

S. Ceylonensis, Desm. Fur black above, yellow below ; tail gray.
Ceylon — Penn. Ind. Zool. pi. 1.

S. Madagascariensis, Shaw. Fur deep black above ; throat and bel-
ly yellowish-brown ; tail black. Eighteen inches long. Mada-
gascar.— Buff. Suj)p. vii. pi. 63.

S. Prevostii, Desm. Fur black above, yellow on the flanks, chestnut
below ; tail brown. — India.

S. Leschenaultii, Desm. Fur clear brown ; head, throat, and belly
yellowish white ; tail brown above, yellowish below. About a
foot long. There is a darker coloured variety. Java. — Mam. 335.

S. bicolor, Desm. Fur deep brown or blackish above, clear fawn-
coloured below j eyes surrounded with a black circle ; ears not
pencilled. Java. — Schreb. t. 216.

S. bilineatus, Geoff. Fur gray, with a longitudinal white line on
each side. Seven inches long. — Java.

S. affinis, Raffles. Fur ash gray above, nearly white beneath, with
a reddish brown line on each side. Sumatra. — Lin. Trans, xiii.

S. nigrovittatus, Horsfield. Fur gray brown above ; edges of the
abdomen and circle round the eyes paler ; gray beneath, with a
lateral black line ; tail longer than the body, annulated with black.
Java. — Zool. Jav.

S. tennis, Horsfield. Fur variegated with deep-gray and black ;
lateral edge gray, yellowish gray below ; tail annulated with black.
India. — Zool. Jav.

S. Finlaysonii, Horsfield. Fur milk white ; back yellowish ; eyes,
whiskers, and soles of the feet black. Java. — Horsf. Zool. Java.

S. getuliiSj Desm. Brown above, with four longitudinal white lines
reaching to the tail. Five inches long. N.Africa. — Shaw, ii.pl. 148.

S.palmarum, Desm. Fur gray brown, with three longitudinal bands
of a pale white, the two lateral terminating at the eyes. India —
Buff. x. pi. 26.

* * Tail round, distichous only at the extremity.
S. cestuans, Desm. Fur olive gray above, reddish beneath ; tail

4

PTEROMYS. MAMMALIA. 127

round, longer than the body, shaded with brown black and yel-
low. Nine inches long. Brazil — Shaw. ii. pi. 156.

S. pusillus, Desm. Fur gray olive brown above, paler below ; tail
round, shorter than the bod'y. Cayenne. Four and a-half inches
long. — Shaw, ii. pi. 156.

S. albovittatus, Desm.. Fur reddish above, with a white line on each
side ; tail round at its base, distichous at the extremity, and varied
with black and white ; nails long, compressed. One foot long.
Cape of good Hope. — Sonnerat, Voy. ii. t. 89.

S. bivittatus, Desm. Fur of a brown black, spotted with yellowish
on the back, and a brilliant red below ; a white and black line
meeting on each flank ; tail round, the termination red. A little
larger than the common squirrel. Sumatra. — Lin. Trans, xiii.

S. annulatus, Desm. Fur greenish gray above, white below ; tail
longer than the body, annulatedwith black and white — Mam. 546.

*** With cheek-pouches, tail distichous.

S. striatus, Desm. Fur brown above, with five longitudinal brown
stripes, and two white ones ; whitish below ; tail blackish above,
red, bordered with black below. Southern Asia. — Buff. x. pi. 28.

S. Hudsonius, Desm. Fur of a reddish brown above, whitish ash-
coloured below, with a black line on each flank. — Penn. Syn.
Qwfld.t.26, fig. 1.

Several other species of Sciurus have been noticed ; but as their characters are not
well established their names are merely given. — S. Persicus, anomalus, Gmel. ; ery-
thrceus, Horsf; Abyssimcus^ Indicus, an&flavusi the Plantain Squirrel of Pen-
nant ; the Mexican Squirrel of Seba ; and Rafinesque has described five North Ameri-
can species, viz. S. ruber, Felenus^ Phawpus, Melanotus, and lateralis,

Gen. 107. PTEROMYS, Cuv. Desm. — Sciurus, Lin.
Incisors f , canines g-g, molars f-f , •- 22. Head round; ears
rounded ; eyes large ; fore-feet with four elongated toes with
compressed sharp claws and the rudiment of a thumb ; hind-
feet with five toes much divided ; tail long, hairy, sometimes
distichous ; skin of the sides extended, forming a kind of
parachute.

* With round tail, hairs not distichous.

P. petaurista, Desm. (S. petaurista, Pall.) The Sailing Squirrel.
Fur brown, tipped with white above, whitish gray below ; thighs
red; feet brown ; tail blackish. Seventeen inches long. E. Indies.
—Shaw, ii. pi. 152.

P. nitidus, Desm. Fur deep- chestnut above, brilliant red below ;
tail deep brown. Size of the preceding. Java — Mam. 342.

** With flattened tails, hairs distichous.

P. sagitta, Desm. Fur of a deep-brown above, white beneath; tail

bright brown, as long as the body. Six inches long. Java.

Shaw, ii. 151.

128 MAMMALIA. GLIRES.

P. Sibiricusj Desm. (S. volans, Lin.) The Flying Squirrel. Fur
ashy-gray above, white below ; tail half the length of the body.
About six inches long. There is a white variety. Northern
Europe. — Shaw, ii. pi. 149.

P. volucella, Desm. Fur of a reddish gray above, white below ; tail
nearly as long as the body. About five inches long. United
States.— Shaw, ii. 150.

P. genibarbus, Horsf. The Kechubu. Fur gray above, white be-
neath ; vibrissae on the cheeks and sides of the head, tail flat and
distichous. Java. — Griff. An. King. Syn. 261.

P. lepidus, Horsf. Fur blackish brown, white beneath; head and
middle of back gray; tail longer than the body, flat ; ears naked;
vibrissae very large. — Griff. An. King. Syn. 261.

Section 2. — With incomplete clavicles or none.
Gen. 108. HYSTRIX, Lin. Cuv. — Coendu, Lacep.

Incisors f, canines g-g? molars f-f, = 20. Molars with flat
crown, but with ridges of enamel ; head strong ; muzzle gib-
bous ; ears short, rounded ; tongue with spiny scales ; fore-
feet with four toes, and a rudimentary thumb ; hind-feet pen-
tadactyle ; spines more or less long on the body, sometimes
intermixed with hairs ; tail sometimes prehensile.

M. F. Cuvier has divided this genus into five genera ; but as the species bear no
comparison to this excessive subdivision, no confusion can arise from retaining the
old name.

H. cristala, Lin. Crested Porcupine. With very long spines on
the back, annulated with black and white ; a mane of long stiff
hairs on the head and neck ; tail short. About two feet long.
Africa. — Shaw, ii. pi. 122.
The Porcupine burrows in the ground, and feeds on vegetable substances, coming

out at night to feed. When it is irritated, it erects the spines on its body, rattles

those on its tail, and strikes with its feet on the ground like hares and rabbits. Its

voice resembles the grunting of a pig. Its flesh is eaten.

H. dor&ata, Desm. Spines short, partly concealed in the brown
hair ; tail elongated ; no mane ; hair on the head and neck long.
Two feet long. Canada. — Shaw, ii. pi. 125. Type of M. F.
Cuvier's genus Erethizon.

H.Jasciculata, Lin. (Mus fasciculatus, Desm.) Spines like strips
of parchment; those on the body flat, black. Less than the common
porcupine. Inhabits India. This is the type of M. F. Cuvier's
genus Acanthion — Shaw, ii. pi. 124.

H. Javanica. (H. longicauda, Marsden.) Like the last, but the tail
shorter. Sumatra. — Marsden, Sum. t. 17.

H. macroura, Gmel. (Mw«y macrourus, Desm.) Upper part of the
body covered with strong rounded spines ; tail half the length of
the body, tufted with spines formed like grains of rice. India.
—Shaw, ii. pi. 124.

LEPUS. MAMMALIA.

H. spinosa, Griff. Spines rather long, dark at the end ; tail naked
beneath. Paraguay. — Type of M. F. Cuvier's genus Sphiggurus.

H. villosa, Griff. Spines hid in the long thick hairs. — Brazil.

H. Couiy, Desm. (H. prehensilis, var 7 Gmel.) Body covered with
numerous short spines, yellowish at their base and point, brown in
the middle ; tail thick, pretty short, the latter half naked — Mexico.

H. Cuandu, Desm. (H. prehensilis, Shaw.) Body covered with
short spines, annulated black and white, without any mixture of

» • hair in the upper part ; tail nearly the length of the body, pointed
and prehensile. Two feet long. Brazil. — Shaw, ii. pi. 123 —
. The type of M. F. Cuvier's genus Sincethere.

Gen. 109. LEPUS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff, &c.

Incisors f, canines g-J, molars f-f = 28. Centre upper in-
cisors large and wedge-shaped, with a longitudinal furrow in
front, lower incisors square ; molars crowned with transverse
laminae of enamel ; ears and eyes large ; fore-legs short, with
five toes ; the hind-feet long, with only four, covered with
hair ; tail short, erect ; teats from six to ten ; coecum very
large.

^L. timidus, Lin. The Hare. Fur brownish-red gray ; chin and
belly white ; ears black at the point ; tail white beneath, black
above. Nearly two feet long. Europe. B. — Shaw, ii. pi. 162.

L. variabilis, Pall. Fur fawn-coloured in summer, white in winter ;
ears shorter than the head, and black at the tip at all seasons.
Larger than the common hare. Mountainous parts of Europe
and Asia. B. — Penn. Quad. t. 96, fig. 1.

L. glacialis, Sabine. The Snowy Hare. Fur white ; ears black at
the tip, longer than the head ; nails strong, broad and depressed.
Larger than the preceding..— Inhabits within the Arctic Circle.

L. cuniculus, Lin. The Rabbit. Fur gray, mixed with yellowish ;
,, reddish about the neck and belly ; tail white, brown above. Fif-
teen inches long. Originally from Africa and Spain. B. — Shaw, ii.
162. There are numerous varieties of this species in colour and
markings.

L. Tolai, Pall. Fur gray, mixed with brown and yellow ; belly
white ; feet yellowish • ears a little longer than the head in the
males, shorter in the females. Mongolia and Tartary. — Pall.
Glir. t. 4, fig. 2.

L. JEgyptms, Geoff. (Lepus Capensis, Lin.) Fur reddish-brown ;
breast and feet red fawn-colour ; tail black above, white below ;
ears longer than the head, black at the tip. Fifteen inches long.
Inhabits Africa — -Geojf. Egyp.

L. Americanus, Desm. Fur yellowish gray, varied with brown ;
VOL. I. l

ISO MAMMALIA. GLIBES.

throat, and belly white ; ears shorter than the head, without
black tips. Size of the rabbit. N. America. — Schreb. 234, B.
L. Braziliensis, Lin. Fur brown and yellowish above ; a half collar
of white on the throat ; ears much shorter than the head. South
America. — Marcg. Braz. 223.

L. nigricollis, F. Cuv. Head sprinkled with yellow ; sides red ;
throat white ; a grayish white band from the muzzle to the ear ;
upper part and sides of neck and shoulder bright black — Java.

L. saxatilis, F. Cuv. Fur reddish-gray, under parts white ; ears
red behind, black brown at the tips. — Cape of Good Hope.

Gen. 110. LAGOMYS, Geoff. Cuv. — Lepus, Pall.

Incisors f, canines g-g, molars f-f = 28. Teeth and toes
similar to the hare ; ears short, rounded ; no tail ; clavicles
almost perfect ; teats four or six.

L. alpinus, Pall. Fur reddish ; ears and soles of the feet brown.
Northern mountains of the Old World. Ten inches long. —
Shaw, ii. pi. 163.

L. ogotona, Pall. Fur pale gray ; ears oval, slightly pointed, the
colour of the body. Seven inches long. Mongolian Tartary —
Shaw, ii. pi. 163.

L. pusillus, Desm. (Lepus pusillus, Pall.) Fur gray brown ; ears
almost triangular, edged with white. Seven inches long. S. E.
parts of Russia. — Shaw, ii. pi. 163.

Gen. 111. HYDROCH^ERUS, Cuv. — Sus, Lin. — Cavia, Pall.

Incisors f, canines J-S? niolars f~f, = 22. Molars composed
of laminae ; eyes large ; ears rounded ; fore-feet with four,
the hinder ones with three, palmated toes ; no tail ; two
mammas ; hair scattered and bristly.

H. capybara, Desm. (Cavia capybara, Gmel.) Fur reddish brown,
' fawn-coloured below ; head very large. Nearly three feet in
length. Inhabits South America — Shaw, ii. pi. 127-

Gen. 112. CAVIA, Desm. — Mus, Lin. — Cobaya, Cuv.

Incisors f, canines J-g, molars |-| = 20. Body thick; muz-
zle short, compressed ; eyes large ; ears round ; legs short ;
four toes on the fore-feet, three on the hind-feet, not palma-
ted ; no tail ; two ventral teats.

C. cobaya, Desm. The Guinea Pig. Fur reddish-gray in the
wild variety, or varied with black, yellow, and white in the do-
mestic races. Nearly a foot long. Brazil, &c. — Shaw. ii. pi. 126.

Gen. 113. DASYPIIOCTA, Illig. — Mus, Lin. — Cavia, Gmel.

Incisors §, canines °-°, molars f~|, — 20. Head rather
elongated, forehead flat ; muzzle thick ; eyes large and pro-

COSLOGENUS. MAMMALIA. 131

jecting ; fore-feet with four toes and rudimentary thumb ;
hind-legs longer than those before, with three toes and strong
nails ; sole of the foot naked and callous.

D. Acuti, Desm. The Agouti. Fur brown, sprinkled with yellow
P or reddish ; ears short ; tail rudimentary ; twelve teats. Nearly
two feet long. Brazil — Shaw, ii. pi. 126.

D. cristata, Desm. Fur blackish, sprinkled with red ; hair on the
occiput long, and forming a sort of crest _; hair on the croup also
long ; belly brown ; ears and tail short. — Mam. 358.

D. Acuschy, Desm. The Akouchy. Fur brown, spotted with yel-
low ; croup blackish ; belly red. Twenty inches long. Guiana.
—Shaw, ii. pi. 126.

D. Patagonica, Desm. Fur brownish gray, dotted on the back,
black on the croup, white on the thighs and belly ; tail very short.
Two feet six inches long. Patagonia. — Shaw ii. pi. 165.

D. Viscacha, Desm. Fur dirty white ; sides of the head black ;
moustache seven inches long ; body thick and cylindrical j tail
naked at tip, but with bristly hairs on the upper part of the re-
mainder. As big as a hare ; tail nine inches long — Brazil.

Gen. 114. CCELOGENUS, F. Cuv. — Cavia, Lin.

Incisors f , canines g-g, molars J-f — 20. Five toes on all
the feet, the external and internal toe behind being nearly
rudimentary; nails conical, strong, for digging; cheek-pouch-
es ; a naked tubercle in place of a tail ; two pectoral and
two inguinal mammae.

C. subniger, Desm. The Brown Paca. Fur short, blackish-brown,
marked on each flank with four or five longitudinal bands of white
spots ; head large ; neck short ; ears round. Twenty-one inches
long. S. America. — Buff. Sup. iii. pi. 35.

C.fulvus, Desm. (Cavia paca, Geoff.) Like the preceding, but
with the ground colour yellowish. S. America — An. Mus. x. pi. 9.

ORDER VII.— .EDENTATA.

No incisors in either jaw ; sometimes canines and molars, or
molars only, often no teeth at all ; extremities terminated
with toes in number variable, armed with strong nails ; orbi-
tal and temporal fossae united.

The Edentata are quadrupeds without incisive teeth, and form the last order or'
unguiculated animals. Although united together only by a negative character, they
possess some positive connection in the large nails which cover the extremities of the
toes, which approach more or less to the nature of hoofs, and a want of agility, a cer-
tain slowness of motion, occasioned by the disposition of their members.

132 MAMMALIA. EDENTATA.

1st TRIBE.' — TARDIGRADA. — Face short; with canine and
molar teeth, or molars only ; nails long and bent.

Gen. 115. BRADYPUS, Lin. Cuv.

Incisors g, canines ^-|, molars J-J — 18. Canines higher
than the molars, pyramidal and pointed ; molars cylindrical ;
head small, rounded ; muzzle truncated ; neck short ; nos-
trils at the extremity of the muzzle ; anterior extremities long-
er than the posterior, with two or three united toes, termi-
nated by very long robust nails ; fur thick and harsh, with
the hair of the fore-arms directed upwards ; stomach membra-
nous, divided into many sacs ; intestines short ; no coecum.

B. tridactylus, Lin. The Three-toed Sloth. Three nails to all the
feet ; lower jaw truncated before ; fur of a gray, more or less
brown, mixed with whitish ; soles of the feet hairy. S. America.
— Shaw, i. pi. 45.

The extreme slowness of locomotion in the Sloth is the result of its peculiar con-
formation. It possesses, however, a great degree of muscular power, and will hang
for days upon trees with its body downward by its strong claws. It feeds upon the
leaves, buds, and fruits, and never leaves the tree upon which it is located till the
supply is completely exhausted ; then rolling itself up as a ball the animal drops to
the ground, and drags itself heavily along in search of fresh food. The apathy of
these animals is such that they may be taken attached to the branch of the tree upon
which they are found, and testify neither astonishment nor uneasiness at any treat-
ment they may receive. They emit a plaintive cry, noted by the vowels a, z, from
whence the American name, Ai.

B. didactylus, Lin. Two long nails only on the fore-feet ; lower
jaw projecting and pointed ; hair very long, of a brownish gray
colour ; soles of the feet naked. S. America. — Shaw, i. pi. 46.

Gen. 116. MEGATHERIUM, Cuv. (Fossil.)
Incisors g, canines g-g, molars |-| = 16.

M. Cuvieri. Molar teeth marked with transverse furrows on the
crown. Body, estimated from the skeleton, 12 feet long — Found
in Paraguay, South America.

2d TRIBE. — EFFODIENTIA. — Muzzle elongated ; with molar
teeth only, or none at all.

Gen. 117. DASYPUS, Lin. — Armadillo, Briss.

Incisors g or f , canines g-g, molars varying in the several spe-
cies from 28 to 68, simple, cylindrical, separate, without ena-
mel on the inner side ; head long, mouth and eyes small ;
body enveloped in a hard scaly shell in three compartments,
covering the head, the body, and the tail, with moveable
transverse bands between them ; five toes on the hind-feet,
four or five on the fore-feet, with long nails for digging.
* Four iocs on the fore-feet ; two or four mammce.

D. Apar, Desm. (Dasypus tricinctus, Lin.) The Three-banded Ar-

DASYPUS. MAMMALIA. 133

madillo. Molars §-jf ; tail short, flattened ; three moveable
transverse bands to the body ; two pectoral mammae. Rolls it-
self into a ball. Inhabits South America. — Shaw, i. pi. 57-
The D. quadridnclus of Linnaeus, and the Armadillo Indicns of Brisson, appear
to be allied to this species, which M. F. Cuvier makes the type of his genus Tatuiscs.

D. Peba, Desm. (D. novemcinctus, Lin.) The Nine-banded Arma-
dillo. Molars |-§ j tail round,, almost as long as the body, an-
nulated nearly its whole length j body with seven, eight, or nine
mobile bands ; plates of the shield small, rounded, those of the
bands rectangular ; ears very long ; four teats. Two feet long.
Inhabits Brazil, &c. — Shaw, i. pi. 57.

D. hybridus, Desm. Tail round, nearly half as long as the body ;
muzzle elongated ; ears large ; legs short ; shield with five, six,
or seven moveable bands. About a foot long. — Inhabits Brazil.

* Five toes on the fore-feet, and two pectoral mammas.

D. giganteus, Desm. Molars ly-yy ; tail round, half as long as
the^body, covered with plates ; shield with 12 or 13 bands, com-
posed of long scales ; ears small ; head gibbous ; muzzle long ;
claws very strong. Three feet long. Paraguay. — Shaw, i. pi. 59.

D. Tatouay, Desm. The Twelve-banded Armadillo. Molars f-f ;

tail round, less than half the length of the body, covered with

•V scattered tubercles ; shield with 12 or 13 moveable bands, formed

of broad rectangular plates ; ears large ; muzzle long. Eighteen

inches long. Inhabits Brazil. — Schreb. t. 75.

D. sexcinctus, Desm. Incisors f , molars g~| ; six or seven move-
able transverse bands ; tail round, half as long as the body. In-
habits Paraguay. — Shaw, i. pi. 58.

D. villosus, Desm. Hairy Armadillo. Molars §-§ ; tail half as
long as the body, annulated at the base ; shield edged with ser-
rated scales, furnished with six or seven moveable bands of rect-
angular plates ; hair brown, abundant. Fourteen inches long —
Inhabits South America.

D. mlnutus, Desm. Tail round, annulated at the base, nearly half
as long as the body ; shield notched on the sides, with six or
seven bands of rectangular plates ; bands dentated on their mar-
gin. Ten inches long. Buenos Ayres. — F. Cuv. Mam. i.

Gen. 118. ORYCTEROPUS, Geoff. Cuv. — Myrmecophaga, Pall.

Incisors g, canines g-g, molars §-f — 24. Molars separate,
without root or distinct crown, formed of bony substance,
traversed longitudinally by parallel tubes ; head elongated ;
four toes before, and five behind, the hind-feet plantigrade ;
nails very thick, approaching to hoofs.

O. Capensis, Desm, (Myrmecophaga Capensis, Gmel.) Fur pale
gray, inclining to red on the flanks. Three feet five inches long.
Inhabits Cape of Good Hope — Griff. An. King. iii. 296.

134 MAMMALIA. EDENTATA.

Gen. 119- MYHMECOPHAGA, Lin. Cuv. Desm. &c.

Perfectly toothless; head elongated; muzzle tapering to a point;
tongue long, protractile ; toes united, four before and five be-
hind, or two before and four behind, armed with strong nails ;
two pectoral and two ventral mammae ; tail long, sometimes
prehensile.

M.jubata, Lin. The Great Ant-eater. Fore-feet with four toes ;
hind-feet with five; tail not prehensile, with long hair j fur brown,
with an oblique black line on the shoulders. Four feet long.
Inhabits South America. — Shaw, i. pi. 49.

M. Tamandua, Desm. (M. tridactyla, Lin.) Four toes before, five
.^ behind ; tail round, naked at its point, prehensile ; fur varying
y much in colour, but mostly pale gray, with a band on the shoul-
ders. Two feet long. Inhabits South America — Schrel. t. 66.

Var. A. Yellowish gray — Var, B. With black before the eyes Var. C. Dirty yel-
low, with a brown line on the shoulders — Var. D. Of the same colour, but with
the croup, flanks, belly, and shoulders brown — Var. E. Uniformly yellow.—
Var. F. Black. — Var. G. Pale yellow, sides and croup brown. — Var. H. With an
annulated tail, M. annulata^ Desm.— .Var. I. With a triangular brown spot above
the eyes ; tail annulated.

M. didactyla, Lin. Desm. Only two nails on the fore-feet, one of
which is very large ; four on the hind-feet ; tail long and prehen-
sile, naked below at the extremity ; fur fawn-coloured, woolly, with
a reddish dorsal line. Seven inches long. S. America. — Shaw, i.
pi. 52.

Geu. 120. MANIS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff

Entirely toothless; body elongated, covered with strong corneous
triangular and imbricated scales, and capable of rolling into a
ball ; muzzle long ; tongue protractile ; feet with five toes for-
med for digging ; tail long.

M. crassicaudata, Geoff. (M. macroura, Desm.) The Short-tailed
Manis. Tail shorter than the body, thick at the base ; scales of
the back forming eleven longitudinal rows. Nearly two feet long.
Inhabits the India Islands — Shaw, i. pi. 56.

M. longicaudata, Geoff. (M. Africana, Desm.) Long-tailed Manis.
Tail twice the length of the body, turned upward, compressed ;
eleven rows of longitudinal scales. Smaller than the preceding.
Inhabits Central Africa. — Shaw, i. pi. 55.

M. Javamcus, Desm. Tail a little shorter than the body, depressed;
17 longitudinal rows of scales on the back. 16 inches long — Java.

Gen. 121. CHLAMYPHORUS, Harlan, Griff.

Incisors g, canines g-§, molars f-f , the two first pointed, the
rest flat and cylindrical ; shell composed of a series of trans-
verse plates; toes, five before and behind, with compressed
nails ; tail short, turned downwards.

C. truncatus, Harlan. Body covered with a leather-like shell,.

ECHIDNA. MAMMALIA.

abruptly truncated behind, with white silky hair beneath. Five
inches long. Inhabits North America — Zool. Journ. ii.

3d TRIBE. — MONOTREMA. Mammce not observed ; marsupial

bones.

Gen. 122. ECHIDNA, Cuv. Geoff. — Myrmecophaga, Shaw.

Toothless, but the palate aculeated; head small, conical ; muz-
zle prolonged ; tongue protractile ; eyes very small ; no exter-
nal ears ; feet short, with five toes ; and a moveable spur on
the inner side of the hind-legs of the male, through which an
acrid fluid is ejected ; tail short ; body covered with spines ;
large marsupial bones ; body capable of a spherical shape.

E. hystrix, Desm. ( Myrmecophaga aculeaia, Shaw.) Spiny Ech-
idna. Body covered with thick spines, without a mixture of
hairs. Size of a hedgehog. New Holland. — Shaw, i. pi. 54.

E. setosa, Desm. Bristly Echidna. Body covered with hair, among
which are found short spines. A little larger than the preceding.
New Holland.— Home, Phil Trans. 1802. pi. 13, B.

Gen. 123. ORNITHOHYNCHUS, Blumenbach, — Platypus, Shaw.

Incisors g, canines g-g, molars f-f , = 8. Molars fibrous, fixed
only in the gum ; a horny beak resembling a duck's bill ; nos-
trils contiguous, opening at the end of the upper mandi-
ble; cheek-pouches; feet webbed, pentadactyle, with a spur
on the hind ones in the male ; tail short, broad at its base.

O. rufus, Desm. (0. paradoxus, Blum.) Fur reddish brown above,
silvery white below. 14 incheslong. New Holland. — Shaw,i.\>\. 66.

O.fuscus, Desm. Fur blackish brown; hair flat and curled. Size of
the preceding. Inhabits New Holland. — Leach, Zool. Mis. t. 111.

ORDER VIII. PACHYDERMA.

Three or two kinds of teeth ; four extremities, with the toes
variable in number, and furnished with strong nails or hoofs ;
no clavicles ; organs of digestion not disposed for ruminating.

Unable to use their feet for the purpose of seizing objects, this Order commences
the series of hoofed quadrupeds. Their feet serving only as means of support, they
possess no clavicles, their fore-arm remains always in a state of pronation, and they
are thus necessarily reduced to feed on vegetables. Their forms and their modes of
life present fewer varieties than those of the unguiculated animals ; and Cuvier has
accordingly arranged the whole series in two Orders — those which rurainate and
those which do not. The last of those, or Pachyderma, including the largest ter-
restrial animals, form two families.

FAMILY I.— PROBOSCIDEA.
Upper incisors in form of elongated tusks ; molars compound

136 MAMMALIA. PACHYDERMA.

and in small number ; five toes on all the feet ; nose prolong-
ed into a proboscis.

Gen. 124. ELEPHAS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. Desm.

Incisors or tusks §, canines g-g, molars f-f , = 10. Tusks
slightly arched toward their extremity, composed of ivory,
cased in a crust of enamel ; molars composed of vertical and
transverse laminae covered by enamel ; five toes on all the
feet ; nose elongated into a cylindrical proboscis, moveable
in all directions, with a moveable appendix at the termination,
serving the purpose of a finger ; head very large ; neck short,
eyes small, lateral ; ears extremely flat, and very large ; body
large and massive ; tail short, tufted at the end; two mammae.

The Elephant is the largest of existing quadrupeds, and has been known from the
earliest ages. The Asiatic species is found throughout the whole of Southern India
and the neighbouring islands ; but though extensively employed it can scarcely be
considered as a domestic animal, as it does not breed in captivity. The supply is
therefore kept up by the capture of wild ones, and elephant-hunting forms a prin-
cely sport among the inhabitants of Asia. The elephant inhabits forests in the
neighbourhood of rivers, and swims with great ease. It is a gregarious animal, and
is generally found in herds, sometimes to the amount of hundreds together. Its
extreme docility renders it easy to be tamed ; and numerous facts have been related of
its sagacity in a state of domestication. The specimen long in Mr Cross's collection
at Exeter Change, and which he was forced to kill to preserve the building, was be-
tween 10 and 11 feet in height, and weighed by computation between four and five
tons. Its daily allowance of food was three trusses of hay, about 200 Ibs of carrots
and other fresh vegetables, and from 60 to 80 gallons of water. A strong elephant
can carry 2000 pounds weight and travel 60 miles a-day ; though in long marches its
feet are apt to become tender. The period of gestation is twenty months. At birth
the young elephant is about three feet long, and it sucks with its mouth, putting back
the proboscis when doing so. It arrives at full growth in about twenty years ; and lives,
according to the opinion entertained in India, for three centuries, witnessing the suc-
cessive rise and decay of the ephemeral generations of men. The tusks, an object of
commerce, are changed but once during the life of the animal, but the molar teeth
are renewed as often as detrition renders it necessary. These teeth, however, are not
renewed in the usual manner, by the new teeth pushing out the old ones, but by a
lateral succession from back to front. The most wonderful part of the structure of
the elephant is its proboscis, which to it serves all the purposes of a hand ; and
while it is able with this powerful instrument to lift the greatest weights, its lip pos-
sesses all the delicacy of a finger, and is capable of seizing the smallest substances.

~Et. Indicus, Cuv. (E. maximus, Lin.) The Asiatic Elephant.
Head oblong ; forehead concave ; ears large, but less than those
of the African species ; four hoofs on the hind-feet ; crown of
the molar teeth marked by transverse undulating lines of ena-
mel. Height about ten feet. Inhabits Southern Asia and the
larger Islands. — Shaw, i. pi. 63.

Var. The white Elephant. This variety is rare, and is held in much esteem by the
eastern sovereigns. Horace alludes to its exhibition in ancient Rome, Epist. i. B. ii.

E. Africanusy Cuv. Desm. The African Elephant. Head round,
forehead convex ; ears very large ; three hoofs to the hind-feet ;
crown of molar teeth marked by lozenge-shaped lines of enamel.
Smaller than the Asiatic species. This is probably the elephant
of the Greeks and Romans. — Griff. An. King. iii. 349.

E, primogenius, Blumen. The Mammoth, Cuv. (fossil species*.)

MASTODON. MAMMALIA. 137

Head oblong ; forehead concave ; tusks very large ; molar teeth
with close parallel ridges of enamel. Larger than the Indian
elephant. Found fossil in Northern Europe. — Cuv. Ossem. Foss.
2d edit. i. p. 75, pi. 11.

An individual of this species discovered in Siberia, with the flesh and skin entire,
upon the melting of the ice in a hot summer, was found covered with two kinds of
hair, viz. a red and thick tufted wool, and stiff black bristles upon the neck and
spine, that upon the neck long enough to have formed a kind of mane. From this
circumstance, and the numerous remains of fossil elephants found all over Europe,
M. Cuvier conceives it to be probable that this species has formerly existed there,
its covering of hair protecting it from the rigours of a northern winter. Other iso-
lated bones, from having the remains of marine animals attached to their surface,
seem to imply that they had been exposed to the action of' the sea.

Gen. 125. MASTODON, Cuv. (Fossil.)

Incisors §, canines g-§, molars f-f, = 10. Molar teeth rec-
tangular, without cortical substance, the crown with points
disposed in pairs, of which the number varies.

M. giganteum, Cuv. Mammoth of the Americans. Molars very
broad relatively to their length, the crown presenting, when its
points have been worn down by use, lozenges of enamel. Height
to the withers 11 feet ; tusks nine feet long; molar teeth weigh-
ing 11 or 12 Ibs. — Fossil in N. America.

M. angustidens, Cuv. Molars narrow and elongated, their crown
by use presenting discs of enamel of a trefoil form. A third less
than the gigantic Mastodon — Found fossil in the South of Europe,
and at Santa Fe de Bogota, 1300 toises above the level of the sea.

M. Cor diller arum, Cuv. Intermediate molars as large as those of
the great Mastodon, with crown nearly square, and trefoil-shaped
discs of enamel. — Found fossil in S. America by Humboldt.

M. Humboldlii, Cuv. Intermediate molar tooth a third smaller than
those of the great Mastodon, covered with trefoil-shaped discs. —
Found fossil in Chili.

M. minus, Cuv. Intermediate molar tooth narrow and elongated,
with trefoil-shaped discs- A third smaller than the Mastodon an~
gustidens — Found fossil in Saxony.

M. tapiroldes, Cuv. Intermediate molar tooth with eminences cre-
nulated at their summit, and scarcely perceptibly divided into
two parts — Found fossil near Orleans.

FAMILY II. —PACHYDERM A, properly so called.

Three kinds of teeth in the greater number ; two at least in
the others ; feet terminated by four or two toes.

1st Division. — With the toes equal.
Gen. 126. HIPPOPOTAMUS, Lin. Cuv. Desm. Geoff.
Incisors £, canines {-{, molars |-| = 40. Lower canines
much developed, forming strong tusks curved upwards ; head

138 MAMMALIA. PACHYDERMA.

thick and square ; muzzle very large and gibbous ; body very
thick and heavy ; legs short, with four toes on the feet ; eyes
and ears small ; tail short ; two ventral mammae ; skin very
thick, almost without hair.

The Hippopotamus is one of the largest of quadrupeds, reaching to twelve feet long,
and from five to six in height. Its body is very massive, and denuded of hair ; its
legs short, the belly almost touching the ground, and the head excessively large. It
inhabits the muddy banks of rivers, which it quits in the night in search of pas-
ture, and at the least noise or indication of danger dives to the bottom of the water,
from time to time raising itself to the surface to breathe. The hippopotami
are gregarious in their habits, and are found throughout Africa. Anciently they were
common in Egypt, and the latter Roman Emperors often brought them to Rome,
and exhibited them in the Circus. The skin is very thick, and is cut into strips at
Senaar, where they are numerous, and made into whips. The flesh is eatable, and the
fat thought a delicacy by the colonists at the Cape. The name of the River Horse,
which it has popularly received, seems not inapplicable, Mr Burchell conceives, when
merely the upper part of the head is seen above the water ; but M. F. Cuvier conjec-
tures that this ancient name has reference to its voice, which Adanson informs us is
like neighing. The hippopotamus is alluded to in the Sacred Writings. — Job, xl. 15.

H. amphibius, Lin. Body very massive ; belly almost touching the
ground ; mouth much cleft ; ears far back. About 13 feet long.
Inhabits the great rivers of Africa. — Shaw, ii. pi. 219.
Desmoulins has divided this species into two, H. Capcnsis and //. Senegalensis,

distinguished by the character of the skulls of specimens from different parts of

Africa.

H. antiquus, Cuv. (fossil.) Size of the preceding ; occiput very
elevated — Found fossil in Italy.

H. minor, Cuv. (fossil.) Adult individuals, as indicated by the
state of the teeth, about the size of the wild boar.

H. medius, Cuv. Of a size intermediate between the two prece-
ding ; last lower molar tooth one inch long ; the penult one 1 1
lines. — Found fossil in France.

H. minimus, Cuv. Size smaller than the H. minor — Found fossil
with the remains of crocodiles in limestone near Blaye, France.

Gen. 127. Sus, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. Desm.

Incisors | or f , canines \-\^ molars ?-? — 42 or 44. Canines
bent upwards and laterally ; molars tuberculous ; lower in-
cisors bent forward ; four toes on all the feet, the two middle
ones only touching the ground, armed with strong hoofs ; nose
elongated, cartilaginous ; body covered with bristles ; twelve
teats.

S. scrofa, Lin. The Hog. Tusks strong, triangular, directed la-
terally ; no protuberance under the eyes ; colour blackish gray in
the wild animal, but varying much in the domesticated races.—
Inhabits all the habitable world.

The English variety acquires an extraordinary bulk, and sometimes weighs 1 200
Ibs. It is generally of a whitish colour, and the body much elongated. The Jut-
land race has an elongated body and pendant ears, back bent, and limbs long. The
Zealand race is smaller, and has the ears slightly raised, and the back furnished with
strong bristles. The races of Poland and Russia are of a reddish colour ; and the South

3

PHASCOCH^ERUS. MAMMALIA. 139

of Europe possesses a black race with short limbs. The races of France have the
bones generally small, and the head pointed ; and there is a solidungulous variety,
but in which traces of the hoofs may be observed. There is, besides, the Turkish
pig, the Siamese pig, and other varieties more or less characterized by family
likenesses.

The fecundity of the hog is very 'great. A hog belonging to Mr Thomas Rich-
dale, Leicestershire, had produced, in the year 1797? three hundred and fifty young
ones in twenty litters ; four years before it brought forth two hundred and five in twelve
litters ; and in Vauban's opinion in twelve generations the produce of a single pair
would produce as many as Europe could support. Among the ancients the hog was
in much esteem ; it was the peculiar sacrifice to Ceres ; and in the Island of Crete it
was regarded as sacred. In ancient Rome the art of rearing and fattening them was
much studied, and a dressed hog was among the most expensive of the imperial dishes.
The Jews and Mahometans do not eat the flesh of the hog.

S. babyrussa, Lin. Tusks long, slender, turned up vertically ; the
upper ones bent behind ; legs long. Inhabits India Islands. —
Griff. An. King. iii. p. 408.

S. larvatus, Desm. Tusks moderate, angular and lateral ; a large
fleshy tubercle on each cheek. Size of the European wild boar.
Inhabits Madagascar. — Schreb. t. 327-

Gen. 128. PHASCOCH^RUS, Cuv. Desm. — Sus, Lin. Geoff.

Incisors f , canines \-\, molars f-f =r 30. Tusks very strong,
lateral, and directed upwards ; molars composed of cylinders
of enamel, inclosing the osseous substance ; large warts on the
cheeks ; toes like the hog.

P. Africanus, Desm. (Sus JEthiopicus, Lin.) Tusks rounded, very
thick, directed laterally and vertically ; a large fleshy lobe on
each cheek. Nearly five feet long. Africa. — Griff, iii. p. 410.

Gen. 129. DICOTYLES, Cuv. Desm. — Sus, Lin. Geoff.

Incisors |5 canines |-^, molars f-f — 38. Canines or tusks
not projecting from the mouth ; the other teeth like those of
the hog ; four toes before, three behind, only two of which
lean upon the ground ; a glandular opening on the back,
from which exudes a fetid humour ; no tail.

D. torquatus, F. Cuv. Desm. The Peccari. Hair of the fur an-
nulated with dirty white and black ; a large whitish oblique line
descending from the shoulders over the sides of the neck. About
two feet and a half long. S. America — Shaw, ii. pi. 224.

/D. labiatus, F. Cuv. Desm. Fur of a uniform blackish brown ; lips
white. Three feet long. S. America Griff, iii. 413.

Cuvier has mentioned two genera of fossil quadrupeds, the Cheer opotamus^ the ge-
neral form and size of the head of which is similar to the hog ; found in the gyp-
sum quarries near Paris ; and the Anthracotherium^ which includes a large species,
of which the remains have been found at Genes.

Gen. 130. ANOPLOTHERIUM, Cuv. — (Fossil.)
Incisors f , canines i-^, molars %-% — 44. Teeth all in one
line ; general form intermediate between the rhinoceros and
horse ; feet terminated by two toes ; molar teeth in crescent-
formed lines or tuberculous.— Oss, Foss. 2d edit.

140 MAMMALIA. PACHYDEHMA.

A. vulgaris, Cuv. Size of the ass. — Found fossil near Paris.

A. secundarium, Cuv. Size of the hog.

A. medium, Cuv. Size and form of the goat.

A. minus, Cuv. Size of the hare. *

A. minimum, Cuv. Size of the Guinea pig.

Sd Division.— Toes always unequal in number on the hind-
feet, and often on those before.

Gen. 131. RHINOCEROS, Lin. Cuv. Desm.
Incisors g or f or f , canines g-g, molars J-? or f-£ = 32 or
36. Incisors unequal among themselves when they exist ;
anterior molars small, the posterior increasing progressively ;
eyes small, lateral ; ears long, narrow ; three toes on all the
feet ; one or two horns, placed on the nose, above the nasal
cavity ; skin very thick, naked, and rugous, tail short ; la-
terally compressed.

R. Indicus, Desm. Cuv. (R. unicortiis, Lin.) One horn on the
nose ; two strong incisors in each jaw, with a small tooth on each
side of those in the upper jaw ; skin forming several deep folds.
Length upwards of ten feet. Inhabits India. — Griff, iii. 424.
The Rhinoceros with one horn, the unicorn of the Sacred Writings, and the type
of the fabulous animal of heraldry, approaches to the elephant in size, and like it
feeds on vegetable substances. Its body is heavy, and the skin, which is very thick,
forms rugous folds in different parts. The knowledge of this circumstance among
the older naturalists led them to multiply these folds, and to figure this animal com-
pletely encased in native armour. According to Mr Burchell, whose opportunities of
examination were abundant, the horns of this genus do not envelope a bony core like
those of the ruminating animals, nor do they partake of the osseous nature of the
horns of stags, but appear to be formed of horny fibres, growing from the skin, like
thick hairs closely cemented together. The smell of the rhinoceros is so keen that it
can perceive at a great distance the approach of men, and it is only by advancing
against the wind that the hunter can get within musket shot. Their power of hear-
ing is equally acute. In a specimen lately exhibited in Britain, the colour of the
nearly naked skin was gray with a violet tint, and under the folds of the skin flesh-
coloured. He was habitually gentle, knew those who supplied him with food, and
opened his mouth and put out his tongue for it. His long upper lip seemed peculi-
arly useful in collecting his food. He was about eight feet long.

R. Sondaicus, Cuv. One horn on the nose ; skin rugous, covered
with thinly scattered brown hairs ; margin of the ears and tail
with numerous short hairs. Nearly six feet long — Sumatra.^

R. Africanus, Desm. (R. bicornis, Lin.) Two horns upon the nose •
no folds of the skin ; no incisors in either jaw. About the size
of the Indian species. Inhabits Southern Africa. — Shaw, i. pi. 61.

R. Sumatrensis, Cuv. Two horns on the nose ; skin almost with-
out folds ; two incisors in each jaw. Sumatra. — Shaw, i. pi. 62. v

R. Camus, Griff. Horns two ; muzzle truncated ; skin without
folds. Nearly double the size of the common two horned rhi-
noceros of Africa. Southern Africa — Burchell 's Travels, ii. 75.

R. Pallassiij Cuv. (fossil.) Head elongated, supporting two long

HYRAX. MAMMALIA. 141

horns; bones of the nose forming a large arch, consolidated by a ver-
tical partition., which is wanting in the living species; body covered
with thick hair. Size larger than the African rhinoceros —
Found fossil in Siberia,, Germany, France, and England.

R. Cuvicri, Desm. (R. leptorhinus, Cuv.) Form approaching that
of the African species ; head with two horns. Cuv, Reg. An. i.
240. — Found fossil in Italy.

R. minimus, Cuv. About the size of the hog; incisive teeth in
both jaws — Found fossil in France.

Gen. 132. HYIIAX, Hermann, Cuv. Geoff. — Cavia, Pall.
Incisors f , false molars J-J, molars J-g = 32. Two strong
bent incisors in the upper jaw, and two very little canines
in youth ; four inferior incisors without canines ; body co-
vered abundantly with hair of two kinds, one woolly and
short, the other long and silky ; four toes on the fore-feet,
and three on those behind ; nails small, flat, and scarcely
covering the upper part of the toes ; head large ; nostrils
oblique ; upper lip cleft ; ears large and rounded ; no tail ;
two pectoral and four ventral mammae.

H. Capensis, Desm. Fur thick, of a grayish brown above, and
whitish below. About two feet long. Inhabits the Cape of
Good Hope — Shaw, ii. pi. 164.
This singular little animal, the Coney of the Sacred Writings, inhabits holes in

rocks, and feeds on vegetables, roots, and fruits. It is found in the neighbourhood

of the Cape of Good Hope, in Abyssinia, and on Mount Libanus. The H. Syriacus

of Gmelin does not seem to differ from the present species.

Gen. 133. PAL^EOTHERIUM, Cuv. — (Fossil.)

Incisors §, canines ^-^, molars ?~J = 44. Incisors ranged
in the same line, wedge-shaped ; canines conical, crossing
each other ; molars of a square form, separated from the ca-
nines by an empty space, with four roots, ridged with enamel ;
general form of the head like that of the tapir. — Oss. Foss.
* PALJEOTHERIA, proper. — Inferior molars in double crescents.

P. magnum, Cuv. Size of the horse.

P. medium, Cuv. Size of the hog ; feet long and slender.

P. crassum, Cuv. Size of the hog ; feet shorter and broader than
the preceding.

P. curtum, Cuv. Size of a little sheep ; legs very short and thick,

P. minus, Cuv. Size of a small sheep ; legs slender — All found
fossil in the gypsum quarries near Paris.

** LOPHIODON. — Inferior molars crowned with transverse eminences.
L. giganteum, Cuv. Size of the rhinoceros. About eight feet
long.— Found in the fresh water formations.

142 MAMMALIA. PACHYDERMA.

L. tapiroides, Cuv. Size of the ox. — Found in the fresh water
formations.

L. Buchsowillanum, Cuv. Size of the hog. — Found near Buchsweil-
ler on the Lower Rhine.

L. tapir other ium, Cuv. Size of the tapir. — France.

L. Aurelianense, Cuv. Size of the hog. France, near Orleans.

L. occitanicum, Cuv. Size of the sheep — : Found fossil at Issel.

Gen 134. TAPIRUS, Cuv. Geoff. — Hippopotamus, Lin.

Incisors f, canines \-\, molars ^-| — 44. Intermediate in-
cisors shorter than the exterior ; nose terminating in a little
moveable proboscis, but not by a kind of finger like the ele-
phant ; eyes small ; ears long and moveable ; fore-feet with
four toes, the hind ones with three, with short round hoofs ;
tail very short ; two inguinal mammae.

T. Americanus, Desm. (Hippopotamus terrestris, Lin.) The Tapir.
Fur brown or fawn-coloured ; a little mane on the neck of the
male. Nearly six feet long. S. America — Shaw, ii. pi. 220.
The tapir sleeps during the day in the most sequestered places, and goes forth at
night in search of water melons, gourds, and pasture. If taken young it may be al-
most immediately tamed, and, like the hog, will feed on any thing.

T. Malay anus, Raffles, (T. Indicus, Desm.) Fur black or dirty
brown, with a large white patch on the posterior part. — Griff. An.
King. iii. 434.

T. giganteus, Cuv. (fossil.) Size equal to that of the largest ele-
phants. Found in France, in alluvial soil — Oss. Foss. 2d edit.

FAMILY III.— SOLIDUNGULA.

Three kinds of teeth ; only one apparent toe, and one hoof on
each foot.

Gen. 135. EQTJUS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. &c.

Incisors f , canines £-i, or g-g in the females of some species,
molars f-f =. 40. Molars furrowed on each side, with flat
crowns, and several ridges of enamel ; a void space between
tbe canines and molars ; upper lip capable of considerable
motion ; eyes large ; ears rather large, pointed erect, and
moveable; feet terminating in a solid hoof ; tail with long
hair, or a tuft at its extremity ; two inguinal mammae.

E. Caballus, Lin. The Horse. Tail long, covered with long hair
throughout its whole length ; ears of medium size ; long mane.
The horse is not known in its pristine state. Of those which have returned to

the wild state, such as the numerous herds of South America, the appearance is not

prepossessing, according to the ideas which have been formed of the symmetry of

the domestic varieties.

The different races of the horse are numerous, most of the principal countries in

EQUUS. MAMMALIA. 143

the world possessing breeds peculiar to themselves. But the Arabian race has long
been considered as the noblest of the species, and as combining the qualities of en-
durance, vigour, and temper, in a higher degree than any of the other varieties. As
breeders of horses have ascertained that the qualities of the Arabian horse may
be perpetuated in his descendants, in the countries of Europe where attention is
paid to the raising of this valuable animal for various purposes, the deterioration
which a northern climate induces in a native of warmer latitudes is counteracted
by crossing with the original breed. From the importation of the pure breed
of Arabia into Europe, and the different crossings of these and their descendants with
the native breeds, has arisen all that variety in appearance and qualities of the horse,
which fits them for heavy draughts, the plough or the saddle.

It is in England chiefly, however, that the cultivation and education of the horse
has been carried to its greatest refinement, and in this country are local races, ad-
mirably adapted to the different purposes which agriculture, or commerce, or lux-
ury may demand. The first is the race-horse, immediately proceeding from an Arabian
or Barbary stallion, with an English mare already crossed with a Barb or Arab in
the first degree, or the result of two crossings in the same degree. This breed is termed
first blood, or the nearest possible to the original stock ; and in the quality of speed
it is not probable that it can ever be exceeded. The next is the Hunter, the result
of crossing a stallion of the first blood with a mare of a degree less near the origi-
nal source. The third is the cross between the hunter and the more common mares,
which, uniting the stronger limbs and heavier bodies of the indigenous races to the
qualities of the Arabian, produce the British carriage- horses ; and the great dray
horse, whose gigantic proportions and immense power of draught can scarcely be
surpassed, are the produce of this last with the strongest mares of the country breed.
And it is a curious circumstance, that, in the mixture of all these races, the influence
of the Arab blood is observable, either in the conformation of some peculiar parts,
or the preservation of some peculiar qualities. The Persian, Barbary, and Turkish
horses are those which come nearest to the Arabian in conformation anil qualities, and
the Spanish horses long enjoyed a high character in Europe, probably from the breed
being kept up by the intermixture of the horses of Barbary. In France are nu-
merous varieties, and most of them very serviceable animals. The other European
races it would be impossible to enumerate here.

The Arabs divide their horses into two races. The first which they call Kochlani^
or Kailhan, are those whose genealogy is known for two thousand years, and which
has, they say, originated from the stud of Solomon. The other race, appropriated to
servile uses, they name Kadischi, or horses of an unknown race. And they are pe-
culiarly careful, by certificates and other means, to preserve the principal races pure.
The mares enjoy the exclusive privilege of transmitting the purity of the race to
their descendants, and the genealogies are always reckoned from the mothers. *

E. Hemionus, Desm. The Dzhiggtai. Fur light bay in summer,
redder in winter ; mane and dorsal line black ; tail terminated
by a black tuft. Size of the horse. Inhabits deserts of Mongo-
lia.— Pall Com. Petrop. xix. t. 7-

E. zebra, Lin. The Zebra. Fur white, with numerous symme-
trical bands of brownish black. Size of a small horse. Inhabits
Africa — Shaw, ii. pi. 217-

E. couagga, Desm. Gmel. The Quagga. Head and neck dark brown,
with transverse grayish white stripes, the under part and legs,
whitish ; tail tufted. Inhabits S. Africa. — Sharv, ii. pi. 218.

E. montanus, Gray. The Dauw. Body covered with pure single
black and white stripes down to the hoofs.— -Gray, Zool. Journ.

E. asinus, Lin. The Ass. Fur gray, more or less reddish, with
black dorsal line and a transverse band on the shoulders ; ears
very large ; tail terminated by a tuft of hair. — Sharv, ii. pi. 216.
The manners of the ass in domestication are well known. Patient and tempe-

144 MAMMALIA. RUMINANTIA.

rate, the ass, but for the horse, would have been the most valuable of our domestica-
ted beasts of burden. In eastern countries, however, the ass is still used for the saddle
and as a beast of burden ; and the qualities of its progeny, the mule, have secured
attention to its production in many parts of the world. In a wild state the ass is
still found in Kalmuc Tartary, in innumerable troops, which migrate from the north
to the south, and back again according to the season. The ass varies much in size,
and it has been observed to degenerate in this respect, according as it is removed
from its original country. The ass couples with the horse and the zebra, but their
progeny do not propagate.

ORDER IX.— RUMINANTIA.

No incisors in the upper jaw ; in the lower usually eight ; a
vacant space between the incisors and molars, but in which
in some genera are found one or two canines ; molars twelve
in each jaw, the crown marked with two double crescents of
enamel, of which the convexity is outwards in the lower jaw,
and inwards in the upper ; no clavicles ; extremities dispo-
sed for walking ; two toes furnished with hoofs ; metacarpal
and metatarsal bones united ; four stomachs ; intestines long;
two or four inguinal mammae ; horns in the males and often
in the females of most species.

This is one of the most natural groups of animals. The term Ruminantia indi-
cates the singular faculty possessed by them of masticating their food twice ; and
their stomach for this purpose consists of four parts, of which the first three are
disposed in such a manner that these animals can at will transmit their food from
the one to the other. Their food is invariably vegetables, and they are widely dis-
tributed over both continents.

* Without horns. — CAMELID^, Smith.
Gen. 136. CAMELUS, Lin. Cuv. &c.

Incisors f , canines ^-j, false molars \-\, molars f-f = 36.
Inferior incisors in the form of cutting wedges ; the superior
lateral ; canines conical, erect, and strong ; false molars on
each side in the interdentary space ; toes united below ; head
long ; neck very long ; upper lip cleft ; nostrils slit obliquely ;
eyes projecting ; ears small ; back with fleshy hunches ;
callosities on the breast and flexures of the extremities ; four
ventral mammas ; hair woolly ; tail of medium length.

C. Bactrianus, Lin. The Bactrian Camel. Two hunches on the
back ; colour generally brown. About 10 feet long. Inhabits
Persia, Turkey, &c. — Shaw, ii. pi. 167-

C. Dromedarius, Lin. The Arabian Camel. One hunch on the
middle of the back ; fur pale brown. Nearly eight feet long. In-
habits Arabia, Turkey, &c — Shaw, ii. pi. 166.

This valuable animal has been in domestication from the earliest times, and has
for ages been the medium of commercial communication between the countries on
either side of the great deserts of Arabia. For passing these extensive wastes the

AUCHEMA. MAMMALIA. 145

camel is provided with an internal -apparatus, in which it can cany a supply of water
for ten or twelve clays ; and when this essential article of life runs short in the pas-
sage through the desert, the camel is sometimes killed to procure a scanty supply.
To enable him to move on a soft and sinking surface, the feet of the camel are like
broad and spreading cushions ; the nasal openings, closing at the will of the
animal, are admirably adapted for excluding the minute particles of sand ; and
his extreme temperance enables him to subsist for weeks on the thorny shrubs scatter-
ed over the desert, or a few dates or beans. The camel sees and hears well ; and
his sense of smell is so acute that it is said he can discover the presence of water at
the distance of two miles. He is trained to lie down when he receives his load
and to be unloaded ; but when overloaded he refuses to rise and is obstinate.
The general load is from three to four hundred weight, and with this weight he will
travel for weeks in places where no other animal could subsist Hence the camel,
from transferring the productions of the neighbouring countries across these arid
wastes, has been emphatically called the ship of the desert. To the wild Arab
the camel is what the rein-deer is to the Laplander, invaluable. He feeds on the
flesh and milk, makes clothes and tents of the hair, belts and sandals of the hide,
and even the dung furnishes him with fuel.

Gen. 137. AUCHENIA, Illig. — Lama, Cuv. — Camelus, Lin.

Incisors §, canines J— J, false molars J-J, molars |-| = 32.
Teeth resembling those of the camel ; muzzle little protube-
rant ; upper lip cleft ; neck slender ; eyes large ; ears long,
pointed, and moveable ; feet terminated by two toes furnish-
ed with little crooked nails, with a callous sole ; callosities on
the breast and knees ; tail short ; two mammae.

A. glama, Desm. (Camelus glama, Lin.) Headlong; forehead
slightly protuberant, joining the face without sensible interrup-
tion j fur brownish, or variegated with white spots, composed of
long soft hair. Inhabits S. America — Griff, iv. 57.

Before the conquest of Peru the Lama was the only beast of burden employed by
the natives. It bears some external resemblance to the camel, but without the hun-
ches. The lama is capable of carrying a weight of 150 Ibs. and can travel with this
weight from sixteen to twenty miles a-day.

The Guanaco of travellers, C. huanaca^ Shaw, &c. is perhaps a variety of this
species. It differs little but in being larger and the fur of a uniform chestnut
colour.

A. paco, Desm. The Paco. Face elevated above the forehead, and
forming an angle with it j fur clear chestnut or gray, composed
of long, fine woolly hair. About the size of a stag, but lower
on its legs. Inhabits Peru.— Mam. 426.

A. vicugna, Desm. (Camelus vicugna, Lin.) The Vicugna. Smal-
ler than the preceding ; forehead projecting ; fur woolly and fine,
of medium length, of a clear brown fawn-colour above, and white
below. S. America. — Griff. An. King. iv. 58.

** Feet bisulcated — CERVID.E, Smith.
Gen. 138. MOSCHUS, Lin. Cuv. Desm.

Incisors f , canines J-J, molars |-f, = 34. Canines wanting
altogether in the females ; superior canines large in the
males ; ears long, pointed ; body slender ; feet with hoofs,
separated and enveloping the last phalanges ; tail very short ;
two inguinal mammae.

VOL. I. K

146 MAMMALIA. HUMINANTIA.

M. moschiferusj Lin. The Thibetan Musk. Fur of a gray brown,
hair coarse ; a pouch before the prepuce of the male filled with
an unctuous musky substance. Size of the roebuck. Inhabits
Chinese Tartary and other parts of Asia. — Shaw, ii. pi. 171.

M. meminna, Gmel. Desm. Fur olivaceous ash-coloured above, white
below ; sides and back marked with white spots. About 16 inches
long. Inhabits Ceylon. — Shaw, ii. pi. 173.

M. Javanicus, Desm. The Kantchil. Fur deep red brown on the

back ; three white streaks under the throat. Size of a rabbit

Inhabits Java.

M. Napu, Griif. The Napu. Fur ferruginous gray above, whit-
ish on the sides ; five white stripes under the throat divided by
black ones. Size of the preceding. — F. Cuv. Mam.

M. pygmceus, Lin. Desm. Fur reddish brown above, white below.
About eight inches long. — Shaw, ii. pi. 172.

1st Division. — Horns hollow and persisting — or bony and
deciduous.

1st TRIBE. — Horns branched, deciduous, the new ones in-
creasing in size each year, always in the males, and some-
times in the females.

Gen. 139. CERVUS, Lin. Cuv. Desin.

Incisors f , canines g-g or J-J, molars §-§ — 32 or 34. Canines
when they exist compressed and bent back; headlong, termi-
nated by a muzzle ; eyes large, pupils elongated transversely ;
a lachrymal sinus in most ; ears large and pointed ; tongue
soft ; body slender ; four inguinal mammae ; horns solid, de-
ciduous, palmated, branched, or simple, in the males ; females,
with one exception, without horns.

C. dices, Lin. The Elk. Horns spreading into a broad palm, with
numerous antlers upon its external border ; muzzle tumid and
cartilaginous ; no canine teeth ; ears long ; neck short j a tuft of
hair under the throat ; legs very long ; fur ashy brown or whitish.
Inhabits Northern parts of both continents. — Shaw, ii. pi. 174.

C. tarandus, Lin. The Rein-Deer, Horns large in both sexes, with
a long compressed stem, and palmated and dentated antlers ; no
canines ; tail short. About five feet and a-half long. Inhabits
the arctic circle of both continents. — Shaw.

The Rein- Deer is the only animal of the genus which has been subjugated by man.
The Laplanders possess numerous flocks, with which they travel according to the sea-
son to places where the food of the animal is most abundant. In the inhospitable
wastes of Lapland the rein-deer is invaluable to the poor inhabitants, and supplies
all their wants. Its flesh and blood is used for food, its skin forms their clothes,
and its tendons are split and used as thread. The castrated males are trained to
the sledge, and the females furnish their families with milk. The chief food of the
rein-deer is the Lichen rangiferinvs ; and in winter they dig the snow with their
feet to procure it. The rutting-season is in October, and the period of gestation is
thirty-three weeks. Two young are generally produced. At birth the fawns have

CEBVUS. MAMMALIA. 147

little knobs on their heads, and at fifteen days old the horns are about an inch Ions;.
The adult males and sterile females shed their horns in winter, the breeding females
preserve theirs till the month of May. The castrated individuals often preserve their
horns for a year longer than the others. The rein-deer is not now found in Europe
beyond CO0. N. lat., although it appears that they have formerly existed in the Py-
renees. They are found wild in Siberia, the Uralian mountains, along the river Ke-
ma to Kungus ; and the Samoiedes and Koriacs possess flocks of rein-deer like the
Laplanders.

C. major, Ord. Desm. The Wapiti. Horns very large, branching
in serpentine curves, terminating in a fork ; brow antler over the
face ; muzzle broad ; lachrymal sinuses ; tail very short ; a yellow-
ish disc on the buttocks ; fur dun-brown in summer ; dark brown-
gray in winter. Larger than the stag. N.America — Griff, iv. 95.

Var. C. Canadensis. Somewhat smaller ; antlers more bent up, and colour darker.

C. elaphus, Lin. The Stag. Horns with three anterior antlers,
all curving upwards, the summit forming a crown of snags from
a common centre ; lachrymal sinuses ; fur red brown in summer,
brown-gray in winter ; a pale disc on the buttocks. Inhabits Eu-
rope, Asia, and the north of Africa. B. — Shaw, ii. pi. 177-
The stag sheds his horns in February, and has them renewed in July or August.

It can eat the leaves of the yew without injury.

Var. The Barbary and Corsican Stag. Legs shorter, and body thicker than the com-
mon stag.

C. Wallichii, Cuv. Horns rather short, with two small antlers at
base, and another further up pointing forwards ; large suborbital
opening ; fur yellowish brown gray, with a disc on the croup ; tail
very short. Nepaul — Griff. Syn. 309.

C. hippelaphus, Desm. Horns trifurcated, basal antler on the burr;
lachrymal sinuses ; fur brown; margin of the lips and chin whitish ;
hair coarse ; a mane on the neck ; tail long, terminated by a dark
tuft. Size of the stag. — E. Indies.

C. unicolor, Smith. Horns long, slender ; basal antler on the burr,
curving upwards ; another on the stem pointing inwards ; fur en-
tirely brown ; throat covered with long bristly hair. Ceylon.—-
Griff. Syn, 310.

C. Aristotelis, Cuv. The Samur. Horns short, pointed ; a vertical
antler on the burr, with a fork near the summit of the stem point-
ing obliquely backwards ; fur blackish and dark brown ; a large
mane on the neck and throat, Bengal. — Griff. Syn. 310.

C. equinus, Cuv. The Malayan Rusa. Horns robust, pearled; basal
antler on the burr ; terminal bifurcation from the internal poste-
rior side of the stem, with obtuse points ; suborbital opening very
large ; orange-coloured disc on the buttocks, heavy mane ; ca-
nines in both sexes. Java. — Griff, iv. 112.

C. axis, Lin. The Axis, Pean. Horns round, elongated, rather
smooth ; anterior antler near the burr ; summits converging; se-
cond antler on the internal side of the main branch turning back-
wards ; lachrymal sinuses small ; fur bright fulvous, spotted with
white ; tail long, brown above, bordered with white. E. Indies.
—Shaw, ii. pi. 180.

148 MAMMALIA. RUMINANTIA.

C. Mariannus, Desm. Horns round., with two antlers, the basal one
nearly vertical,, the second posterior and internal; lachrymal si-
nuses; fur grayish brown ; tail short. Less than the fallow-deer.
Marianna Islands. — Griff, iv. 115.

C. porcinus, Lin. The Porcine Deer,, Penn. Horns slender, with
two antlers very little developed, the second near the summit;
head short ; ears round at tip ; fur fawn-coloured, spotted with
white. — Sharv, ii. pi. 180.

C. dama, Lin. The Fallow-Deer. Horns in the male only, round,
with two antlers ; summits palmated, deeply dentated ; fur brown,

\ with white spots, whitish below; tail long. Inhabits Europe
and Western Asia. B — Shaw, ii. pi. 178.

C. capreolus, Lin. The Roebuck. Horns rather small, cylindrical,
a small antler on the middle of the stem pointing forward ; a second
higher up, directed backward ; no lachrymal sinuses ,^fur gray
brown or fawn-coloured, buttocks white. About 3^ feet long.
There is a black coloured variety — Inhabits Europe. B.

C. pygargus, Desm. Horns cylindrical, rugous, denticulated ; first
antler vertical, with processes at the base, the summit bilobed;
posterior antlers horizontal ; fur brown, paler below ; a large
white disc on the buttocks; tail rudimentary. Size of the stag.
Russian Tartary.— Schreb. tab. 253.

C. muntjac, Desm. Horns extremely short, upon pedicles, bent
inwards, with a little rudimentary antler at the base pointing
forwards ; pedicles prolonged in the form of ribs down to the nose,
two superior canines in the male ; fur gray brown, paler below.
Size of the roebuck. Inhabits India. — Griff, iv. 144.

C. subcornutus, Blainville. Horns small, with regular burr, and
small process in front ; the point of the stem turned back ; pedi-
cles of the horns not much prolonged on the forehead; no canines.

C. Virginianus, Desm. Virginian Deer, Penn. Horns much bent
forwards, with an antler on the internal face of each stem di-
rected inwards, and two or three others at the posterior face di-
rected backwards ; lachrymal sinuses ; no canines ; fur cinnamon
fawn in summer, gray in winter. Between five and six feet long.
N. America — Harlan, 238.

C. macrotis, Say. Horns slightly grooved and tuberculated at the
base, similar in form to the C. Virginianus; ears very long, reach-
ing to the bifurcation of the horns ; fur reddish brown ; tail com-
pressed, almost naked beneath. United States. — Harlarts Faun.
Amer. 243.

C. paludosus, Desm. Horns rather large, cylindrical, terminated
by a fork, with a branch above the burr pointing forward and up-
wards, sometimes bifurcate ; muzzle large ; lachrymal sinuses ;
tail of medium length; fur red bay above, whitish below; a black
triangle on the forehead. Size of the stag — Griff: iv. 134.

C. campestris, P. Cuv. (C. leucogaster, Schreb.) Horns middle-

CERVUS. MAMMALIA. 149

sized, rather slender, more or less rugous ; stem sub-erect, with
anterior antler pointing forwards and upwards ; one or two smal-
ler behind, oblique ; lachrymal sinuses ; fur of reddish bay above,
white below. About four feet long. Paraguay — Griff, iv. 136.

C. nemoralis, Smith. Horns about eight inches long, sub-verti-
cal, rugous at the base ; small anterior antler about the middle
of the stem ; posterior second antler forming a fork with the
summits of the horn, which flattens and turns inwards and for-
wards, making a hook j black spot on the nose and each side of
the neck, and one on lower lip, all on a white ground ; fur on
the back brown gray. S. America — Griff. An. King. iv. 137«

C. riifus, Desm. Horns short, simple ; canines in the upper jaw
of the male ; lachrymal sinuses ; tail pretty long ; fur bright red
above, white below. Four feet long. Paraguay.— «• Griff, iv. 104.

C. simplicornis, Smith. Horns small, simple, pointed j dark ring
round the orbits, and spots about the corner of the upper lip ; fur
bright fulvous ; tail short, with long hair of a red colour. Size
of the roebuck. Inhabits Brazil. — Griff, iv. 141.

C. nemorivagus, Desm. Horns straight, about two inches long ;
lachrymal sinuses small ; fur of a grayish brown above, white be-
low. S. America. — Griff, iv. 142.

C. Hiber tuts, (fossil,) Desm. (C. giganteus, Cuv.) Horns of very
great dimensions, forming a large palm, with antlers on both
borders, fewer than in the elk; spread of the horns nine to
twelve feet. The skeleton of a fine specimen of this animal from
the Isle of Man is in the Edinburgh Museum. — Found fossil in
Europe.

C. palceodama, Cuv. Horns resembling those of the fallow-deer,
but with only one antler on the stem. — Found fossil in Sweden.

C. 'Somonensis, Desm. Horns resembling those of the fallow-deer,
but larger, and rising immediately from the frontal bone. — Fossil
in France and Germany.

C. Guetardi, Desm. Horns similar to the rein-deer, but smaller in
dimensions, almost filiform, with two antlers at their base — Fos-
sil in France.

2d TRIBE. — Horns or prominences of the frontal bone enve-
loped in a hairy skin, in both sexes. — GIRAFFID.E, Smith.

Gen 140. CAMELOPARDALIS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. &c.
Incisors g, canines g-g, molars §-§ — 32. Head very long,
with a bony tubercle on the forehead, and two osseous pedun-
cles covered with skin and hairy, terminated by a tuft of
bristles ; upper lip entire ; no lachrymal sinuses ; ears point-
ed ; tongue rough, with corneous papillae ; eyes large ; neck
extremely long ; withers much elevated ; legs slender ; a cal-
losity on the sternum ; four mammae.

150 MAMMALIA. RUMINANTIA.

C. girajfa, Gmel. Desm. (C. Camelopardalis, Lin.) The Giraffe.
Fur variegated with brown and ferruginous angular and nume-
rous spots ; tail terminated by a tuft of dark long hairs. Height
before about 15 feet. Inhabits Central Africa. — Shaw, ii. 182.

The Giraffe seems to have been unknown to the Greeks. In the year 7^8 of
Rome, Julius Caesar brought one to Europe, and the Roman Emperors afterwards
exhibited them at Rome, either for the games in the circus, or in their triumphs
over the African princes. Albertus Magnus, in his Treatise de Animalibiis, is the
first modern author who speaks of the giraffe. In 1486 one of the Medici family
possessed one at Florence, where it lived for a considerable time. In its native country
the giraffe browses on the twigs of trees, preferring plants of the Mimosa genus ;
but it appears that it can without inconvenience subsist on other vegetable food.
The one kept at Florence fed on the fruits of the country, and chiefly on apples,
which it begged from the inhabitants of the first storeys of the houses. The spe-
cimen in Paris, from its having been accustomed in early life to the food prepared by
the Arabs for their camels, is fed on mixed grains bruised, such as maize, barley, &c.
and it is furnished with milk for drink morning and evening. It however willingly
accepts fruits and the branches of the acacia, which are presented to it. It seizes
the leaves with its long rugous and narrow tongue by rolling it about them, and
seems annoyed when it is obliged to take any thing from the ground, which it
seems to do with difficulty. To accomplish this it stretches first one, then the other
of its long fore-legs asunder, and it is not till after repeated attempts that it is able
to seize the objects with its lips and tongue. The pace of the giraffe is an amble,
though when pursued it flies with extreme rapidity, but the small size of its lungs
prevents it from supporting a lengthened chase. The giraffe defends itself against the
lion, its principal enemy, with its fore-feet, with which it strikes with such force as
often to repulse him. The name Camelo-pardalis (camel-leopard) was given by the
Romans to this animal, from a fancied combination of the characters of the camel
and leopard ; but its ancient denomination was Zurapha, from which the name Giraffe
has been adopted.

3d TRIBE.— ^-Prominences of the frontal bone covered with a
horny case. — CAPRICE, Smith.

Gen. 141. ANTILOPE, Cuv. Geoff. Desm. — Capra, Moschus,

Lin.

Incisors §, canines g-g, molars f-f = 32. Horns in both
sexes, or in the males only, covering a solid bony core, round,
compressed, variously inflected, and often marked by transverse
annulations, or a projecting spiral ridge, sometimes bifurca-
ted ; muzzle partly naked in the greater number ; often lachry-
mal sinuses ; ears large ; legs slender ; two or four mammae.

A. cervicapra, Pall. Desm. The Common Antelope. Horns black,
round, with a triple bending, and annulated the greater part of
their length ; tufts on the knees ; fur fawn-coloured above,, white
below. About four feet long. India — Pali. Spic. fas. i. 1. 1, 2.

A. Saiga, Desm. Pall. (Capra Tatarica,Lin.) Horns of the male
yellow, transparent, marked by 16 or 18 rings, smooth at the
point, arched and lyre-shaped ; muzzle cartilaginous, gibbous ;
nostrils very open ; fur fulvous above, white below ; tufts on the
knees. Body four feet long. Inhabits sandy deserts near the
Caspian Sea — Pall. Spic. fas. xii. t. 1 and 3.

A. gutturosa, Pall. Desm. Horns of the male black, lyre-shaped,

ANTILOPE. MAMMALIA. 151

with transverse rings ; larynx forming a remarkable projection
before the neck ; glandular bag near the prepuce ; fur fawn-co-
loured in summer, grayish in winter. Inhabits deserts in Cen-
tral Asia— Pall. Spic. fas. xii. t. 2, 3, fig. 14-17-

Sub- Gen. 1. GAZELLA, Blainville. — Horns with double flexure, lyre-
shaped, cumulated, without ridges, in both sexes.

A. dorcas, Pall. Desm. Horns black in both sexes, lyre-shaped,
annulated in the greater part of their length ; fur fawn-coloured
above, white below, with a band of brown black upon each flank ;
tail tufted with black ; no projection of. the larynx. Smaller
than the roebuck. Inhabits Northern Africa, &c — Buff. xii. pi. 23.
Major Smith describes three varieties of this species under the names of A. Kevel-

la, Corinna, and Cora.

A. subgutturosa, Desm. Horns large, grayish black, lyre-shaped,
annulated ; larynx projecting ; fur ash-coloured above, white be-
low, a brown band on each Hank. Three feet and a-half long.
Inhabits Persia, &c — Schreb. t. 170, B.

A. Euchore, Forster, Desm. The Springbok. Horns brown black,
lyrate, annulated j a longitudinal fold of skin on the croup, with
white hairs ; fur fawn-coloured, white below, with a brown line
on each flank. About four feet and a-half long. Inhabits plains
of Southern Africa. — Shaw, ii. pi. 102.

A. pygarga, Desm. Pall. Horns black, round, lyrate, with eleven
or twelve projecting rings ; fur hoary brown above, whitish below;
head and neck of a red gray ; a line of white on the forehead;
belly and buttocks white ; no lachrymal sinuses. Upwards of
five feet long. Inhabits Southern Africa.- — Schreb. t. 273.

A. mytilopes, Smith. Horns one foot long, slender, round, sublyrate,
black, with thirteen or fourteen obsolete rings, standing on a
- broad rufous spot ; space between the eyes, mouth, under jaw,
breast, belly, croup, and legs, white ; a bar across the nose, neck,
shoulders, and flanks fulvous ; hoofs broad, flat, rounded. In-
habits Western Africa — Griff, iv. 204.

A. melampus, Desm. The Pallah. Horns black, round, very long,
lyrate, strongly annulated at their base ; fur ferruginous above,
white below ; a black line on the back and a transverse band of
the same colour on the buttocks ; a black spot above the spu-
rious hoofs. Nearly five feet long. Cape of Good Hope —
Daniell's Afr. Seen. No. 9.

A. Senegalensis, Desm. The Senegal Antelope, Penn. Horns
black, a little flattened laterally, lyrate, very long, marked with
from 12 to 17 rings, and their termination smooth ; head and tail
long. About 5 feet long. Inhabits Senegal — Penn. Quad. p. 38.

Sub-Gen. 2. — CERVICAPRA, Blainville. Horns simple, few or no
annulations or ridges.

f Horns bent forwards.
A. dama, Pall. Desm. Horns short, round, black, bent» &rwards

152 MAMMALIA. HUMJNAKTIA.

and inwards, smooth at the extremity, with five or six broad ill-
defined rings at the base ; fur white, with the neck, back, and
shoulders rufous ; a fawn-coloured spot over each eye. Three
feet and a half long. Inhabits Senegal. — Schreb. t. 265.

A. redunca, Pall. Desm. Horns short, round, black, sub-erect, a
little bent forwards ; fur entirely fawn-coloured. Four feet and
a-half long. Inhabits Africa. — Schreb. t. 265.

A. villosa, Burchell. Horns 8J inches long, straight, vertical, slight-
ly inclining forward, round, slender, with thirteen rings, sharp-
pointed ; black spot before the eyes ; suborbital sinus large be-
neath. Body slender, fur whitish gray, beneath white ; hair
soft and villous ; tail tipped with white. Length four feet and
a-half. Southern Africa. — Griff. Syn. 339.

A. tragulus, Desm. The Steenbock. Horns vertical, round, slen-
der, and pointed, wrinkled at the base ; fur reddish above, white
below ; ears pointed ; groin naked and black. — Inhabits Caffraria.

A. melanotisj Desm. (A. grisea, Cuv.) The Grysbock. Horns
black, round, vertical, slightly bent forward ; fur deep chestnut
red, mixed with white hairs, whitish below ; ears broad, open.
— Inhabits Caffraria.

A. eleotragus, Schreb. Desm. The Rietbock. Horns 10 or 12
inches long, black, slightly curved, with the points forward, and
oblique obsolete annulations on the first half; fur woolly, cine*
reous above, white below j tail nine or ten inches long. Inhabits
Caffraria. — Shaw, ii. pi. 193.

A. acuticornus, Blainville. Horns three inches long, round, smooth,
black and pointed, slightly bent outwards and forwards, the
frontal crest passing behind them. — India.

ft Horns erect.

A. oreotraguS, Desm. The Klipspringer. Horns five inches long,
distant, round, vertical, slightly inclined forwards, obscurely
wrinkled at the base and annulated in the middle ; tips smooth
and pointed ; fur olive-coloured, hard, and spirally twisted. In-
habits Caffraria — Shaw, ii. pi. 183.

A. pallida, Lichtenstein. Horns perfectly straight, inclining back-
wards, round, with an obsolete ridge in front, four inches long,
very pointed ; fur pale fawn-coloured above, white below ; a black
naked ring round the eyes. Caffraria — Griff. Syn. 342.

A. subulata, Smith. Horns f of an inch in diameter, subvertical,
round, smooth, 4£ inches long, slightly bent inwards. E. Indies.
— Griff. Syn. 342.

A. Chickara, Hardwick. Superior horns black, subulate, round,
without rings, erect, smooth, three inches long ; spurious horns
little more than an inch long, placed between the middle line of
the orbits ; fur bright gray, whitish beneath. India — Lin. Trans.

A. capreolus, Desm. Lichst. The Rehbock. Horns black, round,

ANTILOPE. MAMMALIA. 153

pointed, vertical, parallel, slightly annulated for half their length ;
fur woolly, grayish-red above, white below ; no lachrymal sinuses.
About five feet long — Cape of Good Hope.

A. Lalandia, Desm. Horns erect, slender, shorter than the head,
parallel j fur long, grayish-brown on the back, white on the belly.
Cape of Good Hope.— Diet. Class. Hist. Nat. i. No. 14. pi. 1.

A. silvicultrix, Schreb. Desm. The Bush Antelope. Horns black,
round, short, wrinkled at the base, rugous higher up, and smooth
at the tip, slightly bent outwards ; fur shining-brown, with the
lumbar and dorsal region covered with long' fawn-coloured hair;
lachrymal sinuses ; no tufts on the knees j tail pendulous, tufted.
Inhabits Sierra Leone — Griff, iv. 258.

A. quadriscopa, Smith. Horns four inches long, reclining, straight,
diverging, pointed, with six or seven small annuli at the base;
ears longer than the horns j fur yellowish gray, white beneath ;
legs slender, with tufts on the knees and hind-legs. Size of the
roebuck. Africa. — Griff, Syn. 345.

A. mergens, Blainville. The Deukerbok. Horns erect, annulated
at the base, a half shorter than the head ; fur dun, with the ex-
tremity of the feet brown and a line of the same colour on the
anterior face of the fore-legs ; a suborbitary furrow. Inhabits
Cape of Good Hope. — Desm. Mam. 463.

A. grimmia, Desm. (Moschus grimmia, Lin.) Horns very short,
stout, erect ; fur fawn-coloured ; face and line down the back
dark ; ears short and broad ; legs gray ; tail black at the point ; a
lengthened suborbital slit, but no lachrymal sinus. Two feet
and a-half long. Inhabits Guinea. — Mam. 464.

A. ccerula, Smith. Horns very small, black, pointed, with five semi-
annuli nearly concealed in the hair of the forehead ; fur slaty
purplish-blue, white beneath. Upwards of two feet long. Caff-
raria — Griff. Syn. 348.

A. scoparia, Desm. Horns small, erect, with five annulations in
the first half, points smooth, black ; head and upper parts of the
body pale fulvous ; lower parts white ; tail short, blackish ; tufts
on the knees. Inhabits Cape of Good Hope. — Schreb. t. 261.

A. pygmcea, Pall. Desm. The Pigmy Antelope. Horns small,
about an inch long, black, pointed ; fur bright bay, whiter below ;
no tufts on the knees j a small lachrymal opening. Twenty inches
long. Inhabits Central Africa. — Shaw, ii. pi. 188.

ttt Horns bent backwards.

A. Sumatrensis, Desm. Horns six inches long, round, bent back,
with ten or twelve wrinkles at base ; fur brown black ; neck and
back with long white hairs ; lachrymal sinuses with a small
opening. Length 4^ feet. Sumatra. — Marsden's Sum. p. 93.

A. goral, Hardwick. Horns four and a-half inches long, black,
subulate, bent back, with five or six annuli at the base. Fur gray-
ish-brown, whitish under the throat. Nepaul.— Lin. Trans.

154 MAMMALIA. RUMINANTIA.

Sub-Gen. 3. ALCELAPHUS, Blainv — Horns with double flexures,
cumulated, without ridges, in both sexes ; lachrymal sinuses, but
no inguinal pores.

A. bubalisj Pall. Desm. Head much elongated ; horns black, of
medium length, strongly annulated in a spiral form; point directed
» backwards ; fur fawn-coloured ; tail black at the end. Size of
the stag. Inhabits Northern Africa. — Buff. xii. pi. 37, 38.

A. caama, Desm. Schreb. The Hartbeest. Head very long ; horns
thick, strongly annulated obliquely to the second bending ; the
points much prolonged back wards; fur bay fawn-colour, deeper on
the back, with black or brown at the base of the horns, upon the
forehead, and the anterior face of the legs. Upwards of six feet
long. Southern Africa. — Schreb. t. 277-

Sub-Gen. 4. TRAGELAPHUS, Blainville. — Horns more or less com-
pressed, spiral, with ridges in both sexes, or in the males only ;
lachrymal sinuses sometimes wanting.

A. strepsiceros, Desm. Horns very long, diverging, describing three
elongated spiral turns, smooth, compressed, with two ridges ; a
mane on the neck ; fur brownish gray, with a dorsal line, and
many transverse white bands on the flanks. Eleven feet long.
Interior Africa. — Daniell, Afr. Seen. No. 6.

A. sylvatica, Gmel. Desm. The Boshbock. Horns in the male
only, ten inches long, with an obsolete ridge on both sides, spiral
and sublyrate, black and closely annulated at base, smooth at
the point; fur chestnut above, with white spots on the neck, croup,
and thighs. Length 3^ feet. Caifraria. — Shaw, ii. pi. 193.

A. scripta, Pall. Desm. Horns seven inches long, reclining, straight,
wavy, with two ridges twisting spirally round the axis ; fur ful-
vous bay, with white transverse bands at the flanks, and spots
on the thighs. Length 4^ feet. Senegal. — Shaw, ii. pi. 186.

Sub-Gen. 5. OREAS, Desm. — Horns straight, with a very strong
spiral ridge, in both sexes ; no lachrymal sinuses ; four mammae ;
tail long and tufted.

A. oreas, Desm. Horns black, very thick, diverging, with a strong
ridge, describing two spiral turns, towards their base, smooth at
the point ; a little mane upon the neck and back ; a dewlap
with long hairs, and a projection of the larynx below ; fur gray-
ish fawn-coloured. Length eight feet. — Pall. Spic. fas. xii. p. 17-

Sub-Gen. 6. BOSELAPHUS, Blainville. — Horns simple, not rugous,
variously curved, without spiral ridge.

A. picta, Pall. Desm. The Nyl-ghau. Horns conical, black, smooth,
with .a triangular prolongation at their base ; much separated, bend-
ing forwards and upwards ; lachrymal sinuses ; fur gray in the
male, fawn-coloured in the female ; a tuft of long dark hair on
the throat ; black and white rings on the pasterns ; tail tufted.
Inhabits India. — Shaw, ii. pi. 189.

ANTILOPE. MAMMALIA. 155

A. gnu, Gmel. Desm. The Gnu. Horns in both sexes, strong,
large, flattened at the base, arising from the occiput, bent for-
wards upon the eyes, and turning up into a pointed hook ; a ver-
tical mane on the neck, with a beard and dewlap ; fur brown ;
tail long and lined with long white hair. Length five feet and a-
half. Inhabits Southern Africa. — Shaw, ii. pi. 196.

Sub-Gen. 7- ORYX, Desm — Horns in loth sexes, large, pointed,
erect, or with a slight bend posteriorly, annulated, but with a
ridge ; lachrymal sinuses ; tail tufted.

A. oryx, Pall. Desm. The Caffrarian Oryx. Horns black, thin,
round, very long, nearly straight ; fur gray above, white below,
with a black dorsal line ; head whitish, with a line over each
eye and across the forehead of brown black ; a chestnut spot
on the shoulders and thighs. Five feet long. Southern Africa.
—Schreb. t. 257-

A. leucoryx, Desm. Pall. The White Oryx. Horns very long,
(three feet,) slender, horizontal, bent backwards, obliquely annu-
lated, tips smooth ; fur white ; black spot at the base of the horns
passing down the face ; a second through the eyes, towards the
mouth ; lower part of the thighs rufous ; short dark mane ; tuft
of the tail black. Size of a small horse. Arabia and Persia. —
Shaw, ii. pi. 184.

A. Addax, Smith. Horns upwards of two feet long, robust, black,
round, divergent, with two and a-half spiral turns, and 32 to 35
annuli extending three-fourths of the length ; no lachrymal si-
nus ; dark coloured mane on the neck, and a tuft of hair on the
throat ; head and neck grayish, the rest of the body white ; tail
tufted. Inhabits Nubia — Griff, iv. 193.

A. gazella, Pall. Desm. Horns black, round, slender, three feet
long, bent back, with thirty-six annulations, not spiral ; fore-
head narrow ; head long ; body clumsy j lachrymal sinuses ; bo-
dy and neck fulvous gray, with a reversed ridge of short white
hair on the neck ; head white ; a dark spot at the root of the
horns, passing down the face. Perhaps this, as well as the A.
Tao of Major Smith, is but a variety of the preceding. — Interior
of Senegal.

Sub-Gen. 8. EGOCERUS, Desm. — Horns very large and strong,
pointed, simply bent back, annulated ; a half muzzle, and no sub-
orbitary sinus : tail pretty long.

A. leucopha?a, Pall. Desm, The Blue Antelope. Horns slightly
compressed, scimitar-shaped, about twenty inches long, closely
annulated with from twenty to thirty rings ; ears long ; fur sil-
very blue gray ; short white mane turning towards the head ;
tail tufted at the end. Nearly six feet long. Southern Africa.
— Shaw, ii. pi. 195.

A. equina, Geoff. Desm. Horns very robust, about 24 inches long,
strongly bent back, with from 17 to 27 prominent rings ; fur

156 MAMMALIA. RUMINANTIA.

coarse,, undulating, grayish brown ; a white spot round the eye,
formed of long hairs. Inhabits Southern Africa,— Desm. 476.

Sub-Gen. 9. RUPICAPRA, Blainville. — Horns simple, vertical, round
and striated, strongly bent backwards towards ike point, in both
sexes ; no lachrymal sinuses nor inguinal pores ; tail very short ;
two mammae.

A. rupicapra, Pall. (Capra rupicapra, Lin.) The Chamois.
Horns seven or eight inches long, perpendicular to the head,
hooked at the end ; fur fawn-coloured in summer, and brown in
winter j a dark line through each eye ; tail short. Between
three and four feet long. Switzerland. — Griff, iv. 281.
Var. A. The Yzard. Smaller, gray brown, cheeks and buttocks fawn-colour — In-
habits the Pyrenees.

Var. B. The Persian Chamois. Horns bent back into a regular hook from their
root ; colour rufous yellow.

Sub-Gen. 10. ANTILOCAPRA, Blainville — Horns compressed, be?it
into a hook posteriorly towards the point, and furnished with an
anterior antler ; general form of the antelope.

A.furcifer, Desm. Horns one foot long, compressed, flat on the
inner side, striated, with a compressed antler to the front forking
with the after part, which forms a hook backwards ; colour red-
dish brown above, white below ; a red mane on the neck ; tail
very short. Larger than the roebuck. United States.— Griff, iv.
170.

Gen. 142. CAPRA, Lin. Pall. Cuv. Desm. Geoff.

Incisors g, canines g-g, molars f-f = 32. Horns common to
both sexes, directed upwards and backwards, striated trans-
versely ; no muzzle ; interval between the nostrils naked ;
no lachrymal sinus, or inguinal pores ; ears pointed ; legs ro-
bust ; tail short ; chin bearded.

C. Ibex, Lin. The Ibex. Horns flat, with two longitudinal rid-
ges at the sides, crossed by numerous transverse knots, subverti-
cal, curved backwards, about thirty inches long, dark-coloured ;
fur gray fawn-coloured, whitish below, with a dorsal line of black-
ish brown. Five feet long. Inhabits the Alps, Pyrenees, &c.
—Shaw, ii. pi. 198.

C. Jaela, Smith. Abyssinian Ibex. Horns three feet long, form-
ing a semicircle backwards, subtriangular, with twenty-three va-
riegated prominent knots ; fur brownish fawn-coloured, with a
dark dorsal line ; long hair under the throat. Abyssinia. —
Griff, iv. 301.

Var. The Siberian Ibex of Pallas. Black line on the back and down the front of
the legs.

C. Caucasia, Desm. Horns triangular, the anterior edge obtuse,
irregularly marked with transverse knots and uniform wrinkles ;
fur dark brown above, white beneath the breast ; line on the
back dark. Caucausian Mountains — Griff, iv. 302.

Ovis. MAMMALIA. 157

C. cegagrus, Desm. Pall. The Goat. Horns forming an acute
angle to the front, rounded at the back, ribbed transversely ;
head black in front j beard brown ; general colour brown and
gray, varying with the seasons — Mountains of Persia, &c.

The domestic goat, (C. Hircus) the principal variety of the original breed, has
the horns a little more vertical than the cegagrus, and is a little smaller. It is
known all over Europe. The Welsh breed is of a large description, with fine long
hair. The Persian goat has long coarse ash-brown hair, and a large tuft of hair
between the horns. The dwarf goat, originally from Guinea, now extremely mul-
tiplied in South America and the West Indies, is distinguished by close short hair
more or less white with fawn colour, the males having the beard, tail, neck, and legs
black, and without horns. The Cachemire breed have the hair long, silky, straight
and white, the ears large and turned downwards ; and the Thibet or Tartar half
breed of the same has likewise very fine and white hair, but more subject to vary in
the colour. The Angora breed has long soft hair, mostly white, with buff-coloured
ears and yellowish horns ; the Nepavd breed has long legs and the horns short
and spiral, the hair long, loose, and blackish ; and the Syrian breed is blackish
where the hair is long, with the head, ears, legs, and belly white mottled with black.
In Egypt there are three varieties, one with long hair, a second with spiral horns
and ears longer than the beard ; and a third with very large ears and the horns
small or none. But, like other domesticated animals, the goat runs into endless
varieties.

C. Jemlachica, Smith. The Jemlah Goat. Horns placed oblique-
ly on the frontal bone, high above the orbits, almost in contact,
depressed, nearly flat, nine inches long, inclining outwards, then
tapering and turning inwards ; anterior edge marked with seven
small protuberances ; fur cinereous fawn-coloured, with abundant
long hair ; a dark line down the face and along the spine. Size
of the Ibex, Himalayah Mountains — Griff, iv. 308.

Gen. 143. Ovis, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. Desm.

Incisors §, canines g-g, molars §-| = 32. Horns common to
both sexes, sometimes wanting in the female, thick, angular,
wrinkled transversely, pale coloured, turned laterally in a
spiral form ; ears small ; legs slender ; hair of two kinds ;
tail more or less short ; two mammae.

O. tragelaphus, Desm. The Bearded Sheep, Penn. Horns two
feet long, wrinkled, angular, black, turned spirally backwards and
downwards ; a large beard from the cheeks and under jaw di-
vided into two lobes ; neck short, with a mane ; knees covered
with long hair ; general colour rufous brown ; tail short. Five
feet nine inches long. Inhabits Barbary — Shaw, ii. pi. 202.

O. montana, Geoff. American Argali. Horns very thick, of a spi-
ral form, directed laterally ; colour brown chestnut, formed of
short dry hairs ; a white disc on the rump ; no mane. Inhabits
Canada. — Griff, iv. 318.

O. Ammon, Desm. (Capra Ammony Lin.) The Argali. Horns of
the male very large and strong, sometimes four feet long, placed
on the summit of the head, triangular, flattened before, striated
across ; female with slender wrinkled horns ; colour fulvous gray
above, white below, with white on the muzzle, and a whitish

158 MAMMALIA. KUMINANTIA.

disc on the buttocks. Five feet long. Inhabits mountains and
Steppes of Northern Asia. — Shaw, ii. pi. 201.

O. aries, Desm. (Capra Ammon,lL'm. — Musmon, Plin.) The Sheep.
Horns very strong, arched backwards, and curved downwards
and towards the point ; general colour fawn, more or less brown,
white on the face and legs, and under the belly ; a darker streak
on the dorsal line, on the flanks, and often black about the neck.
— Corsica, Sardinia, &c.

Sheep live in families more or less numerous upon the most inaccessible mountains
of Asia, Africa, Europe, and America. They are found in flocks of sometimes a
hundred in number, conducted by an experienced leader. In the rutting-season
these flocks divide into little bands formed by a single male and the females attached
to him. When they meet at this season the males fight by butting with their heads,
and sometimes kill one another. The domestic varieties are distinguished by dif-
ferences in form, size, colour, and in horns. The long-legged sheep of Guinea has
the body covered with hair, with a kind of mane on the neck. The Barbary and
Egyptian broad-tailed sheep, (Ovis laticaudata of Ray) has the wool coarse, the tail
long, and wider than the buttocks at its base , and many other breeds exist in
Africa, distinguished by their horns, the nature of their wool, and the size of the tail.
The Asiatic breeds have some of them the broad tail of the African sheep. The
Astracan breed is distinguished by its fine spirally curled wool ; the Circassian race
has the tail of such length as to trail on the ground ; and other Asiatic families are
distinguished by the number of their horns, which vary from four to six. India
and China possess also particular breeds ; but it is in Europe that, at the present day,
the most useful varieties are found. The Merino sheep of Spain holds the first place
among the European varieties, but in no country in Europe has the rearing of this
valuable animal met with so much attention as in Great Britain. Wool was long a
staple of her commerce, and was exported for centuries ; and now, since circumstan-
ces have changed, and that the manufactures of the country create a demand for
the wool raised, the annual value of wool shorn in England is not less than five
millions Sterling. The varieties of the sheep in Britain are numerous, and adapted
to all the different kinds of pasture and situation. The original breeds of the coun-
try still exist in Shetland and the northern counties of Scotland.

Gen. 144. OVIBOS, Blainville. — Bos, Lin. Cuv.

Incisors |, canines g-g, molars f-|, = 32. Body thick, heavy ;
legs short ; face elevated ; forehead long and bushy ; horns
very strong, directed laterally ; no muzzle ; ears short, eyes
small ; no furrow in the upper lip ; tail very short.

O. moschatus, Desm. (Bos moschatus, Gmel.) The Musk Ox.
Adult male size of a small cow ; horns rising from the summit of
the head, close together and wide at their base, then tapering,
and bent down against the cheeks, with the point turned up ; fur
brownish black, long and woolly. N. America — Shaw, ii. pi. 212.

The O. Pallantis, (fossil,) found on the coast of Siberia, is not ascertained to be a
separate species.

Gen. 145 Bos, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. Desm. Lin.

Incisors g, canines g-g, molars §-£ = 32. Body large, mem-
bers strong; headlarge; forehead straight; muzzle square ; eyes
large ; ears generally funnel-shaped ; a fold of the skin or dew-
lap on the under side of the neck ; four mammae ; tail long,
tufted; horns simple, conical, round, with different inflections,
but often directed laterally, and the points raised.

Bos. MAMMALIA. 159

B. Coffer, Desm. Gmel. The Cape Buffalo. Horns in contact at
the base spreading horizontally,, and turned up at the point ; ears
wide rather than pendant ; dewlap large; fur deep brown. About
nine feet long. — Interior of Africa.

B. pegasus, Smith. Horns lying across the summit of the head, the
tips turned up ; colour deep brown, with obscure transverse bands;
neck with a dense mane ; ears long, pendulous ; feet white. In-
habits Central Africa. — Griff. Syn. 371.

B. Arnee, Shaw. The Arnee. Horns triangular, rising obliquely,
wrinkled, slightly hanging forwards, with the points turned in-
wards and backwards ; fur black, very hairy, tail tufted. Seven
feet high at the shoulders. Inhabits India, and the domesticated
varieties China and Indian Archipelago — Shaw, ii.

B. Bubalus, Lin. Domestic Buffalo. Horns directed laterally, com-
pressed, with a ridge in front, reclining towards the neck, and
the tips turned up; forehead convex ; mammae of the male placed in
a transverse line ; colour darkish or black ; hair coarse ; tail tufted
at the end.

B. Americanus, Gmel. Desm. The American Bison. Horns small,
round, black, and very distant, turned laterally and upwards ; head
short and thick ; eyes full ; head, shoulders, and upper part
of the anterior extremities covered with long brownish woolly
hair, tail tufted with black. Eight feet long. Inhabits interior
of N. America.— Shaw, ii. pi. 206, 207.

B. grunniens, Lin. Desm. The Yak. Horns round, smooth, pointed,
bending laterally forwards and upwards; forehead flat; lips tumid;
muzzle small; occiput covered with frizzled hair; withers pro-
jecting ; hair on the neck and back very woolly, whitish and
black, that of the flanks long and pendant ; tail with very long
hair. Inhabits the Mountains of Central Asia. — Sharv. ii.

B. urns, Desm. Pall. {Bos Taurus, var. urus, and Bos Bonasus, Lin.)
The European Bison. Horns thick, round, lateral, curved up-
wards and forwards ; forehead square ; head and anterior part of
the body covered with brown thick and coarse hair ; below the
throat to the breast a pendant beard, more than a foot long ; mam-
mae disposed in a square form. Upwards of ten feet long. Fo-
rests in Europe. — Shaw, ii. pi. 205.

B. Gaurus, Smith. The Gaur. Adult male six feet high at the
shoulders, twelve feet long; head resembling the common ox;
forehead more arched ; horns robust, not bent back ; a spinous
elevated process on the neck and shoulders ; short tufts of dirty
white coloured hairs on the forehead ; hair smooth, shining. In-
habits the district of Surjoogah in India. — Breton, in Trans. Med.
Soc. Calcutta, ii. p. 247-

B. Gavceus, Smith. The Gayal. Head broad and flat ; horns strong,
short, distant, lateral, compressed, turned upwards and forwards ;
dewlap fringed with long hair ; a ridge over the shoulders ; ge-

160 MAMMALIA. CETACEA.

neral colour brown ; tail tufted. Perhaps a variety of the preced-
ing— Inhabits forests east of the Burrampoohtra.

B. taurus, Plin. Desm. Horns round, lateral, arched, with the point
turned outwards ; face flat, or a little concave ; occipital crest on
the same line as the base of the horns ,* mammae disposed in a
square form; hair fawn-coloured, brown or black, not sensibly longer
at the anterior than the posterior parts. About seven feet lono-.
— Griff, iv. 411.

The domestic varieties of the Ox have been divided into two races, viz. those which
have a hunch on their shoulders, and those which have the back straight. Regarding
their derivation from the existing wild races, from theUrus, the Bison, 'or the Yak, all
is conjecture. The races with hunches are found in India, the eastern parts of Persia,
Arabia, and the African Continent, from the Cape of Good Hope to Madagascar.
The great Indian ox of Pennant, or Zebu, equals or surpasses the largest European
breeds in size, and the h unch on the shoulders sometimes weighs fifty pounds. A
smaller hunched variety has the shape and proportions of an ordinary ox, colour
whitish gray, and with the horns bent forwards. A third variety, scarcely larger than
the hog, possesses the hunch, but has no horns; and a fourth, with two hunches, is
found near Surat. Besides these varieties there is a race reared in Abyssinia, in the
Galla country, and northern Central Africa, which is generally white, and provided
with immense horns. The straight-backed varieties vary much in form, size, and
horns, and are spread over alt Europe. In England the breeds of this valuable ani-
mal are much improved, both for the purposes of the dairy and the butcher. The
white Urus, a wild variety, formerly inhabited the woods of Scotland and the north
of England, and a few of the ancient race are still preserved. The ox is found
fossil over nearly the whole of Europe.

ORDER X.— CETACEA.

Body pisciform, terminated by a caudal appendage, cartilagi-
nous, and horizontal ; two anterior extremities formed like
fins, having the bones which form them flattened and very
short ; head joined to the body by a very short thick neck ;
two pectoral or abdominal mammae; ears with very small
external openings ; brain large ; pelvis and bones of the pos-
terior extremities represented by two rudimentary bones lost
in the flesh.

FAMILY I. — SIRENIA. — Herbivorous Cetacea.

Two molars with flat crown ; sometimes tusks in the upper jaw ;
two pectoral mammae ; mustaches ; nostrils, properly so call-
ed, placed at the end of the muzzle ; nasal apertures on the
upper part of the head ; body very massive.

Gen. 146. MANATUS, Lin.Cuv.Desm. — Trichecus, Lin. Shaw.

Incisors §, canines g-g, molars f-f — 38. The incisors ex-
ist only in the foetus, and the adults have but 32 teeth, four
of the molars falling out in early age ; molars with two
transverse cushions on their crown; head not distinct from
the body ; eyes very small ; tongue oval ; vestiges of nails

HALICORE. MAMMALIA 161

on the margin of the pectoral fins ; six cervical vertebrae ;
sixteen pairs of thick ribs ; mustaches composed of a bundle
of very strong hairs directed downwards, and forming on each
side a kind of corn eous tusk.

The animals of this genus are gregarious, and feed on marine vegetables. The
male and female demonstrate much attachment to one another, and tenderness for
their young. The female, from the position of the breasts, may have given rise
among mariners to the fable of the mermaid.

M. Americanus, Desm. Head bony, rather elongated ; nasal fora-
mina thrice as long as broad ; inferior margin of the lower jaw
straight ; skin grayish, slightly shagreened, with isolated hairs.
Body sometimes 20 feet long. Inhabits Rivers of S. America. —
Desm. Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xviii. pi. G. 9.

M. Senegalensis, Desm. (Trichecus Australis, Shaw.) Head bony,
short in proportion to its breadth ; breadth of nasal foramina
three-fourths of their length ; inferior margin of lower jaw curved;
smaller than the preceding. About eight feet long. Inhabits
the mouth of the Senegal — Shan, i. pi. 69.

Gen. 147. HALICORE, Cuv. — Trichecus, Gmel. — Dugun-
gus, Lacep.

Incisors §, canines g-°, molars f-f, = 14. In early age, in-
cisors |, canines g-§, molars £-f = 32. Two of the upper
incisors cylindrical and straight, forming tusks ; molars cylin-
drical, and only three on each side in the adults ; body pis-
ciform, terminated by a horizontal fin with two lobes ; head
not distinct from the body ; muzzle truncated and moveable,
with thick spiny hairs on the edges of the lips ; tongue soft ;
fins short, without distinct fingers or nails ; seven cervical
vertebrae ; eighteen pairs of ribs.

H. Indicus, Desm. The Dugong. Body pisciform ; two short tusks
in the upper jaw, straight and directed obliquely downwards ;
lips very thick, spinous ; tail divided into two lobes ; general co-
lour bluish gray. 7 or 8 feet long. — Inhabits the Indian Seas.

Gen. 148. STELLERUS, Cuv. — Trickecus, Gmel.

Incisors g, canines g-g, molars f-^ = 4. Teeth not implanted
in the jaws, but attached to a molar plate by vessels and nerves ;
triturating surface hollowed into tortuous canals ; body en-
larged in the centre, diminishing insensibly to the caudal
fin ; head obtuse, without distinct neck ; no external ears ; lips
double ; a cartilaginous crest to cover the eyes ; anterior ex-
tremities in the form of palmated fins ; caudal fin very broad,
crescent-shaped, with two points.

S. Borealis, Desm. (Trick. Borealis, Shaw.) Head round; no
tusks ; tail crescent-shaped ; skin naked, excessively thick, and of
a fibrous nature, like horn. South Seas. Twenty-three feet long.

VOL. I. L

162 MAMMALIA. CETACEA.

FAMILY II. CETACEA.

Teeth pointed or obtuse, all of one kind, upon the borders of
the jaws ; or transverse corneous laminae in the arch of the
palate ; two anal mammae ; spiracles on the top of the head.

1st Division. — With small head.

Gen. 149- DELPHTNUS, Lin. Cuv. Geoff. Desm. — Delphi-
napterus, Lacep.

Teeth variable in number, of a canine form, sometimes com-
pressed and dentated on their cutting margins, from 200 to
none at all ; jaws more or less advanced in form of a beak ;

racles with a crescent-shaped aperture ; an adipose dorsal
, or a longitudinal fold of the skin ; tail flattened horizon-
tally and bifurcated.

Sub-Gen. 1. DELPHINORHYNCUS, Blainville. Snout prolonged, with
a long and slender beak ; jaws almost linear, with numerous teeth
on their margins.

D. Geoffroyi, Desm. Jaws straight, linear, very long ; a longitudi-
nal fold of the skin on the back in place of a fin; grayish above, white
below. Four feet and a-half long. Coasts of Brazil. — Mam. 512.

D. coronatufs, Desm. Jaws elongated into a very long and pointed
}0 beak, the lower surpassing the upper ; 24 teeth on each side
/ ' below, 15 above ; a small dorsal fin ; colour black. From 30 to
36 feet long. Frozen Ocean. — Mam. 512.

D. Gangeticus, Desm. (D. roslratus, Shaw.) Forehead gibbous ;
snout very long ; upper jaw with 27 or 28 teeth, under one with
30 ; colour pearly gray. Length 6^ feet. Ganges — Mam. 513.

Sub-Gen. 2. DELPHINUS, Blainv. Snout prolonged into a beak,
broad at its base and rounded at its extremity ; jaws furnished
with numerous teeth.

D. delphis, Desm. The Dolphin of the ancients. Jaws moderately
elongated, and of equal length; 42 to 45 teeth in each jaw,
pointed and bent; dorsal fin nearest to the tail; colour black
above, fading insensibly to white below. Seasof Europe. — Shaw,ii.
pi. 229, fig. 1.

The Dolphin is from eight to ten feet in length, preys on various species of the
smaller fish, and sometimes even attacks the whale. According to Pliny this ani-
mal has an affection for man, and is fond of music ; and he relates a very improbable
story of one which carried a boy daily for many years across the arm of the sea from
Baia to Puteoli to school. In modern times the appearance of the dolphin and
the porpoise sporting on the water is held to portend an approaching storm.

D. tursio, Desm. Jaws moderately elongated, the lower one largest ;
•p 23 teeth on each side above, 21 below; back blackish; belly white.

European Seas — Mam. 514.
D. nesarnac, Desm. Snout compressed ; teeth 20 to 23 on each side,

strong, obtuse ; body very thick. Seas of Greenland. — Mam. 515.

DELPHINUS. MAMMALIA. 163

D. rostratus, Cuv. Desm. Snout long and slender, not depressed ;
teeth 22 to 26 on each side of the jaws, conical. Size of the
common dolphin. Seas of Europe. — Mam. 515.

Sub-Gen. 4. PHOO<ENA, Cuv. No beak ; snout short and gibbous ;
numerous teeth in both jaws ; a dorsal Jin.

D. phoccena, Lin. The Porpoise. Body and tail elongated ; snout
rounded ; teeth compressed, from 22 to 25 in both jaws ; dorsal
fin near the middle of the body ; colour blackish above, white
below. Four to five feet long. Inhabits all seas. — Shaw, ii. pi. 229.

D. Peronii, Desm. Form and size of the porpoise ; back bluish-
black, the rest of the body bright white. — Seas of Australasia.

D. Commersonii, Desm. Form and proportions of the porpoise ;
body entirely of a silvery white, with the exception of the extre-
mity of the snout, the muzzle, tail, and fins, which are blackish.
A little larger than the porpoise. Off Cape Horn. — Mam. 517-

D. gladiator, Lacep. Body and tail elongated ; upper part of the
head convex ; snout rounded and very short ; dorsal fin near the
neck, and much elevated. Length 23 to 25 feet. — North Seas.

D. grampus, Desm. (D. orca, Lin.) The Grampus. Body and
tail elongated ; snout rounded and short j colour blackish above,
white below. Length 25 feet. British Seas. — Shaw, ii. pi. 232.

D. griseus, Cuv. Head like that of the porpoise ; dorsal fin elevated
and pointed, near the middle of the body; colour gray above,
fading into white below. Taken near Brest — Mam. 518.

D. globiceps, Cuv. Top of the head very convex ; snout rounded ;
dorsal fin not much elevated, sloping backwards, pectoral fins long
and pointed ; colour of the back shining black or gray. Eighteen
to twenty-one feet long. — Mam. 519.

Sub-Gen. 5. D PLPJHINOPTERUS, Lacep. Head obtuse ; snout short ;
no dorsal Jin.

D. leucas, Desm. Beluga, Shaw. Head like that of the porpoise ;

teeth short, blunt, nine on each side in both jaws ; fin of the back

replaced by a slight angular eminence ; colour yellowish white.

Twelve to eighteen feet long. Northern Seas — Shaw, ii. pi. 232.

An individual of this species was taken in the Firth of Forth in 1815.

Sub-Gen. 6. HETERODON, Blainville. Teeth often one in each
jaw, or none ; lower jaw larger than the upper.

D. hyperoodon, Desm. Head convex, terminated by a rounded and
flattened beak ; no teeth ; palate furnished with little points or
false teeth ; orifice of the spiracles crescent-shaped ; colour gray
above, whitish below. Twenty-three feet long Mam. 521.

Gen. 150. MONODON, Lin. — Narwhalus, Lacep. Cuv.
One or two large tusks in tbe upper jaw ; general form analo-
gous to the dolphins ; orifice of the spiracles united on the
top of the head ; a longitudinal dorsal crest.

164 MAMMALIA. CETACEA.

M. monoceros, Lin. Body ovoid; head equal to a fourth of the
length of the animal ; left tusk only developed, furrowed in a
spiral form, half the length of the body ; colour grayish in the
young, marbled or blackish in the old. Length 20 to 30 feet.
Northern Ocean. — Shaw, ii. pi. 225.

The Narwhal is of an ovoid form, and from twenty to thirty feet long. Its upper
jaw, more advanced than the under, is covered by a thick lip, and from each side of
this jaw projects a long narrow tusk terminating in a sharp point. This tusk, pre-
served in the cabinets of the curious, was long conceived to be the horn of the fabulous
unicorn. 1 1 was afterwards conjectured to be placed upon the forehead of the Narwhal ;
till later and more correct observation discovered it to be one of two tusks proceeding
from the upper jaw of the animal. This tusk or tooth is twisted spirally through
its entire length, and is harder than ivory. With this powerful instrument he at-
tacks his prey, and often destroys the whale.

2d Division. — Head very large.
Gen. 151. PHYSETEK, Lin. Cuv. — Physalus, Lacep.

Inferior teeth 18 to 23 on each side of the jaw ; upper jaw broad,
elevated, without teeth, or with these short and concealed in
the gum ; lower jaw elongated, narrow, corresponding to a
furrow of the upper, and armed with thick and conical teeth,
entering into corresponding cavities in the upper jaw ; spi-
racular orifices united at the upper part of the snout ; a dorsal
fin in some species, a simple eminence in others; cartilaginous
cavities in the superior region of the head filled with oily
matter.

Sub-Gen. 1. CATODON, Lacep. — No dorsal Jin.

P. macrocephalus, Desm. Great-headed Cachalot. Lower teeth 20
to 23 on each side, recurved and pointed at the extremity ; small
conical teeth concealed in the upper gums ; tail narrow and coni-
cal ; a longitudinal eminence on the back above the anus ; upper
part of the body blackish or slate-blue, a little spotted with white ;
belly whitish. Length 45 to 60 feet. Northern Seas — Shaw, ii.
228.
The usual length of the Macrocephalus is upwards of seventy feet, and its head

is the largest of any known animal. It is more than a third the length of the body,

truncated in front and almost cubical. The spermaceti, for which it is chiefly killed,

is found in membranous cells.

Sub-Gen. 2. PHYSETER, Lacep. — With a dorsal Jin.

P. microps, Lacep. Lower teeth 21 on each side, arched, the points
directed backwards ; dorsal fin large, erect, and pointed ; pecto-
ral fins large ; eyes very small. Length 70 to 80 feet. North-
ern Seas. — Mam. 525.
An individual of this species, fifty-four feet long, was stranded at Cramond Island,

in the Firth of Forth, 22d December 17G9.

P. sulcatus, Desm. Teeth of the lower jaw pointed and straight,
with inclined furrows on each side of the jaw ; dorsal fin conical,
situated above the pectorals. Seas of Japan — Mam. 526.

Gen. 152. BAL^NA, Lin. Cuv. Desm. — Bal&noptera, Lacep
No teeth ; upper jaw keel-formed, furnished on each side with

MAMMALIA. 165

whalebone or transverse horny laminae, slender, serrated, and
attenuated at the edges ; orifices of the spiracles separated,
and placed towards the middle of the upper part of the head;
a dorsal fin in some species ; nodosities on the back in others.

Sub-Gen. 1. BALJENA, Lacep.-— No dorsal Jin.

B, mysticelus, Lin. The Common Whale. Body thick ; tail short ;
no hunch on the back; upper jaw furnished with about 700 trans-
verse horny laminae. Length 80 to 100 feet. Inhabits the At-
lantic Ocean and Polar Seas. — Shaw, ii. pi. 226.
This is the largest of animals. It is found from 50 to 100 feet long, and is said
often to have been taken greatly exceeding this length. The jaws being divested
of teeth, their place is supplied in the upper one by corneous laminae, the whalebone
of commerce, and on each side of this jaw there are three or four hundred of these
laminae faxed in the gum, and bristled at the point. The skin of the whale is black
and thick, and between this and the flesh is the fat or blubber, from which oil is
extracted. The spiracles are placed upon a rising on the top of the head, and they
can eject water from these to the height of from twenty to thirty feet. The tail of
the whale, terminated by a broad horizontal fin, is strong and flexible, and is the
principal agent in the motion of the animal, and its principal arm of defence. The
blows with its tail are dangerous to the boats and ships employed in its capture ;
and some idea may be formed of its force from considering that a large specimen is
equal in mass of body to nearly a hundred elephants. Regarding the growth or
age of the whale little is known ; but since their capture has become an object of
commerce, the species seems gradually diminishing in number as well as in size.
The female brings forth only one at a time, for which she shows great affection.

B. glacialis, Klein. Lower jaw rounded., high, and broad ; tail elon-
gated ; no hunch on the back ; general colour gray ; a large oval
space under the head of a shining white, with some blackish spots
around and in the centre. Inhabits the North Atlantic Ocean.

B. nodosa, Desm. A hunch on the back, situated near the tail ;
pectoral fins white, long, and distant from the snout. — Mam. 527-

B. gibbosa, Desm, Five or six hunches on the back, near the tail ;
whalebones white — Mam. 528.

Sub-Gen. 2. BAL^EJNOPTERA, Lacep. — With a dorsal Jin.

B. gibbar, Desm. (B. physalus, Lin.) Jaws pointed and equal;
whalebones short, bluish ; no folds under the throat or belly ;
body brown above, white below. Size of the common whale.
Arctic Seas. — Mam. 528.

B. boops, Lin. Neck elevated and rounded ; snout projecting, broad,
and a little rounded; longitudinal folds under the throat and
belly ; semispherical tuberosities before the spiracles ; dorsal fin
curved backwards. Fifty-four feet long. Inhabits Northern Seas.
Mam. 528.

M. Cuvier suspects that the B. rostrata of Hunter, and the B. musculus of Lin-
naeus are only varieties of this species.

J66 BIRDS.

CLASS II.— BIRDS. ( Aves.)

Vertebrated animals, with red and warm blood, respiring by
lungs, and the young of which are produced from eggs.
Body covered with feathers, and general conformation or-
ganized for flying.

ARISTOTLE and Pliny, the fathers of Natural History, are al-
most the only writers of antiquity who have attempted to de-
tail the manners or distinguish the species of Birds ; the former
in his History of Animals, and the latter in the tenth book of
his Natural History. After the revival of letters, Pierre Belon
in 1553, and Conrad Gesner in 1555, each published a work
on Birds. In Belongs work, a thin folio with wooden cuts, these
animals are classed by their manners, or characterized by the
places where they are found. Thus the Birds of Prey form the
first class, the Waders the second, the Swimmers the third, and
the birds which nestle in trees or on the ground the fourth. Ges-
ner's Treatise on Birds forms the third volume of his History of
Animals, and is also adorned with engravings on wood. Be-
sides alphabetical tables of the names of birds in all the known
languages, and descriptive characters, his work contains refe-
rences to all the writers within the compass of his knowledge
who had noticed this interesting class of animals.

Aldrovandus, a physician of Bologna, published a system of
Ornithology in 1599, in which, following Belon, he classed the
birds according to the places which they frequented, and the
nature of their food, but added a great number of new descrip-
tions. It is illustrated with wooden cuts, which, however, are
in general inaccurate representations. Johnston followed in
1657 with a condensed compilation of all that had been done
before him. The figures, however, being engraved on copper,
are many of them above mediocrity.

Francis Willoughby, an English gentleman, who had paid
great attention to Natural History, and whose System of Ornitho-
logy was published under the superintendence of the celebrated
Ray in 1678, after its author's death, may be regarded as the
first systematic writer on this subject. This excellent work is

BIRDS. 167

divided into three books, the first of which treats of Birds in
general; the second of Land Birds; and the third of Water Birds.
The land birds are further arranged into groups which possess a
crooked beak and talons, and those which have the bill and
claws nearly straight. The water birds are separated into three
families, viz. 1. Those that wade in the water, or frequent watery
places; 2. Those that are of aa middle nature, bet ween swimmers
and waders, or rather that partake of both kinds, some whereof
are cloven-footed, and yet swim ; others whole-footed, but yet
very long legged, like the waders ;" and 3. the palmated birds, or
those " that swim in the water." The minor subdivisions are
equally characterized by sound judgment and acute observation.

The Ornithology of Willoughby and his friend Ray had the
same happy effect on the progress of the science, as Ray's Sy-
nopsis Animalium had on another great department of zoology ;
and it is no small praise to their sagacity that this work furnish-
ed the basis of the classification adopted half a century afterwards
by Linnaeus. Ray in his Synopsis Methodica Avium, a pos-
thumous work published by Dr Derham in 1713, but entirely
finished before the author's death, still farther improved the
same system.

From the date of this publication till the appearance of the
Sy sterna Naturae of the great Linnaeus, little progress was
made in the science of ornithology. M. Barerre, a Frenchman,
who published a system in 1741, showed it was possible even
to retrograde ; nor were the attempts of Frisch, a German natu-
ralist, who commenced a Natural History of Birds in 1734,
much calculated, though his figures be exact, to forward its
progress. Jacob Theodore Klein, who published a work on
birds in 1750, and whose ambition was to be considered as the
rival of Linnaeus, was still less successful in his confused at-
tempt to improve the classification of birds.

In the Systema Natures of Linnaeus the Class of Birds is
divided into six Orders, viz. „

I. ACCIPITRES, Birds of Prey. Bill bent ; upper mandible dilated on
each side, or armed with a tooth ; legs short, robust ; toes warty;
claws crooked and pointed.
II. PIC2E. Bill convex or rounded above, edged on its lower part; legs

short, robust ; toes smooth.
III. ANSERES. Bill smooth, covered with an epidermis and thickened

168 BIRDS.

at its point ; feet for swimming ; toes pahnated, or united by a
membrane.

IV. GRALLJ3. Bill almost cylindrical ; legs formed for wading ; thighs

half naked.

V. GALLING. Bill convex, with the upper mandible arched over the
under ; feet formed for walking ; toes rough below.

VI. PASSERES. Bill conical, pointed ; legs formed for hopping, slen-
der, and with the toes divided.

If in his arrangement of birds Linnaeus deserves the acknow-
ledgment of all the future students of ornithology, his determi-
nation of the genera, and his creation of terms to make his descrip-
tions more certain, render his labours of double value. The
terminology of Linnaeus was extended by Forster in his Enchi-
ridion, and improved by Illiger. The thirteenth edition of the
Systema Natures by J. F. Gmelin, including many new species,
appeared in 1788.

Linnaeus was followed as a systematic writer by Brisson in
1760. This able writer's System of Ornithology, still in estima-
tion for its minute accuracy of description, is in six quarto vo-
lumes, containing 220 engravings. About 1BOO species of birds
are described, grouped into twenty-six orders and 113 genera,
the characters of which are taken from the feet, bill, and fea-
thers. J. Ch. Schaeffer published in 1774 his Elementa Orni-
thologica, in which birds are divided into two families, Nudi-
pedes and Plumipedes ; and J. Ant. Scopoli, in his Introduc-
tio ad Historiam Naturalem, 1777, also arranges the birds in
two great families, the first of which he terms Retipedes, or
with the skin of the legs divided by small polygonal scales ; and
the second Scutipedes, or those which have the fore part of the
legs covered with segments or unequal rings terminated on each
side in a longitudinal furrow. The first part of Buffon?s work
which treats of birds appeared in 1771, distinguished by the
same want of arrangement which characterized his previous vo-
lumes, and the same enthusiastic eloquence. The work was
completed in 1783.

Among the systematic writers who have followed Linnaeus, our
countryman, Latham, deserves a distinguished place. In 1781
he published a General Synopsis of Birds, followed by two supple-
ments, the one in 1787, and the other in 1801, and each genus
is illustrated by at least one coloured figure. His Index Orni-

BIRDS. 169

) a convenient abridgement of his larger work, was
published in two volumes quarto in 1790.

It would be impossible in the limits of a short notice to give
a detailed account of the numerous works connected with orni-
thology which appeared previous and subsequent to the works of
the systematical authors now mentioned. Hernandez and
Marcgrave figured many of the birds of Mexico and Brazil ;
Sir Hans Sloane, inhis History of Jamaica, has represented forty-
four species ; and many of the birds of Carolina and Florida are
excellently described by Catesby. The birds of Africa have been
splendidly illustrated by Vaillant; and the Tanagers, Todiers,
and Manakins by Desmarest ; Wilson in his American Ornitho-
logy has done much to illustrate the feathered races in that
vast continent ; and his able follower in that branch of science,
Charles Bonaparte, promises to complete our knowledge of
American birds. Edwards, in his Natural History of Birds,
and in his Gleanings of Natural History, has given many ex-
cellent figures ; and Dr Shaw in his General Zoology, continued
by Mr Stephens, has made known to the English reader a great
many interesting species. A number of other British writers
have contributed to illustrate this interesting branch of natural
history, such as Pennant in his British Zoology, Lewins in his
work on British Birds, Bewick, Montague, Donovan, and very
recently Mr P. J. Selby, in his splendid work entitled Illustra-
tions of British Ornithology. A work on General Ornithology
by the same gentleman and Sir William Jardine, Bart, may al-
so be mentioned as now in progress. For other writers we must
refer to the list of the principal works on ornithology at the end
of this volume.

In the Encyclopedic Methodique the Abbe Bonnaterre divides
Birds into twelve classes, after the structure of the feet, and 112
genera, characterized from the form of the bill and other minor
distinctions.

Professor Blumenbach, in his Manual of Natural History, pub-
lished in 1807, arranges the Class of Birds into nine Orders, viz.
(A.) LAND BIRDS. VI. GALLIN^E,

I. ACCIPITRES, VII. STRUTHIONES.

II. LEVIROSTRES,

III. PICI, (B.) WATER BIRDS.

IV. CORACES, VIII. GRALL^E,|
V. PASSERES, IX. ANSERES.f

170 BIRDS.

Baron Cuvier, in his Regne Animal, published in 1817, preser-
ved all the orders of Linnaeus, with the exception of that of
Piece, replacing it by his order Scansores for birds which
have two toes before and behind, and classing the others among
his Passeres. His arrangement in the Regne Animal stands
thus : —

I. ACCIPITRES, divided into Diurnal and Nocturnal.

II. PASSERES, divided into Dentirostres, Fissirostres, Conirostres,

Tenuirostres, and Syndactyli.

III. SCANSORES, or Climbers.

IV. GALLING, or birds resembling the domestic cock.
V. GRALLJE, or Waders, divided into Brevipennes, Pressirostres,

Cultirostres, and Macrodactyles.
VI. PALMIPEDES, divided into Brachypteri, Longipennes, Totipal-

mes, and Lamellirostres.

M. de Lacepede also published a method in 1799, dividing
the birds into forty orders ; and M. Constant Dumeril in 1806,
in his Zoologie Analytique, comprises them in six. Meyer and
Wolf, in their work on German Birds, (1810,) make nine orders
of this class ; and Illiger in 1811 divides them into seven or-
ders, forty-one families, and 147 genera.

M. Vieillot, a celebrated French ornithologist, and the author
of the splendid work on the Birds in the French Museum, gave
a methodical arrangement of birds in the 24th volume of the
Nouveau Dictionnaire ffHistoire Naturelle, in which the
Class is arranged into five orders.

I. ACCIPITRES, divided into DIURNAL and NOCTURNAL; and con-
taining four families, viz. Vulturini, Gypaeti, Accipitrini, and
JEgolii.

II. SYLVICOL^E, divided into two tribes, viz. ZYGODACTYLI and ANI-
SODACTYLI, and thirty families. The families of the first tribe are
Psittacini, Macroglossi, Aureoli, Pteroglossi, Barbati, Imberbi, and
Frugivori; of the second, Granivori, JEgithali, Pericalles, Textores,
Leimonites, Carunculati, Paradisei, Coraces, Baccivori, Chelidones,
Myiotheres, Colluriones, Canori, Aneropontes, Anthomyzi, Epop-
sides, Pelmatodes, Antriades, Prionoti, Lyriferi, Dysodes, Colum-
bini, and Alectrides.
III. GALLINJE, two families, viz. Nudipedes and Plumipedes.

IV. GRALLATORES, divided into two tribes, viz. DI-TRIDACTYLI and

TETRADACTYLI, and fifteen families. To the first tribe belong the
families Megisthanes, Pedionomi, -^gialites ; to the second, Helo-
nomi, Falcirostres, Latirostres, Herodiones, Aerophoni, Coleoram-
phi, Uncirostres, Hylebates, Macronyches, Macrodactyli, Pinna-
tipedes, and Palmipedes.

BIRDS. 171

V. NATATORES, dividedinto three tribes, viz. TELEOPODES, ATELEO-
PODES, and PTILOPTERI. The first tribe includes the families Syn-
dactyli, Urinatores, Dermorynchi, and Pelagii ; the second, Si-
phorini and Brachypteri ; the third Sphenisci.

Mr N. A. Vigors, in a paper in the 14th volume of the Lin-
naen Transactions, founding upon a principle discovered by Mr
Macleay, the author of Horce Entomologicce, proposed a new
arrangement of birds, according to their natural affinities. " I
discovered (says he) as I advanced, that the larger or primary
groups were connected by an uninterrupted chain of affinities ;
that this series or chain returned into itself ; and that the groups
of which it was composed preserved in their regular succession
an analogy to the corresponding groups or orders of the conti-
guous classes of zoology. I equally detected the existence of
the same principle in most of the subordinate divisions, even
down to the minutest, to a degree at least sufficiently extensive
to afford grounds for asserting its general prevalence." P. 399.

This chain of affinities, Mr Vigors conceives, takes always a
quincunx form ; so that in the class of Birds, if the five orders
into which he arranges them, viz. Raptores, Insessores, Rasores,
Grallatores, and Natatores, were placed in connected circles,
round a common centre, they would be found to be mutually
connected together.

INSESSORES.

RAPTORES. RASORES.

AVES.

NATATORES. GRALLATORES.

The same connection is found to take place between the mi-
nor subdivisions, when arranged in a similar form. For instance,
in his second order INSESSORES, composed of five tribes, the
arrangement stands thus : —

CONIROSTRES.

DENTIROSTRES. SCANSORES.

INSESSORES.
FISSIROSTRES. TENUIROSTRES.

Each of these tribes again is further divided into five families,
which, when placed in the same order, are found to be similarly
connected.

As a further confirmation of Mr Vigors's theory, it may be

172 BIRDS.

remarked that Professor Blumenbach long since noticed the
same principle as applicable to the arrangement of the feathers
of birds on the skin, which he observed always to follow a
quincunx ord&r.

This arrangement according to natural affinities is certainly
curious, and affords room for hoping, should the principle be as-
certained to pervade the families of animals very universally, that
a more philosophical classification of the objects of nature may
in time be perfected. But in the meantime we consider any
such arrangement as merely theoretical, and that it would re-
quire all the species to be known, and the individuals examined,
both with regard to their external appearance and internal struc-
ture, before such a method could be completed. The theory is
however very ingenious, and deserves the consideration of na-
turalists.

Finally, M. C. J. Temminck, in his Manuel tfOrnithologie,
the first edition of which was published in 1815, and the second
in 1820, divides the class of Birds into sixteen orders, and nu-
merous minor subdivisions. This gentleman, with opportuni-
ties beyond most others, in the possession of a splendid museum,
of comparing birds, particularly the European species, at all
ages, and in every stage of plumage, has rendered the know-
ledge of the class more precise, by referring to one species
many individuals which had been characterized by preceding
ornithologists as distinct, from having examined only young or
imperfect specimens.

The arrangement of Birds into Orders has for its basis the
conformation of the bill and feet, which are adopted to their dif-
ferent modes of living and food. Birds of Prey are characterized
by a hooked bill, and feet armed with strong and crooked nails ;
Climbers are those the structure of whose feet is calculated for
motion on an inclined or vertical surface ; and web-footed birds
are evidently adapted for swimming. Others again have the legs
very long and naked for wading ; and a large number, with the
claws short and feeble, live chiefly on insects. But though it
be thus easy to separate the more strongly marked groups into ex-
tended families, yet it has been found extremely difficult to dis-
tribute them in subordinate groups, so as to facilitate the know-
ledge ,of species in a class so widely extended. In adopting the

3

BIRDS. 173

arrangement of Temminck, therefore, though his Orders are more
numerous than those proposed by Cuvier and Vieillot, yet the
Families of the latter are in much greater number ; and in an
elementary work it has been judged proper to follow that system
which involves the least change of the established nomencla-
ture as likely to be most generally useful. Temminck divides
the Class of Birds into sixteen orders, viz.

I. RAPACES. Birds of Prey. ;
II. OMNIVOKES. Omnivorous Birds.

III. INSECTIVORES. Birds which feed on Insects. ZjO

IV. GRANIVORES. Birds which feed on Grains. 234

V. Z YGODACTYLI. Birds with two toes before and two behind. 2 ^
VI. ANISODACTYLI. Birds which have the exterior toe joined to

the middle one at the base. 1^$>

VII. ALCYONES. Birds with three toes before, united, and one be-
hind ; the tarsi very short. 2 b I
VIII. CHELIDONES. Birds with short legs, three toes before, divided,

or only united at the base by a short membrane ; the back toe

often reversible. 2-^i
IX. COLUMB^E. Birds with three toes before, entirely divided, and

one behind. ,
X. GALLINJE. Birds with three toes before, united by a membrane ;

the back toe joined to the tarsus above the joint of the other toes, zjr/
XI. ALECTORIDES. Birds with the tarsus long and slender; three

toes before and none behind ; the articulation of the posterior one

higher than those before, ft)

XII. CURSORES. Birds with long legs, naked above the knee, with

two or three toes directed forwards. 1 1 3>

XIII. GRALLATORES. Birds with long and slender legs, more or less

naked above the knee ; three toes before and one behind, the pos-
terior one jointed on the same level with the others or more ele-
vated.

XIV. PINNATIPEDES. Birds with feet of medium length ; tarsi slen-

der or compressed ; three toes before and one behind, with a ru-
dimentary membrane along the toes ; the posterior one joined in-
teriorly on the tarsus.

XV. PALMIPEDES. Birds with short feet, more or less drawn up to
the abdomen ; anterior toes partly or wholly connected by a mem-
brane ; the posterior toe articulated interiorly upon the tarsus,
or totally wanting in some genera. 30^

XVI. INERTES. Birds with feet retracted into the abdomen ; three

toes divided, before ; the posterior toe short, articulated interiorly. 32X

Birds support themselves and direct their flight in the air
nearly in the same manner as fishes do in the water. But they

174 BIRDS.

are also calculated for motion on the ground ; some families for
motion on the surface of the water, or even to a certain degree
through a mass of the same element ; and their structure is
varied to suit these different kinds of motion.

The part of the spine in birds which corresponds to the back
is immoveable, and the only portions of the vertebral column
capable of motion are the vertebrae of the neck and those of
the tail. Their pectoral members or arms are elongated to
wings proper only for flight. These members or wings, composed
of one long finger and the vestiges of two others, are furnished
with long, stiff, but elastic feathers, disposed like a fan, which
follow the movement of the bone, and when extended occupy
a large surface. The wings are attached by a double clavicle,
and are supported by a broad sternum, carinated in front like
the keel of a ship. This sternum is formed of five pieces,
strongly joined together ; and the greater or less ossification
of these pieces is always relative to the powers of the bird for
flight. The long feathers, attached to what may be termed the
hand, generally to the number of ten, are termed primaries ;
the secondaries, variable in number, are those attached to the
fore-arm ; and scapulars are the smaller feathers which are at-
tached to the humerus. In describing birds the term remiges
is also used to denote the feathers of the wings which serve as
oars ; and rectrices those of the tail, which have been consider-
ed to act as a rudder. The smaller feathers which cover the
base of the wing and tail are termed tectrices.

The anterior extremities, destined to support them in flight,
can neither be used for prehension nor support, and birds thus
take objects from the ground by their mouth. The neck is
elongated, and the body thrown forward, that the bill may easily
reach the ground. The pelvis is lengthened to furnish an at-
tachment for the muscles which support the trunk upon the
thighs ; and there is an arrangement of muscles going from the
pelvis to the toes, in such manner that the weight of the ani-
mal bends the toes, and enables it to sleep perched upon one
foot.

The bony part of the tail is short, but it carries a row of
strong feathers which spreading contribute to support the bird.
The number of these feathers is generally twelve, sometimes

BIRDS. 175

fourteen, and in the Gallinae eighteen. The legs have a femur
and a tibia, and the tarsus and metatarsus are represented by a
single bone. The toes are attached to the tarsus, and are ge-
nerally three before and a kind of thumb behind, which, how-
ever, is sometimes wanting. In the swallow it is directed for-
wards. In the climbers, on the contrary, the external toe and
the thumb are directed backwards. The number of joints in-
creases in each toe, counting from the thumb, which has two, to
the external toe, which has five. Birds with the toes entirely
free are adapted to walk or hop on a horizontal surface, such
as the domestic fowl. Others with two toes behind and two
before, such as the parrot, walk with difficulty, but climb with
facility ; and others again, such as ducks and swans, with the
toes united by a membrane, are chiefly calculated for motion in
water.

The bill in birds is covered with a corneous substance, and as
these animals swallow their food without mastication, they are
not furnished with teeth. The upper mandible is formed chief-
ly of the intermaxillary bones, prolonged behind into two arch-
es, of which the internal is composed of the palate bones, and
the external of the maxillary and jugal bones ; and this mandi-
ble is united to the cranium by elastic laminae. The bill is
constructed less for bruising the food than for seizing and di-
viding it ; and thus from the greater solidity and length of this
organ the nature of the food may be inferred.

The bill or bea'k is sometimes furnished at its origin with a
fleshy or membranous caruncle, which is called the cere ; and
sometimes the beak is prolonged upon the forehead into a kind
of horn or helmet, as in the Calao. The two mandibles, move-
able upon one another through the medium of an intermediate
bone placed at the articulation, is a distinguishing anatomical
character in the structure of the jaws of birds.

The quills and feathers are composed of a bearded or webbed
stem hollowed at its base ; these webs or horizontal feathers are
again themselves webbed by still smaller ones ; and the tex-
ture, the strength, lustre, and general form of these feathers
are infinitely varied. The feathers fall off* twice a-year, and
this change of plumage is termed moulting. In some species
the winter plumage differs from that of summer, and in the

176 . BIRDS.

greater number the female differs from the male in her colours
being less bright. The young generally resemble the female.

The brain of birds has the same general characters as that
of the other oviparous vertebrated animals, but is distinguished
by its proportionally greater volume, which often exceeds that
of the Mammalia. But this apparent magnitude is caused by
tubercles analogous to the corpora striata, and not by the hemi-
spheres, which are very small and without circumvolutions. The
cerebellum is of considerable size, without lateral lobes, and al-
most completely formed by the vermiform process.

The trachea or windpipe in birds is formed of complete rings.
At its bifurcation is a glottis provided with muscles, termed the
inferior larynx. This is the organ which produces the voice of
birds ; and it is afterwards modified by the length, breadth, and
elasticity of the trachea and its orifice in the throat. The upper
larynx is simple.

The cavity of the thorax is not in Birds separated by a fleshy
partition from the abdomen. The lungs adhere to the spine, and
communicate with many membranous sacs situate in the ab-
domen, under the axilla, and even in the cavities of the larger
bones, the substance of the bill, and in the fistulous portions of
the quills. The great quantity of air which birds respire ap-
pears to have effect upon all their motions. They respire, it
may be said, as well by the branches of the aorta as by those of
the pulmonary artery. It is believed that the temperature to
which the bodies of birds is raised in hatching, and the great
muscular force which they sometimes exert in almost continued
flight for many days, depends upon the action of the air upon
the blood.

Birds, like all the other vertebrated animals, possess five sen-
ses ; but in this class that of touch is the least perfect. Their
feathers prevent them from receiving by immediate contact the
impressions of the objects which they touch ; and their feet are
enveloped in corneous laminae or scales, which materially blunt
sensation. All enjoy the organ of sight ; and by a particular
mechanism in the structure of the eye they are enabled to per-
ceive objects at a distance with the same facility as when near
the body. Besides the two ordinary eyelids there is always
a third semitransparent one placed at the internal angle of the

BIRDS. 177

eye, which, by the assistance of a remarkable muscular apparatus,
may be drawn before the eye like a curtain. The cornea is
very convex. Although birds have no external cartilaginous
ear, all appear to enjoy the faculty of hearing. Some of the
nocturnal birds have the auditory opening surrounded by fea-
thers. The organs of smell are concealed in the base of the
bill, and the breadth of the nasal openings determine their form.
The sense of smell in the vulture and the raven has been said
to be so very acute, that they can smell carrion at an immense
distance ; but this from recent observation seems doubtful. The
tongue in birds is supported by a production of the hyoid bone.
The taste is not very delicate.

Digestion in birds is in proportion to the activity of their
life, and the quantity of their respiration. The stomach is com-
posed, first of the crop, which is a dilatation of the rcsophagus at
the base of the neck. The food remains in this duct for some
time, and there imbibes a fluid analogous to the saliva, which is
secreted from the inside of the canal. When softened by the
action of heat and moisture it passes by little and little into a
strong muscular bag called the gizzard, where the food is tri-
turated the more easily, that many species swallow little stones to
increase the effect. This gizzard, it has been remarked, is strong-
est in birds which have slender bills, and which are of course
unable to break down their food ; in those which feed on flesh or
fish the muscles are much weaker, and the stomach almost mem-
branous. By the outlet of this stomach the food, reduced to
a species of chyme, flows through the remainder of the intesti-
nal canal, where the nutritious parts are absorbed, and the re-
mainder expelled by a cloaca, an orifice common to the urinary
and genital organs.

Birds, such as the partridge and common fowl, whose young
are able to walk and feed themselves on their departure from
the egg, do not generally live in pairs. One male serves many
females, and the young are entirely trusted to the maternal
care. The greater part of birds, however, are blind and help-
less at their birth, and their parents are therefore under the ne-
cessity of providing for their subsistence. Pigeons disgorge half-
digested grains to feed their young ; and linnets bring them larva
of insects or the soft parts of other animals. These live always

VOL. i. M

178 BIRDS.

in pairs, construct their nest with great care, and constantly
in the same manner; and each species appropriates for this pur-
pose certain materials. All possess a kind of instinct which leads
them to choose the most convenient places for their nests, such
as best afford concealment, or which render them inaccessible to
their enemies.

In Birds the ova exist already formed in the mother before
fecundation ; and it is not a rare occurrence to see eggs laid with-
out impregnation, similar in every respect to those which pro-
duce young. Fecundation in most of the species is accomplish-
ed by mere juxta-position. The eggs of birds differ much in the
colour of their calcareous covering. They have generally the
form of an elongated ball, and one of their extremities is thicker
than the other. The fecundated eggs require a certain heat to
be hatched ; and the observation of this fact has led to the prac-
tice in Egypt and elsewhere, of hatching large broods of chickens
by artificial heat.

The class of Birds, though not so apparently useful to man as
the Mammalia, serve important purposes in the general econo-
my of nature. Those whose food is chiefly insectivorous check
the excessive reproduction of the insect races, and for this pur-
pose migrate at certain seasons to places where their food abounds.
The indiscriminate destruction of crows and sparrows in some
districts has accordingly been found to give rise to an infinitely
more prejudicial multiplication of creatures still more destruc-
tive. Some families of birds destroy field-mice, snakes, frogs,
and lizards"; and others again are led by choice to feed on car-
rion, or dead animal matter. Birds are besides extensive agents
in the spread of vegetables and even animals. It is well ascer-
tained that wild ducks in their emigrations carry impregnated
spawn into remote ponds, and thus stock them with fish ; and
many by swallowing seeds whole, and subsequently expelling
them, are the means of spreading vegetation over an extent
of surface which scarcely any other means could accomplish.
A great portion of the class and their eggs may be used as
food, and the feathers of many form an object of commerce.

Nothing is more singular in the history of birds than their pe-
riodical migrations. That these are connected in some measure
with the necessity of a supply of food and the impulse of repro-

BIRDS. 179

duction is almost demonstrable ; but the instinctive feeling which
guides them without compass across seas and continents, and
enables them to migrate at certain periods, corresponding with
the production of their food in distant countries, can only be re-
ferred to one Great Source.

Who bade the stork, Columbus-like, explore
Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before ?
Who calls the council, states the certain day ?
Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way ?

The flights of migratory birds have been noticed from the
earliest periods ; — " The stork in the Heaven knoweth her ap-
pointed times, and the turtle and the crane and the swallow
observe the time of their coming." And, as if their passage
through the air or the structure of their bodies made them
sooner perceive the incipient changes of weather, the appear-
ance and cries of birds have long been considered to afford pre-
sages of the coming storm or the cessation of the tempest. The
institution of a College of Augurs at Rome may therefore be con-
ceived to have reference to something better than mere supersti-
tion ; and though the flight of particular species might, in the
hands of interested individuals, be made to presage the wished-
for result of a battle, or direct a march already determined on,
yet, in the absence of the barometer and thermometer, the ap-
pearance or disappearance and cries of birds were the signals for
the husbandman to sow his fields or to secure his crop.

Jam veris praenuncia venit hirundo.— Ovid.
Now comes the swallow, harbinger of spring.

Turn cornix plena pluvium vocat improba voce.— Virg.
The crow with clamorous cries the shower demands— Dryd.

In this country the great migrations of birds take place in
spring and autumn. Those which arrive in spring come from
warmer climates, and after incubation leave us in autumn ; and
another host, chiefly Palmipedes, from the arctic regions, ar-
rive in autumn, pass the winter on our lakes and shores, and
depart again in the spring. Each species has a particular
mode of flight in these annual journeys, and a certain period
of arrival and departure. Assembled in large flocks the cranes
cleave the air in the form of a long triangle ; wild-geese fly in
angular lines ; and the smaller birds associate in less numerous
families, and reach their destination by less continued flights.

180 BIRDS.

One of the most curious particulars connected with the an-
nual migrations of birds is the circumstance of individuals
returning for a series of years to the same nestling-places.
Spallanzani having tied a thread of red silk round the leg of
a swallow which built its nest in his window, saw for three
seasons the same stranger with its progeny annually appear ;
Ekmark remarked a lame starling which occupied the same
nest in the hole of an old alder for a period of eight years ;
and similar instances are on record concerning many other
species of migratory birds. This wonderful direction of in-
stinct, which divides the innumerable flocks of birds in their
progress northward, and leads particular families to seek the
protection of the same roof, or the same chimney-top which
formerly sheltered them, affords a subject not the least worthy
of contemplation, among the thousand instances of wisdom and
beneficence which arrest the student of Nature at every step of
his progress.

The flight of birds is very rapid. Birds of prey have been
observed to fly at the rate of about twenty leagues in an hour.
A falcon belonging to Henry II. of France escaping from Fon-
tainebleau, was found next day at Malta, a distance of 1350
miles, and recognized from the ring on its leg. Sir Hans
Sloane mentions that at Barbadoes the gulls came to feed and
returned two hundred miles in the same day. And Mr Audubon
relates of the migratory pigeons of America, that they have been
killed in the neighbourhood of New York with rice in their
crops, collected in the fields of Georgia and Carolina, the near-
estpoints at which this supply could have been obtained. Reason-
ing from the fact that the food of pigeons is entirely digested
in twelve hours, Mr Audubon concludes that they must have
travelled between 300 and 400 miles in six hours.

Birds in general live long, considering how early they arrive
at maturity. Swans are said to live for a hundred years ; and
the pelican arrives at a similar age. Carnivorous birds, par-
ticularly the eagle, live to a very great age, perhaps beyond a
century ; the raven for a still longer period ; and parrots have
been known to live from sixty to eighty years. The life of Gal-
linaceous birds, such as the domestic fowl, the pheasant and
the partridge, seldom exceeds from twelve to twenty years.

VULTUR. BIRDS. 181

ORDER I.— RAPACES.

BILL short, strong ; upper mandible covered at its base by a
membrane or cere, compressed on the sides, and hooked to-
wards its extremity ; nostrils open ; legs strong, muscular,
short, or of medium length, feathered to the knee or toes ;
toes three before and one behind, divided, or united at the
base by a membrane, rough below, armed with powerful claws,
sharp, retractile, and hooked.

The birds comprised in this order bear a relation in their mode of life to the Car-
nivora among the Mammalia. Almost all of them live on animal food. Some
take their prey alive ; others clear the ground of the noxious remains of dead animals ;
ethers feed on fishes and reptiles ; and a few species live chiefly on insects. Those
which pursue their prey by day have hence been termed diurnal birds ; others flying
only in the twilight, have been denominated nocturtiaL The females are always
larger than the males. The number of their eggs seldom exceeds four.

Gen. 1. VULTUR, Illiger, Tern.

Bill thick and short, deeper than broad, its base covered by a
cere ^ upper mandible straight, bent towards the point ; un-
der mandible straight, rounded, and inclined at the point ;
head naked, or covered with a short down ; nostrils naked,
lateral, opening diagonally towards the edge of the cere ; legs
strong, furnished with slightly bent claws ; the middle toe
longest, and united with the exterior one at the base.

These birds, feeding on carrion, are of service in removing dead animal remains.
Their figure is as disgusting as their habits. The conformation of their toes and
nails deprive them of the power of attacking or carrying off living prey. They fly
slowly, and walk heavily, but their sight is acute; and, though some naturalists
have asserted their sense of smell to be so acute as to guide them at great distances
to their food, yet there is reason to think that this faculty has been much overrated.

V. cinereus, Lin. Posterior part of the head and neck naked, and
of a bluish colour, the rest of the neck covered by a fawn-coloured
down ; cere bluish flesh-colour ; tarsus half feathered, its naked
part round the toes of a pale blue; the claws black. About 3J feet
long. Inhabits the mountains and forests of Europe. — Tern. 4.
Vultur Bengalensis, Gmel. Lath. ; Grand Vautour, BufF. ; Le Vautour noir
d'Egypte, Savigny.

V.fulvus, Lin. Head and neck furnished with a white down;
lower part of the neck surrounded by rows of long slender feathers
of a reddish white colour ; a spot on the middle of the breast,
covered with a white down ; body and wings fawn-coloured ; flag
and tail-feathers of a blackish brown ; beak livid yellow ; cere
flesh-coloured; iris hazel-coloured ; legs gray. About four feet
long. Inhabits the mountainous parts of the north of Europe,
Africa, and Asia. — Shaw, vii. pi. 11.

V. leucocephalus, Meyer; V. percnopterus, Baud.; V.* trencalos, Bechst. ; Lc
Griffon, BufF. — The young, V. Kolbii, Lath. ; Le Vautour chasse-fiente, Vaill.

V. monachus, Tern. Plumage dull brown ; quill-feathers black ;

182 BIRDS. RAPACES,

top of the head around the eyes and ears and the fore part of the
neck naked and reddish ; occiput, hind part of the neck, and crop
covered with short ashy down ; tarsi feathered a little below the
knee; feet yellowish. Two feet three inches long. Inhabits
western coast of Africa — Shaw, vii. pi. 7, 8, 9.

V. Ponticerianus, Lath. Bill short and much hooked, with its base
covered by a naked skin; feet short and strong, the nails crooked;
head and neck naked, or covered in part by short down ; a thin
naked red-coloured membrane on the neck; head, neck, and breast
flesh-coloured ; back, belly, wings, and tail black ; iris red ; bill
black ; feet yellowish. Inhabits India. Size of a large goose.
— Shaw, vii. pi. 10.

V. Indicus, Lath. Back brownish-coloured, terminated by a band
of a clearer colour ; large feathers of the wing and tail black ;
head covered with a tuft resembling hair ; neck with little tufts
at small distances ; feathers of the breast short, like hair ; iris
red ; feet and bill black. Inhabits India. Size of a goose. —
Shaw, vii. 26.

Gen. 2. CATHARTES, Illiger, Tern. — Vultur, Lin.

Beak long, compressed, straight, bent towards the point ; cere
naked, covering more than half of the beak ; upper mandible
tumid towards the point ; head oblong, naked, as well as the
upper part of the neck ; nostrils in the middle of the bill,
near the ridge of the upper mandible, longitudinally cleft,
broad, sometimes surmounted by fleshy appendages; legs with
tarsus naked, more or less slender ; middle toe long, and
united to the exterior one at the base.

C. percnopterus^ Tern. (Vullur percnopterus, Lin.) The Egyptian
Vulture. Head and fore part of the neck covered by a naked
skin of a livid yellow colour ; plumage white, except the large
feathers of the wings, which are black ; feathers of the occiput
long and slender ; the cere and bill orange ; iris yellow ; feet of
a livid yellow, claws black, tail raised. Young specimens of a
deep brown variegated by yellowish brown spots ; the cere and
feet of a gray ash-colour. About two feet and a-half long. In-
habits the Pyrenees, Switzerland, and Africa. — Tern. 9.

V. leucocephalus, Lath. ; Vautour blanc, Buff. ; Rachavnach, Bruce; Vautour
d'Egypte, Son.; Percnopterus, Cuv. ; the Ash-coloured and Alpine Vulture of
Latham. The young, V. fuscus, Gmel. ; Le Vautour de Malte, Buff. ; Mai-
tese Vulture, Lath.

These birds feed chiefly on carrion and filth, and their use in removing these offensive
objects and destroying reptiles occasions their being protected in some countries of
the east, particularly in Egypt, where they were anciently held in such veneration,
that any person who destroyed them was punished with death. At this day immense
flocks of them are found ;n all the principal towns of Egypt, Syria, and Persia, ming-
ling with other animals of similar propensities. They feed with the greatest fami-
larity even in the streets of the most populous towns. At Cairo their skins are sold,
and converted into dresses.

CATHARTES. BIRDS. 183

C. gryphus, Tern. The Condor or Great Vulture of the Andes. Co-
lour blackish ; a spot on the wings, and ruff white; upper caruncle
large, and without dentations ; another under the bill like the
cock; female destitute of caruncles" Inhabits South America. —
Shaw, vii. pi. 2, 3, 4.

This animal is the largest of the tribe. According to Humboldt it is about three
feet three inches in length, and eight feet nine inches in spread of wings ; though
Marco Polo asserts that it can raise an elephant from the ground. The usual
residence of these birds is in lofty rocks in the regions of the Andes, near the boun-
dary of perpetual snow ; but they are capable of soaring beyond the reach of human
vision. In Peru and Quito they are not unfrequently taken alive in the following
manner : A cow or horse, which is of little value in those countries, is killed, and
exposed ; and in a short time the Condors are seen suddenly to emerge from quarters
where their existence was not even suspected. They always begin with the eyes and
tongue, and then proceed to devour the entrails, &c. When gorged they are too
heavy and indolent to fly, and the Indians easily capture them in nooses. They
make their nests in the most inaccessible rocks, and the female lays two white eggs,
which are larger than those of the turkey-hen.

C. Papa, Lin. King of the Vultures. Of a whitish rufescent hue ;
head and neck naked ; nostrils furnished with a loose orange-
coloured caruncle, and the neck with a gray ruff. — Shaw, vii. pi. 13.
This bird inhabits the plains in the warmer regions of South America, and it is

also said of the West Indies. It lives on rats, lizards, snakes, carrion, and all sorts

of excrementitious matters, exhaling a most offensive odour, which the stuffed skin

has been known to retain for upwards of twenty years.

C. aura, Lin. American or Carrion Vulture. General colour
blackish, with purple and green reflections ; head and neck red,
naked, papillous, and wrinkled. About two feet and a-half long.
Inhabits America — Shaw, vii. 36,

C. vulturinus, Tern. (V. Californianus, Shaw.) Plumage black,
with a whitish bill ; head and neck naked and of a pale colour ;
feathers of the collar and breast lanceolate ; legs and toes black.
—Shaw, vii. 10.

Gen. 3. GYPAETUS, Storr. — Phene, Vieill.

Bill long ; upper mandible arched towards the point, and bent
like a hook ; nostrils oval, covered with stiff hairs directed
forwards ; feet short ; four toes, the three anterior united by
a short membrane, the middle one very long ; nails slightly
crooked ; wings long.

The Gypaeti have more grace and activity in their motions than the vultures.
Formidable by their strength and the impetuosity with which they dart on their prey,
they seize the moment when a wild goat or its young separates from the flock on
the borders of precipices, and kill it on the spot. Young and diseased animals are
their common prey.

G. barbatus, Cuv. (Vultur barbatus, Lath.— Falco barbatus, Gm.)
The Bearded Vulture. Head and neck of a dirty white ; a black
line extends from the base of the bill to above the eyes ; another
rising behind the eyes passes over the ears ; lower part of the
neck, breast, and belly of an orange-red ; back and wing-coverts
of a deep grayish brown, but on the centre of each feather is a
white longitudinal line ; wings and feathers of the tail of a gray

184 BIRDS. RAPACES.

ash-colour^ the ribs white ; tail long, much raised j bill and claws
black ; feet blue ; iris orange ; eyes surrounded by a red line.
About four feet seven inches long.

V. barbatus and barbarus, Lath, and Gmel. ; V. aureus, Briss. ; Vautour dore,
Buff. ; Bearded and Golden Vulture, Lath. ; the Nisser, Bruce. The young,
V. niger, Lath. ; G. melanocephalus, Meyer.

This species is a native of many of the wilder regions of Asia and Africa, and
exists also, though more sparingly, in Europe, as in the Swiss Alps and Pyrenees,
and in the mountains of Tyrol and Hungary. The German appellation of Lacmmcr
Gcyer, or Lamb Vulture^ has been applied to it, as to other large birds of prey.

Gen. 4. GYPOGERAJJUS, Illig.— — Vultur^ Lath.

Bill shorter than the head ; thick, strong, hooked, bent from
its origin, furnished with a cere at its base, a little arched, com-
pressed at the point ; nostrils a little separated at the base,
lateral, pierced in the cere, diagonal, oblong, open ; legs very
long, slender ; tibia feathered, tarsus long, slenderer at its base
than at its upper part ; toes short, warty below, the anterior
united at the base ; thumb articulated on the tarsus ; wings
long, the first five wing-feathers longest and almost equal ;
wings armed with a blunt spur.

G. serpentarius, Tern. (Vultur serpentarius,'Lm.) The Secretary.
Colour cinereous; tail wedge-shaped, with the middle tail-
feathers lengthened,, and a crest of feathers on the occiput capa-
ble of erection. Inhabits Cape of Good Hope — Shaw, vii. pi. 14.
This species inhabits the dry plains in the lower parts of Africa and the Philip,
pine Islands. Being almost always obliged to run in pursuit of its prey, it seldom
avails itself of its power of flight ; and it frequently kills, or at least wholly disables, a
snake, by breaking the vertebras with a single stroke of the wing. In its natural
state it is very wild, and not easily approached, but when taken young, the snake-
eater may be easily tamed, and kept with poultry in the farm-yard, where it is
serviceable in destroying rats and other noxious animals. It may be fed with meat,
either raw or dressed, and will readily eat fish ; but if allowed to fast too long, it
is apt to seize on small chickens and ducklings, which it swallows whole.

Gen. 5. FALCO, Lin.

Head covered with feathers ; bill hooked, generally bent from
its origin ; a coloured cere, more or less hairy at its base ;
mandibles sometimes notched ; nostrils lateral, rounded or
oval, pierced in the cere, open ; legs with tarsi covered with
feathers or scales ; three toes before, one behind, the exte-
rior generally united at its base to the middle toe ; claws
sharp, much hooked, retractile.

The Falcons are noble birds of prey. Their appearance and their motions indicate
their manner of living to be very different from the preceding genera. Strength
and cunning form the attributes of this family. They are provided with more power-
ful offensive arms, and their power of wing, of sight, and prehension are also
very different. The size of their head is in proportion to their body, and both it and
the neck, which is thick and short, are covered with feathers. They live in couples,
and are not gregarious. Their food consists of living prey, which they seize and carry
in their talons. They rise in the air to a prodigious height, their flight is rapid and
sustained, and their sight is very acute. The larger species feed on the smaller

FALCO. BIRDS. 185

mammiferous animals and birds, others on fishes, and some attack reptiles. The
greater number of the smaller species are insectivorous, and prey chiefly on beetles.
Their plumage at different ages is very various. The , young are many years
old before coming to their full and constant plumage, this not taking place till
the third, fourth, and in some species till their sixth year. The_ young are always
distinguished from old individuals by numerous and varied lines and spots, while
the colour of the adult birds is generally in large masses ; and when the colours and
plumage of the old birds are disposed in transverse lines or spots, the young of the
same species have these bands and spots longitudinal. The males are always about
a third smaller than the females.

1. — FALCONS.

Bill short, bent from its base ; upper mandible with one and rarely

two strong teeth, which lock into hollows in the lower mandible ;

legs robust; toes strong, long, armed with crooked and sharp claws ;

tarsi short; wings long, thejirst wing-feather and the third of equal

length, the second longest.

The falcons prey habitually on living animals, and show much address in seizing
and surprising their prey. They nestle in the crevices of rocks. The greater num-
ber of the species of this division may be employed with success in hawking. The
name noble birds of prey^ which has been applied to them, comes probably from
the prerogative formerly attached to falconry, of which the practice was only permit-
ted to nobles. The species of this division are difficult to be distinguished from one
another, the young of the first year and the smaller species resembling one another
so much in colour and plumage. The comparative length of the wings and tail, and
the colour of the feet, cere, and eyelids, are the surest means of ascertaining the
specific differences.

F. Islandicus, Lath. The Jerfalcon. Ground of the plumage white,
with narrow brown bands on the upper parts, and on the tail ;
under parts marked by little brown spots in the form of tears, most
numerous and largest on the flanks ; bill yellowish; cere and round
the eyes of a livid yellow ; iris brown ; feet of a fine yellow. Male
about one foot nine inches long ; the female two or three inches
more. Inhabits Iceland, Denmark, and North of Germany,
nestling in inaccessible rocks. — Selby, Illust. pi. 14.
F.'rusticolus, Gmel. ; Gerfaut de Norwege, Buff. ; White Jerfalcon, Lath. ; Col-
lared Falcon, Penn — The young, F. Gyrfalco and sacer, Gmel. ; Buteo cine-
reus, Baud ; Le Gerfaut, Le Sacre, Buff. ; Brown Jerfalcon, Lath.
Next to the eagle, the Jerfalcon is reputed the most formidable and active, as well

as the most prompt and intrepid of all our predaceous birds ; and it is still the most

esteemed for falconry. The female boldly attacks the largest of the feathered race,

the stork, heron, and crane being its easy victims.

F. Lanarius, Lin. The Lanner. Wings ending two-thirds from
the end of the tail ; middle toe shorter than the tarsus ; a very
narrow mustache, which disappears with age ; feet bluish; the two
first wing-feathers with truncated beards towards the end. In-
habits Europe. — Tern. 20.

F. peregrinus, Lin. The Peregrine Falcon. Wings extending to
the extremity of the tail ; middle toe as long as the tarsus; a very
large black mustache, which spreads with age ; feet yellow ; a
single wing-feather with truncated web towards the end. Four-
teen inches long. — Selby, Illust. pi. 15, 15.*
Le Lanier, and Faucon, Buff. ; F. abietinus, Bechst. ; Blue Black Falcon, Penn. ;

Sparviere pellegrino, Storr. — The young, F. hornotinus, Briss. ; Le faucon

sors, Buff. ; Yearling Falcon, Lath.

186 BIRDS. RAPACES.

Inhabits the mountainous countries of Europe, and preys on grouse, pheasants, and
partridges. Various instances are recorded of the rapidity of its flight. Thus, one
that eloped from its master, in the county of Forfar, on the 24th of September 1772i
with four heavy bells at its feet, was killed on the morning of the 26th of the same
month at Mostyn, in Flintshire. Another, belonging to a Duke of Cleves, flew
out of Westphalia into Prussia in one day ; and in the county of Norfolk one was
known to make a flight at a woodcock at the rate of nearly thirty miles in an hour.
The female peregrine falcon is, in the terms of falconry, always called Falcon,
while the male is denominated Tercel; and, when thoroughly bred, they are called
Gentil or Gentle Hawks.

F. subbuteo, Lath. The Hobby. Throat white,, with a large black
band extending on the white parts of the sides of the neck ; upper
part of the body bluish black ; lower parts whitish, with longi-
tudinal black spots ; bill bluish; cere, eyelids, and feet yellow ;
iris brown; wings extending beyond the extremity of the tail.
About 14 inches long.— Selby, Illust. pi. 16.

This is a migratory species, arriving in England in April for the purpose of in-
cubation, and leaving the country in October for warmer latitudes. Its favourite prey
is the lark. When falconry was in fashion the hobby was trained to the pursuit of
young partridges, snipes, and larks.

F. cesalon, Tern. (F. ccesius Meyer.) The Merlin or Stone Falcon.
Cere and legs yellow ; head ferruginous, body bluish-gray, with
ferruginous spots and streaks above ; yellowish -red, with oblong
spots below j wings ending at two-thirds of the length of the
tail. About 12 inches long — Selby, Illust. pi. 18.

F. caesius, Meyer ; F. lithofalco, Gmel. ; Le Rochier, Buff. — The young, L'e-
merillon, Buff. ; Sparviere smeriglio, Stor.

The Merlin is a migratory species, resorting to the north in spring, and returning
to the south on the approach of winter. According to Mr Pennant it does not breed
in England ; but in Northumberland Colonel Montagu found three young ones
about half-grown in the middle of a high clump of heath, in which they were so
well concealed that they would not have been discovered but for a setting dog,
which made a point at them.

F. iinnunculusj Lin. The Kestril. Wings ending at three-fourths
of the length of the tail ; upper part of the plumage of the male
variegated with numerous black spots ; wing-feathers banded in-
teriorly ; claws constantly black. Fourteen inches long. Inha-
bits Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 17-

The young, F. bruneus, Bechst. ; F. fasciatus, Retz.

The Kestril is by far the most elegant of the small British hawks. The eggs,
which are four or five in number, are rather inferior in size to those of the sparrow-
hawk, and of a dirty white, blotched with rust-colour of various shades, and some-
times wholly covered with a deep rusty red. It is a common inhabitant of our
rocky coasts, or in high or ruinous towers. Its prey is moles, field-mice, frogs, and
small birds, on which it darts like an arrow. When taken young it is easily tamed.

F, tinnunculoides, Natterer. Wings ending at the extremity of the
tail ; upper part of the plumage and quill-feathers of the male
without spots ; claws pure white. Inhabits Europe. — Tern. 31.

F. nifipes, Bechst. Principal colours of a more or less deep blu-
ish ; cere and feet red ; claws yellow. Common in Russia and
Poland.— Lath. Ind. 46.

F. vespertiuus, Gmel. ; Le Kober, Son. ; Ingrian Falcon, Lath.

FALCO. BIRDS. 187

F. punctatus, Cuv. Plumage rufous above, with the head and neck
longitudinally striped with black ; back and wings spotted with
black ; seven black bands on the tail ; body beneath white, spotted
with black ; cere and legs yellowish ; bill bluish. Ten inches long.
Inhabits Isle of France — Tern. PL Col. 45.

F. femoralis, Tern. Plumage above ashy brown, red beneath, with
a black band above and behind the eye ; thighs red ; bill blue ;
cere yellow. About a foot long. Brazil Tern. PL Col. 121.

F. severity, Horsneld. Plumage dusky brown-above, with the quills
black ; chestnut coloured-beneath, with the throat pale. Ten
inches and a half long. Inhabits Java — Lin. Trans, xiii. 135.

2. — EAGLES.

Bill strong, of considerable length, and hooked towards the ex-
tremity : legs strong, nervous, covered with feathers, or naked ;
toes robust, and armed with powerful and very crooked claws ;
wings long, the Jirst, second, and third feathers shorter than
the fourth and fifth.

F. imperialis, Tern. The Imperial Eagle. Crown of the head
and occiput furnished with acuminate reddish feathers, edged
with bright red ; upper part of the body of a very dark glossy
brown above, of a very dusky brown beneath, with the exception
of the abdomen, which is yellowish red ; some of the scapulars
always pure white ; wings the length of the tail, which is al-
most square ; last joint of the middle toe with five scales —
Shaw, vii. pi. 15.

The Imperial Eagle is diffused over Hungary, Dalmatia, and Turkey, and is more
common in the eastern and southern parts of the world than in any other quarter,
abounding in Egypt and on the coast of Barbary ; but it is rare in the centre of
Europe. It inhabits the extensive forests of hilly countries, preying on stags, roe-
bucks, foxes, and other mammiferous animals, and often on large birds. The female
breeds in lofty trees or elevated rocks, and lays three or four eggs of a dirty white.

Y.fulvus, Tern. (F. chrysaetos, Lin.) Ring-tail or Golden Eagle.
Crown of the head and neck with acuminate feathers of a bright
rufous and golden tinge ; all the other parts of the body of an
obscure brown, more or less blackish, according to age ; scapu-
lars never white ; three scales upon the last joint of all the toes.
Male about three feet long ; the female three feet and a-half ;
spread of the wings between seven and eight feet. — Selby, Illust.
pi. 1. and 2.

Aquila fulva, Meyer ; F. fulvus and F. Canadensis, GmeL ; F. chrysaetos, Lin. ;
1'Aigle Royal, Buff. ; 1'Aigle Commun, Cuv. ; King-tail and Golden Eagle,
Lath.— .Var. F. albus, Gmel. ; F. cygneus, Lath. ; 1'Aigle Blanc, Briss.
The Golden Eagle inhabits the high mountain ranges of the north of Europe. It
is frequently found in Scotland, and preys on fawns, lambs, hares, and large birds.
It nestles on precipitous cliffs, and the female lays two eggs, rarely three, of a dir-
ty white, spotted with reddish. It soars to a prodigious height, and from this ele-
vation can discover its prey at an immense distance. It is extremely tenacious
of life, whence probably originated the eastern notion, that eagles possessed the
power of renewing their youth. Keysler alludes to an individual which lived
a hundred and four years at Vienna, though in a state of confinement. Nor is
it less remarkable for enduring abstinence, especially when deprived of exercise ;

188 BIRDS. REPACKS.

for one taken from a fox-trap refused food for five weeks, when it was killed.
Redi likewise informs us that he kept two alive, the one for twenty-eight, and the
other for twenty-one days without food. In old age individuals of this species are
said to become more or less hoary or white. Numerous stories are related of the
strength of this bird, and of its carrying off children as its prey ; but few of these
are well authenticated. Ray, however, mentions, that in one of the Orkneys an
infant of a year old was seized in the talons of an eagle, and conveyed about four
miles to its eyrie ; while the mother, knowing the spot, pursued the bird, found her
child in the nest, and took it home unhurt.

F. ncevius, Lin., including his maculatus. (Aquila planga, Vieill.)
The Spotted Eagle. Body, head, wings, and tail, of a glossy-
brown, of various degrees of intensity, according to age ; bill
black ; cere and toes yellow. Nearly two feet long. Inhabits
woods and mountains in Europe, Africa, and Asia. — Shaw, vii. 84.
The young is F. maculatus, Gmel. ; Rough-footed and Spotted Kagle, Lath. ;
L'Aigle tachete, Cuv.

F. armiger, Shaw. Plumage gray brown above, white below ; oc-
ciput crested ; smaller wing-feathers and tail crossed with whit-
ish bands ; bill bluish with a black tip ; claws black, very strong
and crooked. Size of the golden eagle. Inhabits Africa. —
Shaw, vii. 57*

F. pennatus, Lin. Feet feathered to the toes ; a tuft of white fea-
thers at the insertion of the wings ; tail brown above. Length
18 inches. Inhabits eastern parts of Europe. — Tern. 44.

F. Malayensis, Tern. Plumage sooty brown, more or less dusky
according to the age ; irregular whitish bands at the base of the
wing-feathers, and whitish lunules on the tail-feathers. Inhabits
the Indian Archipelago. — Tern. PI. Col. 117.

I?*fucosus, Cuv. Plumage dusky brown, varied with yellowish red,
throat and fore-part of the neck dusky brown ; head and neck
beautiful golden red; tail yellowish beneath, with indistinct bands;
bill and legs yellow— Tew. PL Col. 32.

F. brachydactylus, Wolf. Head very thick ; a space above the eyes
covered with white down ; top of the head, cheeks, throat, breast,
and belly white, but variegated with numerous spots of clear
brown ; coverts of the wings brown, with the origin of the fea-
thers white ; tail square, grayish brown, with bands of a deeper
colour; bill black; cere bluish; iris yellow. Two feet long.
Inhabits pine forests in the north of Europe, and feeds chiefly on
lizards and snakes. — Sham, vii. pi. 19.

Aquila brachydactyla, Meyer ; F. Gallicus, Gmel. ; F. leucopsis, Bechst. ; Le
Jean le blanc, Buff. ; F. terzo d'aquila, Stor.

F. albescens, Daud. Whitish, variegated above with yellowish
brown ; tail black, barred with white ; back of the head slight-
ly crested. About a third smaller than the golden eagle, and of
a more slender shape. Cape of Good Hope — Shaw, vii. 93.

F. haliaetus, Lin. The Osprey Eagle. General colour brown above,
white beneath, with whitish head, and blue cere and legs ; iris
yellow; bill black; wings extending beyond the extremity of
the tail. About 21 inches long — Selby, Illust. pi. 4.

FALCO. BIRDS. 189

F. arundiaceus, Gmel. ; Le balbuzard, BufF. ; Osprey Eagle, Lath. ; Flus adler,
Bechst.

This species makes its nest in the crevices of rocks, or on the tops of tall trees,
and occasionally on the ground among reeds, laying from two to four white eggs,
spotted with reddish, rather smaller than those of the domestic hen. It inhabits
the banks of large rivers and lakes, and feeds principally on fish. It is found in
most of the countries of Europe.

F. albicitta, Lath. Lin. (F. ossifragus, Gmel.) Sea Eagle or Os-
prey. Plumage of a clear brown, spotted with deeper colour ;
bill and iris almost black in youth ; colour uniform ash-coloured,
or brown in the adult ; tail not reaching beyond the wings. Two
feet four inches long. Inhabits the coasts of England, Holland,
and France — Selby, lllust. pi. 3, and 3.*

F. albicaudus, Gmel. ; Le grand Pygargue, BufF. ; Fisch-adler, Bechst. ; Cine-
reous Eagle, Lath.— The young, F. ossifragus, melanaetos, Gmel. ; L'orfraie,
BufF. ; Sea Eagle, Lath. ; Golden Eagle, Penn.

The Greenlanders, who kill these birds with arrows, or catch them by snares laid
on the snow, eat their flesh, make under garments or beds of their skins sewed to-
gether, and use the bill and claws as amulets in the treatment of various complaints.
This species possesses astonishing capability of enduring the cravings of hunger ;
and Mr Selby mentions an instance where the bird was permitted, through the in-
attention of its keeper, to be without food for several weeks.

F. leucocephalus, Lin. White Headed Eagle. Plumage very ir-
regularly spotted and variegated with light and deep brown ;
bill black ; iris clear brown ; in the young chocolate brown ;
bill, feet, and iris yellowish white in the adults; tail always
extending beyond the wings. Inhabits Arctic regions.— Wilson,
Ornith. iv. pi. 36.
U Aigle a tete blanche, Cuv. ; L'Aigle Pygargue, Vieill. ; Bald Eagle, Lath.

F. vocifer, Shaw. Brown ferruginous, undulated with black ; head,
neck, breast, and tail, white. Size of the Osprey. Inhabits
Southern Africa.— Shaw, vii. 94.

F. maculosus, (Aquila maculosa, Vieill.) Head, neck, and ( back
black ; chin, throat, and breast white, each feather streaked with
black ; abdomen black, with round spots of white ; vent and
thighs rust-coloured ; bill and cere blue ; iris yellow ; legs orange.
Two feet long. Inhabits Guiana. — Vieill. Ois. de I'Amer. Sept.

F. Linnceetus, Horsf. Plumage of a reddish brown, slightly tinged
with purple ; tail beneath, except the tip, whitish ; cere yellow ;

bill black ; feet bluish. Two feet long. Inhabits Java Lin.

Trans, xiii. p. 138.

F. niveus, Tern. Plumage above fuscous, white beneath ; base of
the quill-feathers white ; tail-feathers, with the exception of the
two middle ones, whitish on the edges of their inner web, and
bright brown on the other parts, and transversely banded with deep-
er brown; legs yellow. Two feet long. Java.— Tern. PI. Col. 127-

3. — HAWKS.

Wings short, ending at two-thirds of the length of the tail; Jlrst
wing-feather shorter than the second, the third nearly equal
to ihe fourth ; feet with long tarsi ; toes long, the intermediate
the longest ; claws muck bent and very sharp.

190 BIRDS. RAPACES.

F. palumbarius, Lin. The Goshawk. Upper parts bluish-cinere-
ous ; a broad white stripe above the eyes ; the under parts white,
with transverse bands, and longitudinal lines of dark brown ; tail
cinereous, with four or five blackish brown bars ; bill bluish
black ; cere yellowish green ; iris and feet yellow. Length of
the female about two feet; size of the male about one-third less.
Inhabits Europe, &c. — Selby , Illust. pi. 12.

1,'Autour, Buff ; Goshawk, Lath. ; Hunerhabicht, Bechst. ; Sparviere da Co-
lombi, Stor.— -The young, F. gallinarius and gentilis. Gmel. ; L'Autour sors,
Buff. ; Greater Buzzard, Lath.

This species breeds on the tops of high trees, the female laying two to four eggs
of a bluish white, spotted with fulvous. It flies low, proves very destructive to
game, pigeons, and poultry, and dashes through the woods with great impetuosity
after its quarry ; but if it cannot almost immediately catch the object of its pursuit,
it desists, and perches on a bough, till some other opportunity occurs. In the days
of falconry, it was held in higher estimation than any of the short-winged hawks,
and was used for the larger sorts of game. According to Mr Low it is common in
the Orkney Islands.

F. nisitSf Lin. The Sparrowhawk. Bluish-cinereous above ; a white
spot on the neck j white beneath, with brown undulations ; tail
ash-gray, with five bars of blackish-cinereous ; cere yellowish
green ; feet and iris yellow. About 12 inches long. Inhabits
Europe. — Selby f Illust. pi. 13,

L'Epervier, Buff. ; Die Sperber, Bechst ; Accipiter fringillarius, Ray.
This species is well known for its depredations upon pigeons and small birds.
In a nest containing five young ones, Mr Selby found a lapwing, two blackbirds,
a thrush, and two green linnets, recently killed, and partly divested of their feathers.
It likewise preys on mice, moles, lizards, and snails. It builds in lofty trtees, old
ruins, or high rocks, frequently occupying the old nest of a crow, and lays from
four to six eggs, of a dirty white, and sometimes of a bluish tinge, blotched at the
large, and sometimes, though rarely, at the narrow end, with reddish colour. It is
easily tamed ; though when the young are reared together, the female birds, being
largest and strongest, will destroy and devour the males.

F. cachinnans, Lin. (Niacagua of Azara.) The Laughing Falcon.
Cere and legs yellow ; eyelids white ; body variegated with brown
and whitish ; top of the head black, surrounded by a white ring.
Inhabits Paraguay.— Vieill. Gal. des Ois. pi. 19.

F. mmullus, Shaw. Dwarf Sparrowhawk. Brown above, white
beneath ; breast marked with descending brown streaks, and the
abdomen with descending brown bars. Size of the blackbird.
Inhabits Southern Africa. — Shaw, vii. 205.

F. musicus, Daud. Gray above, with brown undulations beneath,
black wing-feathers, and brown wedge-shaped tail, barred with
white. Inhabits Africa. —Shaw, vii. 143.
In the breeding season the note of the male is much more musical than that of

any bird of prey, and is heard at the dawn of day, or in the dusk of the evening,

and not unirequently during the greater part of the night.

F. hemidactylus, Tern. Plumage lead-coloured above, paler beneath ;

quills black, with a broad white band ; tail with two broad black

bands and two clear reddish ones. Fifteen inches long. Inhabits

Brazil.— Tern. PL Col 3.
F. gracilis, Tern. Plumage cinereous lead-coloured above, whit-

ish below, striped with ash-coloured bands ; tail with very slight

FALCO. BIRDS. 191

indications of transverse stripes. Eighteen .inches long. Inha-
bits Brazil.— Tern. PL Col. 91.

F. nitidus, Tern. Plumage lead-coloured above, white below, trans-
versely waved with ash-colour; tail black, with two narrow white
bands ; legs long and yellow. Thirteen inches long. Inhabits
Guiana Tern. PI. Col 87-

F. xanthothorax, Tern. Plumage reddish brown above, white be-
neath ; transversely striped with rufous ; head, throat, and neck
cinnamon red. Twelve inches long. Brazil. — Tern. PI. Col. 92.

F. brachypterus, Tern. Plumage dusky brown above, collar and ab-
domen white, transversely striped with black ; tail wedge-shaped
with three white bands. Eighteen inches long. Inhabits Brazil.
—Tern. PL Col. 116, 141.

F. poliogaster, Natterer. Plumage slaty black, beneath ashy white;
throat white ; tail black, with three gray bands above and four
below ; male reddish, with the wings and back dusky. Sixteen
inches long. Inhabits Brazil — Tern. PL Col. 164, 295.

4. — KITES.

Nostrils oblique, with a fold at their exterior margin ; tarsi short,
feathered a little below the knee ; wings very lo?ig, the third and
fourth feathers longest ; tail forked.

F. milvus, Lin. The Kite or Glead. Upper parts of the body of a
reddish brown, the feathers bordered with a brighter colour ; low-
er parts ferruginous, with longitudinal dusky spots ; feathers of
the neck and head long and slender, whitish, striped longitudi-
nally with brown ; tail bright ferruginous, forked ; bill hooked
at the end ; cere, iris, and legs yellow. Two feet two inches long.
Inhabits Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 5.
Le Milan Royal, Buff. ; Rother Milan, Bechst. The young, F. Austriacus, Gmel.

and Lath.

The Kite is known by its flight, which resembles a sailing or gliding through the
air, without apparent motion of its wings. It preys on young rabbits, hares, game
of all kinds, poultry, and young birds incapable of flight. It will also destroy
young lambs, and feed greedily on carrion ; but, in default of these, it readily eats
mice, worms, insects, and even snakes. It frequently resorts to the neighbourhood
of towns to pick up offals, which it also sweeps from the surface of the water with
great dexterity.

F. ater, Lin. Head and throat banded longitudinally with brown
and whitish; upper parts of a deep grayish brown, lower parts red-
dish brown, with longitudinal spots on the middle of the feathers ;
thighs deep red ; quill- feathers deep brown ; tail very little forked,
with ten bands of a brighter colour ; bill black. Length one foot
ten inches. Inhabits Germany, &c Lath. Syn. i. 62.

F.furcatus, Lin. Swallow-tailed Kite. White; with the back,
wings, and very long forked tail, purplish black. About two feet
long. Inhabits Carolina, Louisiana, &c — Shaw, vii. 10J.

F. melanopterus, Shaw. Plumage gray above, white beneath ; wing*
coverts black ; tail subrufous, forked ; bill black ; iris and legs yel-
lowish. Size of the Kestril. Inhabits Africa — Leach. Zool.
JHw.iii.pl. 122,

192 BIRDS. RAPACES.

F. Riocourii, Vieill. Plumage ashy blue above, the under parts,
forehead, cheeks, and tip of secondary feathers white ; lower wing-
coverts deep black ; tail forked. Thirteen inches long. Inhabits
Senegal Tern. PI. Col. 85.

5. — BUZZARDS.

Sill small, bending immediately from the base ; wings shorter than
the tail, and the Jirst four Jeathers notched near their tip ; Jirst
quill- feathers very short, the fourth the longest ; thigh-feathers
long and pendant ; tarsi short, and claws not much hooked.

F. buteo, Lin. Common Buzzard. Plumage brown and ferruginous
above, white and ferruginous beneath ; cere, iris, and legs yellow ;
tail banded with brown. About 21 inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope.— Selby, Illust. pi. 6.

The Buzzard preys on small birds, young rabbits, and hares, moles, field-mice,
lizards, frogs, toads, and likewise on worms and insects. The female makes her nest
in the fork of a tree, with large sticks, and lines it with wool, hair, or other soft sub-
stance, and sometimes takes possession of a deserted crow's nest, which it enlarges,
and accommodates to its purpose. It is a sluggish and inactive bird, and will sit for
the greater part of a day on the same bough.

F. lagopus, Lin. Rough-legged Buzzard. Feet feathered to the toes,
a large brown patch on the belly, and a considerable portion of
the tail white from its origin. About two feet long. Inhabits
Europe and N. America. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 7«
This species feeds on partridges and small birds, nestles in large trees, and lays

four or five eggs, marked with reddish undulations. It has sometimes been shot in

England.

F. apivorus, Lin. The Honey Buzzard. Plumage brown above, with
cinereous bands on the wings ; under parts white, with triangular
brown spots ; space between the eye and the bill covered with
close set feathers in the form of scales. About two feet long.
Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 8.

r This species feeds on small birds, mice, reptiles, and insects, particularly bees. It

builds in trees, forming its nest of small twigs, lined with wool, and laying, for the

most part, two eggs.

F. pterocles, Tern. Plumage slate-coloured above, beneath white,
with the flanks and sides transversely waved with rufous ; tail
white, with a black band towards the tip. Sixteen inches long.
Inhabits Brazil.— Tern. PI Col. 56, 139.

F. pazcilonotus , Cuv. Plumage white ; wings black, spotted with
crescent-shaped spots of white ; tail with a black band, its base
and tip white ; bill black ; legs yellowish. Inhabits Guiana.-—
Tern. PI. Col. 9.

6. — HARRIERS.

Bill bending from its base ; nostrils oviform ; tail long and round-
ed; wings long, the Jirst quill-feather very short, the third and
fourth longest ; tarsi long and slender.

F. rufus, Lin. Marsh Harrier. Plumage brown ; head and breast
white yellowish ; bill black ; cere and legs yellow. About twenty
inches in length. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 9.
The Marsh Harrier is but sparingly dispersed over most of the countries of Europe ;

but Montagu remarks, that it is the most common of the falcon tribe about the sandy

BIRDS. 193

flats of the coast of Caermarthen, where he saw no fewer than nine of them regaling
on the carcass of a sheep. It abounds in marshy districts both in England and
Scotland.

F. cyaneus, Lin. The Hen-harrier. Head and upper part of the
body bluish gray ; wing-feathers white at their origin, the rest
black ; under part pure white ; iris and legs yellow ; wings end-
ing at three-fourths the length of the tail ; the third and fourth
wing-feathers of equal length. Eighteen inches long. Europe.
B.—Selby, Illust. pi. 10.

This species flies low, skimming along the surface in quest of prey ; delights in
marshy situations, and feeds on lizards, and other small reptiles and birds. It has
its English appellation from its persecutions in the poultry-yard.

F. clnerarius, Mont. Wings terminating at the end of the tail ;
the third wing-feather the longest ; body above blackish ash-co-
loured ; two black transverse bands on the secondary feathers of
the wings ; belly, thighs, and flanks white, but striped longitudi-
nally with red ; iris and feet yellow. Seventeen inches long. In-
habits Hungary and Poland ; rare in England. — Selby, Illust. pi. 1 1 .

F. pah/stris, Tern. Plumage pale brown above, beneath pale yel-
lowish red, with longitudinal brown stripes ; throat deep brown ;
quill-feathers and tail ashy-gray striped with brown ; eyebrows
white. Twenty inches long. Inhabits Brazil. — Tern. PL Col. 22.

F. rutilans, Lichten. Plumage bright golden red, varied on the
head with small longitudinal striae ; back and wings spotted with
ashy brown ; body beneath transversely lined with dusky stripes.
Eighteen inches long. Inhabits S. America. — Tern. PI. Col. 25.

7. CARACAR/E, Cuv — Cheeks and throat naked.

F. Braziliensis, Shaw. (V. Cheriway, Lath.) Cere rose-coloured;
feet yellow; body ferruginous; head white; vertex crested with
ferruginous ; bill bluish ; head and neck yellowish ; tail-feathers
blackish, with two intermediate white bands. Two feet and a-
half long. Inhabits S. America — -J,ath. Ind. 8.

Y.formosus, Lath. (Ibycter aqmlinus, Vieill.) Cere, orbits, and
feet yellowish ; throat purple ; upper part of the body blackish
red; abdomen flesh-coloured. Eighteen inches long. Inhabits
S. America — Sharv, Nat. Mis. pi. 485.

F. aterrimus, Tern. (Daplrius ater, Vieill.) Plumage bluish black,
shining ; tail rounded, white at its base ; bill and claws white ; legs
yellow; cere blackish. 15 inches long. Brazil — Tern. PL Col. 37 .

8. CYMINDI, Cuv. — Tarsi short ; toes half webbed.

F. hamatus, Illig. Plumage lead-coloured or brown, spotted with
red; quill-feathers black; base of the tail and under coverts whit-
ish ; cere and legs reddish orange. Sixteen inches long. Inha-
bits Brazil.— Tern. PL Col. 61, 231.

F. uncinnatus, Illig. Plumage lead-coloured above, paler below ;
quills banded with brown ash ; base of the tail white, its tip grise-
ous; bill hooked. 15 inches long. Brazil — Tern. PI. Col. 103, 104.

VOL. I. N

194 BIRDS. RAI-ACKS.

F. Cay anemia, Lath. Legs bluish; body blackish ash-coloured., white
below ; head and neck bluish white ; tail banded with black and
white; iris yellow ; primaries black. Size of the peregrine falcon.
Inhabits Cayenne. — Lath. Ind. 28.

Gen. 6. STRIX, Lin.

Bill compressed, bent from its origin ; base surrounded by a
cere, covered wholly or in part by stiff hairs. Head large,
much feathered ; nostrils lateral, pierced in the anterior mar-
gin of the cere, rounded, open, concealed by hairs directed
forwards ; eyes very large, orbits surrounded by feathers ;
legs feathered, often to the claws ; three toes before and one
behind, separate, the exterior reversible ; the first wing-feathers
dentated on their exterior border, the third the longest.

The greater number of the species of this genus are nocturnal birds of prey, al-
though some of them are capable of seeking their food by day. All have soft and
downy feathers, which enable them to fly without noise. They seize their prey
with their claws, and do not feed on dead animals but when pressed by hunger. The
hair, the feathers, and the bones of the animals they feed upon are rejected after di-
gestion in little balls. They moult once a year. Temminck names those which
seek their prey by day Accipitrine owls, and distinguishes them by their large tail
extending beyond the termination of the wings ; and the nocturnal species by their
tail being shorter and more rounded. But these divisions are not well marked, and
it has therefore been thought better to arrange them by their having or wanting the
auricular feathers. Although none of the nocturnal birds of prey are materially hurt-
ful to mankind, and although they are instrumental in the destruction of vermin,
yet in almost every age and country they have been regarded by the vulgar as
creatures of evil omen; and the heralds of death.

t Horned Owls.

S. bubo, Lin. Great-horned Owl. Body variegated and waved
with black and ochre colour ; inferior parts of this last colour
with longitudinal black spots ; throat white ; two tufts of feathers
on the forehead ; legs covered to the toes with feathers of a red-
dish yellow ; bill and claws horn-coloured ; iris bright orange.
Two feet long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Shaw, vii. pi. 28.
This species seldom perches on trees ; but haunts mountainous, rocky, and deso-
late situations, as deserted towers, precipices, and lonely crags, and feeds on partrid-
ges, leverets, young rabbits, moles, mice, serpents, lizards, toads, frogs, and even
bats. A variety of the present species was venerated by the Athenians as the sa-
cred bird of Minerva, and the emblem of wisdom.

S. otus, Lin. Long-eared Owl. Plumage yellow ferruginous, with
black and gray variegations ; horns consisting often feathers, bor-
dered with whitish yellow ; lower parts of an ochre yellow, with
oblong blackish brown spots ; bill black ; iris reddish. One foot
13 inches long. Inhabits both continents— Selby, Illust. pi. 20.

S. scops, Lin. Scops Eared Owl. Plumage gray brown, with black-
ish variegations above, and gray, speckled with black and red-
dish brown, beneath ; horns formed of little feathers united in a
tuft ; transverse bands, crossed by longitudinal ones on the cen-
tre of the feathers ; bill black ; iris yellow. Seven inches long.
Europe. — Selby, Illust. pi. 22.

STBIX. BIRDS. 195

S. brachyotos, Lath. Short-eared Owl. Head small, with two or
three short feathers on the forehead, forming a kind of horns ;
around the eyes blackish ; plumage above ferruginous, bordered
with ochre yellow ; tail of the same colour, with transverse brown
bands ; bill black ; iris yellow ; legs and toes feathered. Twelve
inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 21.

S. atricapilla, Natterer. (Scops, Savigny.) Crown of the head
black, with the body above, wings, and tail yellowish, varied
with black and brown ; white below, longitudinally spotted and
striped with brown ; feathers at the ears white, pencilled with
black; a reddish collar on the nape of the neck. Ten inches long.
Inhabits Brazil — -Shaw, xiii. pi. 39.

S. nociula, Reinwardt. Plumage black or brownish, marbled with
reddish; beneath reddish white, transversely waved and spot-
ted ; a double collar on the neck, white above, with brown spots,
black below, with reddish white spots. Eight inches long. In-
habits Java.— Tern. PL Col. 99.

S. Ceylonensis, Lath. ( S. Ketupa, Horsf.) Auricular feathers short
and pointed ; body brownish black above, paler be*low ; feathers
round the face brown, banded with black ; wing and tail-feathers
with transverse lines of black and white ; legs almost naked;
claws and bill of a dark colour. Ceylon — Tern, PL Col. 74.

S. lac tea, Tern. Plumage white above, variegated with brown and
striped with griseous and white ; beneath waved with brown ; tail
and quill-feathers banded with yellow ; tarsi white ; toes blue.
Two feet long. Inhabits Senegal. — Tern. PL Col. 4.

S. ascalapkus, Savigny. (Otus ascalaphus, Cuv.) Plumage rusty red,
spotted with brown; wings and back vermiculated and the belly
transversely lineated with brown ; ear- feathers short. Eighteen
inches long. Inhabits Africa. — Tern. PL Col. 57.

ft Smooth-headed Owls.

S. Lapponica, Retz. Head very large; face broad, covered with
long feathers of a pure gray with brown bands, a broad circle of
blackish feathers surrounding the face ; upper part of the body
and wings of a fine gray, marked with numerous zigzag spots
of dirty brown ; tail almost equal, much longer than the wings ;
tail and wing feathers banded with brown ; feet feathered to
the toes. About two feet long. Inhabits Lapland.—- Tern. 82.

S. nyctea,~Lin The Snowy Owl. Plumage snow-white, spotted with
transverse brown bands; head small ; bill black ; irides yellow.
About two feet long. Inhabits Northern Europe and America.
B.~Selby, Illust. pi. 23.

This species is not uncommon in Shetland; and a male and female were taken
in Northumberland in January 1823, during a severe snow storm. It preys on
grouse, hares, rabbits, carrion, &c. nestles in craggy rocks or old pines, and
lays two white round eggs, which, according to Vieillot, are spotted with black.
Its cry has been compared to that of a man in deep distress. Among the Kalmuc
Tartars it is deemed a crime to kill them, because they are considered to be the ora-
cles of good or bad fortune, according as they fly to the right or to the left.

196 BIRDS. HAPACES.

S. Uralensis, Pallas. (Sitrnia, Dumeril.) Head very large, much
feathered, of a grayish white, with some black hairs ; a broad
circle of white feathers spotted with black surrounding the face ;
lop of the head, neck, back, and coverts of the wings with large
longitudinal spots ; wings and tail banded with brown and white ;
bill yellow, entirely concealed in the long hairs of the face ;
claws long, yellowish ; tail much longer than the wings. Ten
inches long. Inhabits Northern Europe. — Shaw, vii. pi. 35.

S.funerea, Lath. Forehead dotted with white and brown ; a black
band behind the eyes and surrounding the orifice of the ears ;
upper parts of the body with brown and white spots of various-
forms ; lower parts white, banded transversely with brown ash-
colour ; iris and bill yellow ; feet feathered to the nails. Fourteen
inches long. Inhabits the Arctic regions. — Tern. Man. 86.

S. nebulosa,lit\i\.. (Ulula, Cuv.) Barred Owl. Transversely fasciated
with brown and whitish above, with oblong ferruginous spots be-
neath ; extremity of the toes covered with scales ; bill yellow ; iris
brown. Length 20 inches. Arctic regions. — Shaw, vii. 245.

S. stridula, Gmel. (S. aluco, Meyer.) Common Brown Owl. Fer-
ruginous, or gray brown ; wing-coverts spotted with white ;
feathers of the wings arid tail banded transversely with blackish
and reddish ash-colour ; iris glaucous ; feet feathered to the toes.
About 15 inches long. — Selby, Illust. pi. 25.

This species is a native of most of the countries of Europe, and is also found in
Newfoundland and South America, frequenting large and dense forests, and con-
cealing itself in the thickest recesses. It breeds in the hollows of trees, and some-
times in barns and granaries, in which it is -welcomed by the farmer, on account of
the numbers of mice which it destroys ; but it is a far less acceptable visitor in
pigeon houses, in which it commits serious devastations. It lays from two to four
eggs, of a dull white, and of a roundish shape. The young are covered with a
light- coloured down, and soon become tame, if fed from the hand. If put out of
doors within hearing of the parent birds the mother visits them at night, and sup-
plies them with ample provision. This is one of the most common of the British
owls, and the only one of them which hoots, inflating its throat, at the same time
to the size of a hen's egg.

S. flammea, Lin. Common Barn Owl. Sub-fulvous, variegated with
gray and brown ; black and white spots down the shafts of the
feathers; breast and abdomen white; feet and toes covered with a
short down ; iris yellow. 13 inches long. — Selby, Illust. pi. 24.
This species is very widely diffused, and is found in most parts of the world. It
usually haunts old churches, towers, barns, farm-houses, &c. and preys on rats,
mice, bats, and beetles. In fine weather it generally leaves its haunts about twi-
light, skimming along the ground, exploring the neighbouring woods for prey,
and returning before sunrise, not hooting, but repeating a sort of blowing noise,
like the snoring of a man who sleeps with his mouth open. Its sharper notes are of-
ten interpreted by the superstitious as the presage of approaching dissolution.

S. passerina, Tem. Passerine or Little Owl. Plumage grayish-
brown, with irregular whitish spots above ; whitish, with brown
spots beneath ; breast pure white ; irides yellow ; toes thinly
covered with white hairs. About nine inches in length. Inhabits
Europe. B,— -&%, Illust. pi. 2,6.

3

STRIX. BIRDS. 197

S. Tengmalmi, Lin. (S. dasypus, Bechst.) Tail and wings longer
in proportion than the preceding ; upper parts of the body brown,
shaded with blackish ; top of the head and neck marked with
small whitish rounded spots ; bill and iris yellow ; tarsus and toes
downy. Eight inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Tern. Man. 94.

S. acadica, Lin. (S. pygmcea, Bechst.) Upper parts of the body
of a deep. gray brown, with whitish spots and points; inferior
parts with longitudinal brown spots ; large white spots on the
throat and sides of the neck j tail with four narrow white bands ;
feet feathered to the claws ; bill lead-coloured, orange at the
base, and yellowish at the point ; iris yellow. Six inches long.
Inhabits Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 96.

S.ferruginea, Tern. Plumage above of a fine red, below whitish
yellow, striped with rufous ; scapulars spotted with whitish yel-
low ; tail in the female banded with brown. Six inches and a-
half long. Inhabits Brazil.— Tew. PI. Col. 199.

S. nudipes, Daud. Body above brownish fawn-coloured ; coverts of
the wings spotted with white ; under parts dirty white, with
brownish spots ; legs naked and brown ; bill blackish. About
seven inches long. Inhabits St Domingo. — Shaw, vii. 269.

ORDER II.— OMNIVOROUS BIRDS. (Omnworce.)

Bill middle-sized, robust, sharp on the edges ; the upper man-
dible more or less convex and notched at the point ; feet with
four toes, three before and one behind ; wings of medium
size, with the quill-feathers terminating in a point.

The birds which compose this order are gregarious, and monogamous. They nestle
on trees, in the holes of old ruins and towers, or in the clefts of trees or rocks. The
male and female sit alternately. They live on insects, worms, offals, grains, fruits,
&c. and their flesh is generally hard, tough, and unsavoury.

Gen. 1. OPISTHOCOMUS, Illig. — Phasianus, Lath.

Bill thick, short, convex, bent at its point ; base dilated late-
rally ; lower mandible strong, terminated in an angle ; nos-
strils in the middle of the bill covered above by a mem-
brane ; legs robust ; tarsus shorter than the middle toe ; toes
bordered by rudimentary membranes ; the first wing-feather
short, the four following graduated, and the sixth the longest.

O. cristatus, Tern. (Hoalzin, Ray.) Plumage above brownish white,
beneath black ; a space round the eyes naked and rufous ; head
crested ; wings with two pale bands j tail cuneiform, tipped with
yellow. One foot ten inches long. Guiana — Shaw, xi. pi. 11.

Gen. 2. BUCEROS, Lin.
Bill long, convex, curved, sharp-edged, of large dimensions,

198 BIRDS. OUNI von*.

serrated at the margin, with a horny protuberance near the
base of the upper mandible rising into a crest ; nostrils be-
hind the base of the bill, covered by a membrane ; legs short,
muscular ; lateral toes equal, the external one united to the
second joint ; the first three wing-feathers graduated, the
fourth or fifth longest.

B. rhinoceros, Lin. Rhinoceros Hornbill. Plumage black ; tail tip-
v' ped with white; casque red above ; bill about ten inches in length,

yellowish, slightly curved, sharp-pointed, irregularly serrated on

the edges. Size of the hen turkey, but more slender. Inhabits

Java, &c. — Shaw, viii. pi. 1.

The singular bill of this species is furnished at the base of the upper mandible
with an extremely large process, continued, for a considerable space, in a parallel
direction with the bill, and then turned upwards in a contrary direction in the style
of a reverted horn. This appendage, which is eight inches long, and four in width
at the base, is divided into two portions by a longitudinal black line. Though ap-
parently a formidable weapon, this singular bill is by no means so in reality ; for
JLevaillant assures us, that he often put his hand into it, without feeling the slight-
est pain, though the bird exerted all its endeavours to wound him. The young is
destitute of the horn-like excrescence on the bill.

B. monoceros, Shaw. (B. Malabaricus, Lath.) Unicorn Hornbill.
Plumage black above, with the abdomen and sides of the tail-
feathers white ; bill yellowish, with compressed casque, black
above, and pointed in front. About the size of a raven. In-
habits India — Shaw, viii. 8.

B. galeatus, Lath. Galeated Hornbill. Plumage black, with abdomen
and tail white, the latter marked by a black bar ; bill conical and
yellowish, with squarish, convex red casque. Four feet long.
Inhabits Papuan Islands. — Shaw, viii. 24.

B. violaceus, Shaw. Violaceous Hornbill. Violaceous black ; sides
of the wing and tail-feathers white ; bill whitish ; casque com-
pressed, obtuse in front, and marked by a black spot. Smaller
than the monoceros. Inhabits Ceylon.— Shaw, viii. 19.

B. Abys&micus, Lath. Abyssinian Hornbill. Black, with white
primary quills; the secondaries ferruginous; bill black, and casque
abruptly orbicular ; neck with protuberances, as in the turkey.
Inhabits Abyssinia — Shaw, viii. 21.

B. coronatus, Vaill. Crowned Hornbill. Black, with the abdo-
men, stripe on each side of the hind-head, and tip of the tail white ;
bill red, and slightly crested. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw, viii. 35.

Gen. 3. PRIONITES, Illiger. — Momota, Shaw.
Bill of medium size, strong, hard, convex above, bent towards
its point, which is compressed ; edges of the mandibles ser-
rated; nostrils basal, lateral, oblique, open, but partly con-
cealed by feathers ; toes lateral, unequal ; the internal very
short, joined at its base ; the external united to the second
joint ; wings short ; the first three feathers graduated, the
fourth and fifth longest.

* /

CORVITS. BIRDS. 199

P. Braziliensis, Cuv. (Ramphastos momota, Lin.) Brazilian Saw-
bill. Green above, buff-coloured beneath ; crown blue, marked
with a black spot ; the two middle tail-feathers elongated ; head
large ; bill black ; legs black, and claws hooked. Size of the
thrush. Inhabits Brazil. — Sham, viii. pi. 3.

P. riificapillus. (BarypJionus, Vieill.) Plumage of the wings and
back green ; primaries and tail blue ; top of the head red ; upper
part of the breast reddish ; a patch of black on the front of the
neck ; tail equal. Fourteen inches long. Inhabits Paraguay. —
Shaw, xiv. 84.

P. cyanogaster, (B. cyanogaster, Vieill.) Blue-bellied Momot. Green
above ; blue beneath ; tail cuneated. Length fourteen inches and
a-half. — Inhabits Paraguay.

Gen. 4 Convus, Lin.

Bill straight at its origin, thick, compressed on the sides, bent
towards the point, and edged ; nostrils covered by reflected
bristly feathers ; legs and feet plated ; toes, three before and
one behind, divided; tarsus longer than the middle toe; wings
acuminated, the fourth feather longest.
1. — Crows.

C. Corax, Lin. The Raven*. Bill very strong ; plumage glossy
black, the upper parts with purple reflections; tail strongly round-
ed; iris with two circles, gray and brown. The young when
hatched incline to whitish. Two feet long — Selby, Illust. pi. 27-
The Raven is found in every quarter of the globe, and under all climates. Its
voracity is proverbial. In Greenland ravens usually haunt the neighbourhood of the
sea, assembling in troops during winter around the huts of the natives, plundering
the provisions, devouring the offals, or even from hunger pulling the leathern
canoes to pieces. On the north-west coast of Hudson's Bay, in Kamtschatka,
&c^ they prey in concert with the white bear, the arctic fox, and the eagle,
greedily seizing the eggs of otht'r birds, shore-fish, and such testaceous and crus-
taceous animals as happen to be within their reach ; and they frequent woody places,
in the neighbourhood of towns, for the sake of carrion and other refuse. They
are also unsparing of ducklings and chickens, and destroy sickly sheep and lambs.
Ravens build their nests in the crevices or in the holes of walls, on the top of desert-
ed towers, or in the forks of large trees. The female lays generally five or six
eggs, of a pale bluish green, marked with numerous spots and streaks of brown
and ash-colour. Incubation lasts about twenty days, during which period the male
assiduously waits on his mate, and not only provides her with abundance of food,
but relieves her in turn, taking her place in the nest during part of the day. Ravens
live to a great age, some well authenticated cases being on record of their having
completed a century. When they croak three or four times, repeatedly extending
their wings, and shaking the leaves of the trees on which they are perched, they
are said to foretell serene weather. The Greenlanders observe that when they
roam about in a restless manner, making a noise in the air, they presage a violent
south wind and tempest.

C. corone, Lin. The Carrion Crow. Plumage deep black with
violet reflections ; tail rounded ; bill and feet black; iris hazel-
coloured. Eighteen inches long — Selby, Illust. pi. 28.
This species is as widely diffused as the raven, being common in most parts of the

world. They feed on flesh, eggs, worms, insects, and various sorts of grain ; carrion,

200 BIRDS.

fish, fruits, and even shell-fish, which they contrive to break by dropping them an
& hard surface from a height. They often destroy weakly lambs, and, when pressed
with hunger, will even pursue birds on the wing. Their croaking in the morning
is said to indicate fine weather. Like the raven and other congenerous birds the
carrion crow may be domesticated, and taught to articulate several words. It has
been also observed to manifest the same disposition to hoard provisions and glitter-
ing trinkets.

C. comix, Lin. Hooded or Royston Crow. Plumage of the neck
and body ash-coloured ; head,, throat, wings, and tail black, with
bronze reflections ; bill and feet black j iris brown. Twenty-one
inches long. Inhabits Europe, &c. — Selby, Illust. pi. 29.
This species visits the south of England in October, or the beginning of winter,
arriving and departing with the woodcock, and retiring north to breed in the begin-
ning of April. In the Orkneys, Hebrides, and Shetland islands, it is the only ge-
nuine crow, the rook and carrion crow being there unknown. In these districts, and in
some parts of Scotland, it is resident throughout the year. Where opportunities
offer, it breeds in the pines and other large trees, in default of which it nestles in the
cavities of rocks. The female, which is rather smaller than the male, and of less
lively hues, usually lays four, five, or six eggs, of a green ish-blue, marked with
many spots of blackish -brown. The Royston crow is remarked for its double cry,
of which one is hollow and well known, and the other shrill, and somewhat resem-
bling the crowing of a cock. When other food is wanting, these crows eat cran-
berries and other mountain fruits. In open fertile countries they live much on grain,
worms, and carrion ; but they often resort to the sea-shores, and prey on the various
animal matters thrown up by the tide. Mr Low, in his Natural History of Orkney,
observes, that in that country they meet together in spring, as if to deliberate on the
important concerns of summer, and, after flying about in this collected state for eight
or ten days, separate into pairs, and betake themselves to the mountains.

C.frugilegus, Lin. The Rook. Base of the bill, nostrils, throat,
and part of the head destitute of feathers ; plumage of a fine
black, with purple and violet reflections ; bill straighter and more
slender than in the preceding species j mandibles and feet black ;
iris of a grayish white. About eighteen inches long. Sometimes
found white. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 30.
In England Rooks are stationary ; but in France, Silesia, and many other coun-
tries, a great many migrate. In France they are the forerunners of winter, where-
as in Siberia they announce the summer. Their flights are sometimes so dense as
to darken the air, being frequently joined, not only by the common crow and the
jackdaw, but also by troops of starlings. Every spring they resort to breed on the
same trees, preferring the loftier branches, and building sometimes ten or twelve
nests, rising one above another on the same tree. They feed chiefly on worms and
insects; but in winter, particularly when the ground is covered with snow, they fly
to the sea-shore to feed on small shell-fish, particularly the common periwinkle.
These last they raise into the air, and drop them among stones to break the shell.

C. monedula, Lin. The Jackdaw. Top of the head of a black
colour, changing to violet ; occiput and upper part of the neck
gray ash-coloured ; the rest of the body above black, with a
violet reflection ; the under parts deep black j iris grayish white.
About thirteen inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust.
pi. 31. fig. 1.

Jackdaws feed principally on worms and the larvae of insects, and are very fond
of cherries. Their voice is shriller than that of the rook or crow, and appears to
be capable of different inflections. They are easily tamed, and seem so fond of do-
mestication as seldom to attempt their escape. They may be fed on insects, fruit,
grain, and even small pieces of meat. With no great difficulty they may be taught
to articulate several words; but they are mischievous and tricky, and will secrete
not only portions of their food, but pieces of money, jewels, &c.

CORVUS. BIRDS. 201

C. Jamaicensis, Lath. Chattering Crow. Of a uniform deep black.
Inhabits Jamaica.— Lath. Ind. 154.

This scarcely differs in appearance from the European carrion crow, but utters a
peculiar chattering note.

C. Dauricus, Lath. White-breasted Crow. Plumage black; neck and
breast white. 12 inches long. Africa and Asia — Lath. Ind. 154.

2 — Pies.

C. pica, Lin. (Pica Europcea, Cuv.) The Magpie. Head, throat,
neck, top of the breast and back black, with purple and green re-
flections ; the scapulars, breast, belly, and inside of the wing-
feathers white ; tail lengthened and cuneated ; bill, iris, and feet
black. 18incheslong. Inhabits Europe — Selby}Illust. pi. 31. fig. 2.
The Magpie is generally diffused in most of the countries of Europe, and it also
occurs in Asia. Being smaller than the rook, and with wings proportionally shorter,
its flight is neither so lofty nor so well supported ; neither does it undertake long
journies, but only flies from tree to tree at moderate distances ; yet it is seldom at
rest for any length of time, but skips and hops about, and shakes its long tail almost
incessantly. Though naturally shy and distrustful, yet it is seldom found remote
from human habitations. Magpies generally continue in pairs throughout the year,
and at times unite in flocks, when they are very clamorous. They reject hardly
any species of animal food or fruits, and devour grain when nothing else is within
their reach. They prey on birds, rats, field-mice, young poultry, leverets, feathered
game, carrion, fish, insects, &c. They are notorious pilferers and hoarders, and
conceal provisions or any glittering objects with great address. In their wild
state they proclaim aloud any apparent danger, by their chattering note, and thus
the fowler is frequently deprived of his sport. In almost every country the appearance
of the magpie is, in the minds of the vulgar, associated with superstitious prejudices.

C. Setiegalensis, Lin. Plumage violet black ; tail cuneated ; wing
and tail-feathers subferruginous. Fourteen inches long. In-
habits Africa.— Lath. Ind. 163.

C. rufiventris, (Pica rufiventris, Vieill.) Crown and nape of the
neck grayish blue ; throat and primaries black ; breast, abdomen,
back, and rump rufous ; tail cuneiform. Size of the Magpie. In-
liabits Eastern Asia. — Shaw, xiii, 64.

C. Caledonicus, Lath. Plumage ash-coloured, except the tail, which
is black ; bill and legs black. Fifteen inches long. Inhabits
New Caledonia. — Lath. Ind. 154.

C. erythrorhyncos, Lin. Plumage brown violet, with very long tail ;
forehead, throat, and breast black ; occiput and tips of wings and
tail white. Inhabits China. — Lath. Ind. 163.

3. — Jays.

C.glandariuSt'Lm. (Garrulus glandarius, Cuv.) The Jay. Body of
a reddish ash-colour; head white, with black streaks; wing-coverts
with blue and black bars; bill and tail black ; iris blue ; legs dark

brown. 13 inches long. Inhabits Europe Selby, Illust. pi. 32.

This bird is the most elegant of the tribe indigenous to Great Britain. Jays
are great depredators of fruit and grain, and also frequently plunder the nests of
smaller birds of their eggs and young. When full grown the jay is extremely
shy ; but if taken from the nest, it evinces great docility. Its common notes be-
speak a wonderful flexibility of throat ; for it naturally imitates the sounds with
which it happens to be most familiar, as the bleating of a lamb, the mewing of a

202 BIRDS. OMNIVOR*.

cat, the cry of a kite or buzzard, the hooting of an owl, the neighing of a horse,
&c. These imitations, Col. Montagu observes, are so exact, even in the wild state,
that he has been often deceived by them.

C. wfaustus, Lath. Head blackish ; feathers around the nostrils
and base of the bill white ; upper part of the body gray ash-co-
loured, lower parts reddish gray ; wing-coverts and internal part
of the wings, rump, abdomen, and lateral feathers of the tail red ;
two middle feathers of the tail cinereous ; bill black ; feet brown.
Eleven inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Tern. Man. 115.

C. cristatus, Lath. ( Garrulus, Cuv.) Blue Jay of Catesby. Crest-
ed blue above, sub-rosaceous beneath ; collar, back, wings, and
cuneated tail barred with black. About eleven inches long. In-
habits North America. — Calesby, i. t. 15.

C. Stelleri, Lath. Plumage purplish black ; abdomen bluish ; wings
blue in the middle, banded with black ; tail blue, cuneated. Fif-
teen inches long. Inhabits N. America — Lath. Ind. 158.

C. Canadensis, Lin. Plumage brown above, pale cinereous below ;
forehead and throat yellowish ; tail tipped with white. Nine
inches long. Inhabits N. America. — Lath. Ind. 160.

C. pileatus, Illiger. Slightly crested ; head, front, and sides of the
neck black; body above, wings and tail azure blue; beneath and tip
of the tail white or yellowish. Thirteen inches long. Inhabits
South America — Tern. PI. Col. 58.

Gen. 5. NUCIFRAGA, Briss.

Bill, long, straight, narrowed at the point ; upper mandible
rounded, longer than the under, both terminated in an ob-
tuse and depressed point ; nostrils basal, round, open, con-
cealed by hairs directed forward; three toes before and one be-
hind; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; wings acuminated ;
fourth quill-feather the longest.

N. caryocatactes, Briss. (C. caryocatactes, Lin.) Nut-cracker. Plu-
mage rusty brown, with triangular white spots ; top of the head
and wings blackish ; tail fuscous, terminated with white ; iris
hazel-coloured ; bill, feet, and claws black. Length thirteen in-
ches. Inhabits Europe. — Shaw, vii. pi. 43.

This species, the only one of the genus, inhabits many parts of Europe, and is
found even in Siberia and Kamtschatka, but is very rare in this island. Though
not statedly birds of passage, they sometimes fly from the mountains to the plains ;
and flocks of them are frequently seen to accompany other birds into different parts
of Germany, especially where there are pine forests. They feed on hazel-nuts, acorns,
pine-seeds, &c.

Gen. 6. PYHRHOCORAX, Cuv. — Corvus, Lin.
Bill of medium size, slender, compressed, bent, slightly notched
or smooth ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, entirely concealed ;
legs strong ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; toes almost
wholly separated; claws strong and bent ; wings cuneated, the
fourth and fifth feathers longest.

BARITA. BIRDS. 203

P. pyrrhocorax, Cuv. (The Alpine Crow, Lath.) Plumage of a bril-
liant black, with purple and green reflections ; tail a little round-
ed ; wings shorter than the tail ; bill orange yellow ; iris brown ;
feet vermilion red, soles of the feet black. About fourteen inches
long. Inhabits mountains in Europe — Tern. Man. 121.

P. graculus, Tern. (Red-legged Crow, Lath.) Plumage black, with
green, violet, and purple reflections ; wings long ; tail square ;
bill long, pointed, arched, and as well as the legs of a vermilion
colour ; iris brown ; tongue of a saffron yellow. Sixteen inches
long. Inhabits mountains of Europe. — Selby, Illust. pi. 33.
In Britain this species seems to be principally limited to Devonshire, Cornwall,
and Wales ; but it is also found in some parts of Scotland and the Hebrides. It ap-
pears in immense flocks in Egypt towards the end of the annual inundcUion of the
Nile, when it feeds with the storks and falcons on the reptiles which then abound.
With us they are stationary throughout the year. The Cornish peasantry often keep
them tame in their small gardens.

Gen. 7. BARITA, Cuv. — Craticus, Vieill.
Bill long, strong, convex above, notched at the point, with-
out nasal furrow ; nostrils lateral, pierced longitudinally in
the bill, covered above and half shut by the corneous sub-
stance ; legs robust ; tarsus longer than the intermediate toe ;
the external toe united to the first joint, the internal Tree ;
back toe long, very strong ; wings of medium size or long, the
fourth^or sixth quill-feathers longest.

B. varia, Tern. (Gracnla, Shaw.) Plumage black above, varie-
gated with white ; white below ; lateral tail-feathers tipped with
white ; bill bluish, apex curved ; legs plumbeous. Thirteen in-
ches long. Inhabits New Guinea. — Shaw, vii. 464.

B. strepera, Tern. (Coracias, Lath.) Plumage black, primaries
white at the base ; lower coverts of the wing and tail white ; tail
elongated, round, the feathers white at their base, apex black ;
wings reaching to the middle of the tail ; feet black. Nineteen
inches long. Inhabits Norfolk Island. — Sharv, xiii. pi. 10.

Gen. 8. GLAUCOPIS, Forst.

Bill of medium size, strong and thick ; upper mandible con-
vex, arched, curved towards the tip, covering the edges of
the lower, at the base of which is a fleshy membrane or wattle ;
nostrils basal, lateral ; legs robust ; tarsus longer than the
middle toe ; thumb with a long and crooked nail ;

G. cinerea, Lath. Body cinereous, nearly black ; tail cuneiform,
with twelve feathers ; bill black, with wattles at the base of a
reddish blue colour. Fifteen inches long. Inhabits New Zealand.
— Shaw, vii. pi. 42.

Gen. 9. GRACULA, Lin.

Bill of medium size, strong, much compressed, convex above,
narrow at the point, which is notched in some individuals;

204 BIRDS. OMNIVOILE.

nostrils lateral, open, partly concealed by the feathers of
the face ; legs robust ; tarsus the length of the middle toe ;
the external toe joined at its base ; the internal one free ;
back toe short ; third wing-feather longest.

G. religiosa, Lin. Plumage violet black, with a white spot on the
wings, and a naked yellow occipital hand. 10| inches long. In-
habits India. — Shaw vii. pi. 54 — The only species of the genus.

Gen 10. BUPHAGA, Lin.

Bill strong, thick, obtuse ; inferior mandible stronger than the
superior, both gibbous at the point ; nostrils basal, half shut
by an arched membrane ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ;
wings of medium size, first wing-feather very short, the second
almost as long as the third.

B. Africana, Lin. African Ox-pecker. Ferruginous-brown above,
pale beneath ; tail feathers sub-acuminated. Size of a lark ;
Eight inches in length. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw, viii. pi. 6-

Gen 11. BOMBYCIVORA, Tem. — Ampelis, Lin.

Bill short, straight, elevated ; the upper mandible slightly curv-
ed towards the extremity, with a marked tooth ; nostrils
basal, ovoid, open, concealed by rough hairs directed forward ;
three toes before, and one behind, the exterior joined to that
in the middle ; wings of moderate size, with the first and second
quills the longest.

B. garrula, Tem. (Ampelis garrulus, Lin.) The Bohemian Chat-
terer. Back of the head crested; length nearly eight inches.
Size about that of a starling. Inhabits Europe, Asia, and America.
— Penn. Brit. Zool i. pi. 48.

Gen. 12. PTILONORYNCHUS, Kuhl.

Bill short, strong, depresed at the base, bent, point notched ;
inferior mandible gibbous in the centre ; nostrils basal, la-
teral, round, concealed by the feathers ; legs short, robust ;
tarsus longer than the middle toe, which is united to the ex-
terior one to the first joint; posterior claw strong, curved; the
fourth and fifth wing-feathers longest.

This genus is formed from three exotic species, viz. P. violaceus, of a brilliant
violet colour, the female olive ; P. viridis, body of a fine green ; and P. niger,
glossy black colour.

Gen 13. CORACIAS, Lin.

Bill compressed, higher than broad, straight ; the upper mandi-
ble bent towards the point ; nostrils linear, lateral ; legs short,
stout, and formed for walking ; three toes before and one be-
hind, entirely divided ; wings long, with the first quill some-
what shorter than the second.

C. garrula, Lin. ( Galgulus garrulus, Vieill.) Garrulous Roller.

COLABIS. BIRDS. 205

The plumage of the head and neck blue with green reflections ;
tail nearly even ; wings varied with blue, sea-green,, and black ;
back and scapulars fawn-coloured ; wing-coverts and rump of a
rich ultramarine blue; iris with a double circle of brown and
gray ; feet yellowish ; bill black, brownish at the base. Thirteen
inches long. Inhabits Europe — Shaw, vii. pi. 50.
This is the only one of the family known in Europe. It roams as far north as
Sweden, and a few stragglers have been met with in England,

C. Bengalensis, Lath. Bengal Roller. Plumage sub-fulvous, blu-
ish beneath ; the under part of the neck striated with pale violet ;
tail entire. 12 inches long. Inhabits Bengal, — Lath. Ind. 168.

C. Senegalensis. Lath. Plumage reddish brown; the tail,, wings, and
upper parts bluish ; face white ; exterior tail-feathers longest.
Eighteen inches long. Inhabits Africa. — Lath. Ind. 169.

Gen. 14 COLARIS. Cuv.

Bill short, strong, depressed, dilated on the sides, much broad-
er than deep, ridge rounded, point a little crooked, with or
without notch ; inferior mandible in part concealed by the
margin of the upper ; nostrils basal, long, diagonally cleft,
half shut by a membrane covered with feathers ; legs short ;
tarsus shorter than the intermediate toe ; the anterior toes
joined at their base ; wings long, the second feather longest.

C. orientalis. Tern. (Coracias orientalis, Lath.) Quill-feather va-
ried with sea-green and blue ; abdomen blue green ; throat and base
of the tail blue. lOincheslong. Inhabits India — Briss. ii.t.7-%.2.

C. Madagascariensis, Tern. (Coracias, Lath.) Plumage above pur-
ple ferruginous, inclining to blossom colour beneath ; quill-fea-
thers blue black ; rump, vent, and tail blue green, tipped with
purplish black. Ten inches long. Inhabits Madagascar. — Buff.
Ois. PI. Enl. 501.

C. qfraTem. (Coracias of ra, Lath.) Plumage above rufous brown,
lilac-coloured beneath; wings blue; tail sea-green, with blue black
tip. 8 inches long. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw. Nat. Mis. pi. 401.

Gen. 15. ORIOLUS, Tern.

Bill in the form of a lengthened cone, horizontally compresed
at the base, and edged ; the upper mandible surmounted by
a ridge, notched at the point ; nostrils basal, lateral, naked, and
horizontally pierced in a large membrane ; tarsus shorter than,
or of the same length as, the middle toe, which is joined to
the exterior one ; wings with the first quill very short, the
third the longest.

O. galbula, Lin. Golden Oriole. Body and tip of the tail gold-yel-
low; wings, tail, and cere black; bill chestnut coloured ; iris red;
legs bluish gray. 10 inches long. Europe, &c Shaw, vii. pi. 53

206 BIRDS. OMNIVOILE.

O. melanoccphalus, Lin. Plumage purplish blue, head and neck
black ; beneath white ; quill-feathers fuscous ; tail cuneiform, tip
white. Inhabits China. Size of the jay — Lath. Ind. 172.

0. paradisea, Tern. (Paradisea aurea, Lath.) Plumage brown-
ish yellow, with the breast, wings, and tail-feathers black. Eight
inches long. Inhabits India. — Edwards, t. 112.

Gen. 16. ICTERUS, Tern. — Graculus Oriolus, Lin.

Bill longer than the head, or as long, straight, like an elongated
cone, pointed, sharp, a little compressed, without distinctsridge
or notch, the base covered by feathers; margins of the mandi-
bles more or less bent inwards ; nostrils basal, lateral, and
covered by a horny rudiment ; tarsus as long as or longer than
the middle toe ; wings long, third and fourth feathers longest.

1. cristatus, Tern. (Oriolus cri&tatus, Lath. Cassicus, Daud.) Crest
black ; the lower part of the back, rump, and vent chestnut ; la-
teral tail-£eathers yellow. Eighteen inches long. Inhabits S.
America.— Buff. Ois. PI. Enl. 344.

I. quisculus, Tern. (Gracula quiscula, Lin.) Plumage glossy pur-
ple, black; tail long, round ; bill and legs black; iris silver-coloured.
Nearly a foot long. Inhabits Mexico, &c. Catesb. Car. i. pi. 12.

I. baritus, Tern. (Gracula barita, Lin.) Plumage blackish, with
a gloss of purple and green on the upper parts ; bill blackish, base
naked ; tail rounded, concave above. Thirteen inches long. In-
habits N. America. — Sloane, Jam. t. 257. %• 2.

I. Americanus, Tern. (Oriolus , Lath.) Plumage black, with deep-
red chin, throat, and breast ; border of the wings red. Smaller
than a blackbird. Inhabits Guiana — Shaw, vii. 428.

Gen. 17. STURNUS, Lin.

Bill straight, in the form of an elongated cone, depressed,
slightly obtuse ; base of the upper mandible projecting on
the forehead, the point much depressed, and without a notch ;
nostrils basal, lateral, half closed by an arched membrane ;
wings long, the first quill very short, the second and third
longest; three toes before, and one behind, the exterior
joined at its base to the middle one.

Starlings feed principally on insects, nestle in the holes of trees, under the tiles of
roofs, and in the holes of walls. Like many of the omnivorous order, they consort
and travel in large flocks. The males and females differ little in general aspect ;
but the young of the first year are very dissimilar to the mature birds. They are
found in every quarter of the globe.

S. vulgaris, Lin. Common Starling or Stare. Body shining brassy
black, spotted with little triangular spots of reddish white ; lower
coverts of the tail bordered with white ; bill yellow ; legs brown
flesh-colour; eight inches long. — Inhabits Europe.
Stares occur abundantly in the old continent, from Norway to very southern lati-

BIRDS. 207

tudes. Their general food consists of insects and their larvae, snails, earth-worms,
grains, seeds, berries, &c. Fifty-seven individuals of this species were once killed
at a single shot near Kirkwall in Orkney, where they are as common as sparrows
elsewhere, and flocks of them perch on every wall and chimney top. The flight of
stares is not undulatory, but smooth and even ; and they walk very nearly in the
manner of a wagtail ; but when they assemble in flocks their movements are noisy
and tumultuous, describing a sort of vortex, combined with an advancing progress.
They chatter much in the evening and morning, both when they assemble and when
they disperse. On the approach of predaceous birds they rally in close array, and
visually succeed in driving them off. The kings of Persia used to have starlings trained
to hunt butterflies ; but they are now principally tamed for their imitative talent,
which enables them to whistle simple airs. They also articulate very distinctly, and
may be taught to repeat words.

S. tmicolor, Tern. Plumage of the body, the wings, and the tail, of a
shining black, with light purple reflections j base of the bill
blackish, point yellow ; legs yellowish brown. Eight inches long.
Inhabits Sardinia — Tern. 33.

S. Capensis, Lin. Cape Starling. Plumage blackish, with white
spots on the wings and neck ; sides of the head and belly white ;
bill yellowish at the base, the apex reddish. Inhabits Cape of
Good Hope.— BM^. Ois. PL Enl 280.

S. Ludovicianus, Lin. Plumage spotted with brown and gray ; yel-
lowish beneath ; a white line on the head and eyes ; throat black ;
bill whitish ; four lateral tail-feathers white. Nine inches long.
Inhabits America. — Buff. PL Enl. 256.

S. mititarls, Lin. Plumage grayish j breast and throat reddish ; a
white spot behind and under the eyes : vent and tail black. Eight
inches long. Inhabits S. America — Buff. PL Enl. 113.

S. carunculatiis, Gmel. Black, with the back and wing-coverts fer-
ruginous; base of the under mandible with a yellowish wattle or
caruncle. Ten inches long. New Zealand — Lath. Syn. iii. t. 36.

Gen. 18. PASTOR, Tern. — Turdus, Gracula, Gmel.

Bill in the form of an elongated cone, edged, much compressed,
slightly arcbed, point feebly notched; nostrils basal, lateral,
ovoid, half shut by a membrane furnished with small feathers ;
legs robust ; three toes before and one behind, the exterior
joined at the base to the middle one; wings with the first quill-
feather very small, the second and third longest.

They fly like the starling in great flocks, and follow cattle, alighting on their backs
for the insects-on their bodies. The greater number of the species have accessary
appendages on their head, either crests or caruncles. The young always want these,
their head being only covered with short and rounded feathers.

P. roseus, Tern. (Turdus roseus, Lath.) Head tufted; the neck
and the top of the breast black with violet reflections ; abdomen
and back of a fine rose-colour ; wings and tail brown- violet ; co-
verts of the wings bordered with clear rose-colour ; those of the
tail and thighs black, banded with whitish ; feet yellowish ; iris
deep brown. Eight inches long. Asia and Africa — Shaw,*, pi. 26.

P. calvus, Tern. (Gracula calva, Lin.) Plumage cinereous, gray-

BIRDS. OMNIVO&J.

ish below ; head naked on both sides ; breast, wing, and tail-fea-
thers blackish brown. Ten inches long. Inhabits Philippine Isl-
ands.— Shaw, vii. pi. 36.

P. tristis, Tern. (Paradisea tristis, Lin.) Plumage brown ; head
and neck blackish; a naked triangular red space behind each eye ;
a white spot at the tip of the wing and tail-feathers. Nine in-
ches long. Inhabits Philippine Islands. — Buff. PI. Enl. 219.

P. cristatellus , Tern. (Gracula cristatella, Lin.) Plumage black,
with frontal crest ; base of the primaries and apex of the tail-fea-
thers white; bill yellow. 8^ inches long. China. — Shaw, vii. pi. 55.

P. gallinaceus, Tern. (Gracula carunculata, Gmel.) Plumage ash-
coloured ; circle round the eyes naked ; base of the inferior man-
dible with a double wattle ; head with a yellow, erect bifid mem-
branaceous crest. Six inches long. Inhabits Cape of Good Hope.
— Lath. 2nd. 324.

P. pagodarum, Tern. (Turdus pagodarum, Lath.) Crest grayish;
body, wings, and tail black; belly streaked with white; vent white;
feathers of the neck long ; bill black ; legs yellow. Inhabits In-
dia.— Lath. Ind. 332.

Gen. 19. PARADISEA, Lin.

Bill of medium size, straight, quadrangular, pointed, a little con-
vex above, compressed; ridge between the feathers of the fore-
head ; nostrils basal, marginal, open, but entirely concealed
by the feathers ; legs short ; tarsus longer than the middle
toe; lateral toe unequal, the internal one united to the second
joint ; back toe longer than the others, robust ; wings with the
five first feathers staged ; the sixth or seventh longest.

P. apoda, Lin. (P. major, Shaw.) Great Bird of Paradise. Plum-
age cinnamon-coloured ; throat golden green ; head luteous ; side
feathers extremely long, floating, yellow, the two intermediate
tail-feathers long, setaceous. Length from bill to tip of side fea-
thers about two feet. Inhabits the Moluccas. — Shaw, vii. pi. 58.
The name Apoda applied to this beautiful bird had its rise from the specimens pro-
cured by the early travellers having the feet cut off; and of course all the stories of
these birds perpetually floating in the atmosphere, or suspending themselves, for a
short time, by the naked shafts, and that they never descended to the earth till their
death, are founded in fable. The great birds of paradise are found in the Molucca
islands, and in those surrounding New Guinea, particularly Papua and Am, where
they arrive with the westerly, or dry monsoon, and whence they return to New Guinea,
on the setting in of the easterly, or wet monsoon. They are seen going and returning
in flights of thirty or forty, conducted by a leader, which flies higher than the rest,
and crying like starlings in their progress, preserving their light plumage by inva-
riably moving against the wind. Their food is not known with certainty.

P. minor, Shaw. Plumage cinnamon-coloured, with luteous crown
and back, and gold-green throat ; side-feathers yellow, extremely
long and floating. 18 inches in total length. New Guinea.

P. sanguinea, Shaw. Plumage cinnamon -coloured, with luteous
occiput and back, gold-green front, and long floating sanguine-

PARADISEA. BIRDS. 209

red side feathers, and two broad naked shafts. Body 9 inches long,
to the tip of the flowing feathers 13 inches. — Shaw, vii. pi. 59.
P. magnified, Shaw. Plumage orange-chestnut above, top of the
head and back deeper than the rest, the head sometimes inclining
to purple; tips of the wings and tail brown; throat blackish purple;
breast, belly, and thighs of a deep changeable golden-green, in-
clining to blue down the middle of the breast ; a double ruff of
setaceous orange-coloured and yellow feathers on the neck, tip-
ped with black ; bill and legs yellowish brown. Inhabits New
Guinea. — Shaw, vii. pi. 62.

P. regia, Lin. Royal Bird of Paradise. Plumage red chestnut,
with a golden pectoral band; the two middle tail-feathers filiform,
with lunated feathered tips. Five to seven inches long. Inhabits
Indian Islands. —Shaw, vii. pi. 67.

This is the smallest of the tribe, not exceeding the size of a lark, and usually
measuring five inches, or five inches and a-half, in length, without reckoning the
two middle tail-feathers, which are about six inches long, in the form of naked shafts,
divaricating as they extend, and each terminating in a moderately broad gold green
web, rising from one side only of the shaft, and disposed into a flat spiral, of nearly
two convolutions.

P. superba, Shaw. Bill black, with velvet-like black feathers ris-
ing into a bifid crest at its base ; forehead shining golden-green ;
throat and sides of the neck glossy purple, with the feathers of a
rounded form ; lower part of the breast with a broad band of blue
green feathers of a golden hue, diverging and lengthened like a
forked wing ; the rest of the plumage, with the wings, brownish
black ; wing-coverts broad, falciform feathers on the shoulders ap-
pearing like double wings ; legs black. Inhabits New Guinea.
— Shaw, vii. pi. 63.

P. sexsetacea, Lath. (Parotia aurea, Vieill.) Golden-breasted Bird
of Paradise. Plumage velvet-black ; hind-head and breast gold-
'green; side feathers lengthened, and loose-webbed; head fur-
nished on each side with three very long naked shafts, five or six
inches in length, and terminating in broad oval webs ; tail com-
posed of twelve graduated feathers, of a rich velvety black colour,
some of these feathers with long, separated, and floating webs ; bill
black ; iris yellow ; feet blackish. From ten to eleven inches in
length. Inhabits New Guinea — Shaw, vii. pi. 66.

Gen. 20. LAMPROTORNIS, Tern.

Bill of medium size, convex above, compressed at the point,
which is notched ; base depressed, and ridge between the fea-
thers of the forehead ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, half shut
by an arched membrane, often covered by feathers; legs long;
tarsus longer than the intermediate toe ; internal toe joined
at its base, the external free ; wings, the fourth and fifth quill-
feathers longest.

All the species are of the Old Continent, the greater part from Africa. Their
plumage is brilliant, shining with metallic lustre. In their habits they resemble
the Stares.

VOL. I. O

210 BIRDS. INSECTIVOR^.

1u.gitlaris,Tem. (Paradisea gularis,ltaih.) Plum age purplish-black;
back and under parts blackish gold-green ; the throat golden-cop-
per-coloured, and the tail very long and cuneated. Size of a
blackbird. Inhabits the Moluccas — Shaw, vii. pi. 70.

L. auratusy Tern. ( Tnrdus auratus, Lath.) Plumage golden-green,
with the head,, neck, and body below violet ; tail and bands of the
wings blue; bill fuscous.; iris yellow. Eighteen inches long. In-
habits Africa Buff. PL Enl 504.

L. nitens,Tem. (Turdusnitens,~L\Ti..) Plum age green, with a bright
violet-coloured spot on the coverts of the wings. Nine inches long.
Inhabits Cape of Good Hope. — Edrv. t. 320.

L. atratus, Tern. (Tanagra atratus, Lin.) Plumage glossy black;
back subviolaceous ; bill black. Size of the Thrush. Inhabits
India — Lath. Ind. 430.

L. metallicus, Tern. Feathers of the head, nape, neck, in front and
back elongated, and glossed with metallic purple ..violet, and green;
back and body beneath purple ; wings and tail metallic green.
Nine inches long. Inhabits Timor Tern. PL Col. 266.

L. erythrophrys, Tern. Orbits and ears black ; vent yellow ; wings
green, the tips of the quills brown ; tail olivaceous, the two mid-
dle feathers whitish-yellow towards the tip ; feathers of the fore-
head stiff, shining, and of a vermilion colour. 9 inches long.
Inhabits Java — Tern. PL Col. 267.

ORDER III.— INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS. Insectivorce.

Bill middle sized or short, straight, rounded, slightly edged or
awl-shaped; upper mandible curved and notched at the point,
most frequently furnished at the base with some coarse hairs,
pointing forwards ; feet with three toes before and one behind,
articulated on the same level, the exterior united at its base,
or to the first joint of the middle toe.

The voice of these birds is distinguished by its harmony and cadence. Most of them
chiefly subsist on insects, especially during the breeding season, but many of them
have likewise recourse to berries. They have usually more than one brood in the
year, and inhabit woods, bushes, or reeds, in which they build solitary nests.

Gen. 1. TURDUS, Lin.

Bill middle-sized, sharp edged, tip compressed and recurved ;
upper mandible notched near the point ; detached hairs at
the opening of the mandibles ; nostrils basal, ovoid, lateral,
half concealed by a naked membrane ; tarsus longer than the
middle toe, to which last the outer is united at the base.

This genus, numerous in species, is divided by Temminck into two sections, — those
which inhabit woods and thickets in the lower grounds, and those which live solitary
in rocky and mountainous situations. Many of the European species migrate ia
large flocks, whilst others are sedentary, especially in the south of Europe. Most

BIRDS. 211

of them have been remarked tor their notes, and many of them are reckoned delicate
eating.

T. vifdvorus, Lin. Missel Thrush. Plumage gray -brown above,
whitish yellow beneath, varied with dusky spots, the three outer
tail-feathers tipped with white ; coverts of the wings bordered and
terminated with white. Eleven inches long. Inhabits Europe. B.
—Selby, Illust. pi. 44, fig. 1.

This is the largest of the European thrushes, and varies considerably in colour.
It inhabits Kurope as far northward as Norway, and is common in Russia, but not
found in Siberia. In most of the temperate parts of Europe it is partly migratory,
and partly stationary. When disturbed or agitated, it utters a shrill grating scream,
which is its usual note in autumn and winter. The male shares the duties of incu-
bation, but ceases his song when the young are hatched.

T. pilaris, Lin. The Fieldfare. Head, neck, and lower part of the
back ash-coloured ; top of the back and wing-coverts chestnut ;
space between the eye and bill black, and a black line above the
eyes ; throat and breast bright red, with black triangular spots;
belly pure white ; tail black. Ten inches long. Inhabits Europe,
&c.—Selbu, Illust. pi. 45. fig 1.

The Fieldfare in this country is a migratory bird. It generally arrives in Novem-
ber in numerous flocks, and frequently remains till the beginning of April, though
it often takes. its departure in March. .This bird builds in the pine forests of
Norway, Sweden, and Lapland, laying from three to five eggs of a pale bluish-green
colour, spotted with reddish brown. Its flesh was highly prized by the ancient Ro-
mans, who fattened fieldfares for the table.

T. musicus, Lin. The Throstle or Thrush. Plumage gray-brown
above, yellowish red beneath, varied with dusky spots ; space
between the eye and bill yellowish ; belly and flanks white, with
oval brown spots; legs gray brown. Nine inches long. In-
habits Europe. — Selby, Illust. pi. 45. fig. 2.

Var. From white to different shades of brown, reddish, or yellow.

T. iliacus, Lin. Red-wing Thrush. Plumage olive brown above ;
1 space between the eye and bill black and yellowish; a broad
whitish band above the eyes ; inferior wing-coverts and flanks
of a bright red ; sides of the neck, breast, and belly sprinkled
with numerous longitudinal blackish spots ; belly white. 8 inches
long. Northern Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 45, fig. 3.

T. rufus, Plumage ferruginous above, beneath paler and spotted ;
quills unspotted ; tail rufous, rounded. Eleven inches long. In-
habits N. America. — Shaw, x. 191.

T. torquatus, Lin. Ring-Ouzel. Plumage dusky, with a white col-
lar ; bill blackish ; palate and opening yellow ; iris hazel-colour-
ed ; legs blackish brown. Ten inches long. Inhabits Europe. B.
— .Selby, Illust. pi. 44, fig. 2.

T. merula, Lin. The Blackbird. Plumage black ; bill and feet
tawny yellow ; iris and legs black ; a yellow circle around the

eyes. 9 inches long. Inhabits Europe Selby , Illust. pi. 43. fig. 2.

The Blackbird inhabits the greatest portion of the temperate regions of Europe
and Asia. The male begins his song in the first fine days of spring, and, except
during the period of moulting, continues it till the commencement of winter. This

212 BIRDS. INSECTIVOH/E.

species breeds twice or thrice in the year, placing its nest in thick bushes, at a mo-
derate height from the ground, or on old trunks of pollards.

T. atrogularis, Tern. Face, cheeks, top of the breast, and neck
deep black, shading to cinereous ; lower part of the breast and
middle of the belly whitish, shading to reddish ; lower tail-coverts
reddish, terminating in white ; upper parts cinereous, deeper on
the head; wing-coverts banded with yellowish; bill blackish
brown ; the lower mandible yellow at its base ; iris and legs
brown. Ten inches long. Inhabits Germany. — Tern. Man. 170.

T. Naumanni, Tern. Top of the head deep brown, the other su-
perior parts cinereous red, shading to deeper red, which is the
colour of the sides of the neck, the rump, and lateral feathers of
the tail ; scapulars bordered with red, and spots of the same co-
lour on the flanks and abdomen ; middle of the belly and thighs
white ; bill and legs brown. Nine inches long. Inhabits Hun-
gary, &c Tern. Man. 170.

T. saxatilis, Lath. Head and top of the neck of a blue cinereous
or lead colour ; upper parts blackish brown, with a broad space
on the middle of the back white ; wings and middle feathers of
the tail brown j the other tail-feathers and the lower parts of a
lively red ; inferior coverts of the tail terminated by white.
7 inches long. Inhabits mountains in Europe, &c. — Shaw, x. 266.

T. cyanus, Lin. Blue Thrush. All the upper parts, the wings and
tail excepted, deep blue ; lower parts paler blue ; the throat and
neck without spots, but all the inferior parts with black narrow
crescent-shaped lines towards the end of the feathers j wings and
tail black, margined with gray; bill and feet black. 8 inches long.
Inhabits Southern Europe. — Shaw, x. 224.

T. Orpheus, Lin. Mocking Thrush or Mocking Bird. Plumage

gray-brown above, grayish- white beneath ; lateral tail-feathers

and spot on the wings white j bill blackish-brown ; iris yellow,

above the eyes white ; rump gray-blue ; legs black or cinereous.

Size of the blackbird. Inhabits America. — Shaw, x. pi. 20.

This species occurs in North America, especially in its more temperate regions,

and in several parts of the West Indies. Its power of imitation has been often

noticed. Thus, one of them confined in a cage has been heard to mimic the

mewing of a cat, the chattering of a magpie, and the creaking of the hinges of a

sign-post in high winds. On account of the diversified and imitative character of

its notes, the Mexicans call it by a name which signifies the bird of a hundred

tongues.

T.jocosus,TQin. (Laniusjocosus,IjiiL.) Head crested, black ; throat
white ; body grayish ; lower palpebrae purple ; vent bright red ;
the four lateral tail-feathers tipped with white. Seven inches
and a-half long. Inhabits China Buff. PI. Enl 508.

T. hatmorhausus, Tern. (Musicapa hcemorhausa, Lath.) Plumage
fuscous, waved ; crest and tail black j breast and abdomen white ;
vent red. 4| inches long. Inhabits Ceylon. — Brown, III. t. 31.

T. Cayancnsis, Tern. (Merops Cayanen&is, Turdus punctatus and
Manillensis, Lath.) Plumage brownish green ; wings and tail

CINCLUS. BIRDS. 213

red ; base of the quill-feathers white, the rest black ; bill black ;
legs yellowish. Eight inches long. Inhabits Cayenne — Buff'.
PI. Enl 454.

T. migratorius, Lath. Plumage grayish ; bill yellow,, and blackish
at its extremity j three white spots on the sides of the head ;
tail black, bordered with gray ; fore part of the neck, breast, and
belly, of a bright red ; lower part of the belly white. Nine
inches long. Inhabits North America — Buff. PL Enl. 556.

T. vociferans, Swainson. Body cinereous above, ferruginous be-
low ; with the ears and sides of the head black ; tail rounded,
its middle feathers black, and lateral ones ferruginous. 71 inches
long. Inhabits Southern Africa — Swains. Zool. III. iii pi. 80.

T. clamosus, Lath, Plumage olive green above, paler beneath, the
quills edged with yellow. Seven inches long. Inhabits Africa.
—Vaill. Ois, d'Afriq. iii. pi. 106, fig. 2.

Gen. 2. CINCLUS, Bechst. — Hydrobata, Vieill.
Bill rather slender, slightly bent upwards, compressed at the
sides; point of the upper mandible bent over the lower;
nostrils basal, lateral, longitudinally cleft, and partly covered
by a membrane ; head small ; three toes before and one be-
hind, the exterior joined at its base to the middle one ; tarsus
longer than the middle toe ; wings short.

C. aquations, Bechst. European Dipper. Upper parts of the body
of a deep brown, tinted with ash-colour; throat, front of the
neck and breast pure white ; belly red ; bill blackish ; iris pearl-
coloured ; feet horn-colour. 7 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B.
—Selbij, Illust. pi. 45.»

This singular bird feeds on aquatic insects, and in consequence is found always
near the margins of clear streams. With the structure of a land-bird, and incapa-
ble of diving or swimming, it nevertheless advances into the water in pursuit of its
prey, walking on the bottom and completely covered.

Gen. 3. MENURA, Shaw.

Bill at its base broader than deep, straight, somewhat slender,
inclined at the point, which is notched, and furnished at the
base with setaceous plumes, pointing forwards ; lower man-
dible shortest ; nostrils oval, large, covered with a membrane,
and situated in the middle of the bill ; claws as long as the
toes, broad, convex above, obtuse ; wings short, concave.

M. superba, Lath. Plumage above brown, inclining to rufcrus on
the wings and neck, ashy-brown below ; tail of sixteen loose-
webbed feathers. Size of a hen pheasant. New South Wales.
— Vieill Ois. de Parad. pi. 14.

Gen. 4. PITTA, Vieill.

Bill of medium size, strong, hard, compressed through its whole
length, slightly inclined from its base, bent at the point,

214 BIRDS. INSECTI VOILE.

slightly notched ; ridge elevated at its base ; nostrils basal,
lateral, half shut by a naked membrane ; legs long, slender ;
tarsus often double the length of the intermediate toe ; the
internal toe united to the first joint ; wings short, rounded,
the three first feathers equally graduated, the fourth and fifth
longest ; tail short, equal, or rounded.

P. cyanura, Tern. (Turdus cj/tfwwrw.?, Lath.) Plumage chestnut-
coloured ; yellow, streaked with blue beneath ; head banded with
black; tail and transverse pectoral band blue. 8| inches long.
Inhabits Guiana. — Sharv, vii. pi. 47-

P. brachyura, Tern. (Corvus brachyurus, Lin.) Plumage green,
yellowish beneath, with three black stripes on the head ; shoul-
ders and tail- coverts blue ; vent red. 7 inches long. Inhabits
Ceylon. — Shaw, vii. pi. 48.

P. versicolor, Swainson. Plumage greenish above, fulvous below,
with the rump and tail-feathers blue ; vent red ; crown rufous ;
nape, chin, and abdominal spot black. 9 inches long. Inhabits
New Holland — Zool. Journ. i. 468.

P. erythrogastra, Tern. Crown, occiput, and cheeks reddish brown ;
neck and throat dusky, with a rosy spot ; back, scapulars, and
pectoral fascia blue-green ; wing-coverts, rump, and tail blue ;
abdomen and vent red. 6 1 inches long. Inhabits Philippine Islands.
—Tern. PL Col 212.

Gen. 5. MYIOTHERA, Illig.

Bill long, straight, convex above, ridge a little arched, point
bent suddenly, notched ; lower mandible conical and a little
turned up at the point ; nostrils basal, lateral, half conceal-
ed by a membrane ; legs long or of medium size, slender ;
lateral toes nearly equal, the internal one united to the first
joint ; wings short, rounded ; the fourth and fifth feathers
longest ; tail short and equal, or long and graduated.

M. grallarius, Tern. ( Turdus grallarius, Lath. Grattaria, Vieill.)
Plumage ferruginous brown above, paler beneath ; occiput cine-
reous ; legs long, bare a little above the knee, and of a reddish
flesh-colour ; tail extremely short. Size of the missel thrush.
Inhabits Guiana — Shaw, vii. pi. 49.

M. tinniens, Tern. (Turdus tinniens, Lath. Grallaria, Vieill.)
Plumage brown above, whitish beneath, the breast mottled with
dusky ; tail moderately long ; legs pale, plumbeous ; bill black
above, white below. 7 inches long. Ceylon. — Shaw, x. 306.
This species has its name from its shrill and loud tinkling cry, which has been

compared to the alarum of a clock, and is continued for nearly the space of an hour

during the mornings and evenings.

M.jerruginea, Tern. Plumage black, varied with white above ; fer-
ruginous below ; throat variegated with red, white, and black ;
eyebrows, tip of the wing-coverts, and tail-feathers white. 5 inches
long. Inhabits Brazil — Tern. PI. Col. 132, fig. 3.

THAMNOPHILUS. BIRDS.

M. nccma, Tern. (Pipra nasma, Lath. Conophaga, Vieill.) Plu-
mage brown above, fulvous beneath ; throat and jugulum black ;
breast and upper part of the belly white, spotted with black ;
wings with two white bars ; lower belly, thighs, and vent orange.
" 4 inches long. Inhabits Cayenne — Buff. PI. Enl. 823. fig. 2.

M. mentalis, Tern. (Formicivora, Swainson.) Plumage above
ashy green, the wings and tail deeper, with a brown hue ; clear
yellow below ; throat silvery gray, and a large black spot on the
ear-feathers ; the lesser coverts dusky, with white lunules. 4
inches long. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 54.

Gen. 6. THAMNOPHILUS, Vieill. — Lanius, Lath.

Bill short, strong, thick, a little gibbous, widened at the base,
dilated on the sides, compressed towards the point, which is
obtuse, much bent and notched ; nostrils lateral, a little dis-
tant from the base, pierced in the horny bill, rounded or
oval, open ; legs long and slender ; tarsus much longer than
the intermediate toe ; the external toe united to the first joint ;
wings short, rounded, the fourth, fifth, and sixth quill-fea-
thers equal and longest.

The Thamnophili are found in America, from Canada to Paraguay. They in-
habit thick bushes, and feed chiefly on caterpillars and insects.

T. doliatiiSjTem. Plumage transversely striped with black and white;
tail rounded ; feathers of the head long, tipped with black, ca-
pable of erection. 6 inches long. Inhabits Cayenne — Lath.
Lid. 80.

T. atricapillus, Tern. Plumage of the crown, neck, shoulders, and

wings black ; body above mouse-coloured ; below bluish gray ;

• wings short ; tail, except the two middle feathers, tipped with

white, and cuneated. 5 inches long. Inhabits Surinam — Lath.

Ind. 73.

T. ncevius, Tern. Plumage black above, cinereousbelow; back, wings,
and tail spotted with white. 5 inches long. Inhabits Cayenne.
—Lath. Ind. 81.

T. bicolor, Swainson. Head much crested ; plumage of the up-
per parts deep black ; of the under parts pure white ; tips of
the wing-coverts, margins of the quills, and interrupted bands on
the tail white ; irides crimson. 8 inches long. Inhabits Brazil. —
Zool. Journ. iii. 86.

Gen. 7. VANGA, Vieill. — Lanius, Lin.

Bill long, hard, edged, bent at its point, which is crooked and
sharp ; nostrils lateral, a little distant from the base, in the
horn of the bill, covered above by a cartilage ; base of the
bill with stiff hairs ; tarsus as long or longer than the inter-
mediate toe ; the external toe united to the first joint ; the
third quill-feather longest.

216 BIRDS. INSECTIVOILE.

V. curvirostris, Tern. Back and wings black ; coverts and smaller
quill-feathers edged with white ; tail black ; the remainder of
the body white ; bill and legs black. 10 inches long. Inhabits
Madagascar Buff. PL Enl 228.

Gen. 8, LANIUS, Lin.

Bill middle-sized, robust, straight from its origin, and much
compressed ; upper mandible strongly bent towards the tip,
which is hooked, the base destitute of a cere, and furnished
with rough hairs, pointing forwards ; nostrils basal, lateral,
almost round, half closed by an arched membrane, and often
partly concealed by hairs ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ;
three toes before and one behind, separate ; the third and
fourth wing-feathers longest.

Butcher- Birds are so denominated from their singular habit of sticking their prey
upon the thorns of bushes before feeding on it. After killing a bird, or large insect,
they affix the body to some sharp thorn ; for these birds want the strength of the
hawk to retain their quariy in their claws, and pull it with their bill. They like-
wise spit the larger insects on thorns before devouring them, reserving them, ac-
cording to some, or using them, according to others, as a decoy to the insectivorous
birds.

L. excubitor, Lin. Greater Butcher-Bird or Shrike. Plumage gray
above, white beneath ; wings short, black; a broad black band be-
low the eyes; origin of the primaries and the extremities of the se-
condary quills pure white ; the two exterior feathers of the tail
white, the third black towards the centre, the fourth terminated
by a large white space, and the two centre ones entirely black ;
bill and legs deep black. Nine inches long — Shaw, vii. pi. 37«

L. meridionalis, Tern. Head, neck, and back of deep ash-colour ;
a broad black band under the eyes ; throat whitish ; lower parts
of a reddish ash-colour ; origin of the first quill-feathers and ex-
tremities of the secondaries pure white ; four middle feathers of
the tail black. Nine inches long. Europe. — Tern. Man. 143.

L. minor, Lin. The Gray Shrike. Plumage cinereous above; throat
white ; breast and flanks rose-coloured ; forehead, region of the
eyes and ears black ; wings black ; four middle feathers of the
tail black. Nine inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Tern. Man. 144.

L. nifus, Briss. Forehead, region of the eyes and ears black ; oc-
ciput and nape of a bright red; top of the back and wings black;
extremities and margins of the coverts white, as are the lower
parts of the body ; first feather of the tail white, with a black
square spot on the interior web ; the second with a larger spot on
both webs, the others white at their origin, and towards the end;
the two middle ones black ; tail slightly rounded. Seven inches
long. Inhabits Europe. — Tern. Man. 146.

L. collurio, Lin. Red-backed Shrike. Back and wing-coverts red-
dish brown ; back of the head and neck gray ; throat and vent
white ; breast, belly, and flanks rose-red ; tail wedge-shaped, the
middle feathers black, the rest with more or less white at the base>

PSAKIS. BIRDS. 217

tipped with white ; legs and feet black. 7J- inches long. Inha-
bits Europe. B.— Se%, Illust. pi. 43, fig. 2, 3.
The Red-backed Shrike transfixes the larger insects, particularly the chafer, en a
thorn, and tears off the body, leaving the wing-cases, wings, and head. Colonel
Montagu kept a young brood of this species for some time ; but though they lived
in amity for about two months, they then became very pugnacious, and two out of
four were killed.

L.frontatus, Lath. (Falcunculus, Vieill.) Head and neck black,
crested, with two lateral white bands ; wings and tail brown; body
beneath yellow. About 7 inches long. Inhabits New Holland".
— Shan, xiii. pi. 50.

L. Antiguanus, Lin. Plumage reddish yellow ; wing-feathers and
cuneated tail black ; bill large, with hooked tip. 7 inches long.
Inhabits Philippine Islands — Shaw, vii. 333.

L. collaris, Lin. Collared Shrike. Plumage black above, white be-
neath ; white scapulars, and cuneated tail edged with white ; bill
and legs black. 10 inches long. Inhabits Africa.
^ This species, according to Levaillant, when it sees a locust, a mantis, or a small
bird, springs on it, and instantly carries it off, to impale it on a thorn, and with
such dexterity that the spine always passes through the head of the victim ; or, if a
thorn cannot readily be found, it fixes, with great address, the head of the captur-
ed animal between a division of two small branches. Every creature which it seizes
undergoes exactly the same process, and it thus continues to kill, and to store up its
bloody acquisitions all day long, transfixing many more carcasses than it ultimately
devours.

Gen. 9- PSARTS, Cuv. Tern. — Lanius, Lin.
Bill thick, short, hard, conical, round, ridged, depressed at the
base, compressed at the point, which is crooked and notched ;
no nasal furrow; nostrils distant from the base, lateral,
round, open, in the corneous substance of the bill ; legs
.strong; tarsus short, the length of the intermediate toe; the
external toe united to the first joint, the internal at the base ;
wings of medium size, the third and fourth feathers longest.

P. Cay anus, Tern. Plumage bluish gray; head, borders of the wings,
quill-feathers, and tail black ; bill reddish, with black tip ; legs
black. 8 inches long. Inhabits Cayenne. — Buff. PI. Enl 377.

P. Cumerii, Swainson. Plumage yellowish olive above ; lower part
of the neck, breast, sides, and inner wing-coverts yellow ; abdomen
white ; crown of the head deep bluish black ; bill bluish ; tail
short, slightly divaricated. 5J inches long. Inhabits Brazil.—
Swainson, Zool. Illust. pi. 32.

Gen. 10. SPARACTES, Illig. — Lanius, Lin.
Bill strong, thick, a little depressed at the base, much dilated
on the sides, without projecting ridge, a little bent and com-
pressed at the point, which is slightly notched ; no distinct
nasal furrow; lower mandible strong, broad, with obtuse point;
nostrils basal, lateral, pierced in a furrow in the corneous
mass ; legs strong ; tarsus longer than the middle toe.

BIRDS. INSECTIVOILE.

S. superbus, 11%. Plumage above fine black; throat with a scarlet
spot, tinged at its extremity with yellow ; a yellow band across
the abdomen, with reddish streaks ; quill-feathers slightly edged
with white ; rump greenish yellow ; bill strong, gray, with an
upright crest of long narrow" feathers ; legs black. Size of a
Thrush. Inhabits South Sea Islands. — Shaw, vii. pi. 39.

Gen. 11. OCYPTERUS, Cuv. Tern. — (Leptopteryx, Horsfield.)
Bill slightly depressed at the base, compressed and notched at
the point ; upper mandible convex above, bent at the point ;
nostrils lateral, distant from the base, pierced in the corneous
mass, concealed by the short hairs of the base ; legs and toes
short ; wings long, the second and third feathers equal and
longest.

O. viridis, Tern. (Lanius viridis, Lath.) Plumage dull green above,
white beneath ; with blackish wings and tail. 5 inches long. In-
habits Madagascar — Shaw, vii. 321.

O. leucorynchos, Tern. (Lanius, Lath.) Plumage blackish above,
beneath and rump white. 7 inches long. Inhabits Philippine
Islands. — Shaw, vii. 323.

Gen. 12. TRICOPHOEUS, Tern.

Bill short, strong, conical, compressed at its point, and widen-
ed a little at its base; upper mandible bent towards the point,
which is slightly notched ; base of the bill with strong and
long bristles ; legs short ; tarsus shorter than the middle toe,
the external toe united to the second joint ; fourth, fifth, and
sixth wing-feathers longest.

T. barbatus, Tern. Plumage above green, glossed on the back with
ash ; tail tinged with reddish ; feathers of the throat long, form-
ing a beard, clear yellow, with the shafts yellowish ; under parts
ashy-green ; edges of the upper mandible with long bristles or
hairs, and the occiput and upper part of the neck with eight or
ten bristles. 8 inches long. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 29.

Gen. 13. EDOLIUS, Cuv. — Dicrurus, Vieill.

Bill strong, depressed at the base, compressed and notched at
the end, upper mandible convex, bent, and a little crooked
at the point ; the lower straight, turned up at the point ; base
furnished with long stiff hairs ; nostrils basal, lateral, half co-
vered with feathers and long hairs ; legs slender, short ; wings
with the fourth, fifth, and sixth feathers longest ; tail more
or less forked.

1&.forjicatus, Tern. (Lanius forficatus, Lath.) Plumage greenish-
black, with upright frontal crest and forked tail ; bill and legs
black. Inhabits China, Madagascar, Set.— Buff. PL Enl 169.

E. Malabaricus, Tern. (Lanius f Shaw.) Plumage deep black, with

CEBLEPYRIS. BIRDS. 219

a gloss of blue on the upper parts and breast, where the feathers
are lanceolate ; a large crest rising from the base of the upper
mandible ; exterior tail feathers very long,, with naked shaft and
plumed tips. Size of the Thrush. India. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 47.

E. mystaceus, Tern. Plumage black., glossed with green ; wing-co-
verts, quills, and tail brown black ; base of the bill with elonga-
ted bristles; tail slightly forked. Size of the Thrush. Inhabits
Africa — Vaill. Ois. d'Afriq. pi. 169.

Gen. 14. CEBLEPYJUS, Tern.

Bill thick, short, strong, widened at the base, a little tumid,
compressed at the point ; upper mandible convex, bent and
notched towards the point ; lower mandible straight, almost
equal to the upper ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, concealed
by close-set hairs ; legs short, weak ; lateral toes unequal,
united at the base; fourth and fifth wing-feathers the longest.

C.Papuensis, Tem.(Graculus,Cuv. Cor^w^Lath.) Plumage brown-
ish gray above, with white abdomen; quill-feathers blackish
brown ; eye-streak black. 1 1 inches long. Inhabits New Guinea.
—Lath. Ind. 157.

C. canus, Tern. (Muscicapa, Lath.) Plumage ash-coloured above,
darker beneath, with the tail-feathers black, the two exterior
tipped with ash-colour, and the quill-feathers white on their in-
ner webs. 8J inches long. Madagascar. — Buff. PL Enl. 541.

C. Vaillantii, Tern. (Echenilleur gris, Vaill.) Plumage above slaty-
gray, beneath paler ; before and behind the eyes and the breast
dusky ; quill-feathers brownish, margined externally with white ;
tail doubly wedged. Size of a Lark. Inhabits Africa. — Vaill.
Ois. d'Afriq. pi. 162, 163.

C. niger, Tem. • Plumage above black, glossed with blue or green ;
beneath, and with the quill-feathers within olive green. Size of
the preceding. Inhabits Africa — Vaill. Ois. d'Afriq. pi. ]65.

Gen. 15. CORACINA, Vieill.

Bill thick, strong, angular, convex above, straight, narrowed at
its point, which is compressed, and feebly notched or smooth,
with short hairs at the base ; nostrils basal, rounded, open
before, shut behind by a feathered membrane ; legs strong ;
tarsus shorter than the middle toe ; fourth and fifth wing fea-
thers longest.

C. cephaloptera, Tem. (Cephaloptcrus ornatus, Geoff.) Plumage
black ; crest vertical, large, glossed with violet-colour, as are also
the pendant breast feathers. Size of a Jay. Inhabits Brazil.—
Shaw, x. pi. 39.

C. calva, (Gymnocephalus, Geoff. Corvus, Lath.) Plumage ferru-
ginous brown above, rufescent beneath ; with the face naked be-
yond the eyes. 13 inches long. Inhabits Cayenne.— Shaw, vii. 352.

220 BIRDS. INSECTIVOR.E.

C. rubrlcollis, Tern. (Querula, Vieill. Muscicapa, Lath.) Plumage
black ; chin and large spot on the throat purple. 12 inches long.
Inhabits Cayenne. — Lath. Ind. 489.

C. nudicollis, ( Graculafcelida, Shaw. Gymnoderes, Geoff.) Plumage
bluish black, the feathers in front of the head and beneath the
bill resembling velvet ; wing-coverts and quill-feathers blue-gray ;
sides of the neck naked and red. Size of the Jackdaw. Inha-
bits South America.— Buff. PL Enl. 609.

Gen. 16. AMPELIS, Lin.

Bill short, a little depressed, deeper than broad, trigonous at
the base, notched and suddenly bent at the point ; nostrils ba-
sal, lateral, rounded, half shut by a membrane ; tarsus the
length of or shorter than the middle toe ; the lateral toes unit-
ed to the second joint ; the second wing-feather longest.

A. Cotinga, Lin. Purple-breasted Chatterer. Plumage splendid
blue above, purple beneath ; wings and tail black. 8J inches
long. Inhabits Brazil. — Edwards, pi. 340.

A. hypopyrra, Vieill. Plumage above deep gray, with a shade of
green on the back and the exterior margin of the tail-feathers ;
lighter gray below ; a tuft of red orange feathers on the flanks ;
wing-coverts reddish. 7 inches long. — Inhabits Guiana.

A. Pompadoura, Lin. Plumage purple, with the feathersof the great-
er wing-coverts elongated, narrow, and pointed. 7f inches long.
Inhabits Guiana. — Edwards, pi. 341.

Gen. 17. CASMARHYNCHOS, Tern.

Bill broad, much depressed, soft and flexible at the base, com-
pressed, corneous, and notched at the point; nasal furrow large;
the lower mandible thin and flexible ; nostrils large, near the
point of the bill, ovoid and open, furnished with small fea-
thers ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; third and fourth
wing-feathers longest.

C. variegatus, Tern. (Ampelis, Lin.) Neck, breast, belly, back, and
thighs ash-coloured ; rump greenish ; wing-coverts black, legs
and quill-feathers dusky ; fore part of the neck with a number of
long black fleshy wattles. Inhabits Brazil — Shaw, xiii. pi 62.

C. carunculatus, Tern. (Ampelis, Lath.) Bill black, with a fleshy
caruncle at its base, hanging over like that of the turkey ; plu-
mage white, with the rump, quills, and tail-feathers inclining to
yellowish; forehead naked; legs black. 12 inches long. In-
habits Brazil. — Shaw, x. pi. 37-

Gen. 18. PROCNIAS, Illig.

Bill broader than the forehead, dilated on the sides, strong, de-
pressed, but much compressed at the point, which is notched ;
ridge a little raised at the base ; nostrils basal, tubular, bor-

IluncoLA. BIRDS. 221

dered by a membranous circle ; tarsus longer than the mid-
dle toe ; second and third wing-feathers longest.

P. ventralis, Tern. Blue Berry-eater. Plumage azure blue, with
the forehead and jugulum black; body beneath white in the mid-
dle; sides with dusky transverse stripes; female greenish. 6
inches long. Inhabits Brazil. — Tern. PI. Col. 5. fig. 1. 2.

P. cyanotropiis, P. Max. Plumage above splendid azure or green,
beneath white ; wings and throat black. Inhabits Brazil — Lath.
Geti.Hist.v.Q'Jl'

Gen. 19- RUPICOLA, Cuv.

Bill of medium size, robust, slightly arched, bent at the point
and notched; lower mandible straight, pointed; nostrils basal,
lateral, ovoid, concealed by the semicircular feathers of the
tuft ; legs robust ; tarsus partly covered by feathers, and the
length of the intermediate toe ; the external toe united farther
than the second joint ; first wing-feather much elongated, fi-
liform.

R. elegans, (Pipra rupicola, Lin.) Plumage saffron-orange ; quills
partly white, partly brown ; coverts locse and fringed ; crest erect,
semicircular, with purplish margin ; tail-coverts long, truncated.
Size of a Pigeon. Inhabits S. America. — Briss. iv. t. 34, fig. 1.

B, Peruviana, Tern. (Pipra, Lin.) Body reddish saffron-coloured ;
greater wing-coverts ash-coloured ; quills and tail black ; tail-co-
verts not truncated ; head crested. Rather larger than the pre-
ceding. Inhabits S. America.— Buff. PL Enl 745.

R. viridis, Tern. (Calyptamena, Raffles.) Plumage shining green,
with a spot on each side of the nape ; three oblique stripes on the
wings, and the quills, except the outer margins, dark-coloured.
Inhabits Sumatra. — Tern. PI. Col. 216.

Gen. 20. PHIBALURA, Vieill.

Bill very short, a little conical, convex above, dilated on the
sides; upper mandible notched at the point, the lower straight;
nasal furrow very small, and the nostrils covered by a mem-
brane ; first and second wing-feathers longest ; tail long, slen-
der, much forked.

P. flavirostris, Vieill. Plumage varied with black and rufuus; crown,
quills, and tail-feathers black ; occiput and throat rufous ; neck
behind and breast black and white ; abdomen spotted with black
and white. 8 inches long. Inhabits Brazil. — Tern. PI. Col. 118.

Gen. 21. PIPRA, Lin.

Bill trigonal, short, widened at the base, compressed and not-
ched ; nostrils basal, lateral, open, half concealed by a fea-
thered membrane ; wings and tail short ; two exterior toes
united at about half their length ; third and fourth wing-fea-
thers longest.

222 BIRDS. INSECTIVOR^.

P. pareola, Lin. Blue-backed Manakin. Head with a crest of bright
crimson feathers ; back and lower wing-coverts blue ; body black.
4| inches long. Inhabits S. America. — Desm. Man. pi. 50-53.

P. caudata, Lath. Long-tailed Manakin. Body blue ; crest crim-
son-coloured ; wings black, with the two middle tail-feathers elon-
gated and acuminate. Size of the preceding. — Shaw, x. 15.

P. strigilata, Tern. Back and wings green ; quills brown, edged
with white on their inner webs ; throat ashy green ; body beneath
yellowish-white, striated with brown ; male with a red crest.—
Tern. PI. Col. 54, fig. 1, 2.

P. Manacus, Lin. Plumage above black, beneath white, with a spot
on the neck and wings white. Four inches long, Inhabits Bra-
zil.— Desm. Man. pi. 58.

Gen. 22. PARDALOTUS, Vieill.

Bill very short, thick, dilated at the base, with distinct ridge ;
both mandibles equally strong, and of the same length, con-
vex and a little obtuse, the upper one notched ; nostrils ba-
sal, lateral, covered by a membrane ; legs slender ; tarsus
longer than the middle toe.

P. punclatus, Tern. (Pipra, Lin.) Gray Manakin. Plumage gray,
waved with brown ; crown and wings black, spotted with white ;
tail-coverts red. Inhabits New Holland. — Shaw, Nat. Mis. 111.

P. striatus, Tern. Gray-brown Manakin. Plumage gray brown
above, yellowish beneath; top of the head black, with white
stripes ; a deep yellow spot between the bill and the eye ; secon-
dary quills yellow at the tips. 4^ inches long. Inhabits Van
Dieman's Land. — Shaw, x. pi. 4.

P. superciliosus, Tern. Plumage chestnut red above, benerth yel-
lowish,- supercilia whitish above, margined with black; quills spot-
ted with white. Inhabits New Holland. — Shaw, x. 34.

Gen. 23. TODUS, Lin.

Bill long, formed of two thin plates, broader than deep, with a
distinct ridge ; point of the upper mandible straight, divided
at the extremity, the lower obtuse and truncated ; nostrils
open and rounded ; base of the mandibles with long hairs ;
toes lateral, unequal ; the external united to tbe third joint,
the internal to the second, wings short, with the fourth quill
the longest.

T. vlridis, Lin. Plumage green above, breast red, white below,
throat red. 3J inches long. N. America.— Shaw, viii. pi. 16.

Gen. 24. PLATYRHYNCHOS, Desm.

Bill broader than the face, dilated on the sides, much depressed,
with the point bent and notched ; nostrils round, open, closed
above by a feathered membrane ; tarsus longer than the mid-

MUSCIPETA. BIRDS. 228

die toe ; the exterior toe united to the middle one to the first
joint ; nail of the hind toe hooked, strong ; third and fourth
wing-feathers longest.

P. Pitangiia, Tern. (Tyrannus,C\w.) Plumage ferruginous brown
above ; yellowish beneath, with a yellow band on each side of the
head, and strong fulvous bill. Size of a blackbird. Inhabits
Brazil.— Shaw, vii. 300.

P. olivaceus, Tern. Plumage olive-green, with the throat, neck in
front, and breast greenish ; abdomen ashy-yellow ; wings and tail
brown, glossed with greenish. 5 inches long. Inhabits Brazil.
— Tern. PL Col. 12. fig. 1.

P. cancromus, Tem. With a yellow crest ; forehead and eyebrows
olive brown; a white spot on the lores; throat white; body above,
breast, and middle of the abdomen^ brown. 3| inches long. In-
habits Brazil Tem. PL Col. 12. fig. 2.

Gen. 25. MUSCIPETA, Cuv. Tem.

Bill much depressed, broader than deep ; upper mandible with
a sharp ridge, hooked, and incurved on the lower, and gene-
rally notched ; lower mandible much depressed, pointed, the
base furnished with long hairs, which frequently project be-
yond the bill ; nostrils basal and open ; lateral toes unequal ;
the external one united to the second joint ; first three quill-
feathers graduated, the fourth or fifth the longest.

M. plumbea, Tem. ( Todus plumbeus, Lath.) Plumage above hoary
lead-colour, inclining to black on the crown ; beneath milk-white ;
wings and tail blackish. Size of the Wren. Inhabits Surinam.
—Lath. hid. 267.

M. regia, Tem. .(Todus regius, Lath.) Plumage brown above,
whitish, with brown undulations, beneath ; crest ferruginous, and
tipped with black ; chin and eyelids white; bill dusky-brown ; legs
flesh-coloured. 7 inches long. Cayenne. — Shaw, viii. pi. 14, 15.

M. paradisea, Tem. Crest on the head bluish-green, body white,
tail wedge-shaped, with the two middle feathers very long in
the male, but considerably shorter in the female. About six in-
ches in length, and the tail fourteen. Inhabits Africa. — Edrv*
Glean, pi. 113.

M. flavigastra, Tem. Plumage above ash- coloured, yellow beneath,
with the quills and tail dusky black ; legs dirty flesh-colour. In-
habits New South Wales. — Shaw, x. 343.

Gen. 26. MUSCICAPA, Lin.

Bill strong, angular, depressed at the base, compressed towards
the point, which is curved, and much notched ; base furnish-
ed with long and stiff hairs ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid,
partly covered by hairs ; tarsus as long as the middle toe; la-
teral toes almost always equal.

This is a numerous genus and very widely dispersed, being found in almost all
latitudes.

BIRDS. IXSECTIVOILE.

M. grisola, Lin. Spotted Fly-catcher. Plumage brownish above,
whitish beneath ; neck longitudinally spotted ; sides under the
wings tinged with dull orange ; legs short and black. About
six inches long. — Selby, Illust. pi. 43,* fig. 1.

M. albicollis, Tern. (M. collaris, Bechst.) The Pied Fly-catcher.
Top of the head, cheeks, back, small coverts of the wings, and all the
tail-feathers deep black ; forehead, a broad collar round the neck,
and lower parts pure white ; large coverts of the wings white,
terminated by black on the interior webs. 5 inches long. In-
habits Europe. — Shaw, x. pi. 30.

M. luctuosa, Tern. (M. atricapilla, Gmel.) Upper parts of the
body and the tail-feathers deep black ; forehead and lower parts
pure white ; wings brownish black, the middle and greater co-
verts white. 5 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust.
pi. 43*, fig. 2, 3.

•M. parva, Bechst. Upper parts of the body reddish ash-coloured,
which takes a slight bluish tint above the ears ; feathers of the
wings brown ash-coloured ; four middle feathers of the tail and
the extremities of the lateral ones blackish ; throat and breast
bright red, the lower parts whitish ; bill and legs brown ; hairs
at the base of the bill very long. 4£ inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope.— Tern. Man. 158.

M. cassia, Tern. Plumage of the male bluish, with the quills ashy-
brown ; tail-feather dusky ash ; female with the head, neck, and
back yellowish brown ; throat whitish ; belly and vent red ; wings
and tail brown. 6 inches long. Inhabits Brazil. — Tern. PL Col.lJ.

M. miniata, Tern* Top of the head and back of a fine polished steel
black ; lower part of the back, middle of the quills and lateral
tail-feathers externally of a vermilion colour ; the male with a
black throat. 7 inches long. Inhabits Java. — Tern. PL Col. 1 55.

M.Jlammea, Lath. Plumage black, with the back, lesser wing-co-
verts, breast, vent, edges of the secondary quills, and tips of the
tail-feathers orange-coloured. 6 inches long. Inhabits India.—
Tern. PL Col. 263, fig. 1, 2.

Gen. 27. MALURUS, Vieill. — Sylvia, Lath.

Bill slender, deeper than broad ; the upper mandible scarcely
arched, base with small stiff hairs ; nostrils basal, lateral ;
tarsi slender ; exterior toes united to the second joint ; wings
very short, rounded ; tail very long, slender.

M. Africanus, Tern. Plumage above black, with the edges of the
feathers red gray ; beneath reddish white ; crown of the head
red, spotted with dusky ; a longitudinal black stripe on each side
of the throat ; tail-feathers brown, edged with red. 7 inches long.
Inhabits Cape of Good Hope. — Swainson, Zool. Illust. pi. 170.

M. marginalis, Tern. Plumage brown above, with the edges of the
feathers paler or reddish; under parts, throat, and eyebrows white;

SYLVIA. BIRDS. 225

breast and abdomen spotted with brown ; tail very long and
wedged. Inhabits Java — Tern. PL Col. 65, fig. 2.

M. longicaudus, Tern. Plumage olive,, with the crown reddish ;
quills olive brown ; tail-feathers long and narrow, the middle ones
very long. Inhabits China. — Shaw, x. 756.

Gen. 28. SYLVIA, Lath. Temni.

Bill straight, slender, awl-shaped, the base deeper than broad ;
point of the upper mandible frequently notched, the under
one straight ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, partly covered
by a membrane ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; the ex-
terior toe joined at its base to the middle one ; first quill-fea-
ther very short, or none ; second scarcely exceeding the third ;
great wing-coverts much shorter than the quill-feathers.

This group comprises most of the small singing birds of Europe. The plumage
of the species is plain and uniform in colour ; and in general the males differ but
slightly in this respect from the females. M. Temminck divides the genus into
two sections, the first containing such as inhabit the margins of waters and marshes,
and hence called Aquatic Warblers ; the second those which in summer visit our
woods for the purpose of incubation, and which he terms Sylvan Warblers. Most
of them possess much sweetness and variety of note. Except the Redbreast and
Dartford Warbler, all are in Britain periodical visitants.

1. AQUATIC WARBLERS — Summit of the head depressed ; wings

short, much rounded ; tail long, graduated, often conical.
S. turdoides, Meyer, Tern. (Turdus arundinaceus,lLiu.) The Reed
Warbler. Plumage ferruginous brown above, yellowish white be-
neath ; a yellowish white line above the eyes ; bill yellow at its
base, brown towards the point ; tail rounded. 8 inches long. In-
habits Europe — Buff. PL Enl. 513.

S. galactotes, Tern. Plumage above of a bright red ; lateral tail-
feathers with a deep black spot towards the end, and the extre-
mity pure white ; wings of a clear brown, bordered with reddish ;
a brown band from the bill to the eye ; under parts white, shading
to reddish. 6£ inches long. Inhabits Spain. — Tern. Man. 182.

S.Jiuviatilis, Meyer. Danubian Warbler. Upper mandible and
points of the bill brown ; plumage olive-coloured above ; throat
white, with longitudinal spots of olive; abdomen white ; legs flesh-
coloured. 5 inches long. Inhabits Germany Tern. Man. 183.

S. locustella, Lath. Grasshopper Warbler. Bill awl-shaped ; plu-
mage above olive, shaded with brown and brownish-black spots ;
throat white, with under it a zone of oval brown spots ; tail long
and graduated, the coverts reddish yellow, with brown spots ; pos-
terior claw shorter than the toe. 5 inches long. Inhabits Europe.
B Selby, Illust. pi. 45,** fig. 1.

S. certhiola, Tern. Bill strong ; upper mandible black ; plumage
above olive, with brown spots ; throat, neck before, and abdomen
white ; tail-feathers with a large ash-coloured spot below ; pos-
terior claw bent, longer than the toe. 5 inches long. Inhabits
Southern Russia, — Tern. Man. 186.
VOL i. p

226 BIRDS. INSECTIVOJUB.

S. aquatica, Lath. Bog-rush Warbler. Plumage above brown;
with a band of yellowish white above the eyes, and another brOad-
er one from the base of the bill to the noddle of the head, the
spaces between them brown black ; scapulars and centre of the
back gray, with longitudinal blackish spots ; tail-feathers acumi-
nated, and the tail rounded. 4K inches long. Inhabits Europe.
— Tern. Man. 188.

S. phragmitis, Bechst. Sedge Warbler, Top of the head, back, and
scapulars olive-gray ; a broad band of yellowish white above the
eyes ; under parts of the body whitish yellow, tinted with red-
dish ; tail brown ash- coloured, slightly rounded. 4 inches long.
Inhabits Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 45**, fig. 2.

S. arundinacea, Lath. Reed Warbler. Bill compressed at the base ;
plumage generally oil-green, tinged with reddish ; throat, breast,
and belly yellowish white ; tail cuneated, rather long ; hind toe
strong. 5 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. —Selby, Illust.
pi. 45**, fig. 3.

S. palustris, Bechst. Marsh Warbler. Bill broader than deep at the
base ; plumage above olive brown, the wings margined with cine-
reous ; a narrow yellowish white stripe above the eyes ; under parts
yellowish white. 5 inches long. Europe. — Tern. Man. 192.

S. Cetti, Marmora. Plumage above deep brown, slightly shaded
with red ; feathers of the wings and tail blackish brown ; be-
tween the bill and eyes an ash-coloured line ; throat white ; sides,
flanks, and thighs brown ; tail broad, with rounded feathers. 5 in-
ches long. Inhabits Sardinia. — Tern. Man. 194.

2. SYLVAN WARBLERS — Tail square, or slightly forked at the end.
S. luscinia, Lath. Tern. (Motacilla luscima, Lin.) The Nightin-
gale. Plumage reddish brown above, cinereous white beneath ;
tail brownish-red ; third and fifth wing- feathers of equal length. 6
inches long. Inhabits Europe, migrating in winter to Egypt and
Syria — Selby, Illust. pi. 46, fig. 1.

The Nightingale, so justly celebrated for the sweetness and power of its song,
arrives in Britain towards the end of April or beginning of May. The males pre-
cede the females by an interval of ten days or a fortnight. The nightingale excels
;,11 birds in the softness and mellowness, as well as in the duration, of its song.
Though heard to most advantage in the stillness of a fine evening, it also sings in
the day-time, but its tones are then blended with those of other birds, and conse-
quently not so readily distinguished. The Honourable Daines Harrington, who
kept a very fine nightingale for three years, and bestowed particular attention on its
musical faculties and exertions, ascertained that the sound of its song filled the cir-
cle of an English mile in diameter. The nightingale may be domesticated, though
not without considerable pains and difficulty. For this purpose it must be treated
with tenderness, and with favourite food, as the nymphge of ants, meal-worms, and
certain pastes, prepared by the dealers. In consequence of careful management,
its warble is rendered much superior to that of the wild nightingale, and is con-
tinued all the year round, except during moulting.

S. philomela, Bechst. Plumage above grayish brown ; on the breast
clear gray, shaded with deeper colour ; throat whitish ; second
and third wing-feathers of nearly equal length. 6| inches long.
Inhabits Europe Tern. Man. 196.

SYLVIA. BIRDS.

S. sericea, Natterer. Plumage above gray brown, with the sides of
the neck and breast ash- coloured,, shaded on the flanks to gray
brown ; a line around the eyes, throat, and middle of the belly
white; the fourth, fifth, and sixth wing-feathers longest. 5| inches
long. Inhabits Spain. — Tern. Man. 197.

S. Orpheu, Tern. Head and cheeks blackish ; upper parts of the
body ash-coloured ; wings bordered with brownish ; the exterior
feathers on each side of the tail white, the others blackish, termi-
nated with white ; abdomen and lower tail-coverts red j upper
mandible notched, the base of the under one yellowish. 6 inches
long. Inhabits Europe. — Tern. Man. 198.

S. nisoria, Bechst. Head, neck, cheeks, and body above deep ash-
coloured, with the feathers terminated by a brown and white line;
sides waved with griseous ; abdomen whitish ; bill brown ; iris
yellow. 6| inches long. Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 200.

S. atricapilla. Lath. Black-cap Warbler. Orbits of the eyes co-
vered with feathers ; head of a deep black in the male, in the fe-
male red ; upper parts of the body ash-coloured j belly and throat
whitish ; bill and legs black. 5£ inches long. Inhabits Europe.
B.— £e%, Illust. pi. 46, fig. 2 and 3.

S. melanocephala, Lath. Plumage gray above, wings and tail black-
ish ; white below ; orbits naked j male with the head black ; fe-
male ash-coloured, blackish ; bill thick and strong, the base of the
lower mandible white. 5 inches long. Europe. — Tern. Man. 203.

S. Sarda, Marmora. Plumage cinereous above, below whitish ; or-
bits naked ; male blackish ash-coloured on the throat ; wings and
tail blackish ; bill short and slender. 5 inches long. Inhabits
Sardinia.— Tern. PL Col. 24, fig. 2.

S. hortensis, Bechst. Garden Warbler. Plumage above gray brown,
lightly tinted with olive, white around the eyes ; throat whitish ;
breast and flanks reddish gray ; belly white ; base of the lower
mandible yellowish. 5| inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. —
Selby, Illust. pi. 46, fig. 4.

S. cinerea, Lath. The White-Throat. Plumage above yelJowish
brown, tinged with gray ;„ throat and middle of the belly white ;
breast slightly tinged with rose-red ; quills blackish brown ; tail
brown, the exterior feather having its end and anterior web white,
and being shorter than the rest. 5£ inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 46, fig. 6.

S. curruca, Lath. Plumage above brown, whitish below, with the
tail-feathers blackish ; the exterior one with the outer web white.
5 inches long. Inhabits Europe — Tern. Man. 209.

S. conspicillata, Marmora. Top of the head and cheeks pure ash-
colour j space between the bill and eye black ; region of the eyes
white, surrounded with black ; back rufous j throat white ; wing-
coverts bordered with red ; tail rounded, blackish, the exterior
feather almost white. 4 inches long. Inhabits Southern Eu-
rope.—Tern. PL Col. 6, fig. 1.

BIRDS. INSECTVOIU*.

S. provincial**, Gmel. Dartford Warbler. All the upper parts,
with the exception of the tail, fine deep gray ; throat and flanks
reddish purple or wine-coloured; belly white; wing-feathers black
on their interior webs, very short. 5 inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 46, fig. 6.

S. passerina, Lath. Top of the head, cheeks, and neck, clear ash-co-
lour ; upper parts of the body olive, with the coverts fringed with
reddish ; front of the neck, breast, and flanks red; throat and
centre of belly white ; tail-feathers, except the middle four, tipped
with white. 4j inches long. South of Europe. — Tern. Man. 213.

S. subalpini, Bonelli. Plumage above ash-coloured ; below vinous-
red, with the centre of the belly white ; tail nearly black, slightly
rounded. 4£ inches long. — Tern. Man. 214.

S. rubecula, Lath. The Redbreast Warbler. Plumage above of a
gray olive-brown ; forehead, space between the eye and the bill,
front of the neck and breast, lively red, margined with smoke
gray ; belly white. 5 J inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby,
Illmt. pi. 46, fig. 2.

The Redbreast is a solitary bird, and is never found associating in numbers to-
gether, even during its partial migrations. It is widely diffused, being found through
the greater part of Europe ; and its general familiarity and confiding manners have
attracted peculiar notice. In Britain the popular ballad of the Bales in the Wood
has tended to protect the redbreast's nest; and its premature approach to houses
in autumn is held the precursor of an early winter. The redbreast feeds on worms
and insects, makes its nest in mossy banks or shady thickets, and lays from five
to seven eggs, of a pale yellowish gray, with pale reddish-brown spots. The red-
breast's notes are heard among the latest in the evening, and it commences its warble
in the morning sooner than most other birds.

S. Suecica, Lath. Tern. (Molacilla Suecica, Lin.) Blue-throated
Warbler. Plumage above rust-coloured; breast striped with blue;
tail-feathers brown, and black towards the base. 5 J inches long.
Inhabits Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 217-

S. tithys, Scopoli. The Red -tail Warbler. Plumage above bluish
ash-colour ; space between the bill and eye, cheeks, throat, and
breast deep black, shading to bluish-ash on the belly, and blue
on the flanks ; lower coverts of the tail, rump, and tail-feathers
red ; large coverts of the wings bordered with white. 5 inches
long. Inhabits Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 218.

S. phcenicurus. Lath. Tern. (Motacilla, Lin.) Red-start Warbler.
Forehead and eyebrows pure white ; a band at the base of the
bill, space between that and the eye, throat, and neck black ;
under parts of the body orange-red. 5 inches long. Inhabits
Europe. B Selby, Illust. pi. 46, fig. 3.

S. Hippolais, Lath. Lesser Petty-chaps. Plumage greenish-ash
above, primrose yellow beneath ; eyebrows white. Inhabits Eu-
rope. B Selby, Illust. pi. 47, fig. 1.

S. sibilatrix, Bechst. Wood Wren. Top ofthe head and upper parts
sulphur, yellow ; forehead and eye-streak yellowish ; under parts
white ; tail slightly forked, brownish. 4£ inches long. Inhabits
Europe. B.— Selby, Illust. pi. 47, fig- 2.

REGULUS. BIRDS,

S. trochilus, Lath. The Yellow Wren. Upper parts of the body
olive-green., tinged with gray ; lesser wing-coverts and margins
of quill-feathers pale yellow ; lower parts of the body yellow,
with centre of the belly white. 4£ inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope.— Tern. Man. 224.

S. rufa, Lath. Top of the head and upper parts grayish brown,
shaded with olive ; throat white, eye-streak yellowish, wings and
tail brown ; coverts of the wings yellow. 4| inches long. In-
habits Europe — Tern. Man. 226.

S. Natter 'eri, Tern. Top of the head and neck brown ash-coloured,
shading to brown olive on the back and wing-ceverts ; eyebrows
pure white ; tail and wing-feathers blackish cinereous, with the
margins greenish. 4 inches long. Inhabits Southern Europe.
—Tern. PL Col. 24, fig. 3.

S. cisticola, Tern. Top of the head, neck, back, and coverts of the
wings brownish ash-coloured ; with the middle of the feathers
blackish brown, producing large longitudinal spots ; extremity of
the lateral feathers with a deep black spot ; under parts reddish
white ; tail short, graduated. 4 inches long. Inhabits Southern,
Europe. — Tern. Man. 228.

S. cyanocephala, Tern. Plumage above green, with the head and
greater wing-coverts blue ; throat hoary ; quills brown, edged
with green. 5 inches long. Inhabits Cayenne. — Shaw, x. 684.

S. Africana, Lath. African Warbler. Plumage above black, with
the edges of the feathers red-gray; beneath reddish white; throat
with a longitudinal black stripe on each side ; tail-feathers brown,
edged with red. 7 inches long. Inhabits Africa — Shaw, x. 615.

S. coronata, Lath. Plumage varied with black and gray above,
beneath white ; crown, rump, and sides yellowish ; a black stripe
on the eyes ; wings and tail dusky. N. America. — Shaw, x. 636.

Gen. 29- REGULUS, Cuv. — Sylvia, Tern. Lath.
Bill straight, slender, deeper than broad, compressed, the edges
bending inwards ; nostrils basal, with bristles directed for-
wards ; wings with the first quill short, the second shorter
than the third, which is the longest ; tarsus longer than the
middle toe.

R. auricapiUus, Selby. (Motacilla regulus, Lin.) The Gold-crested
Wren, Penn. Plumage above olive, tinted with yellowish ; crest
of elongated silky feathers of a rich orange-colour ; a black stripe
on each side of the head ; bill black, awl-shaped ; lower parts
yellowish gray. 3| inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby,
Illust. pi. 47, fig. 4.

R. ignicapillus, Tern. Plumage above olive-green, shading to yel-
lowish : three longitudinal bands on the cheeks, two white and
one black ; crest of the male lively orange. 3£ inches long. In-
habits Europe. — Tern. Man. 231.

230 BIRDS. INSECTIVOH*.

R. calendulusj Vieill. (Motacilla, Lin.) Plumage brownish-green
above, with a ruby-red stripe on the crown ; body and wings be-
neath yellowish. 4| inches long. Inhabits North America. —
Edw. Glean, pi. 254, fig. 2.

Gen. 80. TROGLODYTES, Cuv. — Sylvia., Lath.
Bill slender, slightly compressed, curved, emarginated ; nostrils
basal, half covered by a naked membrane ; wings short and
rounded ; fourth and fifth feathers of equal length, and long-
est ; tail short, rounded, erect ; tarsus the length of the mid-
dle toe.

The birds of this genus have the bill very slender and slightly bent. Their tail and
wings are short, and they carry the former always erect. Their plumage is sombre,
and they are of retired habits. The Common Wren is the only European species.

T. Europeans, Cuv. (Sylvia Troglodytes, Lath.) The Wren. Up-
per parts of the body pale chestnut-brown, with very narrow
transverse stripes of a deeper colour ; quill-feathers with alter-
nate spots of black and reddish ; throat and .breast bluish- white ;
a narrow white band above the eye ; under parts pale brown.
3 finches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust.pL 47, fig. 5.

T.fulvus, Vieill. (Sylvia fulva, Lath.) Plumage brown, inclining
to yellowish below, and white on the middle of the belly ; back,
wings, and tail finely striped with black ; feet yellowish. 4 in-
ches long. Inhabits Surinam — Sharv, x, 726.

Gen. 31. SAXICOLA, Bechst. — Sylvia, Lath. — Motacilla, Lin.

Bill straight, slender, slightly carinated, and advancing upon
the forehead ; the top of the upper mandible a little bent and
emarginated ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, partly concealed
by a membrane ; tarsus considerably longer than the middle
toe ; the outer toe joined at its base to the middle one ; third
and fourth quill-feathers longest.

The greater number of the individuals of this genus live in open and rocky situa-
tions. They are never found in large woods, and rarely in bushes. Their food is
insects, which they seize on the ground, running with celerity. They are generally
distinguished by the distribution of black and white on their caudal feathers, in which
the white occupies the greater part, the extremity and two middle feathers being
black. Their tail is constantly in motion.

S. cachinnans, Tern. (Turdus leucurus, Gmel.) Plumage above
deep black ; rump, thighs, and tail from the base near to the tip
white ; two middle tail-feathers black to near their origin. 7 in-
ches long. Inhabits Southern Europe — Sharv, x. pi. 22.

S. cenanthe, Bechst. (Sylvia, Lath.) The Wheat-ear. Plumage above
bluish-gray ; a black band passes each eye and covers the orifices
of the ears ; forehead, chin, eyebrows, rump, and belly white ; tail
white two thirds of its length. 6 inches long. Inhabits Europe.
-B.— Selby, Illust. pi. 48, fig. 1.

S. stapazina, Tern. Space between the eye and bill, round the eyes,
all the throat, scapulars, and wings, deep black ; top of the head,

SAXICOLA. BIRDS.

rump, and lower parts white ; neck and back slightly tinted with
reddish ; tail white, tipped with black, except the exterior fea-
thers, which are mostly black, and the two middle totally so. 5J
inches long. Inhabits Southern Europe — Edw. pi. 31.

S. aurita, Tern. Space between the eye and bill, region of the eyes
and ears, and the wings deep black ; fore part of the neck, lower
parts of the body, head, and rump white ; top of the back and neck
tinged with reddish ; tail white three-fourths of its length, black
at the end, except the exterior feathers, which are chiefly black-
ish, and the middle ones totally so. 5| inches long. Inhabits
Southern Europe. — Tern. Man. 241.

S. leucomela, Tern. (Motacilla, Pall.) Sides of the head, throat,
and fore part of the neck deep black ; occiput and nape white ;
back and wings brownish black j belly white ; tail white two-
thirds of its length, the remainder and two middle feathers black.
5^ inches long. Inhabits Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 243.

S. rubetra, Bechst. The Whin-Chat. Top of the head and upper
parts of the body blackish brown ; each feather bordered with red-
dish and yellow ; a broad white band above the eyes ; longitudi-
nal stripe on each side of the neck white ; breast rose-coloured ;
a large spot of white on the wings and tail, the two middle feathers
of which are dusky. 4| inches long. Inhabits Europe. B — Selby,
Must. pi. 48, fig. 2.

S. rubicola, Bechst. The Stone-Chat. Head and throat black ; sides
of the neck, upper parts of the wings, and rump white ; breast
orange brown ; back black, the feathers edged with whitish red ;
lower parts of the body reddish white. 4| inches long. Inhabits
Europe, ft.— Selby, Illust. pi. 48. fig. 3, 4.

S. sperata, Tern.- Plumage above greenish brown ; under parts and
rump reddish gray ; two middle tail-feathers dusky, the outer
ones obliquely half brown and fulvous. 6 inches long. Inhabits
Southern Africa. — Shaw, x. 708.

S. melanura, Tern. Plumage above dull ash-colour, beneath paler ;
wings brownish ; tail rounded and black. 5£ inches long. In-
habits Arabia.— Tew. PI. Col. 257, fig. 2.

Gen. 32. ACCENTOR, Bechst. — Motacilla, Lin.
Bill strong, of medium length, straight, and drawn to a fine
point ; edges of the mandibles compressed, the upper one
emarginated ; nostrils basal, naked, pierced in a large mem-
brane ; legs strong, the exterior toe united at its base to the
middle one ; the third quill-feather longest.

The birds of this genus inhabit the elevated regions of the Alps and other moun-
tains, descending in winter to the plains and valleys. They feed on insects and
seeds. The nest of the British species is frequently selected by the Cuckoo as the
depository for its eggs.

A. alpinuSj Bechst. Head, breast, neck, and back gray ash-colour,
with large brown spots on the back ; throat white, with brown

232 BIRDS. INSECTIVOILE,

scales; belly and flanks reddish, mixed with white and gray ; wings
and tail blackish brown ; legs yellowish. Q\ inches long. In-
habits mountains in Europe — Tern. Man. 248.

A. modularis, Cuv. Hedge Accentor. Top of the head ash-co-
loured, with brown spots ; sides of the neck, throat, and breast
with a bluish tinge ; large reddish brown spots on the centre of
the feathers of the back and wing-coverts ; belly white ; lower
coverts of the tail brown, with a white border. 5 inches long. —
Selby, Must. pi. 43*, fig. 4.

A. montanellus, Tern. Plumage red brown, longitudinally striped
with red ; head and occiput black, with a black band below the
eyes ; two rows of little yellowish points forming a double band
on the wings; lower parts yellow. 5 inches long. Inhabits
Southern Europe. — Tern. Man. 251.

A. Calliope, Tern. Plumage above rusty brown, beneath yellowish
white ; throat vermilion, bordered with black and white ; spot
between the bill and eyes black ; eyebrows white. 6 inches long.
Inhabits Siberia. — Shaw, x. 644.

Gen. S3. MOTACILLA, Lath.

Bill slender, straight, subulate, angular between the nostrils ;
edges of the lower mandible compressed ; nostrils basal, la-
teral, oval, partly concealed by a naked membrane ; tarsus
considerably longer than the middle toe ; exterior toe joined
to the middle one at the base ; hind claw strong and some-
times long ; tail very long, equal, horizontal ; one of the
larger coverts as long as the wing-feathers.

The members of this well-marked genus haunt the banks of rivulets, the mar-
gins of rivers, and meadows in the neighbourhood of water. They run with great
agility, and their food is insects taken both on the wing and on the ground, worms,
larvae, &c. They are subject to a double moult. The lengthened tail of the bird of
this genus is kept continually in motion. They are confined to the Old Continent.

M. lugubris, Pallas. Deep black on the upper parts of the body,
and eight middle feathers of the tail ; forehead, around the eyes
and ears, belly, and two lateral tail-feathers, white; flanks and
wings ash-coloured, the coverts bordered with white. 7 inches
long. Inhabits Southern Europe. — Tern. Man. 253.

M. alba, Lin. The Pied Wagtail. Forehead, cheeks, sides of the
neck, belly, and vent, white ; crown of the head, nape of the
neck, throat, breast, upper parts of the body, and middle tail-
feathers black ; coverts of the wings bordered with white ; two
outer tail-feathers^ white. 7 inches long. Inhabits Europe. .B. —
Selby, Illust. pi. 49, fig. 1.

M. boarula, Lin. Gray Wagtail. Plumage above bluish gray ; rump
sulphur yellow;, a white streak above the eyes; throat black;
under parts [gamboge-yellow ; tail^four inches long, with the
exterior feather entirely white, the middle feathers black. 7 inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B Selby, Illust. pi. 49, fig. 2.

ENICURUS. BIRDS. 233

M. citreola, Pall. Yellow-headed Wagtail. Top of the head, cheeks,
and lower parts citron yellow ; a black crescent-shaped band on
the occiput ; body above gray blue ; wings and tail blackish,
bordered with white, the lateral feathers white ; posterior claw
longer than the toe. 7 inches long. Siberia — Tern. Man. 259.

M.Jlava, Lin. Yellow Wagtail. Head, nape of the neck, and ear-
coverts pale yellow, with the back, rump, and scapulars a shade
darker ; a yellow streak over the eyes ; wings and coverts black-
ish brown, margined with white ; middle tail-feathers margined
with yellow, the outer ones white. 6 inches long. Inhabits
Southern Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 49, fig. 3.

Gen. 34. ENICURUS, Tern.

Bill elongated, broad at the base ; suddenly compressed towards
the tip, attenuated ; tip curved ; nostrils in a groove with
an elevated membrane ; tarsi slender ; hinder claw robust,
short ; tail forked.

E. coronatus, Tern. (Motacilla speciosa, Horsf.) Plumage dark-
coloured, with the pileus crested ; the belly, rump, bar on the
wings, outer tail-feathers entirely, and tips of the rest, snow white;
tail very long. Body 4-J inches long ; tail 6 inches. Inhabits
Java — Shaw, xiii. pi. 58.

E. velatus, Tern. Slaty black above, white beneath ; chin and neck
in front black ; a white frontal band ; tail black, exterior fea-
thers and tips of middle ones white. Java. — Tern. PL Col. 160.

Gen. 35. ANTHUS, Bechst. Tern. Vieill.

Bill straight, slender, cylindrical, subulate near the tip, edges
inflected towards the middle ; base of the upper mandible
ridged, point slightly notched ; nostrils basal, lateral, half-
closed by an arched membrane ; hind claw generally longer
than the toe ; third and fourth quills the longest.

A. Richardi, Vieill. Plumage olive brown, varied with whitish
and black above, whitish beneath ; breast reddish, spotted with
black ; outer tail-feathers margined with white ; legs and hind-
er claw very long. 6^ inches long. Europe — Shaw, xiii. pi. 59.

A. aquaticus, Bechst. Shore Pipit. Plumage above olive green;
a white streak above the eye ; lesser and greater wing-coverts
dusky ; inferior parts white, varied on the breast with longitu-
dinal streaks ; two middle feathers of the tail brownish, the la-
teral black ; hind claw curved. 6£ inches long. Inhabits Europe. B.
—Selby, Illust. pi. 49, fig. 6.

A. rufescens, Tern. Plumage above grayish yellow, with a slight tint
of brown on the middle of each feather ; a white band above the
eyes ; under parts whitish yellow ; breast spotted with brown ;
tail blackish brown, the exterior feathers white ; hind claw shorter
than the toe. 6J inches long. Europe.— Tern. Man. p. 267-

234 BIRDS. GHANI VOILE.

A. pratensis, Bechst. Plumage above dark oil green, with the cen-
tre of the feathers brownish black ; under parts yellowish white,
with blackish brown upon the sides of the neck and breast ;
tail blackish brown, the outer feather with the exterior web
and tip white ; hind claw longer than the toe. 51 inches long.
Inhabits Europe. B.— Selby, Illust. pi. 49, fig. 4.

A. arboreus, Bechst. (Alauda, Lin.) Tree Pipit. Plumage green-
ish above, with the centre of the feathers brownish black ; wing-
coverts margined with yellowish white ; under parts whitish, spot-
ted with brown ; exterior tail-feathers white ; hind claw short
and curved. 5^ inches long. Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 49, fig. 5.

A, Capensis, Tern. Plumage brown above ; throat yellow, margined
with black ; eyebrows yellow ; three lateral tail-feathers white
at the tips. 8 inches long. Inhabits Africa — Shaw, x. 510.

ORDER IV.— GRANIVOROUS BIRDS. Granworae.

Bill more or less conical, short and strong ; ridge more or less
flattened, advancing upon the forehead ; mandibles gene-
rally without notches; three toes before and one behind,
the anterior ones entirely divided ; wings of medium length.

The food of this order consists chiefly of grain and other seeds, which the strength
and form of their bill enables them to free from the exterior husk ; but during the
season of rearing their young, insects and larvae form their chief support. They
live in pairs, and are sedentary or migratory, according to the temperature of the
countries they inhabit. In winter, or at the period of their migration, they congre-
gate in numerous flocks. Most of the European species moult only once in the
year. They are very easily tamed ; and the males during the pairing season assume
a brighter and more varied plumage.

Gen. 1. ALAUDA, Lin.

Bill subconic, short, with the mandibles of equal length arid
the upper one slightly convex ; nostrils basal, lateral, partly
concealed by reflected feathers ; claw of the hind toe much
produced, and nearly straight; wings with the first quill
short or wanting, the third the longest ; coronal feathers
generally produced, and capable of erection.

This genus inhabits open fields or plains. They feed chiefly on seeds and grains,
though they occasionally take worms and insects. They make their nests on the
ground, and sing during their perpendicular ascent in the air.

A. Tartarica, Pall. Head, neck, lower parts, and tail deep black ;
feathers of the neck below, rump, and flanks black in the mid-
dle, bordered and terminated by whitish ; legs and claws black ;
the hind claw longer than the* toe. 7J inches long. Inhabits
Asia.— Tern. Man. 275.

A. calandra, Lin. Plumage above reddish ash-coloured ; throat and
belly white ; a black spot on each side of the neck ; lanceolate

ALAUDA. BIRDS. 235

brown spots on the breast ; quills bordered and terminated with
white ; middle tail-feathers terminated by a white spot ; the la-
teral ones white. 7 inches long. Inhabits Europe, &c. — Edw. 268.

A. crlstata, Lin. The Crested-Lark. Body above grayish, with
narrow brown spots ; wing-feathers bordered with reddish ; mid-
dle feathers of the tail reddish, the exterior ones red at their ter-
mination ; lower parts yellowish white ; coronal tuft of elonga-
ted acuminated feathers black in the middle. 6J inches long.
Inhabits Southern Europe Tern. Man. 277-

A. alpestris, Lin. Plumage above reddish ash- coloured ; line above
the eyes and a band on the breast black ; lateral feathers of the
tail black, the exterior white on the outside ; lower parts whit-
ish fawn-colour. 6i inches long. Inhabits Europe and America.
—Catesby, Car. i. pi. 32.

A. arvensis, Lin. The Skylark. Upper parts reddish gray, each
feather blackish in its middle ; a whitish band above the eyes ;
throat white ; neck, breast, and flanks tinted with reddish ; tail
brown, the outer feather with the tip and exterior feather white ;
coronal feathers capable of erection. 6J inches long. Inhabits
Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 50, fig. 1.

The Skylark is one of the most esteemed British song-birds. It is found throughout
the whole of Europe, many parts of Asia and the north of Africa. Its song is be-
gun early in spring and continued during the greater part of summer. It rises per-
pendicularly in a spiral direction, singing as it rises, till it frequently soars beyond
the reach of vision. On the approach of winter larks begin to collect in immense
flocks, quitting the more elevated parts of the country, and resorting to the coasts.
At this period they are fat, and vast numbers are taken for the table.

A. arborea, Lin. The Woodlark. Plumage above reddish ash-co-
loured, with a blackish brown spot on the middle of the feathers ;
a white band above the eyes and surrounding the occiput, and a
triangular whitish spot on the cheeks; under parts yellowish white;
wing-coverts terminated by white ; feathers of the head longer,
and tail shorter than the skylark. 6 inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope. B.—Selby, Illust. pi. 50, fig. 2.

The Woodlark is chiefly confined in Britain to the southern and western parts of
England. It surpasses the skylark in the richness, though not in the variety of
its notes. Its song is generally poured forth when on the wing ; but it differs from
the skylark in describing widely extended circles in its flight.

A. brachydactyla, Tern. Plumage above reddish-yellow ; throat and
band above the eyes white ; breast and flanks red ; abdomen white ;
greater coverts of the wings as long as the quills ; toes very short ;
exterior tail-feathers reddish. 5£ inches long. Inhabits South-
ern Europe. — Tern. Man. 284.

A. bilopha, Tern. Head double-crested ; the crests, a band on the
head, the feathers at the base of the upper mandible, a broad stripe
through the eyes, and a crescent at the base, black ; body above va-
ried with red, brown, and white; beneath whitish. 5 J inches long.
Inhabits Arabia.— Tern. PL Col 244, fig. 1.

A, isabellina, Tern. Plumage isabella-red above, paler below ; throat

236 BIRDS.

whitish ; wings and tail brown, the feathers edged with reddish.
5| inches long. Inhabits Arabia. — Tern. PL Col. 244, fig. 2.

Gen. 2. PARUS, Lin.

Bill short, straight, strong, conical, compressed, terminating in
a point, base with small hairs ; nostrils basal, rounded, con-
cealed by projecting feathers ; legs stout ; toes divided to their
origin, nail of the hind one strongest and most bent ; wing-
feathers, the first of medium length or almost deficient, the
fourth and fifth the longest.

These are very small, but very lively and active birds, being constantly in mo-
tion, and possessing a great degree of strength and courage for their size. Their
principal food consists of insects, though they likewise sometimes attack sickly bird?.
Temminck divides the genus into two sections, the first of which inhabits woods
and bushes, nestling in the hollows of trees; the second nestles among reeds, rushes,
and bushes near water. Their nests are constructed with peculiar ingenuity.

* First quill-feather of medium length.

P. major, Lin. The Great Titmouse or Ox-eye. Plumage olive-
green above, yellowish beneath ; head black ; temples white; top
of the neck yellowish; wing-coverts grayish-blue tipped with white;
tail greenish-gray, edged with grayish-blue. 5 \ inches long. In-
habits Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 51, fig. 1.

P. ater, Lin. The Cole Titmouse. Top of the head and fore part
of the neck black ; a broad white band on the lateral part of the
neck and a white spot on the occiput ; upper parts ash-coloured,
and two white transverse bands on the wings ; belly white ; tail
slightly forked. 4 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby,
Illust. pi. 51, fig. 3.

P. cceruleus, Lin. Blue Titmouse. Top of the head blue ; fore-
head, band above the eyes, and cheeks white ; streak before and
behind the eyes black ; nape of the neck and collar azure-blue ;
back grayish-blue ; wings and tail bluish, the greater coverts tip-
ped with white ; breast and sides sulphur yellow. 4J inches long
Inhabits Europe. K.—Selby, Illust. pi. 51, fig. 2.

P. cristatus, Lin. Crested Titmouse, Plumage reddish-gray above,
white beneath ; collar black ; head furnished with a black crest,
bordered with whitish. 4| inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Selby,
Illust. pi. 43, fig. 6.

P. palustris, Lin. Marsh Titmouse. Head black ; back ash-co-
lour ; temples white ; the black on the head extending downwards
on the nape ; wings brown, bordered with ash-colour ; under parts
white, shaded with gray. 4J inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. —
Selby, Illust. pi. 51. fig. 4.

P. lugubris, Natt. Top of the head black, terminating at the occi-
put ; throat, a part before and the sides of the neck black ; back
and scapulars brown ash-coloured ; temples and inferior parts
white, shaded with gray-brown. 6 inches long. Inhabits South-
ern Europe — Tern. Man. 293.

PARUS. BIRDS. 237

P. Sibiricus, Gmel. Plumage gray-brown above, whitish beneath ;
abdomen reddish gray ; throat and upper part of the breast deep
black ; temples and sides of the neck white ; wing and tail-fea-
thers bordered with reddish. 5 inches long. Inhabits Northern
Europe. — Tern. Man. 294.

P. cyanus, Pall. Forehead, large spot on the neck, and all the un-
der parts snowy white ; top of the head shaded with blue ; a band
of deep blue from the bill over the eyes surrounding the head and
spreading upon the neck ; back, rump, and top of the wings azure-
blue ; wing-coverts blue, bordered with white. 5J inches long.
Inhabits Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 295.

P. caudatus, Lin. Long-tailed Titmouse. Head, neck, throat, and
breast pure white ; top of the back, rump, and six middle feathers
of the tail deep black ; scapulars reddish ; flanks and abdomen
reddish white ; quills black ; lateral tail-feathers white on their
exterior webs and at the ends; tail very long, cuneiform. 5| inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 51, fig. 5.

P. atricapillus, Lin. Body cinereous above, white beneath ; crown
and throat black ; quills brown, with exterior margin grayish. 4|
inches long. Inhabits N. America. — Wilson, Amer. Orn. pi. 8. fig. 4.

** First quill-*feather very short or wanting.

P. biarmicus, Lin. (Calanophilus, Leach.) Bearded Titmouse. Head,
neck, and breast bluish gray, the breast with a tinge of purple ;
a tuft of pendant feathers between the bill and eyes; belly and flanks
yellowish brown ; under tail-coverts black ; nape of the neck and
back yellowish brown, tinged with orange ; quills blackish-gray,
the outer webs margined with white ; tail long and wedge-shaped.
6 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 51, fig. 6.

P. pendulinus, Lin. Top of the head and neck ash-coloured ;
back and scapulars reddish gray ; throat white, the inferior parts
whitish, with a rose tint ; wings and tail blackish, bordered with
reddish white ; tail-feathers terminated with white. 4| inches
long. Inhabits Europe. — Tern. Man. 300.

Gen. 3. EMBERIZA, Lin.

Bill strong, short, conical, compressed, sharp edged ; the upper
mandible narrower than the under, the edges of both bent in-
wards ; nostrils basal, rounded, surmounted and partly co-
vered by the feathers of the forehead ; toes divided ; the
posterior with ashort and bent claw ; tail forked, or slightly
rounded.

The Buntings feed chiefly on farinaceous seeds, but also eat insects. Most of
them live in woods and gardens, and nestle among bushes and thickets. Such of
them as are furnished with a long hind toe haunt rocks and plains. The sexes are
generally very different in their garb ; and some of the foreign species moult twice
in the year.

* Hind claw short and hooked.
E. melanocephala, Scopoli. Black-headed Bunting. Top of the

238 BIRDS. GRANIVOILE.

head, region of the eyes and ears deep black ; back rufous ; sides
of the neck and inferior parts citron yellow ; wings and tail brown,
margined with whitish. 6J inches long. Inhabits Southern Eu-
rope— Tern. Matt. 303.

E. cilrinella, Lin. The Yellow Bunting. Head, neck, and upper
part of the breast gamboge-yellow, varied with olive-green ; back
and scapulars brownish, inclining to oil-green ; wings and wing-
coverts blackish brown ; greater quills black, edged with yellow ;
two lateral tail-feathers with a white spot on the inner web. 6 in-
ches long. Inhabits Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 52, fig. 2, 3.

E. ndliaria, Lin. Common Bunting. Upper parts yellowish brown,
with the centre of the feathers darker; lower parts yellowish
white, with numerous triangular black spots ; middle of the belly
white. 7J inches long. Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 52, fig. 1.

E. schceniculus, Lin. Reed Bunting. Head black, with a white
streak on the sides of the neck; under parts white; back and wings
of a fine red, with longitudinal black spots on the flanks ; tail
blackish, with a conical brown spot on the exterior feathers. 5J
inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 52, fig. 5, (5.

E. pithy or nut, Pall. Pine Bunting. Head black, with an oval
white spot on the summit ; throat and upper parts bright red ; va-
ried with longitudinal black spots on the back ; wings and tail
brownish black, the two outer tail-feathers with a large conical
spot of white. 6| inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Tern. Man. 310.

E. hortulana, Lin. The Ortolan. Plumage reddish gray above,
paler below ; throat yellow ; tail blackish ; the two lateral feathers
white at their inner web. 6J inches long. Inhabits Europe. —
Tern. Man. 311.

This bird occurs in various parts of Europe, migrating in spring and autumn, when
great quantities of them are caught, and fattened for the table, being proverbially
celebrated for the delicacy of their flavour. That they may more speedily acquire
the requisite degree of plumpness, they are shut up in a room, from which the ex-
ternal light is excluded, but in which are placed a few lanterns, to enable them to
see to run about and pick up the millet and oats that are regularly strewed on the
floor.

E. cirlus, Lin. Girl Bunting. Throat and top of the neck black ;
breast and streak above and below the eye primrose yellow ; back
blackish brown, edged with grayish white ; scapulars reddish
orange ; quills greenish gray ; belly and sides yellow ; lateral tail-
feathers with their outer webs white. 6 inches long. Inhabits
Europe.— Selby, Illust. pi. 52. fig. 4.

E. Cia, Lin. Foolish Bunting. Plumage reddish above, with longi-
tudinal black spots ; head ash-coloured, with blackish lines ; su-
perciliae white ; flanks and abdomen red. 6 inches long. Inhabits
Southern Europe — Tern. Man. 315.

E. Lesbia, Gmel. Plumage above reddish ash-coloured, variegated
with large blackish spots on the middle of the feathers ; eyebrows
and ears red ; three little blackish brown bands on the sides of

TANACEA. BIRDS. 239

the neck ; throat and parts beneath whitish, mixed with red on
the breast and flanks j tail a little forked. 4| inches long. In-
habits Southern Europe. — Tern. Man. pi. 317-

** Hind claw produced, slightly bent.

E. nivalis, Lin. The Snow Bunting. Head, neck, under parts,
coverts of the wings, and the upper half of the quill-feathers,
white ; top of the back, the three secondaries, bastard wings, and
lower half of the quills black ; the three lateral feathers of the
tail white, with a black streak ; the others black, edged with
white ; legs black. The winter plumage is more of an ash-colour
or brownish. 6 inches long. — Selby, Illust. pi. 52. fig. 7«

E. glacialis, Latb. ; E. mustelina^ and montana, Grael.

The colour of this species varies as it is in its winter or summer plumage, from
white to brownish. In summer it inhabits the Arctic circle, but in winter it mi-
grates to warmer regions. The northern parts of Scotland abound with them ; and
they have been traced in various districts of Northumberland and Yorkshire, but
scarcely, we believe, farther south. Their arrival in the southern countries is sup-
posed to betoken a severe winter or heavy falls of snow. These birds do not perch,
but continue on the ground, and run about like larks, which they also resemble in
size, and in the length of their hind .claws.

E. calca rata, Tern. (Fringilla, Pall. Gmel.) Top of the head black,
with little red spots ; throat whitish, with black streaks ; a white
stripe above the eyes and sides of the neck ; under parts white ;
wings chestnut, with two transverse white bands ; neck, back, and
scapulars reddish brown ; quills bordered with red ; tail slightly
forked ; hind claw very long. 6^ inches long. Inhabits North-
ern Europe — Tern. Man. 322.

Gen. 4. TANAGRA, Lin.

Bill short, strong, triangular at the base, carinated, much com-
pressed at the point, which is bent ; upper mandible longer
than the under, and notched ; edges of the mandibles bent
inwards ; under mandible straight, and somewhat gibbous to-
wards the middle ; nostrils basal, lateral, rounded, partly con-
cealed by projecting feathers ; tarsus the length of the mid-
dle toe ; external toe joined at its base, the internal free ; wings
with the second and third quills longest.

The Tanagers have the habits of the sparrow tribes, and subsist on seeds, berries,
and insects. Most of the species are conspicuous for the brilliancy of their plumage,
and all are foreign.

T. Mississippiensis, Lath. (Pyranga, Vieill.) Plumage entirely red,
with the wings and tail of a darker shade ; legs reddish ; bill
horn-coloured. Inhabits N. America. — Lath. Ind. 421.

T.Jlammiceps.Tem. ( Pyr a nga, Vieill.) Plumage brick-red, with
the forehead, cheeks, and occiput red-brown ; wings brown, edged
with reddish ; crest of the male vermilion. 7 inches long. In-
habits Brazil. — T<?m. PL Col. 177.

T. magna, Tern. (Saltalor, Vieill.) Plumage above olive-brown,
with the forehead and cheeks blue ; stripe near the jaw black ;

240 BIRDS. GRANIVOILE.

throat and vent red ; supercilioe and spot on the throat white.
8| inches long. Inhabits Guiana. — Shaw, x. 442.

T. atra, Desm. (Saltator, Vieill.) Plumage cinereous, quills and
tail darkest, with the head in front and whole of the lower part
of the neck black. 7 inches long. Guiana — Shaw, xiv. pi. 3.

T. archiepiscopus, Desm. Head, throat, and breast violet ; lower
belly and rump gray ; back olive ; upper lesser wing-coverts gol-
den yellow, in the male ; female gray-brown, beneath cinereous,
tinged with violet, and a violet spot on the eyes ; bill and legs
black. 7 inches long. Inhabits S. America — Shaw, xiv. pi. 4.

T. speculifera, Tern. (Nemosia, Vieill.) Plumage above olive-
black ; with the throat, neck in front, back, rump, and under tail-
coverts yellow, and a white spot on the wings. 5 inches long. In-
habits Brazil. — Shaw, xiv. pi. 2.

T. diademata, Tern, (Nemosia, Vieill.) Cheeks, nape, lesser wing-
coverts, tail-coverts, back, outer web of all the quills and tail, and
nearly all the under parts, blue ; tail, throat, and forehead black ;
a red spot on the crown, and elongated white feathers on the
occiput. Inhabits Brazil.— Tern. PI. Col. 243.

T. viridis, Tern. Head and occiput yellowish green ; throat and
neck in front green, the latter with a coppery blue half collar ;
body above varied with blue and green ; beneath yellow ; wings
green. Inhabit? Brazil — Tern. PI. Col. 36. fig 3.

Gen. 5. I?LOCEUS, Cuv. Tern. — Loxia, Lin.
Bill strong, conical, sharp, inflected, and compressed at the point,
without a notch, edges of the mandibles bent inwards; nostrils
basal, near the surface of the bill, ovoid, and open ; tarsus of
the same length as the middle toe ; the three anterior toes
united at the base ; the fourth quill the longest.

P. Philippimis, Tern. (Loxia, Lin.) Philippine Weaver. Plumage
brown above, whitish-yellow beneath ; crown of the head and breast
yellow ; throat brown. The female has the upper parts brown,
edged with rufous. 5 J inches long. Inhabits Philippine Islands.
—•Shaw, ix. 315.

This bird forms a very curious nest, in the shape of a long cylinder, swelling out
at the middle, composed of the fine fibres of leaves and grass, and fastened by the
end to the branch of a high tree. This nest has two or three compartments, the
eggs being deposited in that which is jn the globose portion in the middle, the
entrance being at the bottom of the long cylinder, and thus, in a great measure, con-
cealed. The whole is generally suspended over water. The Philippine weaver may
be rendered so very tame, as to come and perch on its master's hand, or to fetch
and carry, like a dog, at command.

P. Abyssinicus, Tern. (Loxia, Gmel.) Abyssinian Weaver. Plu-
mage yellow, with the crown, cheeks, throat, and breast black ;
wings antd ail brown. Size of the Hawfinch. Inhabits Abyssi-
nia.— Shaw, ix. 294
This bird forms a nest of a pyramidal shape, which is suspended from the ends

of branches. The opening is on one side, facing the east, being opposite to that

I

LOXIA. BIRDS. 241

from which the rain proceeds ; the cavity is separated in the middle by a partition
of half its height, up which the bird mounts perpendicularly, and then, descending
on the other side, forms its nest in the further chamber.

P. pensilis, Tern. (Loxia, Lin.) Pensile Weaver. Plumage green
above, gray beneath ; vent rufous,, with the head and lower parts
of the neck yellow ; quills and tail-feathers black. 5 inches long.
Inhabits Madagascar — Shaw, ix. 275.

P. socius, Tern. (Loxia, Lath.) Sociable Weaver. Reddish brown
above., yellowish beneath ; capistrum black ; tail short. 5J inches
long. Inhabits Cape of Good Hope. — Shaw, ix. 303.

These birds lire in large societies, constructing their numerous connected nests
on the branches of smooth barked trees, as a defence against serpents and monkeys.

P. Malimbicus, Tern. ( Tanagra, Lath.) Plumage blue-black, with
the crest, chin, and throat scarlet. 6 inches long. Inhabits Africa.
—Shan, Nat. Mis. pi. 581.

P. aurifrons, Tern. Plumage yellow-green, with the back and sca-
pulars spotted with brown; forehead and cheeks of the male golden
yellow ; of the female ashy-yellow ; body beneath citron yellow.
6 inches long. Inhabits Southern Africa — Tern. PL Cot. 175, 176.

Gen. 6. LOXIA, Briss. — Crucirostra, Cuv.
Bill rather long, strong, much compressed, the two mandibles
equally convex and crossing each other at the points when at
rest ; nostrils round, basal, and lateral, concealed by reflected
bristly feathers; the anterior toes entirely divided; wings with
the first quill-feather longest ; tail forked.

These birds inhabit the northern parts of Europe and America, and feed on the
seeds of trees and alpine plants. Their singular formed bill enables them to pick out
the seeds from the cones of the pine and fir. Their period of reproduction is un-
usual, being in the winter months ; and they emigrate in summer to the Arctic regions.
Their change of plumage is one of the most singular phenomena in their history.
The bulfinches and grosbeaks, which were included under this generic title by the
older naturalists, have been properly classed under another name.

L. pytiopsittacus, Bechst. Greater Cross-bill. Bill very strong, much
bent, broad at its base, the crossing point of the lower mandible
not surpassing the upper margin of the bill ; plumage olive-ash-
coloured; cheeks, throat, and sides of the neck gray; rump, breast,
and belly greenish -yellow; wings and tail brownish-black. 7 in-
ches long. Inhabits N. Europe.— Selby, lllust. pi. 53**, fig. 1.

L. curvirostra. Lin. Cross-bill. Bill long, slightly curved, broad
at the base, and the crossed point of the lower mandible project-
ing beyond the upper edge of the bill ; body of a variable red ;
quills and tail-feathers brown; tail forked. The red of the male
is varied with brown and green, and the female is olive-green,
mixed with brown; but both sexes appear very different at differ-
ent times of the year, and at different ages, 6 inches long. In-
habits Northern Europe. B. — Selby, lllust. pi. 53.

Gen. 7. PSITTIROSTKA, Tern. — Loxia, Lath.

Bill short, much hooked, gibbous at its base ; upper mandible
VOL. i. a

BIRDS. GBANIVOILK.

bent at the point over the lower ; lower broad, rounded, with
obtuse point; nostrils basal, lateral, half covered by a feathered
membrane ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; toes divided,
the lateral ones equal ; wings, first feather obsolete, second
shorter than the third.

P. psittacea, Tern. Plumage olive-brown ; head and neck yellow.
Inhabits Sandwich Islands. — Shaw, ix. 268.

Gen. 8. PYRRHULA, Briss. — Loxia, Lin.

Bill short, thick, gibbous at the sides, compressed at the tip
and towards the ridge ; both mandibles convex, particularly
the upper one, the tip of which overhangs the lower ; nostrils
basal, lateral, rounded, and most frequently concealed by fea-
thers in front ; tarsus shorter than the middle toe, the an-
terior toes divided to their origin ; wings short, the fourth
quill the longest ; tail slightly rounded or square.

Most of the species belonging to this genus reside in the cold and temperate cli-
mates of the globe, subsist on hard grains and seeds, and undergo a double moulting.

P. enucleator, Tern. Pine Grosbeak. Head, neck, throat, breast, and
rump bright crimson-red ; back and scapulars black, the feathers
deeply edged with red ; wing-coverts tipped with crimson, form-
ing two bars across the wings; quills and tail-feathers edged with
pale crimson ; flanks, belly, and vent grayish-white, tinged with
crimson ; bill black. 7J inches long. Inhabits Northern Eu-
rope, &c. B Selby, Illust. pi. 53*, fig. 1, 2.

P. rosea, Tern. Throat and face covered with silvery feathers ; head,
neck, rump, and lower parts lively crimson ; back and scapulars
black, bordered with crimson ; two bands of white rose-colour on
the wings, and the abdomen and lower coverts of the same colour ;
wings brown ash-coloured; bill brown. 5J inches long. Inhabits
Southern Europe — Tern. Man. 333.

P. erythrina, Tern. (Loxia, Pall.) Smaller feathers on the nostrils
and bill faint rose-coloured; head, neck, and upper part of the
back bright crimson ; base of all the feathers red-brown ; rump,
sides of the head, throat, neck, and breast, crimson or rose-colour-
ed; belly white; coverts of the wings brown ash-colour; tail
forked. 5 \ inches long. Inhabits N. Europe. — Tern. Man. 336.

P. vulgaris, Briss. (Loxia, Lin.) The Bulfinch. Head, throat,
wings, and tail velvet black, tinged with violet purple ; nape of
the neck and back bluish gray ; cheeks, neck, breast, belly, and
flanks red ; rump and vent white ; great wing-coverts tipped and
margined with pinkish white, forming a transverse bar across the
wing ; bill and legs blackish-brown. 6 inches long. Inhabits
Europe. B.— &%, Illust. pi. 54, fig. 1, 2.

P. longicauda, Tern. A circle of red feathers around the bill ; fea-
thers on the top of the head, throat, and fore part of the neck
acuminated and rose-coloured ; breast and belly crimson-red ;

FRINGILLA. BIRDS. 243

feathers of the back and scapulars black in the centre, bordered
with red; three lateral feathers of the tail white, with black spots.
6 inches long. Inhabits Siberia. — Tern. Man. 340.

P. lineola, Tern. (Loxia, Lin.) Bill gibbous and black, with a
white spot on the base of the upper mandible, and a line of the
same colour from the forehead to the crown ; upper parts of the
body glossy blue-black ; under parts and base of the primaries
white; tail black, slightly forked. Inhabits Africa. — Sharv,ix.326.

P. minuta, Tern. (Loxia, Lin.) Plumage above gray-brown ; be-
neath and rump ferruginous, with the fourth, fifth, and sixth,
quill-feathers white at the base. Size of the Wren. — Shaw,ix. 334.

P. cmereola, Tern. Head, cheeks, back, and scapulars ashy-blue ;
under parts and spot on the wings white; wings and tail dusky;
bill red ; legs ash-coloured. 4£ inches long. Inhabits Brazil. —
Tem.Pl.Col.il, fig. 1.

Gen. 9- FRTNGILLA, Illig. Tern.

Bill short, stout, straight, and conical ; upper mandible gibbous,
depressed above, a little inclined at the point ; nostrils basal,
round, placed near the forehead, and partially concealed by
the feathers in front; tarsus shorter than the middle toe, and
the fore-toes entirely divided ; wings short, the third and
fourth quills the longest ; tail of varied form.

The birds of this genus subsist on all sorts of seeds and grains, which they open
with their bill, while they reject the husk, and they rarely partake of insect food.
They are very generally scattered over the face of the earth, but are most numerous
in the warm and hot latitudes. Many of them are subject to a twofold moulting, in
which case the male takes in winter the plumage of the female.

* Bill thick., gibbous, more or less dilated.

F. coccothraustes,Tem. (Loxia, Lin.) The Hawfinch. Rump, head,
and cheeks red brown ; around the bill and throat deep black ;
neck ash-coloured ; a longitudinal white stripe on the wings ; tail-
feathers white interiorly, and blackish-brown on the exterior web;
lower parts wine-red ; legs and bill grayish. 7 inches long. In-
habits Southern Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 55, fig. 1.

F. Chloris, Tern. (Loxia, Lin.) Green Finch or Green Linnet.
Plumage yellowish-green, with the primary quills in front, and
the four lateral tail-feathers, yellow ; bill thick and whitish ; head
and back yellowish-green, edges of the feathers grayish ; rump
and breast yellow ; tail slightly forked. The plumage of the fe-
male is less bright. 6J inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby
Illust. pi. 54, fig. 3.

F. petronia, Lin. Foolish Sparrow. Plumage brown ash-coloured,
mixed with whitish on the lower parts ; eyebrows reddish white ;
feathers generally terminated with whitish ; a rounded white spot
on the interior web of the tail-feathers, and a large yellow spat
on the fore part of the neck. 5^ inches long. Inhabits Europe.
—Shaw, ix. 434,

244 BIRDS. GRANIVORA.

F. domestica, Lin. The Common Sparrow. Top of the head and
occiput bluish ash-colour ; a chestnut band above the eyes, spread-
ing on the sides of the neck ; space between the bill and eye,
throat, and neck before of a deep black ; black feathers of the
breast margined with white ; feathers of the back and wings
black, bordered with chestnut ; a single white band across the
wing. 5 inches long. Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 54, fig. 4, 5.
This well known bird, constantly found near the dwellings of man, is often perse-
cuted for its depredations ; though, according to Bradley, it is of essential service in
the general economy of nature as limiting the reproductive powers of insects. That
observer ascertained that one pair carried to their nest forty caterpillars in the space
of an hour ; so that, on the supposition of their entering the nest only during twelve
hours edch day, they would occasion a daily destruction of 480 caterpillars, or 3360
in a week. The flight of sparrows is short and laborious. They have no native
song, and, for the most part, only a disagreeable chirp ; but they are capable, when
in confinement, of acquiring the notes of the linnet and other birds.

F. Cisalpina, Tern. Top of the head, neck, and part of the back,
chestnut-coloured, bright in summer ; region of the cheeks white;
otherwise resembling the preceding. Inhabits Southern Europe.
—Tern. Man. 351.

F. Hispaniolensis, Tern. Top of the head and neck bright deep
chestnut ; back and coverts black, but all the feathers margined
laterally with reddish-yellow ; throat and neck black ; long black
spots on the flanks ; cheeks and middle of belly white ; bill strong.
Inhabits Spain. — Tern. Man. 353.

F. montana, Lin. (Pyrgita, Cuv.) Mountain Finch. Top of the
head and occiput copper-red ; space between the bill and eye,
band over the eyes, throat, and fore part of the neck deep black ;
wings and tail deep brown; two white bands on the wings; breast
ash-coloured ; belly whitish ; bill black. 5 inches long. Inhabits
Europe. B.— Selby, Illust. pi. 55, fig. 2.

F. serinus, Lin. (Carduelis, Cuv.) Forehead, around the eyes, and
band above the eyes, yellowish-green ; stripe on the sides of the
neck olive; rump and breast yellow; two transverse bands on the
wings, one yellowish-green, the other brownish; belly whitish
yellow, with bluish spots ; tail slightly forked. 4|- inches long.
Inhabits Southern Europe. — Tern. Man. 356.

** Bill conical, more or less short, straight.

F. Calebs, Lin. The Chaffinch. Forehead black ; top of the head
and neck blue ash-coloured ; back and scapulars chestnut, with
an olive tinge ; rump green ; all the lower parts reddish wine-
colour ; abdomen white ; wings and tail black ; two transverse
white bands on the wings, and a white spot on the lateral tail-
feathers. 6 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust.
pi. 54, fig. 6, 7.

The Chaffinch is widely disseminated, and found in almost all parts of Europe,
being sedentary in the warmer provinces, but migratory in those situate to the north-
ward. They begin their short and frequently-repeated caiol early in spring, and
continue it till the summer solstice, after which they only chirp. In confinement
they are capable of acquiring the notes of the canary, nightingale, &c.

FRIXGILLA. BIRDS. 245

F. montifringilla, Lin. The Mountain Finch. Head, cheeks, nape,
and top of the back black ; throat, front of the neck, breast, sca-
pulars, and smaller coverts of the wings orange-red ; a narrow
orange transverse band on the wings ; the three exterior quills
black ; rump and lower parts white ; flanks reddish, with black
spots ; tail black. 6|- inches long. Bird of passage in Europe. B.
—Selby, Illust. pi. 54, fig. 8, 9.

F. nivalis, Lin. The Snow Finch. Top of the head, cheeks, and
neck bluish ash-coloured ; scapulars and two of the secondary fea-
thers of the wings brown ; coverts of the wings, the other secon-
dary feathers, and those of the tail white ; lateral tail-feathers
pointed with black ; lower parts whitish. 7 inches long. Inha-
bits Mountains in Europe — Tern. Man. 362.

F. cannabina, Lin. Common or Brown Linnet. Bill strong, blackish,
the breadth of the forehead ; throat whitish, marked in the mid-
dle with some brown spots ; top of the head and neck ash-colour-
ed ; back, scapulars, and wing-coverts chestnut ; flanks reddish-
brown ; middle of the belly white ; some of the quill-feathers
black, bordered exteriorly with white ; tail forked, black. 5 in-
ches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 55. fig. 3, 4.
The female Linnet is destitute of sons. Linnets are very familiar, and easily tamed.

When brought up under the nightingale, goldfinch, woodlark, &c. they acquire the

respective songs of those birds.

F. montium, Gmel. Mountain Linnet. Throat, fore part of the
neck, broad eyebrows, and the region of the eyes bright red ; fea-
thers of the top of the head, neck, and back, black in the middle,
bordered with red j two bands of whitish-red upon the wings ; bill
triangular ; legs black. 4£ inches long. Inhabits Europe. B.
—Selby, Illust. pi. 55, fig. 5.

F. Canaria, Lin.- Canary Bird or Canary Finch. Bill and body
whitish-yellow j quills and tail-feathers greenish. 5£ inches long.

This bird in its wild state, as observed by Labillardiere and others, exhibits a
brown hue, mixed with various others, and its plumage is not so attractive as it
becomes in confinement. In consequence of long domestication, it has, like the dog,
assumed an almost endless series of varieties. The colours of the female are paler
than those of the male. It principally occurs in the Canary Islands, frequenting
damp places ; and at Palma, Fayal, Cape Verd, and Madeira. From the Canary
Islands they appear to have been brought into Europe about the beginning of the
fourteenth century, and have been generally diffused over almost every civilized
country, owing to the powerful attractions of their song, combined with the grace-
fulness and tenderness of their manners and their great docility. When imported
from their native country they are often silent, or have but an indifferent song ; and
the fine warble to which our ears are so familiar, is usually modelled on that of the
titlark or of the nightingale. Most of those from the Tyrol have been educated
under parents, whose progenitors were instructed by a nightingale ; but the English-
bred Canary birds have more of the titlark's notes.

*** Bill conical, long, straight, and compressed; pointofthe man-
dibles sharp.

F. citrinella, Lin. Throat, breast, and middle of the belly yellow-
ish-green ; occiput, sides of the neck, and flanks cinereous; back,
scapulars, coverts, and transverse band on the wings deep yel-

246 BIRDS. GRANIVOUJ*.

lowish-green ; wings and tail black, bordered with greenish. 4J
inches long. Inhabits Southern Europe. — Tern. Man. 370.

F. spinus, Lin. The Siskin. Top of the head and throat black ;
shaded with greenish on the neck ; a broad yellow band behind
the eyes ; back and scapulars greenish, with a little black streak
on each feather ; two bands on the wings, one black, the other
greenish-yellow ; wings and the extremity of the tail black. 4£
inches long. Inhabits N. Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 55, fig. 6, 7.

F. linaria, Lin. {Linaria, Vieill.) Red-headed Linnet. Top of
the head, breast, lateral parts of the belly and rump, crimson-co-
loured; belly rose-coloured; upper parts reddish ash-coloured, with
longitudinal black spots ; wings, throat, and tail black. 5 inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 54, fig. 10.

F. carduelis, Lin. {Carduelis, Cuv.) The Goldfinch. Forehead
and throat crimson ; occiput and neck black; fore part of the neck
and lower parts of the body white ; back, scapulars, and lateral
parts of the breast brown ; upper half of the wing-feathers pure
yellow, the other black, with whitish spots towards the end;
tail black, with whitish longitudinal spots ; bill whitish, the ti
black. 5J inches long. Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 55, fig. 8,

F. cucullata, ( Carduelis, Swainson.) Plumage orange-coloured, with
the head, throat, a band across the coverts, quills, and tail black;
primary quills at the base obliquely banded with orange. 4 in-
ches long. Inhabits South America — Swainson, Zool. III. pi. 7.

F. melanotis, Tern. Plumage above olive-green, beneath whitish-
red, with a black spot on the eyes and ears ; head and neck be-
hind lead-coloured ; rump and upper coverts vermilion-red. 3|
inches long. Inhabits Southern Africa. — Tern. PL Col. 221, fig. 1.

Gen. 10. PHYTOTOMA, Gmel.

Bill short, strong, conical, edged, with the margins of the man-
dibles serrated and equal ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid ; four
toes, three before, one behind.

P. rara, Gmel. Chili Plant-Cutter. Plumage dusky gray above,
paler below ; quills and tail-feathers spotted with black ; tail
rounded. Size of a quail. Inhabits Chili. — Shaw, ix. 336.

Gen, 11. HYREUS, Stephens.

Bill conical, thick, straight, somewhat serrated ; nostrils ovate;
feet with three toes, two before and one behind.

H. Abyssinicus, Steph. {Phytotoma tridactyla, Baud.) Plumage
above black, with the head, throat, and jugulum red ; wing-co-
verts brown, with white margins. Abyssinia. — Shaw, ix. pi. 53.

Gen. 12. COLIUS, Gmel.

Bill short, thick, conical, somewhat compressed at the point;
mandibles convex, the upper one covering the lower; nostrils

3

MUSOPHAGA. BIRDS. 247

basal, lateral, partly concealed by feathers ; tail very long,
conical ; tarsus short, the hind toe reversible ; the anterior
toes divided ; wings short ; the third quill longest.

The birds of this genus are natives of Africa or India, climb somewhat in the
manner of parrots, live in troops, build numerous nests on the same bushes, and
sleep suspended on the branches, with their head downwards. They feed on fruits.

C. Capensis, Gmel. (Loxia, Lin.) Cape Coly. Outer edges of the
exterior tail-feathers white ; body cinereous above, whitish be-
neath. Size of the chaffinch. Cape of Good Hope. — Shaw, x. pi. 1.

C. Senegalensis, Gmel. Head, neck, and breast tinged with pur-
plish ,- the feathers^on the top and hind parts of the head green,
and formed into a crest ; rest of the upper parts pale-gray ; tail
bluish, the middle feathers above eight inches in length. Inhabits
Africa. — Shaw, x. 5.

ORDER V.— ZYGODACTYLOUS BIRDS. Zygodactyli.

Bill of various form, more or less curved, or much hooked,
and often straight and angular ; feet always with two toes
before, and two behind, and the exterior hind toe frequently
reversible.

The distinctive character of the birds of this order is chiefly the disposition of the toes
in pairs. Many of them chiefly or exclusively live on caterpillars, worms, and in-
sects, but others on soft or hard fruits, and most of them nestle in the holes of
decayed trees.

FAMILY I. — Bill more or less curved ; feet with two toes before and
generally two behind, the exterior hind toe sometimes reversible.

Gen. 1. MUSOPHAGA, Tern. — Opcethus, Vieill.

Bill short, stout, broad, ridge arched and elevated, notched at
the point, extremity of the lower mandible forming an angle ;
nostrils basal, and often concealed by feathers ; legs stout,
tarsus equal in length to the middle toe ; the exterior rever-
sible ; lateral toes equal ; the fourth and fifth quills the longest.

M. Africana, Tern. (Opcethus, Vieill. Cuculus, Lin.) African
Touraco. Plumage bluish green, the feathers on the head length-
ened into a crest, capable of erection; quill- feathers crimson,
margined with black ; tail bluish purple ; belly, thighs, and un-
der tail-coverts blackish. Inhabits Africa. — Shan, ix. pi. 15.

M. Paulina, Tern. Plumage above glossy copper- coloured ; belly
and vent dull copper-green, glossed with bluish j a large white
spot round the eye ; crest and quill-feathers red ; bill orange
Inhabits Southern Africa. — Shaw, xiv. pi. 26.

M. violacea, Tern. Plumage deep violet, except on the lower part
of the wings, where the quill- feathers are bright purple, or rather
crimson, tipped with violet, and the crown of the head, which is

248 BIRDS. ZYGGDACTYLI.

also purple ; beneath the eyes a white stripe pointing backwards ;
upper mandible vaulted over part of the forehead. 19 inches
long. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw, viii. pi. 4, 5.

Gen. 2. INDICATOR, Vieill.

Bill short, depressed, dilated on the sides, a little bent and
notched at the point ; ridge distinct ; nasal furrow large ;
nostrils basal, a little tubular ; tarsus shorter than the external
toe ; the anterior toes united to the first joint ; wings with
the third feather the longest .

I. major, Stephens. Great Honey-guide. Upper part of the head,
hinder part of the neck, wing-coverts, and back brownish olive-
green ; rump and tail-coverts white ; breast and under parts pale
yellow, the middle of the neck with black spots. 10 inches long.
Inhabits Africa — Shaw, ix. pi. 27-

I. minor, Steph. Plumage olive gray, with the quills brownish, mar-
gined with yellow ; belly and tail whitish, the latter with the
middle feathers black ; bill and legs brown. Inhabits Southern
Africa.— Shaw, ix. 140.

Gen. 3. CUCULUS, Lin.

Bill as long as the head, compressed and slightly curved ; nos-
trils basal, pierced in the margin of the mandible, and sur-
rounded by a naked and prominent membrane ; legs feathered
below the knee ; fore toes united at their base ; hind toes di-
vided, the exterior reversible ; tail long, more or less gradua-
ted ; the third quill-feather the longest.

The Cuckoos area shy and solitary race of birds, which live' chiefly on insects and
caterpillars, and are remarkable for depositing their eggs in the nests of some of
the smaller birds. Only one species is a native of Great Britain.

C. canorus, Lin. Common Cuckoo. Head, neck, breast, and upper
parts deep bluish gray, darkest on the wing-coverts; belly,
thighs, and under tail-coverts white, with transverse black bars ;
tail-feathers blackish, spotted with whitish, as are the exterior
webs of the quills ; membranous margin of the bill and around
the eyes orange yellow. 10| inches long. Europe. B — Selby,
Must. pi. 37 and 45***, fig. 1.

This well known species usually makes its appearance in Britain early in April,
and begins to utter the cry from which it has derived its name, in almost every
language, about the middle of the month. This, which is the note of the male,
ceases about the close of June, and the birds soon after leave the country, the old
ones in July, and the young in the beginning of September. The nest which the fe-
male cuckoo selects for the deposition of her egg is commonly that of the hedge spar-
row, though sometimes that of the water-wagtail, yellow-wren, titlark, yellow-ham-
mer, green-linnet, or some other small insectivorous bird. The female is somewhat
smaller than the male, but has generally the same markings. The details of colour-
ing, however, are so much subject to variation in this species, that scarcely two are
marked alike.
C. clamosus, Lath. Plumage bluish black ; wing-feathers fuscous ;

feet yellowish ; bill black. 10 inches long. Inhabits Southern

Africa. — Shaw, ix. 108.

COCCYZUS. BIRDS. 249

C. cupreus, Lath. Head, neck, and upper parts of the body bril-
liant copper-colour, with a golden gloss ; belly and thighs yellow ;
tail wedge-shaped, with the exterior feathers marked with a tri-
angular white spot at their tip ; legs black. Size of the Lark. In-
habits Africa. — Shaw. ix. 129.

C. chalcites, Tern. Plumage metallic green, with the head red, glos-
sed with bronze ; tail red at the base, greenish in the middle,
white at the tip ; belly white ; neck anteriorly and breast varied
with brown. 5^ inches long. Australasia — Tern. PI. Col. 103.fig.2.

C. Klasii, Vieill. Brilliant copper green on the head and upper
parts ; eyebrows white ; wing-feathers bronze green above, black
and spotted with white below ; under parts pure white ; lateral
feathers of the tail white within, with blackish transverse lines ;
bill and legs black. 7 inches long. Inhabits Africa. — Shan>,ix. 128.

Gen. 4. COCCYZUS, Vieill. — Cuculus, Lin.
Bill strong, compressed in all its length, ridge distinct, slightly
bent from its base ; lower mandibles straight, inclined at the
point ; nostrils basal, lateral, half shut by a naked membrane ;
legs slender ; tarsus much longer than the exterior toe; wings
short and rounded, the first five feathers graduated.

C. Cayanus, Tern. Plumage above purplish chestnut, paler beneath;
tail wedge-shaped, all the feathers tipped with white. 16 inches
long. Inhabits Cayenne. — Shaw, ix. 90.

C. ncevius, Tern. Plumage above brownish ferruginous ; beneath ru-
fous white ; hind part of the neck rufous gray, with deep brown
down the shafts, back, and rump ; quills grayish brown, with a
rufous spot near the tips ; tail tipped with reddish. 10J inches
long. Inhabits .Guiana. — Shaw, ix. 99.

P. Geoffroyu, Tern. Plumage above bronzed green with a golden
gloss; forehead, cheeks, neck anteriorly, and breast brown, the tips
of the feathers with a reddish white crescent ; crest bluish ; belly
yellowish ; tail wedge-shaped. 19 inches long. Inhabits South
America.— Tern. PL Col. 7-

Gen. 5. CENTROPUS, Illig. — Corydonyx, Vieill. — Polophilus,

Leach.

Bill thick, strong, compressed, deeper than broad, carinated, ar-
cuated towards the tip; nostrils basal, lateral, diagonally cleft;
legs long, robust ; tarsus longer than the exterior toe ; the
two anterior joined at the base ; inner hind toe with a long
subulate claw.

C. JEgyptius, Tern. (Cuculus, Lath.) Egyptian Coucal. Plumage
dull green above, reddish white beneath ; head, back of the neck,
and tail of a beautiful green ; wings red ; tail wedge-shaped. 15
inches long. Inhabits Egypt. — Shaw, ix. 54.

C. rujinus, Cuv. Plumage above rufous, with the feathers streaked

250 BIRDS. ZYGODACTYLI.

with light red or white; wings and tail reddish, the interior
hinder claw long and straight. 11 inches long. Inhabits Africa.
—Shaw, ix. pi. 8.

C. gigas, Cuv. Wing-coverts and back brownish red, the shafts pale
red, and the feathers bordered with brownish black ; under part
of the body reddish, bordered with sooty black ; tail tipped with
whitish. 30 inches long. Inhabits Africa — Shaw, ix. 45.

C. phasianus, Tern. Back and wings varied with rufous yellow,
brown and black ; bill, head, neck, and under parts blackish ; tail
long, black, with transverse bands. 17 inches long. Inhabits
New Holland — Shaw, ix. pi. 11.

Gen. 6. PH<ENICOPHATJS, Vieill. — Cuculus, Gmel.

Bill longer than the head, strong, thick, rounded, smooth, ar-
cuated, the base with divergent bristles ; nostrils lateral, li-
near, distant from the base ; orbits naked, papillated ; tarsus
longer than the external toe ; wings short.

P. pyrrhocephalus, Tern. The Malkoha. Crown and part of the
cheeks bright crimson, surrounded by a band of white ; hind part
of the head and neck black, with white spots ; front of the neck,
back, and wings black ; tail very long, wedge-shaped, tip white ;
breast and belly white ; legs pale blue. 16 inches long. Inha-
bits Ceylon. — Shaw, ix. 59.

P. leucogaster, Steph. Plumage greenish-black, with the belly and
tail-feathers margined with white ; throat and neck dull green ;
head round the eyes orange. 9 inches long. Inhabits Africa. —
Shaw, ix. pi. 14.

Gen. 7. LEPTOSOMUS, Vieill. — Cuculus, Lin.

Bill almost triangular, laterally compressed, with prominent
ridge; upper mandible a little bent, the lower straight; nostrils
in the middle of the bill, half shut by an elongation of the cor-
neous matter ; tarsus broad, depressed, covered with rough
scales ; wings long, the fourth quill longest ; tail long, equal.

L. afer, Tern. Body beneath and forehead whitish, top of the head
and neck behind black ; wing-coverts green, with red margins ;
tail blue-black. 15 inches long. Inhabits Africa. The only species
of the genus. — Shaw, ix. 25.

Gen. 8. SCYTHROPS, Lath.

Bill long, convex above, laterally compressed, curved at the
tip, the upper mandible longitudinally grooved ; nostrils ba-
sal, naked, rounded ; orbits naked ; tarsus shorter than the
middle toe, the two exterior toes joined at the base ; tail long,
rounded.

S. Novce Hollandice, Tern. Plumage lead-coloured, with the tail-
feathers barred black and white. 17 inches long; bill four in-

PTEROGLOSSUS, BIRDS. 251

dies. The only species of the genus. Inhabits New Holland. —
Shaw, viii. pi. 50.

Gen. 9. PTEROGLOSSUS, Illig. — Ramphastos, Lin.
Bill slender, longer than the head, convex above, externally
serrated, and tip curved ; nostrils vertical, orbicular, open ;
tarsus the length of the external toe ; the two anterior toes
united to the second joint ; wings short, concave, the first
four quills unequally graduated ; tail long, graduated,

The Pteroglossi inhabit the southern regions of the globe. Their bill is some-
what smaller in proportion than the Toucans, and their plumage generally green or
yellowish, with red or yellow on the throat and breast.

P. Aracari, Tern. Plumage blackish green, with yellow abdomen,
red middle abdominal bar and rump, and cuneated tail ; upper
mandible with a longitudinal black stripe. 17 inches long; bill
four inches. Inhabits S. America. — Shaw, viii. pi. 49.

P. viridis, Tern. Head and neck deep black ; back, wings, and tail
blackish green ; breast, belly, and vent yellow ; rump red ; .up-
per mandible yellow at the top, reddish at the sides, with a line
of black between. 14 inches long; bill near three inches. In-
habits Cayenne — Shaw, viii. pi. 48.

P. sulcatus, Swainson. Plumage green, paler below ; jugulum whit-
ish ; round the eyes blue ; bill with two longitudinal grooves. 12
inches long ; bill three. — Zool. Illust. i. pi. 44.

Gen. 10. RAMPHASTOS, Lin.

Bill cellular, thin, transparent, broader than the head at the
base, convex above, serrated at the edges, and a little incurv-
ed at the tip ; nostrils vertical, concealed behind the corne-
ous mass, surrounded by a membrane ; tarsus as long as the
external toe ; the two anterior toes united to the second joint ;
tail short.

R. toco, Lath. The Toco Toucan. Plumage black, with the fore
part of the neck and rump white ; vent red ; bill reddish, with
black tip. 17 inches long; bill eight inches. Inhabits Ca-
yenne— Shaw, viii. pi. 46.

R. vitellinus, Illig. Throat golden yellow ; sides and ears white ;
pectoral band and wing-coverts red ; bill black, with a blue bar
at the base, edges thickened — Swains. Zool. Illust. i. pi. 56.

Gen. 11. CROTOPHAGA, Lin.

Bill short, thick, much compressed, carinated above, its edges
angulated ; legs long, slender ; tarsus a little longer than the
external toe ; wings short, tail of eight broad feathers, rounded.

C. ani, Lin. American Keel-bill. Plumage violet black, with a green
tint ; tail wedge-shaped. Size of a blackbird.— Shaw, viii. pi. 51.

Gen. 12. TROGON, Lin.
Bill shorter than the head, thick, arcuated, broader than high,

252 BIRDS. ZTGODACTYLI.

bent at the point, dentated on the margin, with long bristles
at the base ; nostrils basal, open ; legs short ; tarsus shorter
than the external toe, partly covered by feathers ; the exte-
rior toe reversible ; the fifth quill-feather longest.
T. viridis, Lin. The Green Curucui. Upper part of the head violet,
with a mixture of golden green; sides of the head and throat black ;
upper parts of the body golden green, with a band of the same
colour on the breast ; beneath orange yellow ; the thighs nearly
black ; three lateral tail-feathers obliquely dentated with white.
11 £ inches long. Inhabits Cayenne — Shaw, ix. pi. 4.

T. rufus, Lath. General colour rufous, the belly, thighs, and vent
yellow ; wing-coverts striated with black and gray ; three lateral
tail-feathers striated with black and white, and white tips. 9 in-
ches long. Inhabits Cayenne — Shaw, ix. pi. 3, 3*.

T. sulphureus, Spix. Plumage glossy greenish above ; forehead, throat,
and thighs black ; wing-coverts black, crenulated with white ;
abdomen sulphureous ; tail glossy copper- coloured, beneath black,
with the three outer feathers banded with black and white ; fe-
male blackish. 8 inches long. Brazil. — Spix, Avium, pi. 38. fig.l, 2.

T. Remwardtii, Tern. Head, cheeks, sides of the neck and band on
the breast green, tinged with olive ; throat, belly, and under tail-co-
verts yellow ; wing-coverts striped with green and yellow ; orange
spots on the body. 11 inches long. Java. — Tern. PL Col. 124.

Gen. 13. CAPITO, Vieill. — Tamatla, Cuv. — Bucco, Lath.
Bill long, straight at the base, broader than deep, point com-
pressed ; upper mandible bent at the point and surpassing the
under one; nostrils basal, lateral, in the corneous substance, en-
tirely concealed by stiff hairs ; tarsus the length of the exterior
toe ; the two anterior toes united to the second joint ; wings
short.

C. macrorhynchos, Tern. Plumage black, with the forehead, throat,
front of the neck, abdomen, and tip of the tail white ; bill very
large, hooked, and black. Cayenne. — Swainson, Zool.Ill. ii. pi. 99.

C. collaris, Tern. Plumage above rufous, with a band on the shoul-
ders fulvous, on the breast black ; throat and belly whitish ; tail
transversely striated with black. 7J- inches long. Inhabits Guiana.
— Shaw, ix. pi. 7-

C. melanotis, Tem. Throat, neck, under parts of the body and wing-
coverts white ; sides more or less dotted or striped with black ;
top of the head, back, and wings red, waved with black lines ;
region of the ears and part of the neck black. 8 inches long. —
Tem. PI Col 94.

Gen. 14. Bucco, Lin.

Bill strong, pointed, laterally compressed, covered with strong
bristles at the base ; upper mandible emarginated andincurved;

POGONIAS. BIRDS. 253

nostrils basal, lateral ; tarsus shorter than the exterior toe ;
the anterior toes united to the second joint ; wings short.

B. grandis, Tern. The Great Barhet. Plumage above fine green,
with the quill- feathers variegated with black ; head and neck
blue ; vent red ; bill whitish, with the tip black. 11 inches long.
Inhabits China. — Shaw, ix. 40.

B. Javensis, Horsfield. Plumage emerald green above, below paler ;
the top of the head orange j a double black stripe on the sides of
the head, the one superciliary, the other uniting on the nape ;
throat and transverse band on the back of the neck crimson. 11
inches long. Inhabits Java. — Lin. Trans, xiii. 181.

B. versicolor, Tern. Plumage green, paler below ; crown red ; a
band on the sides of the head above blue, below black, and be-
hind the eyes a rufous spot. 10J inches long. Inhabits Suma-
tra Tern. PI. Col. 309.

B. gularis, Reinwardt. Plumage dark green above, beneath paler ;
forehead and throat turquoise blue ; a spot on the latter black or
dusky, and edged with yellow ; a citron-coloured stripe at the
gape.— Tern. PL Col. 89. fig. 2.

Gen. 15. POGONIAS, Illig. — Bucco, Lath.

Bill short, strong, with a prominent arched ridge ; cutting edge
of the upper mandible with one or two strong teeth, and fur-
rowed or smooth ; lower mandible less deep than the upper ;
nostrils basal, lateral, with rigid bristles at the base ; tarsus
the length of the exterior toe ; the two anterior united to the
second joint.

All the species of this genus are natives of Africa.

P. sulcirostris, Tern. Upper parts of the body, wings, and tail black,
with a white spot on the back ; throat, neck, belly, and an ob-
scure stripe on the wings scarlet ; sides yellowish ; quills dark
brown ; upper mandible with one longitudinal, the under with
many transverse grooves. 9 inches long. Africa. — Sharv, ix. pi. 1.

P. niger, Tern. Throat, jugulum, breast, and nape black ; fore-
head red ; neck on both sides with two striae and with the ab-
domen whitish ; wings and tail yellow, varied with black. 6
inches long. Cape of Good Hope — Leach, Zool. Mis. ii. pi. 11

P. personatus, Tern. Plumage ashy-green, with the crown, throat,
and neck entirely vermilion red ; nape and breast deep black ;
wings and tail brown, edged with yellow ; belly greenish white.
7 inches long. Inhabits Africa — Tern. PL Col. 201.

Gen. 16. PSITTACUS, Lin.

Bill short, thick, gibbous, very strong, convex above and be-
low, much bent and hooked at the point ; lower mandible
short, obtuse ; base of the bill with a cere ; head large ; nos-
trils orbicular, pierced in the cere, open ; legs short, robust ;

254 BIRDS. ZYGODACTYLI.

tarsus shorter than the external toe ; the interior toes united
at their base ; tail of varied form.

This large genus is at once to be distinguished by the peculiar structure of the
bill. Their food is chiefly fruits ; they have in general a brilliant plumage ; and in-
habit the Southern hemisphere of the globe. In climbing they are greatly assisted by
their bill. The genus may be divided into four sections.

* No crest on the head.

P. melanocephalus, Lin. White-breasted Parrot. Plumage green
above, beneath luteous ; breast whitish ; quill- feathers tipped with
blue ; bill and legs dusky. Size of a Pigeon. Inhabits Mexico.
—Edw. pi. 169.

P. mitratus, Tern. Head deep green, with the sinciput of a scarlet
blood- colour ; face, occiput, and throat, varied with green and
scarlet ; outer webs of the quills blue, margined with green and
yellow; tail beneath green blue, above green, the tip obscure
blue. Inhabits Brazil.— Tern. PL Col. 207-

P. cyanotis, Tern. (P. Braziliensis, Lin.) Plumage grass-green,
rather paler beneath, the feathers edged with purplish brown ;
round the base of the bill bright red ; cheeks deep-blue, and top
of the head yellow ; edge of the wings red, the wing-coverts and
secondaries edged with yellow, the primaries dusky blue ; outer
tail-feathers blue, the next red, and the others green, tipped with
yellow. Inhabits Brazil. — Shaw, viii. pi. 77-

P. accipitrinus, Lin. Plumage green, with ferruginous head and
neck, waved with blue ; quill and tail-feathers edged with blue.
Size of a small Pigeon. Inhabits Guiana. — Edw. pi. 165.

P. erythacus, Lin. Gray Parrot. Plumage ash-gray, deeper on
the upper parts, and more inclining to white below; orbits naked
and white ; tail crimson ; bill black. About 12 inches long. In-
habits Africa.

This well known species is remarkable for its docility, the distinctness of its arti-
culation, and its loquacity. It readily imitates every sound within its hearing. The
gray Parrot is extremely long-lived ; and M. Vaillant mentions one as having lived
at Amsterdam in domesticity for seventy-three years after its arrival in Europe.
It moulted regularly every year till the age of sixty -five, after which its moulting
was irregular, and the red feathers of the tail were replaced by yellow ones.

** With a pendulous or falling crest.

P. cristatus, Lin. Broad-crested Cockatoo, Plumage white, with
a tinge of rose-colour on the head and breast ; crest on the head
large, arching over the whole head, white above, scarlet beneath;
capable of erection or depression ; orbits of the eyes naked ; tail
short ; bill black. Size of a common fowl. Inhabits Moluccas.
— Shaw, viii. pi. 72.

P. sulphureus, Lath. Sulphur-crested Cockatoo. Plumage white,
with a shade of pale yellow on the breast, sides, and wing-coverts;
a large yellow spot beneath each eye; crest lengthened and point-
ed, slightly reversed at the tip ; bill black. 15 inches long. In-
habits Moluccas — Sharv, viii. pi. 73.

PSITTACUS. BIRDS. 255

P. Cookii, Tern. Crimson-tailed Cockatoo. Plumage black, more
or less spotted with yellowish ; crest small ; tail bright crimson,
the base and tip black. 20 inches long. New Holland — Shaw,
xiv. pi. 14.

P. Eos, Tern. Head, neck, all the under parts, and inner surface
of the wings rose-coloured ; the rest of the plumage gray, deeper
on the wings and tail ; bill yellowish. 12 inches Ions. — Tern. PL
Col. 81.

*** Face naked, or striped with feathered lines ; tail long, wedged,
acute. — MACBOCERCUS, Vieill.

P. macao, Lin. Scarlet Maccaw. Head, neck, breast, belly, and
thighs, upper part of the back, and lesser coverts of the wings
bright red or scarlet-colour ; wings blue above, faint red below,
coverts yellow ; tail-coverts blue ; tail with the middle feathers
red, the lateral ones partly blue ; cheeks wrinkled -and naked.
Inhabits S. America. — Edw. pi. 158.

P. Aracanga, Lin. Plumage scarlet, with the greater wing-coverts
yellow, tipped with green and blue ; quills above blue, beneath
rufous ; cheeks naked. 2 feet 10 inches long. Inhabits Guiana.
— Vaill Per. pi. 2.

P. ambiguus, Bechst. Plumage brown-green, with the forehead
scarlet, quills and rump blue ; tail rufous above, back yellow, the
tip blue ; cheeks naked, with plumose lines. About 2 feet long.
Inhabits South America. — Vaill. Per. pi. 6.

**** Tail long, graduated.

P. pulchellus, Tern. Plumage green, yellow beneath ; wings and
frontlet blue ; two middle tail-feathers green, the lateral ones
yellow, with a black streak near the shaft. 6| inches long. In-
habits New Holland. — Shaw, viii. 470.

P. eximius, Shaw. Head, neck, and breast scarlet ; wings and tail
blue ; back black, undulated with green ; abdomen yellowish ;
bill horn-coloured. New Holland. — Shaw, viii. pi. 57., 58.

P. scapulatus, Bechst. (P. Tabuensis, Shaw.) Back, wings, and
tail deep grass-green; with u paler band across the smaller wing-
coverts ; head, neck, and whole under parts bright scarlet. 16
inches long. Inhabits New South Wales — Shaw, viii. pi. 55.

P. setarius, Tern. Forehead, cheeks, neck, and all the under parts
of the body fine green ; bluish on the forehead, a red spot between
the bill and eyes, and an orange band between the neck and back;
two middle tail-feathers elongated, with part of the shafts naked.
11 inches long. Inhabits Indian Archipelago — Shaw, xiv. pi. 16.

P.formosus, Lath. The Ground Parrot. Plumage green on the back,
spotted with black and yellow ; forehead as far as the eyes red ;
tail strongly cuneated, and consisting of sharp-pointed feathers
of the finest yellow, crossed by numerous arrow-shaped black bars.
Size of the Pigeon. Inhabits New Holland — Sharv, viii, pi. 66.

256 BIRDS. ZYGOJDACTYU.

FAMILY II. — 'Bill straight and angular.
Gen. 17. Picus, Lin.

Bill long, or medium-sized, straight, angular, wedge-shaped at
the tip ; nostrils basal, open, covered by setaceous feathers ;
tongue round, vermiform ; legs strong; two toes before and
two behind, rarely one behind ; anterior toes joined at their
base, the posterior divided; tail of twelve feathers, the la-
teral very short.

The birds of this genus live in forests, and feed chiefly on insects and their larvas.
Their strong hooked claws enable them, by the assistance of their tail, to climb the
trunks of trees in search of their food, and strike or perforate the bark with their
bill ; and their long tongue, armed with reflected bristles, serves them for procuring
it in the crevices and holes of the bark.

P. martins, Lin. Great Black Woodpecker. Black, with the crown
red ; part of the tarsus covered with feathers ; bill dark ash-
coloured, whitish on the sides, 17 inches long. Inhabits Europe.
—Shaw, ix. pi. 29.

P. viridis, Lin. Green Woodpecker. Plumage above green, with a
scarlet crown, and rump yellow ; below yellowish gray. 12|
inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 38, fig. 1.

P. canus, Gmel. Forehead crimson red, line between the eye and
bill blackish ; two black bands on the sides of the neck ; occiput,
cheeks, and neck clear ash-coloured ; back bright green, rump
yellowish ; wings olive green, with white spots on the exterior
webs of the quills, ash-coloured below; jointfof the knee fea-
thered. 11^ inches long. Northern Europe — Tern. M<zw.%393,

P. major, Lin. Greater Spotted Woodpecker. Plumage varied with
black and white ; back of the head and vent red ; female with-
out red on the occiput ; bill dusky, irides reddish-brown. 9 inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 38, fig. 2.

P. leuconotus, Bechst. Band of the forehead whitish yellow ; top
of the head and occiput bright red ; cheeks, sides, foreipart of the
neck, middle^of the belly, back, and rump white ; abdomen and
inferior coverts of the tail crimson ; two middle tail-feathers black.
10£ inches long. Inhabits Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 396.

P. medius, Lin. Back and wings black ; middle coverts of the wings,
scapulars, and spots on the webs of the wing-feathers white ;
abdomen and lower coverts of the tail crimson ; coronal and occi-
pital feathers red, slender, and elongated ; bill short, compressed
and pointed. 8 inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Tern* Man. 398.

P. minor, Lin. The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker. Forehead, region
of the eyes, sides of the neck, and lower parts dirty white ; up-
per part of the back and lesser wing-coverts glossy black ; rest of
the upper parts with black and white bands ; quills black, spotted
with white; lateral tail-feathers black, banded with white. 5J
inches long. , Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 38, fig. 3.

GALBULA. BIRDS. 257

P. principalis, Lin. White-billed Woodpecker. Plumage black,
with a line on both sides of the neck and secondary quills white ;
tail black ; bill channeled and white. 16 inches long. Inhabits
America — Shaw, ix. pi, 30.

P. galeatus, Tern. Crested Woodpecker. Crest, head, and whiskers
vermilion red ; region of the ears striped with black and whitish ;
body above reddish ; below transversely striped with black and
red. 11 inches long. Inhabits Brazil.— Tern. PL Col. 171.

P. aurulentus, Tern. Plumage above green ; beneath striped with
whitish and green ; top of the head and occiput red ; cheeks with
two golden and one greenish stripe ; throat pale yellow. 8£ in-
ches long. Inhabits Brazil — Tern. PL Col. 59, fig. 1.

P. tridactylus, Lin. (P. hirsutus, Vieill.) Top of the head golden
yellow ; occiput and cheeks shining black ; forehead varied with
white and black ; a white band above and below the eyes ; fore
part of neck and breast white ; top of the back, sides of the breast,
flanks, and abdomen striped black and white ; two toes before
and one behind. 9 inches long. Europe, &c. — Shaw, ix. pi. 38.

Gen. 18. GALBULA, Briss.

Bill long, straight, or slightly bent at the point, quadrangular,
pointed; nostrils basal, oval, covered in part by a naked
membrane ; legs short ; tarsus shorter than the external toe ;
the fore toes united to the third joint.

This genus inhabits the warmer regions of America.

G. grandis, Lath. Great Jacmar. Upper parts of the body golden
copper-coloured ; beneath ferruginous ; throat with a white band ;
primary quills brown ; tail long, wedge-shaped. 12 inches long.
Shaw, 'ix. pi. 40.

G. viridis, Lath. (Alcedo galbula, Lin.) Body of a golden green
above ; throat white ; belly and vent rufous ; tail long, wedge-
shaped, of ten feathers ; hides blue. Size of the lark. Inhabits
Brazil. — Shaw, ix. pi. 39.

Gen. 19. YUNX, Lin.— Wryneck.

Bill short, straight, in the form of a depressed cone ; ridge round-
ed ; slender at the tip ; nostrils basal, naked, partly closed
by a membrane ; the two fore toes united at their origin, the
hind ones divided ; tongue long, lumbriciform, armed at
the point with a horny substance ; tail with ten soft flexible
feathers.

The Wrynecks have many of the habits of woodpeckers, but are not so capable
of climbing trees, and chiefly fix. on the bark to extract insects from the crevices.
They also frequent ants' nests, preying on the ants and their larvse. There are only
two foreign species of this genus mentioned by authors, the Y. minutus^ (Picus minu-
tusj Lath.,) and a new species from South America.
VOL I. fc

258 BIRDS. ANJSODACTYLI.

ORDER VI.— ANISODACTYLI.

Bill more or less arched, often straight, always subulate, and
slender ; feet with three toes before and one behind, the ex-
terior united at the base to that in the middle, the hinder one
generally long, and all provided with long and bent claws.

The birds of this division have more or less the manners and habits of those of the
preceding order ; for almost all of them are climbers, and insectivorous. Their tongue
is more or less extensible. The character of the order, as implied in the name, is
having the toes of unequal length.

Gen 1. OXYRHYNCHUS, Tern.

Bill short, straight, triangular at its base, attenuated and awl-
shaped at the point ; nostrils basal, lateral, naked, and partly
covered by a membrane ; tarsus short, nearly the length of
the middle toe ; three toes before, the lateral equal, the ex-
ternal joined at the base, the internal divided ; fourth and
fifth quill-feathers longest.

O.Jlammiceps, Tern. Plumage of back and wings fine olive green ;
beneath yellowish white,, with dusky spots ; head with crimson
incumbent crest, its sides with three transverse yellowish lines.
7 inches long. Inhabits Brazil. — Shaw, xiv. pi. 24. The only
species of the genus.

Gen. 2. SITTA, Lin.

Bill straight, cylindrical, slightly compressed, tip acuminated ;
nostrils basal, rounded, partly concealed by reflected bristles ;
tongue short, horny ; three toes before, the exterior joined
at its base to the middle one ; hind toe very long, with a
long hooked claw ; tail composed of twelve feathers.

The species of this genus are climbers, and differ from the woodpeckers in being
able to ascend or descend the trunks of trees with equal facility. They feed chiefly
on insects and their larvae ; sometimes on nuts and seeds.

S. Europcea, Lin. Nuthatch. Plumage plumbeous above, sub-ferrugi-
nous beneath ; a black streak across the eyes ; lateral tail feathers
black, whitish near the tips ; breast and belly buff orange. 5|
inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Selby, Illust. pi. 39, fig. 1.

S. Carolinien&is, Lath. Black-headed Nuthatch. Plumage cinereous
above, whitish beneath, with the lower part of the abdomen in-
clining to rufous ; head and upper part of the neck black, and
the tail-feathers varied with black and white. Inhabits America.
— Wilson's Amer. Orn. i. pi. 2, fig. 4.

Gen. 3. ORTHONYX, Lin. Tern.

Bill very short, compressed, almost straight, point notched;
nostrils in the middle of the bill, open, surmounted by bris-
tles ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; claws longer than the
toes, furrowed laterally ; wings very short ; tail long, pointed.

DENDROCALAPTES. BIRDS.

O. maculatus, Tern. Plum age dull brown above, spotted with black ;
male with a red throat, edged with black ; throat of the female
white. Inhabits Australasia. — Tern. Man. Ixxxi.

Gen. 4. DENDROCOLAPTES, Herman.

Bill depressed and trigonous at the base, straight or slightly
bent, acute ; nostrils basal, lateral, pierced in the bill ; tongue
short, cartilaginous ; tail conical, the feathers stiff and acu-
minated ; external toe united to the intermediate to the second
joint, the internal very short; claws hooked and furrowed.

All the species of this genus inhabit South America. They resemble each other
greatly in the plumage, but differ widely in the length and form of the bill. A Mono-
graph of the genus by Lichtenstein appeared in the Berlin Transactions for 1820.

D. procurvus, Tern. Head, neck, and scapulars olive-brown, strip-
ed with white ; wings and tail rufous; body beneath olive-brown,
with whitish stripes ; bill reddish, curved. Inhabits Brazil. —
Tern. PI. Col. 28.

D. longirostris, Illig. Bill elongated, slightly bent, stout, compres-
sed, white ; throat white. Brazil — Berl Trans, 1820, 200.

Td.falcirostris, Spix. Plumage cinnamon-coloured above, beneath
and vent olive-brown, striped with white ; head and neck striped
with white ; bill greatly compressed, ash-coloured. 10| inches
long. Inhabits Brazil. — Spix, Avium Nov. Sp. pi. 88.

D. miniatus, Illig. Bill slightly bent, compressed, black ; mandi-
ble white ; tail and edges of the quills vermilion red. — BerL
Trans. 1820, 202.

Gen. 5. XEXOPS, Illig.

Bill short, slender, much compressed, subulate, acute ; tips of
the mandibles .recurved ; nostrils basal, lateral, covered by a
naked membrane ; lateral toes equal ; external toe united to
the second joint; claws strong, compressed, bent, tail wedged.

X. genibarbis, Tern. Plumage reddish-brown above, gray-brown
below ; chin, eyebrows, and spots on the throat and breast whitish,
a snowy spot beneath the ears ; lesser quills blackish, with rufous
margins. 4| inches long. Brazil. — Shaw, xiv. pi. 22.

X. anatoboides, Tern. Red-brown, with the throat, collar on the
nape of the neck, and line behind the eyes to the occiput white ;
tail red. 7 inches long. Brazil. — Tern. PL Col. 150, fig. 2.

X. rulilans, Tern. Back and wings olive, quills golden yellow at
the base, black in the middle, with red tips ; throat and lines on
the neck white. 4 J inches long. Brazil — Tern. PL Col. pi. 72, fig. 2.

Gen. 6. ANABATES, Tern.

Bill straight, shorter than, or the length of the head, compressed,
deeper at the base than broad, a little bent at the tip, entire ;
nostrils basal, lateral, oval, partly covered by a plumose

260 BIRDS. ANISODACTYLI.

membrane ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; the exterior
toe united to the second joint, the interior at the base ; wings
short ; tail with weak shafts.

A. Guianensis, Tern. Plumage gray above ; wings and tail rufous;
under parts white ; tail very long. 6J inches long. Inhabits
Guiana. — Shaw, x. 678.

A. striolatus, Tern. Plumage above brown, with longitudinal red-
brown stripes ; chin and tail red ; cheeks, sides of the neck, and
body below olive-brown, longitudinally striped with white. 7 in-
ches long. Inhabits Brazil — Tern. PL Col. 238, fig. 1.

Gen. 7. OPETIORHYNCHOS, Tern.

Bill longer than the head, slender, subulate, depressed at the
base, compressed at the point ; tongue short, cartilaginous ;
nostrils lateral, a little from the base, half shut by a naked
membrane ; tarsus twice longer than the middle toe ; lateral
toes equal, the exterior united at the base ; wings short, the
first three feathers graduated, the third and fourth longest ;
tail short, slightly graduated.

O. rufus, Tern. (Merops, Lath.) Plumage rufous, deepest on the
upper parts, and inclining to paler yellow beneath ; large quill-
feathers brownish ; tail slightly rounded at the end. 8£ inches
long. Inhabits S. America. — Shan/, viii. 182,

Gen. 8. CERTHIA, Lin.

Bill long, or of mean length, more or less curved, triangular,
compressed, slender ; nostrils basal, naked, pierced horizon-
tally, and half closed by a membrane ; three toes before, the
outer united at its base to the intermediate one ; claws much
hooked, that on the hind toe longest ; tail graduated, with
stiff-pointed shafts ; fourth quill-feather longest.

The birds of this genus climb trees like the Woodpeckers, supporting them-
selves by the stiff-pointed feathers of the tail. They nestle in the chinks and holes
of trees, and feed principally on small insects and seeds. Only one species is indi-
genous to Europe.

C. familiar is, Lin. Common Creeper. Plumage above yellowish-
brown, intermixed with black brown and grayish white ; rump
reddish ; a white streak above the eyes j throat, breast, and belly
white ; tail yellowish-gray, tinged with brown, the feathers stiff,
long, and acuminated. 5J inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. —
Selby, Illust. pi. 39, fig. 2.

C. cinnamomea, Lath. Cinnamon-coloured above, tips of the quill-
feathers blackish ; white beneath, with subcuneated tail, the fea-
thers pointed. 5 inches long — Shaw, viii. 224.

Gen. 9- CCEREBA, Briss. — Certhia, Lin.
Bill slightly arcuated, thick at the base ; edges of the mandibles

TKOCHILUS. BIRDS. 261

bent inwards, points sharp ; upper mandibles finely notched at
the point ; tongue long, not extensible, bifid, filamentous ;
tarsus longer than the middle toe ; lateral toes equal ; tail of
medium size.

C. cyanea, Tern. Plumage ultra-marine blue ; crown of the head
pale green ; tail and outer sides of the wings black, with oblique
blue band on the wings ; insides of the wings yellow. 4| inches
long. Inhabits Brazil — Shaw, viii. pi. 32.

C. spiza, Tern. Plumage green, with the under parts, wings, and
tail tinged with blue; crown and cheeks black. 5 inches long.
Inhabits S. America — Edtv. pi. 25.

Gen. 10. TROCHILUS, Lin.

Bill long, straight or arcuated, tubular, very slender, base de-
pressed, acuminated ; upper mandible almost concealing the
lower ; tongue long, extensible, bifid, and tubular ; nostrils
open before, covered by a broad membrane ; legs very short ;
tarsus shorter than the middle toe ; the three anterior toes
nearly divided ; wings graduated, the first feather longest.

The birds of this family are of very small dimensions, and, with a very few ex-
ceptions, inhabit the southern regions of America. They fly very rapidly, take their
food on the wing, and suck the honied juice of flowers. They construct an elegant
hemispherical nest of the down of a species of Thapsus, and suspend it over branch-
es of trees, where it is concealed by the leaves, the female laying two white eggs of
the size of peas. The male assists in incubation. The unrivalled brilliancy of
their colours has been aptly compared to the richest metallic hues, or to the change-
able reflections of gems, and in sunshine they glow with peculiar splendour. This
numerous genus has been divided by some naturalists into those with curved, and
those with straight bills ; and by others as their tail is more or less forked, square,
or rounded.

T. pella, Lin. Topaz-throated Humming-Bird. Plumage purple-
red, with black head, topaz-coloured throat, and the two middle
tail-feathers very long. Body equal in size to that of a wren, but
including the middle tail-feathers 8 to 10 inches long. Inhabits
S. America. — Shaw, viii. pi. 37

T. sparganurus, Shaw. Bar-tailed Humming Bird. Plumage gol-
den green, with emerald-coloured throat, black forked tail, and
a crimson gold bar across the feathers. 3£ inches long; two
long tail-feathers 4J inches. Peru. — Shaw, viii. pi. 39*.

T. enicurus, Tern. Jugulum, lower part of the breast at the side
and chin golden green ; neck in front at the base, breast above,
and belly in the middle white ; throat lilac ; six tail-feathers, the
two middle golden green, the others black — Shaw, xiv. pi. 28.

T. jugular is, Lin. Red-breasted Humming-Bird. Plumage above
deep golden green ; throat and breast blood-red ; abdomen black-
ish, and short tail. 4J inches long. S. America. — Edw. pi. 266.

T. squalidus, Natterer. Plumage obscure brownish, sides of the
head with two reddish white bands ; a brown stripe through the
eyes ; back with a metallic tinge ; breast reddish ash-coloured ;
vent red ; quills white at the tip. Brazil — Tern. PL Col. 120, fig. 1.

262 BIRDS. ANISODACTYLI.

Gen. 11. NECTARINIA, Illig. — Certhia, Lin. — Cinnyris, Cuv.

Bill long, slender, subulate, more or less bent, widened and de-
pressed at the base ; mandibles equal ; edges of the under
mandible bent inwards, and in part concealed by the upper;
tongue long, extensible, tubular, bifid ; nostrils near the base,
lateral, shut above by a naked membrane ; tarsus longer or
as long as the intermediate toe, the lateral toes united at the
base ; wings, first feather none or very short, the third and
fourth the longest.

All the known species of this genus belong to the warmer parts of the Old Con-
tinent. They do not climb, but hop from flower to flower, exploring the nectary
for food.

N. ckalybea, Tern. Head, neck, breast, smaller wing-coverts, and
back golden green ; wings and tail dusky brown ; breast red,
banded above by a steel-blue bar. 4f inches long. Inhabits South-
ern Africa — Shaw, viii. pi. 28.

N. Javanica, Tern. Head above, nape, and back deep olive green;
shoulders and rump glossy violet ; wings and cheeks olive brown ;
throat and jugulum rust-coloured; breast and abdomen saffron
colour ; tail black. 4| inches long. Java. — Lin. Trans, xiii. 167.

N. longirostra, Tern. Plumage blackish olive ; crown and nape
pale green ; throat and breast white ; abdomen yellowish. 5 in-
ches long ; bill 1 J inch long. Bengal.— Tern. PL Col. 84, fig. 1.

N. pectoralis, Tern. (N. eximia, Horsf.) Top of the head and tail
deep glossy emerald green ; two middle tail-feathers elongated ;
rump yellow ; throat and breast scarlet ; a band of purple on the
throat; belly olive brown. 4J inches long. Inhabits Java —
Tern. PL Col. 138, fig. 3.

Gen. 12. CLIMACTERIS, Tern.

Bill short, much compressed, awl-shaped; mandibles equal, point-
ed ; nostrils covered by a naked membrane ; tarsus the length
of the middle toe, which, with the thumb, is very long ; claws
large and hooked, furrowed on the sides ; exterior toe united
to the second joint, the anterior to the first ; third and fourth
wing-feathers longest.

C. scandens, Tern. Plumage above deep brown ; rump and two
middle tail-feathers lead-coloured; throat and neck in front white;
breast and belly cream yellow; sides and under tail-coverts
varied with brown and white ; wings brown, with two transverse
bands, of inches long. New Holland. — Tern. PI. Col. 281, fig. 2.

C. picumnusj Tern. Plumage brown above ; throat and cheeks whit-
ish ; breast, top of the head, and neck gray ; wings brown, with
a transverse yellowish band. 6J inches long. Inhabits New
Holland, &c Tern. PL Col. 281, fig. 1.

Gen. 13. TICHODROMA, Illig. — Certhia, Lin.
Bill very long, slightly arched, slender, cylindrical, angular

UPUPA. BIRDS. 263

at the base, tip depressed ; nostrils basal, naked, half shut
by an arched membrane ; the exterior toe joined at its base
to the middle one ; claw on the hind toe very long ; tail
rounded, with weak shafts.

There is only one species of this genus, which climbs the vertical faces of rocks
as the common creeper does the surface of the trunks of trees. It nestles in the
clefts of rocks and feeds on insects.

T. phcenicoptera, Tern. (Certhia muraria, Lin.) The Wall-Creep-
er. Top of the head deep ash-colour ; back and scapulars light-
er ; throat and fore part of the neck black ; wing-coverts and up-
per part of the exterior webs of the quills red j tail black, ter-
minated with white and ash-colour. 6| inches long. Inhabits
Southern Europe — Sharv, viii. pi. 25.

Gen. 14. UPUPA, Lin.

Bill very long, slightly arched, slender, triangular, compressed ;
nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, open, and surmounted with fea-
thers in front ; three toes before, the exterior united to the
middle one to the first joint ; one behind ; tail square, of ten
feathers.

U. epops, Lin. The Hoopoe. Head with two rows of reddish fea-
thers terminated with black, forming an arched tuft ; body ferru-
ginous ; wings black, with five white bands ; tail black, with a
lunated white band. 11 inches long. Inhabits Europe — Sdby,
lllust. pi. 40. fig. 2.

This beautiful bird inhabits Europe, Asia, and Africa, in the last of which many
of them are stationary. Some of the migrating detachments visit Britain occasion-
ally in autumn, but they seldom breed in this country. In France they arrive late
in spring, and depart towards the close of summer,

U. Madagascariensis, Shaw. Plumage above dusky brown, deep-
est on the wings and tail ; crest and under parts white. 10 in-
ches long. Inhabits Madagascar — Shan, viii. 140.

Gen. 15. EPIMACHUS, Cuv.

Bill much longer than the head, slender ; more or less arcua-
ted, compressed ; mandibles pointed, the upper one slightly
notched at the point, and longer than the lower ; gape extend-
ing to under the eyes ; tongue short, cartilaginous ; nostrils
basal, lateral, open before, half shut by a feathered mem-
brane ; legs short ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; the
external toe united to the first joint ; fourth and fifth wing-
feathers longest.

E. wperbus, Tern. (Promerops, Shaw.) Plumage black, with a
violet and green gloss ; scapulars falciform, purplish black on
the inner web, brilliant golden green on the edges and tip ; on
each side below the wings loose-webbed, pendant brownish fea-
thers ; tail very long. 4 feet long. Inhabits New Guinea.—
Shaw, viii. 145.

BIRDS. ANISODACTYLI.

E. erythrorhynchos, Tern. (Upupa, Lath.) Plumage black, with a
green and purple gloss ; bill and legs red ; tail very long, all the
feathers, except the two middle ones, marked near the tip by an
oval white spot on each side of the web. 15 inches long. In-
habits Africa. — Shaw, viii. pi. 18.

Gen. 16. DREPANIS, Tern.— >Certhia, Lath.

Bill very long, rounded above, thick and triangular at the base,
subulate at the point ; upper mandible longer than the under ;
tongue short, cartilaginous ; nostrils half closed above; tar-
sus twice as long as the middle toe ; the lateral toes equal ;
wings with the third, fourth, and fifth feathers longest.

D. Pacifica, Tern. General colour black, with rump, lower part
of the belly, and thighs bright yellow ; spurious wing yellowish
white ; bill greatly curved, brownish black. 8 inches long. In-
habits South Sea Islands.— Shaw, viii. 227-

D. vestiaria, Tern. General colour bright scarlet, with the wings
and tail black ; tail-feathers slightly pointed at their extremi-
ties ; bill stout, considerably curved; pale yellow. 6 inches long.
Inhabits Sandwich Islands — Shaw, viii. pi. 33.

Gen. 17. MELIPHAGA, Lewin.— Philedon, Vieill.

Bill of the length of or shorter than the head, compressed, rather
arcuated, emarginate towards the tip, acute ; nostrils lateral,
ovoid, covered by an arched membrane ; tongue Jong, exten-
sible, terminated by cartilaginous filaments ; toes, the ex-
ternal united to the second joint, the internal to the first ;
back toe very strong, long.

This genus is very numerous in species.

M. cyanops, Tern. (Merops, Lath.) Blue-faced Honey-Sucker. Plu-
mage brown above, white beneath ; crown and throat black ; eyes
surrounded by a blue patch ; bill black ; legs blue. 16 inches
long. Inhabits New Holland. — Lewi?i's New Holl. Birds, pi. 25.

M. Phrygia, Tern. (Merops, Lath.) Plumage black, elegantly va-
riegated with bright and pale yellow ; a granulated naked yel-
low skin round the eyes ; back and breast undulated by nume-
rous pale or whitish yellow crescents. Size of a thrush. Inhabits
New Holland. — Shaw, viii. pi. 20.

ORDER VII.— ALCYONES.

Bill middle sized or long, pointed, almost quadrangular, and
either slightly arched or straight ; tarsus very short ; three
toes before, united, and one behind.

The birds of this order, instituted by Temminck, fly with great celerity,
movements are quick and abrupt, and they neither walk nor climb.

MEROFS. BIRDS. 265

their food on the wing, and often from the surface of water, and nestle in holes on
the banks of rivers. They moult only once a-year ; and the females and young are
not very dissimilar from the males and mature birds.

Gen. 1. MEROPS, Lin.

Bill sharp-edged, pointed, slightly curved ; nostrils basal, late-
ral, ovoid, concealed by hairs directed forwards ; tarsus short ;
three front toes united, the exterior to the second joint, the
interior to the first joint of the middle toe ; hind toe broad
at its base ; the second wing-feather the longest.

This genus feeds chiefly on bees and wasps, which they seize on the wing. They
nestle in holes on the banks of rivers. Many of the exotic species have their nostrils
entirely naked, and the third wing-feather the longest.

M. apiaster, Lin. Common Bee-eater. Forehead greenish white ;
occiput, nape, and top of the back chestnut ; rest of the body red-
dish yellow ; middle of the wing deep red ; wing and tail-feathers
olive-green ; eye-stripe black ; throat golden yellow, with a black
semicollar ; two middle tail-feathers elongated and acuminated.
Inhabits Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 41.

M. Savignii, Swainson. Green Bee-eater. Plumage green, beneath
whitish ; rump and tail blue ; crown of the head, eye-stripe, and
broad band across the neck black ; chin and eyebrows white. 8£
inches long. Inhabits Africa. — Zool. Illust. pi. 76.

M. gularis, Shaw. Red-throated Bee-eater. Plumage black ; fore-
head and rump blue ; abdomen spotted with blue ; throat red ;
tail even at the end. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw, viii. pi. 23.

Gen. 2. ALCEDO. Lin.

Bill long, straight, quadrangular, pointed, edged, and very rarely
depressed ; nostrils basal, lateral, pierced obliquely, almost
wholly closed by a naked membrane ; legs short, naked above
the knee ; exterior toe united to second joint, and the inte-
rior to the first joint of the middle toe.

The birds of this genus are dispersed over the whole world, although only one
species is found in Europe. They are more remarkable for brilliancy of plumage
than elegance of shape. Their prevailing colours are blue, green, and orange. Their
flight is horizontal, and, notwithstanding the shortness of their wings, remarkably
strong and rapid. Most of them frequent rivers, and the vicinity of waters, and live
on fish, which they catch with singular art and dexterity, sometimes hovering over
the stream, when a shoal of small fishes is seen playing near the surface, at other
times waiting with attention on some low branch the approach of a single one, which
may happen to move in that direction, and in either case darting with rapidity on
their prey. The Kingfishers may be divided into two sections, as the tail is short or
elongated.

A. ispida, Lin. The Kingfisher. Upper parts bluish green, marked
on the head and coverts of the wings with little spots of azure
blue ; back and rump blue ; a red patch of orange brown, con-
cealed by a white one, behind each eye ,- a streak of azure blue
from the bill to the wings ; throat and neck white ; lower parts
reddish. 7 inches long. Europe. B — Selby, Illust. -pi. 40, fig. 1.
This species is the Halcyon of the ancients, which the poets feigned as occupying a

floating nest, and calming adverse winds and stormy seas.

266 BIRDS. ANISODACTYLI.

A. biru, Tern. Plumage above azure-blue ; wings externally brown ;
throat, jugulum, abdomen, and vent white ; bill arid legs black.
5 1 inches long. Inhabits Java Tern. PL Col 239, fig. 1.

A. ccerulocephala, Lin. Plumage above blue, rufous beneath; the
crown undulated with black ; breast white ; bill and legs red. 4
inches long. Inhabits Madagascar. — Shaw, viii. pi. 9.

A. cristata, Lin. Crown of the head with long blue green feathers,
varied with black lines ; back, rump, wings, and tail ultra-ma-
rine blue ; fulvous beneath, with whitish throat and vent. 5* in-
ches long. Inhabits Africa — Shaw, viii. pi. 12.

Gen, 3. DACELO, Leach. — Alcedo, Lin.

Bill thick, strong, four-sided conical ; mouth gaping to the eyes ;
upper mandible longest, broadly notched towards its point
on each side ; nostrils oblong, half sbut by a feathered mem-
brane ; tarsus shorter than the middle toe ; the external toe
united to the third joint, the internal to the second; wings of
medium size.

D. giganlea, Tern. Plumage brownish above ; feathers of the head
elongated ; whitish beneath, with black undulations ; wing-co-
verts and rump pale sea-green, and the tail crossed by numerous
black bars. 18 inches long. New Holland — Shaw, xiii. pi. 43.

D. pulchella, Horsfield. Sea green, fasciated with white and dusky
above ; head chestnut brown, the vertex azure ; throat and jugu-
lum whitish ; abdomen dilute ferruginous. 8 inches long. In-
habits Java.— Tern. PL Col. 277.

ORDER VIII.— CHELIDONES.

Bill very short, much depressed, and very wide at the base ; the
upper mandible curved at the point ; legs short ; three toes
before, either entirely divided, or connected at the base by a
short membrane, the hinder often reversible; claws much hook-
ed ; wings long.

The flight of these birds is rapid and abrupt, their sight piercing, neck short,
throat wide, bill broad, and often gaping for the reception of insects, which constitute
their only food.

Gen. 1. HIRUNDO, Lin.

Bill short, triangular, broad at the base, depressed, cleft near
to the eyes ; upper mandible slightly hooked at the tip ;
nostrils basal, oblong, partly closed by a membrane, surmounted
by feathers in front ; legs short, with slender toes and claws ;
three toes before, the exterior united to the first joint of the
middle one; one behind; wings long, the first quill the longest ;
tail of twelve feathers, mostly forked.

The Swallow tribes manifest a predilection to the neighbourhood of water, and

HIBUNDO. BIRDS. 267

those situations in which insects most abound. These last they seize with great

Sromptitude in their long sustained and very rapid flights. They catch their food,
rink, and bathe, as they glide smoothly and nimbly along the surface of the water.
Their motions are easy, swift, and graceful ; and, when not occupied with breeding
or sleep, they are althost incessantly on the wing. Their nests are hard and rough
on the outside, but furnished with soft materials within. Their migrations are no
longer matter of doubt ; and the observations of M. Natterer of Vienna have esta-
blished the important fact that they moult in February, which is a fresh argument
against their alleged torpor in winter.

H. rustica, Lin. Chimney Swallow. Forehead and throat brown
chestnut ; sides of the neck and a broad band on the breast black,
with violet reflections ; a large white spot on the interior web of
the tail-feathers, with the exception of the middle ones ; exterior
wing- feather on each side longer than the others ; belly and ab-
domen dirty white or reddish. 6£ inches long. Inhabits Europe.
B.— Sc%, Illusl. pi. 42. fig. 1.

This well known species occurs almost everywhere in the old continent. It
visits us earlier in the season than any of its congeners, usually, if the weather be
mild, about the beginning of April, or a week before the House Martin, and it retires
about the end of September, or beginning of October. Previous to their departure,
the chimney swallows congregate in flocks of three or four hundred, on houses or
trees, and usually steal ofT in the night, to avoid the birds of prey, which seldom fail
to harass them in their route. On such occasions their progress is always in a
southerly direction, availing themselves as much as possible of favourable winds ;
and when no obstacles interfere, they usually arrive in Africa in the first week of
October.

H. urbica, Lin. The Martin. Head, neck, and top of the back black,
with violet reflections ; wings, tail, and larger coverts black ; tail
forked j lower parts and rump white, tarsi and toes covered with
downy feathers. 5 inches long. Inhabits Europe — B. Selby,
Illust. pi. 42. fig. 2.

Their first annual appearance in this island is about the 16th of April, and
they leave us the latest of their tribe, in general about the beginning of October,
although some have been known to remain till the 6th of November. According to
Mr White, many more leave this country than return to it in spring ; but such as
revisit their native seats, find their way back again to their own nests, as has been as-
certained by tying coloured threads or brass wires to their legs.

H. riparia, Lin. Sand Martin. Upper parts, cheeks, and pecto-
ral band dark brown ; wings olive brown, inclining to blackish ;
throat, belly, and upper tail-coverts white ; tail forked ; tarsi and
toes naked, except a few small feathers at the insertion of the
hind toe. 5 inches long. Europe. B.— Selby, Illust. pi. 42 fig. 33.

H. rupestris, Lin. Upper parts clear brown, the wings a little deep-
er ; lower parts dirty white, tinged with reddish on the sides ;
tarsi furnished with a grayish down ; tail with feathers of equal
length, the two middle feathers without spots, the others with a
large oval white spot. 5 inches long. Inhabits Southern Europe.
— Tern. Man. 430.

H. leucoptera, Lath. White-winged Swallow. Crown and upper
parts of the body cinereous, with blue and green reflections ;
greater coverts and secondary quills variegated with white; primary
quills and tail brown ; rump and under parts white. 5 inches
long. Inhabits Guiana. — Sharv, x. pi. 13.

268 BIRDS. CHELIDONES.

H. Senegalensis, Lin. Plumage black, shining with blue ; beneath
and rump rufous ; quills and tail-feathers black. 8^ inches long.
Inhabits Senegal. — Shaw, x. 93.

Gen. 2. CYPSELUS, Illig. — Hirundo, Lin.

Bill very short, triangular, broad at the base, inconspicuous, de-
pressed ; gape as far as under the eyes ; upper mandible hook-
ed at the tip ; nostrils cleft longitudinally, at the upper part
of the bill, open, arid the raised margins furnished with small
feathers ; legs very short, with the four toes directed forwards,
and quite divided ; the toes and claws short and thick ; wings
very long ; tail with ten feathers.

The birds of this genus present many analogies with the preceding. They are
even more active and unwearied in their movements, and their flight seems to be
continuous, and with but little motion of their wings. They are rarely seen to rest
even upon elevated places, and never on the ground.

C. alpinus, Tern. (Hirundo Melba, Lin.) White-bellied Swift.
Grayish brown above, with the throat and belly white ; legs covered
with brown feathers. 8| inches long. Europe. — Shaw, x. 74.

C. murarius, Tern. (Hirundo apus, Lin.) The Swift. Throat of
a white ash-colour ; rest of the plumage blackish brown ; tarsi
covered with small feathers; bill black. 7^ inches long. Inhabits
Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 42, fig. 4.

C. comatus, Tern. Plumage of a copper-green, with the wing-coverts,
quills, and tail-feathers green ; a line above and beneath the eyes,
and tip of the greater wing-coverts white. 6 inches long. In-
habits Sumatra Tern. PL Col. 268.

C. longipennisj Tern. Green black above ; with the quills and tail
obscure ; back grayish on the lower parts ; body beneath ash-
coloured. 8J inches long. Inhabits Java. — Tern. PI. CoL 83. fig. 1.

Gen. 3. CAPRIMULGUS, Lin.

Bill slightly curved, very small, and depressed at the base ;
mouth extremely wide ; nostrils basal, wide, closed by a mem-
brane surmounted by feathers ; tail round or forked, of ten
feathers; legs short, the anterior toes united to the first joint;
middle claw long, and serrated on the edge, but smooth in
some of the foreign species ; hind toe reversible.

This genus has its name from the ancient but erroneous notion of the species suck-
ing the teats of the she-goat. They are shy and solitary, come forth chiefly in the
evening, prey on nocturnal moths and insects, and lay their eggs on the ground.
Their eyes and ears are large, like those of the owl.

C. Europeans, Lin. European or Nocturnal Goatsucker. Upper
parts varied with black, cinereous, brown, rust-colour, and white,
under parts reddish-white, with brown bands ; legs short, scaly,
and feathery below the knee. The male is distinguished by a
large, oval, white spot, near the end of the first three quill-fea-
thers, and another on the outer tail-feathers 10 inches long. In^
habits Europe. B Selby, Illust. pi 42*

PODARGUS. BIRDS. 269

In Britain the Goatsucker is only a summer visitant, arriving about the end of
May, and departing in September. Its winter retreat is supposed to be Africa and Asia.

C. rujicollis, Tern. Head, back, and wings clear gray, varied with
black points and zigzag lines ; a large red collar round the nape,
shading into white before ; two lateral feathers of the tail termi-
nated by a white spot. 12 inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Tern.
Man. 438.

C. grandis,'La.th. (Nyctibius, Vieill.) Plumage variegated with dusky
white, and yellow above, black and white beneath ; space round
the eyes yellowish ; feet white ; bill covered with hairs. 2 feet
long. Inhabits South America. — Shaw., x. 142.

Gen. 4. PODARGUS, Illig. — Caprimulgus, Lath.

Bill broader than the head, abruptly acuminate at the tip, de-
flexed; upper mandible spatuliform, carinated; nostrils linear;
wings shorter than the tail; toes separate ; claws nearly equal.

P. cornutus, Tern. Head with a tuft of long decomposed feathers,
a little above and behind the eyes ; bill surrounded with bristles ;
back and wings red, sprinkled with black ; scapulars spotted with
white ; throat white ; tail wedged, red, with undulated lines.
9 inches long. Inhabits Java. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 41.

ORDER IX.— COLUMB^E.

Bill of moderate dimensions, compressed ; base of the upper
mandible covered with a soft skin, in which the nostrils are
perforated, the tip more or less curved ; feet with three toes
in front, quite divided, and one behind.

This order contains but one genus, but is numerous in species, and these very
widely dispersed over the world. Pigeons are generally of an elegant form, of beau-
tiful varying plumage, and gentle manners. They are strictly monogamous, and the
female lays but two eggs, which are incubated alternately by both sexes. The young
are fed by the parent birds witli food from their crop which has undergone macera-
tion. The food of pigeons consists of grain and seeds, rarely fruits. They drink
with a continued draught.

Gen. 1. COLUMBA, Lin.

Bill of medium size, straight, compressed, arched, tip curved ;
base of the upper mandible covered with a soft skin, more or
less inflated ; nostrils in the middle of the membrane ; legs
generally red ; three toes before, entirely divided, one behind,
articulated on the heel ; wings with the second quill-feather
longest.

C. palumbus, Lin. Ring-Dove or Cushat. Head, cheeks, neck, and
lower parts of the back bluish gray ; upper parts of the back and
wing-coverts deeper ; a patch of white on the neck ; breast and
belly brownish-purple; quills blackish-gray, margined with white;

270 BIRDS. COLUMB*.

iris yellowish white. 17^ inches long. Inhabits Europe. B

Selby, Illust. pi. 56, fig. 1.

This species breeds twice or thrice a-year, and is stationary in Britain. Its note
is louder and more plaintive than that of the common pigeon, but uttered only in
pairing time, or during fine weather. Various attempts to domesticate the Ring-
Dove have been made, but without success.

C. cenas, Lin. Stock Dove. Head, throat, wings, and under parts
bluish ash-coloured ; sides of the neck of a changeable green ;
breast lavender purple ; top of the back brown ash-coloured ; a
black spot on the last two secondary feathers and some of the
coverts of the wings ; wings and tail bluish ash-coloured ; tail
terminated with black ; iris brownish red ; legs and toes bright
red. 13 inches long. Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 56*, fig. 1.

C. lima, Briss. The Rock Dove. Upper parts bluish ash-coloured ;
sides of the neck changeable green ; rump white ; two black trans-
verse bands on the wings ; wing and tail-feathers terminated with
black ; lateral tail-feathers margined with white ; iris reddish-
yellow. 12 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B Selby, Illust,

pi. 56*, fig. 2.

From this species all the domestic varieties are supposed to be derived.

C. turtur, Lin. The Turtle-Dove. Head, neck, breast, and back
light wood-brown, tinged with pearl-gray ; a patch of black fea-
thers, margined with white, on each side of the neck ; scapulars
and wing-coverts black, shading into bluish-gray, and deeply edged
with buff-orange ; belly and under tail-coverts white ; two mid-
dle tail-feathers brown, the rest with their tips white. 11 in-
ches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 56, fig. 2.
This delicate bird is only a periodical visitant in Britain, arriving in the begin-
ning of May, and departing after incubation at the commencement of September.
It is only found in the southern counties.

C. lacernulata, Tern. Plumage reddish-brown ; head blue ash-co-
loured; middle of the belly purple; under tail-coverts red; shoul-
ders and wings dusky, shining with bronzed-green ; tail dusky
at the base. 15 inches long. Inhabits Java — Tern. PL Col. 164.

C. scripta, Tern. Plumage above ashy-brown, the wing-coverts
sprinkled with opaline green spots ; throat white, edged with
black ; breast and middle of the belly ashy-blue ; lateral tail-fea-
thers brown at the base, deep black at the tip. 9| inches long.
Inhabits New Holland Tern. PI. Col. 187.

C. lophotes, Tern. Plumage brownish ash-coloured ; head with an
elongated crest ; back and lesser wing-coverts with a transverse
black bar towards the tips ; the greater coverts with green tips ;
quills with a purple spot on the outer web ; tail-feathers elonga-
ted, with white tips. 12 inches long. Inhabits New Holland.
Shaw, xiv. pi. 34.

C. magnified, Tern. Plumage above fine golden green; wing-coverts
spotted with yellow ; head, cheeks, and nape ash-coloured ; se-
condary feathers and quills deep changeable green ; throat, ante-

COLUMBA. BIRDS. 271

riorly, and upper part of the breast violet-purple ; abdomen, thighs,
and under tail-coverts ochraceous. 16 inches long. New Hol-
land.—Tern. PI. Col. 163.

C. migratoria, Lin. Migratory Pigeon. Tail cinereous ; neck green-
golden purple ; wings with ovate spots in the middle ; breast ru-
fous, and abdomen white. 14 inches long. Inhabits N. America.
— Shaw, xi. 93.

The Migratory Pigeon of North America exists in immense flocks, which in their
excursions sometimes cover a space of two miles in length, and a quarter of a mile
in breadth. They travel in the morning and evening, and repose about mid-day
in the forests, especially in those which abound in oaks, of the acorns of which they
are very fond. Although they always shape their course in the same general direc-
tion, they seldom observe the same line of march for two seasons in succession, pro-
ceeding sometimes by the maritime, and sometimes by the more inland regions.
Their passage, whether in spring or autumn, lasts from fifteen to twenty days, after
which they are met with in the centre of the United States. When in the southern
districts, they keep always in flocks, but when in the north, they pair, disperse, and
nestle in the vast forests of Nova Scotia, Canada, &c. where they commit serious
havock on the newly- sown fields. Large quantities are annually killed. An indi-
vidual of this species was shot in Fife in 1826.

C. coronala,(Lophyrus, Vieill.) Great Crowned Pigeon. Body bluish,
shoulders ferruginous, with a white band on the wings ; orbits
black ; crest composed of long feathers of a loose texture, erect.
Size of a turkey. Inhabits India. — Shaw, xiv. pi. 19.

ORDER X.— -GALLING.

Bill short, convex, in some genera covered by a cere ; upper
mandible bending from its base or only at the point ; nostrils
lateral, covered by a membrane, naked or feathered ; tarsus
long ; three toes before, united at their base by a membrane,
hind toe articulated on the tarsus above the junction of the
anterior toes.

The birds which form this order are of a bulky and heavy form. The greater
number have short wings, which renders them incapable of distant or long continu-
ed flight Their principal food consists of grain and seeds, though some add to
those roots, herbs, and the buds of trees, and most of them devour insects. Their
nest is in most cases placed on the ground among bushes or herbage, without
much art. Some members of the order are polygamous ; others pair every season.
Their eggs are numerous, and the young when first excluded are covered with soft
down, and are immediately able to follow their parent and feed themselves. They
scratch the ground with their feet in search of food, and have the peculiar habit of
rolling themselves in the dust. The chief part of our domestic poultry is derived
from the birds of this order.

Gen. 1. PAVO, Lin.

Bill naked at the base, convex above, thickened, bent down to-
wards the tip ; nostrils open ; cheeks partially denuded ; tail-
coverts very long ; tail of eighteen feathers, elongated, broad,
capable of being expanded like a fan, and ocellated ; tarsus
longer than the middle toe, with a conical spur ; head crested.

272 BIRDS. GALLING.

P. cristatus, Lin. Crested or Common Peacock. Crest compressed,
body of the male golden green, glossed with brassy reflections
above ; wing-coverts green gold, with blue and brassy reflex-
ions, under parts of the body dusky, varied with green gold ;
head with two white stripes on each side ; upper tail-coverts very
long, with various colourings, and auriferous eyes or arches. 4
feet long. Inhabits India. — Shaw.

The Peacock is one of the most beautiful of birds. It is a native of India, but
has been domesticated in Europe for many ages. It is a proud and quarrelsome
bird, and utters a discordant scream. The female lays from five to six eggs, which
are hatched in from twenty-seven to thirty days. The young acquire their perfect plu-
mage in the third year. The food of the peacock is similar to that of the galli-
naceous birds. Aged females sometimes acquire the plumage of the male. The brains
of peacocks formed a dish in high estimation at the tables of the Roman epicures.

P. muticus, Lin. The Japan Peacock. Body above green blue, with
a brassy gloss ; beneath ash-coloured, with black spots and white
stripes ; breast rich blue, glossed with green and gold ; upper
tail-coverts ocellated ; head with an erect spicated crest. Size of
the common peacock. Inhabits Japan. — Shaw, xi. 148.

Gen. %. GALLUS, Briss. Tern. — Phasianus, Lin.

Bill of medium size, strong, base naked ; upper mandible arch-
ed, convex, bent towards the point ; head surmounted by a
crest or plume ; ears naked ; three toes before, united to the
first joint ; the hind toe raised from the ground ; tarsus with a
long and bent spur ; middle feathers of the tail arched ; wings
short.

G. Sonneratii, Tern. (P. gallus, Gmel.) The Jungle Cock. Comb
toothed, throat wattled beneath, feathers of the neck elongated,
spotted with white, black, and fulvous, with membranaceous tips ;
throat, breast, abdomen, and back, gray, striped with white; wing-
coverts reddish-chestnut ; quill and tail-feathers deep black. In-
habits India — Shan), xi. pi. 12.

G. domesticus, Tern. (P. gallus, Lin.) Domestic Cock. Comb den-
tated; throat wattled; feathers of the neck linear and elongated;
body variegated with beautiful colours ; tail compressed and ascend-
ing ; comb and wattles of the female less than those of the male.
— Shaw, xi. 203.

This is the origin of all the domestic varieties of this useful bird, and is supposed
to have come originally from Asia. It is spread over the whole world, and the vast
varieties in point of colour, comb, feet, feathers, &c. are an exemplification of the
power of domestication, food, and climate, in producing and continuing particular
breeds or races. The hen lays eggs for nearly the whole year, if properly fed,
and kept in a certain temperature. The young are hatched in about three weeks.
In domestication few of the race are allowed to live long ; but an instance is related
of a hen in Cumberland living for thirty years. For the seven previous years, how-
ever, she had given over laying eggs. The female in old age sometimes assumes the
plumage of the male.

G.furcalus, Tern. The Fork-tailed Cock. Comb entire ; throat with
a wattle in the middle ; feathers of the neck short and rounded ;
body above green-gold, beneath black ; wing-coverts orange and
brown; female with comb or wattle. Java,.— Shaw, xi. 215.

PHASIAKUS. BIRDS- 273

Gen. 3. PHASIANUS, Lin.

Bill short, thickened, naked at the base, bent towards the tip ;
nostrils basal and lateral ; cheeks naked, warty ; ears covered ;
three toes before, united to the first joint, and one behind ;
tarsi furnished with spurs in the males; tail elongated, cu-
neiform, and composed of eighteen feathers ; wings short.

The beautiful and elegant birds comprised under this genus are all natives of
Asia, frequenting woody situations, and subsisting on seeds and insects. The fe-
males produce many young at a brood, which they foster for some tirne^ like the
domestic hen. Their nests, which are rudely constructed, are formed on the ground.
The young, when tirst hatched, are clothed with a soft down.

P. Colchicus, Lin. Common Pheasant. The male rufous, with the
head and neck blue, shining with green and gold, and variegatect
with black and white ; cheeks furnished with red papillae ; breast,
belly, and flanks purple-chestnut ; tail very long, with transverse
black bands. 2 feet 11 inches long. The female is smaller, and
brown-gray, varied with reddish and dusky — Selby, Illust. pi. 57«
The Pheasant i& supposed to have been originally introduced from Asia ; but it is
at present diffused -over most of the southern and temperate regions of the old con-
tinent, and has been met with even as far north as Bothnia and Siberia.

P. pictus, Lin. Painted or Golden Pheasant. Crest yellow ; fea-
thers of the occiput brown, varied with black lines ; body golden
yellow above, scarlet beneath, secondary quills blue ; tail cunerft-
ed. 2 feet 9 inches long. Inhabits China. — Edw. pi. 68, 69.

Gen. 4. LOPHOPHORUS, Tern. — Phasianus^ Lath.

Bill long, thick, much bent, broad at its base ; upper mandi-
ble arched, very long, extending much beyond the under one,
edged at its extremity ; ridge elevated ; nostrils basal, lateral,
half shut by a thinly feathered membrane ; tarsus covered
with feathers on its upper part ;• a long and sharp spur ; three
fore toes united by membranes, hind toe elevated ; tail short,
rounded ; head crested.

L. refulgens, Tern. Body above with splendid purple feathers, the
margins brass-coloured ; beneath black, with a brassy tinge; tail
cinnamon-coloured, rounded. 2 feet long. Inhabits India. —
Shaw, xi. pi. 15.

L.' Cuvieriy Tern. Plumage black, with a violet gloss, the feathers
marked with grayish zigzag lines ; rump and tail-coverts tipped
Avith a broad white zone ; crest composed of long decomposed fea-
tliers, with short webs ; cheeks naked. 18 inches long — Shaw,
xiv. pi. 36. .

Gen. 5. POLYPLECTRON, Tem.—Diplectron, Vieill. Pavo, Lin.

Bill middle-sized, slender, straight, compressed ; upper mandi-
ble bent down towards the tip ; nostrils lateral, iri the middle
of the bill, half covered by a naked membrane ; orbits and
cheeks naked ; legs slender, fore toes united by membranes ;
VOL, i. s

274 BIRDS. GALLIC.

back-toe elevated ; the tarsi long, and, in the male, furnished
with two or more spurs ; tail long, rounded.

P. chinquis, Tern. (Pavo bicalcaratus, Tibetanus, Lin.) Argus Poly-
plectron. Cinereous, striated with dusky, and spotted with white
above ; wing-coverts sprinkled with brilliant orbicular cserulean
spots, or eyes ; under parts of the body gray, undulated with
dusky lines ; secondary quills with shining blue spots, and tail-
coverts with two shining green spots. 23 inches long. Inhabits
China — Shaw, xi. pi. 7-

Gen. 6. MELEAGIUS, Lin.

Bill short and thick, base covered with a naked skin ; head and
upper part of the neck invested with a naked, tuberculated
skin ; a loose caruncle on the upper part of the bill ; throat
with a longitudinal, pendulous, and carunculated wattle ; tarsi
of the male with an obtuse and weak spur ; wings short ; tail
of eighteen feathers, spreading into a circle.

M. gallopavo, Lin. Common Turkey. Body black above and be-
neath, and glossed with violet and gold ; head and upper part of
the neck with a blue papillated and hairy skin ; feathers of the
tail brown, varied with black. The female has smaller wattles,
and is incapable of erecting the feathers of the tail. 3| feet long.
Inhabits N. America. — Shaw, xi. pi. 8.

In its wild state the Turkey associates in flocks, feeding on wild berries, acorns,
or insect food, and roosts on the highest trees, This valuable bird is said to have
been originally introduced from America to Spain, and brought to England in 1524.

M. ocellata, Cuv. Head and neck naked ; back, rump, and breast
golden-green, banded with glossy violet ; primaries white, spot-
ted with black ; secondaries white ; tail-feathers wedge-shaped,
griseous, spotted with black, the tip green, shining with violet
and gold ; bill horny. 3| feet long. Honduras. — Shaw, xiv. pi. 35.

Gen. 7. ARGUS, Tern.

Bill as long as the head, compressed, straight, with the base
naked ; upper mandible arched, and bent towards the tip ;
nostrils lateral, placed in the middle of the bill, and half-
closed by a membrane ; head, cheeks, and neck, naked ; legs
slender ; tarsi smooth ; fore toes united by membranes, hind
toe jointed on the tarsus ; tail ascending, compressed, with
twelve feathers, of which the two middle are much elongated.

This genus is distinguished from Phaslanus by having the secondary wing -feathers
much larger than the primaries.

A. giganteusj Tern. (Phasianus Argus, Lin.) Argus Pheasant.
Lower parts of the neck and under parts of the body red brown,
striped with black ; back and tail-coverts yellowish, marked with
rounded brown spots ; secondary feathers with many ocelli ; webs
of the quills blue ; tail brown-black, spotted with white. The
female is brown-black, spotted with yellow and brown, with the

NUMIPA. BIRDS. 275

webs of the quills blue-black,, and the two long feathers without
spots. 5 feet 3 inches long. Inhabits Surinam — -Shaw, xi. pi. 14.

Gen. 8. NUMIDA, Lin.

Bill short, thick, arched, the base covered with a warted mem-
brane, and a carunculated wattle hanging from the under
mandible ; nostrils situated in the cere, divided by a carti-
lage ; head naked or feathered, the crown with a callous horn
or crest ; tarsus smooth ; the three fore toes united by mem-
branes ; hind toe jointed on the tarsus ; tail short, bent down.

The species belonging to this genus are originally natives of Africa and the neigh-
bouring islands, have the manners of domestic poultry, except that they are less as-
siduous than some of the other tribes in rearing their young, and have been multi-
plied for the use of the table in various places.

N. meleagris, Lin. The Pintado or Guinea Fowl. Body gray-
blue,, sprinkled with small white spots ; head and upper part of
the neck naked ; a conical tubercle with its tip reflected on the
crown, and a broad geminated membrane near the gape. 22 in-
ches long. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw, xi. pi. 17«
This species is now domesticated over all Europe. The two other species of the

genus are the N. mltrata and cristata^ both from Africa.

Gen. 9- PAUXI, Tern. — Crax, Lin. — Ourax, Cuv.

Bill short, strong, compressed, arched, convex ; base of the upper
mandible dilated into a hard and elevated corneous substance ;
nostrils basal, lateral, open below ; tarsus long, smooth, the
three fore toes united by membranes; hind toe jointed on the
tarsus, but partly leaning on the ground ; wings short.

P. galatca, Tern. Galeated Curassow. Body dark-coloured ; glos-
sed with green ; abdomen and tip of the tail white; base of the
bill with a horny blue pear-shaped tubercle. 2J feet long. In-
habits South America. — Shaw, xi. 173.

P. milu, Tern. Body black, glossed with purple and violet ; ab-
domen chestnut ; tip of the tail white ; ridge of the bill horny,
sharp and red; forehead with a dark crest. Brazil — Shaw, xi. 175.

Gen. 10. CRAX, Lin.

Bill long, thick, compressed at the sides, incurved towards the
tip, the base covered with a cere, nostrils lateral, placed in the
cere, half covered, open in front ; top of the head ornamented
with revoluted feathers ; four toes, of which the three anterior
are connected at the base ; tail broad, pendant.

The birds of this genus are easily tamed, and will live with domestic poultry. They
feed on fruits and seeds, and nestle on trees.

C. globicera, Lin. Globe-bearing Curassow. Body black ; abdomen
beneath white ; feathers of the crown contracted and dark colour-
ed ; a broad rounded tubercle at the base of the bill about the size
of a cherry; cere yellow, and tip of the tail white. Inhabits South
America. — Shaw, xi. 166.

276 BIRDS. GALLIN*.

C. rubra, Lin. Red Curassow. Body above reddish chestnut-co-
loured, paler below ; nape and upper parts of the neck with alter-
nate lines of white and black; cere black; tail with nine whitish
yellow bands, edged with black ; crest with curled feathers tip-
ped with black. 2 feet 6 inches long. S. America Shaw, xi. pi. 9.

Gen. 11. PENELOPE, Lin.

Bill middle-sized, broader than deep, the tip compressed and ar-
ched ; nostrils lateral, ovate, half-covered, but open in front ;
cheeks naked ; the throat with a longitudinal wattle, carun-
culated in the middle ; tarsi reticulated ; fore toes united by
membranes, hind toe jointed on the same level ; wings short.

P. pipile, Tern. The Yacou Guan. Body dusky violet ; neck and
breast spotted with white, and a white crest on the head ; wing-
coverts sprinkled with white spots ; temples naked and whitish ;
wattle blue and downy ; quill-feathers truncated at their tips. 28
inches long. Inhabits Brazil — Shaw, xi. pi. 10.

P. obscura, Tem. Crown and upper part of the neck black ; under
part of the neck, back, and wings dusky, spotted with white ;
rump, belly, and abdomen chestnut ; tail and quill-feathers black ;
no crest. 29 inches long. Inhabits S. America. — Shaw, xi. 185.

Gen. 12. TETRAO, Lin.

Bill short and thick, arched above, convex, bent down towards
the tip, base naked ; nostrils basal, half closed with an arched
scale above, and concealed by small feathers ; eyebrows na-
ked, with scarlet warts ; tarsi feathered ; three toes before and
one behind, united to the first joint ; one toe behind, mar-
gined with asperities.

Grous are polygamous birds, the females only taking charge of incubation and
rearing the young. They make their nests on the ground, in a very artless manner,
of a few small branches of pines, heath-tops, &c. They produce many eggs, usually
breed only once in the year, and the young run about as soon as hatched. Their food
consists of seeds, berries, a few insects, the tops of heath, and evergreens. They
inhabit the colder arid more temperate latitudes.

T. urogallus, Lin. Wood Grous, Cock of the Wood, Capercailzie of
the Scots. Neck and upper parts of the body dusky, transversely
waved with cinereous ; feathers of the throat black, elongated, dusky,
varied with white spots beneath, axillae white ; breast with green
reflections ; tail black, rounded, and its feathers marked with two
white spots towards the tip ; bill white. 2 feet 10 inches long.
Inhabits Northern Europe. B. — Shaw, xi. pi. 18.
This species inhabits the wooded and mountainous regions of Europe and northern

Asia, occurring abundantly in the pine forests of Russia, Siberia, Norway, Sweden,

&c. It was formerly not uncommon in Ireland and Scotland, but may now be

said to be extirpated from both.

T. medius, Meyer. Head and breast black, with bronze reflections ;
feathers of the throat a little elongated ; back and rump shining
black ; wings blackish, with little zigzag ash-coloured and brown

TETKAO. BIRDS. 277

spots ; base of the secondary feathers white ; tail slightly forked ;
bill black ; asperities of the toe very long 2 feet 3 inches long.
Inhabits Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 459.

T. tetrix, Lin. Black Grous, Black Cock. No long feathers under
the throat ; the general plumage black, with violet reflections ; tail
much forked, with the two outer feathers convoluted, and the in-
ferior tail-coverts white. 1 foot 10 inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope. B Selby, Illust. pi. 58.

T. Bonasia, Lin. Hazel Grous. Plumage above varied with red,
black, and white spots ; below, the feathers black, reddish in the
middle, and bordered with white ; feathers of the head a little
elongated ; a black band towards the extremity of the lateral tail-
feathers ; lower part of the tarsus and toes naked. 13 inches long.
Inhabits France and Germany. — Tern. Man. 463.

T. Scoticus, Lath. Red Grous. Plumage of a red chestnut ; eye-
brows dentated, and very elevated, tarsi and toes covered with gray
hairs ; sixteen feathers in the tail, the lateral ones blackish, and
terminated with chestnut brown ; caruncle above the eyebrows
scarlet and lunated. 1 6 inches long. Inhabits Britain, — Selby,
Illust. pi. 59, fig. 1.

T. lagopus, Lin. Ptarmigan or White Grous. Plumage varied with
cinereous and white ; in summer, quills white, tail-feathers black,
with white tips, and the two middle ones entirely white ; a black
spot between the bill and eyes in the male ; eighteen feathers in
the tail ; legs and toes covered with hairy feathers ; claws crook-
ed, subulate, and black. Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 59. fig. 2.
Ptarmigans haunt the mountainous countries of northern Europe, descending
within the range of vegetation to feed on the buds of trees, the young shoots of pines,
and heath, mountain berries, rhododendron, &c. They fly heavily, but run swiftly.

T. saliceti, Tein. (T. albus, Laponicus, Gmel.) Plumage pure
white ; lateral feathers of the tail black, terminated with white ;
bill thick, short, depressed towards the point, obtuse; claws long,
white, slightly bent. 16 inches long. Plumage in summer chest-
nut. Inhabits Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 471.

T. phasianellus, Lin. Long-tailed Grous. Body above brownish,
varied with dusky; breast chestnut brown, with white spots; sides
of the neck and wing-coverts with rounded white spots ; tail wedge-
shaped, the two middle feathers elongated, with ocellated spots.
17 inches long. Inhabits Hudson's Bay, — Shaw, xi. 284.

Gen. 13. PTEEOCLES, Tern. — Tetrao, Lath. Lin.
Bill of medium size, compressed, slender in some species; upper
mandible straight, bent towards the point ; nostrils basal, half
shut by a membrane ; toes short ; hind toe very small, and
jointed high on the tarsus; three fore toes united to the first
joint ; fore part of the tarsus feathered, the rest naked ; tail
conical, in some species the two middle feathers elongated
and filiform ; wings long, acuminated, the first feather longest.

278 BIRDS. GALLIX*.

P. arenarius, Tern. Plumage gray yellow above, black below ; a
triangular black spot on the throat ; base of the mandible and re-
gion of the ears reddish chestnut ; a black band from the base of
the breast across the wings ; tail banded with gray, red, and yel-
low. 12 inches long. Southern Europe — Tern. Man. 476.

P. setariusj Tern. Throat black ; sides of the head and fore part of
the neck yellowish ash-colour ; a broad reddish orange band on
the breast ; head, neck, rump, and coverts of the tail banded with
black and yellow ; lower parts white ; two middle tail-feathers
long and filiform, three inches beyond the others. 10| inches long.
Inhabits Southern Europe.— Tew. Man. 478.

Gen. 14. SYEEHAPTES, Illig. — Tetrao, Lath.

Bill short, slender, conical ; upper mandible slightly bent, with
a groove or furrow along the ridge ; nostrils basal, lateral, co-
vered by feathers before ; feet with only three toes, directed
forwards, and united to the claws ; tarsus and toes covered with
woolly feathers; tail conical, the two middle feathers elongated
and filiform, as are also the first and second wing-feathers.

S. Pallasii, Tern. (T. paradoxus, Pall.) Head and neck as far as the
throat hoary; chin yellowish; back undulated with gray and black;
abdomen black, with pale spots ; sides of the neck with a fulvous
spot. Inhabits Southern Tartary — Shaw, xiv. pi. 37-

Gen. 15. PEEDIX, Lath. — Tetrao, Lin.

Bill short, compressed, stout, base naked ; upper mandible ar-
ched, convex, strongly curved towards the tip ; nostrils basal,
lateral, half closed by an arched and naked membrane ; the
three anterior toes united by membranes to the first joint ;
tail composed of eighteen or of fourteen feathers, short, round-
ed, and slanting downwards ; wings short.

These birds, which are stationary in some countries, and migratory in others, are
greatly multiplied in the warm and temperate regions of the globe, living in pairs,
and steady in their family attachments. The greater number frequent fields and
open tracts of country, but some prefer the outskirts of woods in the neighbourhood
of water. They feed on grain, seeds, bulbous plants, insects, and worms. They run
more frequently than fly, get up from the ground with an effort, and make a whirring
noise when on the wing. They generally have numerous broods, and the young run
about as soon as hatched.

* Males with one or two spurs.

P. francolinus, Lath. Feathers of the head and nape black, bor-
dered with reddish yellow ; a white band below the eyes ; a chest-
nut collar around the neck ; throat and lower parts black ; wings
brown ; back and rump banded with black and white ; legs red-
dish, spurs brown. 12 or 13 inches long. Inhabits Southern Eu-
rope Willough. pi. 31.

** Tarsus furnished with a callosity, or entirely smooth.

P. saxatilis, Meyer. Plumage above and breast bluish ash-coloured ;

PERDIX. BIRDS. 279

cheeks, throat, and fore part of the neck white, with a black band ;
a narrow black band on the flanks ; bill, around the eyes, and legs
red. 13 inches long. Southern Europe — Tern. Man. 484.

P. rubra, Briss. Throat and cheeks white, surrounded by a black
band, which spreads on the sides of the neck into a number of
spots and stripes of the same colour ; a broad white band above
the eyes ; upper parts of the body reddish gray ; belly red ; eighteen
feathers in the tail. 12 inches long. Inhabits Southern Eu-
rope.— Lervins Brit. Birds, iii. pi. 137*

P. petrosa, Lath. Forehead, top of the head, and nape, deep chest-
nut, spreading on the sides of the neck into a broad collar ; throat,
temples, and a broad band above the eyes bluish ash-colour ; upper
parts of the body reddish-gray ; wings with from 8 to 10 spots of
turquoise blue, bordered with orange ; tail of 18 feathers. 12 in-
ches long. Inhabits rocky Mountains of Europe. — Tern. Man. 487-

P. cinerea, Lath. Common Partridge. Plumage gray, varied with
red and black above ; yellowish- white beneath, varied with black
lines and rufous spots; a broad chestnut spot of a horse-shoe
form on the top of the belly, tail-feathers 18, the seven outer ones
on each side tipped with cinereous. 12 inches long. Inhabits
Europe. B.— Selby, Illust. pi. 61.

*** Bill deeper than broad ; orbits naked ; tail short.

P. Virginiana, Lath. Body above brown-chestnut, varied with ru-
fous and black ; white beneath, transversely waved with dusky j
eyebrows and throat white ; jugulum with a black lunule ; lateral
tail-feathers gray. — Wils. Amer. Orn. vi. pi. 47, fig. 2.

**** fail very short., concealed by the feathers of the rump; first
quill-Jeather the longest.

P. colurnix, Lath. (Tetrao, Lin.) Common Quail. Body rusty
gray, varied with black spots ; shafts of the feathers yellowish ;
eyebrows and a longitudinal stripe on the crown white ; throat
rufous. Female paler, with the throat white, and two blackish
brown bands. 7 inches long. Europe. B. — Selby, Illust. pi. 62.
Quails are very generally distributed over the world. They arrive in Britain in
spring for incubation, and leave this country in August. With wind and weather
in their favour, they have been known to perform a flight of fifty leagues, across the
Black Sea, in the course of a night. Clouds of them also alight in spring along
the shores of Provence, where they are sometimes found so exhausted, that for a few
days at first they may sometimes be caught with the hand. The males fight fiercely
for the females ; and from their pugnacious disposition, they were exhibited in re-
gular combats both by the Athenians and Romans. The practice of quail- fight-
ing is still cherished in China, Sumatra, and some districts of Italy. Quails are
killed in great numbers for the table.

Gen. 16. CRYPTONYX, Tern. — Perdix, Lath. Liponyx^ Vieill.

Bill short, thick, compressed ; mandibles of equal length, the
upper one straight and a little bent at the point ; nostrils la-
teral, longitudinally cleft, to wards the middle of the bill, covered
above by a broad naked membrane ; tarsus long ; three toes

280 BIRDS. GALLING

before, united at their base ; hind toe not touching the ground,
and without claw ; wings short.

C. coronatus, Tern. Chestnut crest on the occiput ; six long bristles
at the base of the bill ; crown with a white streak ; body dark
violet ; back and feathers of the rump dark green ; temples naked.
10 inches long. Inhabits Sumatra. — -Shaw, xi. pi. 16.— The only
species of the genus.

Gen. 17. TINAMUS, Lath. — Tetrao, Gmel.

Bill slender, straight, depressed ; broader than deep, tip round-
ed, ridge distinct, forming a large nasal furrow ; nostrils la-
teral, pierced in the furrow, ovate ; tarsus long, frequently
with asperities behind ; toes short, entirely divided ; hinder
one very short ; tail wanting, or very short ; wings short.

The birds of this genus are all natives of South America, where they live on fruits?
wild berries, and insects. They fly heavily, and run quickly, seldom perching, ex-
cept to pass the night, and then only on the lowest branches of trees.

T. rufescens, Tern. Rufescent Tinamoo. Grayish -red, transverse-
ly striped witli black and white above ; margin of the wings
rufous red ; region of the ears black ; sides and abdomen grayish.
15 g inches long. Inhabits Paraguay. — Shaw, xi. 403.

T. Brasiliensis, Lath. (Tetrao major, Gmel.) Brazilian or Great
Tinamoo. Olive brown, slightly striated across with black above ;
grayish-red beneath ; crown rufous ; the secondary quills trans-
versely striated with rufous and black. 18 inches long. In-
habits Brazil. — Shaw, xi. 406.

Gen. 18. HEMIPODIUS, Tern. — Tetrao, Lin. — Perdix^ Lath.

Bill slender, straight, much compressed, with an elevated ridge,
and bent towards the point ; nostrils lateral, linear, partly
shut by a naked membrane ; tarsus long ; three toes before ;
no posterior toe ; tail with slender feathers, concealed by the
upper coverts ; first wing-feather the longest.

The birds of this genus, the smallest of the gallinaceous order, inhabit the barren
countries on the confines of great deserts. They run rather than fly, and with a
surprising speed. They are solitary birds, never unite in flocks, and their principal
food is insects.

H. tacky dromus, Tem. Top of the head blackish brown, with three
reddish yellow longitudinal bands ; throat white ; breast red,
bordered with yellowish feathers, which have a black spot at some
distance from their point ; belly white ; back black, with zigzag
black and red stripes. 6 inches long. Inhabits Southern Europe.
—Shaw, ix. pi. 25.

H. lunatus, Tem. Back brown, transversely banded with black ;
wing-coverts red, bordered with white ; a black spot, surrounded
with white, in the middle of each feather ; throat black ; tail-fea-
thers bordered with white and striped with black and whitish ;
legs and bill yellow. 6 inches long. Inhabits Southern Europe.
—Tem. Man. 495.

PSOPHIA. BIRDS. 281

ORDER XI.— ALECTORIDES.

Bill shorter than the head, or of the same length ; strong, ro-
bust ; upper mandible convex, and often hooked at the point ;
tarsus long and slender ; three toes before and one behind,
the hind toe articulated higher up than those before.

This order, established by Temminck, is composed, with the exception of one, of
exotic species. This author arranges the genera which compose it into those which
frequent the open country and those which inhabit the banks of streams. The for-
mer inhabit deserts, where they are continually in pursuit of reptiles and lizards ;
and the latter feed chiefly on insects and worms.

Gen. 1. PSOPHIA, Lin.

Bill short, conical, curved, much bent at the tip ; upper man-
dible longer than the under ; the nasal furrow wide and ex-
tended ; nostrils near the middle of the bill, wide, diagonal,
closed behind by a naked membrane ; legs long and slender,
the middle and external toe united, the internal separated ;
hind toe articulated interiorly, and on a level with the others ;
wings short and concave ; tail very short.

P. crepitans, Lin. Golden-breasted Agami or Trumpeter. Gene-
ral plumage black ; back gray ; breast blue, with a green gloss ;
orbits naked and red ; feathers of the head and neck short and
downy, those of the lower part of the neck squamiform, of the
shoulders ferruginous, lax, pendulous, and silky ; scapulars long
and pendant. 22 inches long. S. America. — Shaw, xiv. 318.

Gen. 2. DICHOLOPHUS, Illig. — Lophorhynchus9Vieil\. — Pala-
medea, Lath.

Bill longer than the head, thick, arched, cleft to under the
eyes, depressed at the base, compressed at the tip, which is a
little hooked; nasal furrow large ; nostrils small, covered with
a membrane ; legs long and slender ; toes very short and
thick, the anterior ones united at the base by a membrane,
the hind toe articulated to the tarsus, and not touching the
ground ; claws short and strong ; wings spineless.

D. cristatus, Illig. (Palamedea cristata, Lath.) Crested Dicholo-
phus. Feathers of the body and of the upper part of the head
white ; those of the neck, throat, and breast whitish-brown, long,
with very feeble shafts, and lax webs. Brazil. — Shaw, xii. pi. 34.
This bird, the only one of the genus, frequents the outskirts of dry and elevated

forests, and particularly stony hills, feeding chiefly on terrestrial reptiles and insects.

Gen. 3. GLAREOLA, Briss.

Bill short, convex, compressed towards the tip ; upper mandi-
ble curved from the half of its length ; nostrils basal, lateral,
and obliquely cleft ; legs feathered to the knee ; tarsi long and
slender, the middle toe united to the outer by a short mem-

282 BIRDS. ALECTORIDES.

brane, and the inner separate ; hind toe jointed on the tarsus ;
claws long and subulate ; wings very long.

The birds of this genus inhabit the warm and temperate regions of the old con-
tinent, affecting the banks of fresh and limpid waters, and very rarely appearing on
the sea-shore. Their principal food is worms and very small insects. They run with
great agility, and are capable of long and rapid flights.

G. torquata, Meyer. Collared Pratincole. Top of the head, nape,
back, scapulars, and coverts of the wings brown gray ; throat and
fore part of the neck reddish white, bordered by a narrow black
band, which rises to the corners of the bill ; space between the
eyes and bill black ; coverts of the tail and origin of the fea-
thers white ; tail blackish towards the end ; naked circle round
the eyes red. 9J inches long. Europe. — Selby, Illust. pi. 63.

G. grallaria, Tern. Tail almost square, longer than the wings by
three inches ; tibia in a great part naked ; tarsus very long ;
plumage above and breast bright red ; throat, abdomen, and tail-
coverts white ; belly chestnut ; quills black. Inhabits Austra-
lasia Tern. Man. 503.

G. lactea, Tern. Tail slightly forked ; upper parts of the body and
wings grayish white ; quills and interior of the wings black ;
under parts white; tail-feathers, the exterior excepted, with
a black spot, their union forming a large angular space. 5| in-
ches long. Inhabits India. — Tern. Man. 503.

Gen. 4. PALAMEDEA, Lin.

Bill short, conico-convex, much curved at the point, compres-
sed throughout its length ; nasal furrow large ; head small,
covered with down, and armed with a slender and flexible
horn ; nostrils remote from the base of the bill, lateral, oval,
open ; legs short, thick ; toes very long, the lateral connect-
ed with the intermediate by a short membrane ; wings ample,
and spurs on the winglets.

P. cornuta, Lath. Kamichi or Horned Screamer. Body black-
ish above, white beneath ; under side of the wings reddish ;
bill and legs black ; irides golden ; horn three or four inches long,
and two or three lines thick at the base, which is inclosed in a
sheath ; two strong triangular spurs on each winglet. 2 feet 4
inches long. Inhabits S. America. — Shan}, xii. pi. 35.

Gen. 5. CHAUNA, Illig. — Parra, Lin.

Bill shorter than the head, conico-convex, slightly arched, curv-
ed at the tip ; base furnished with small feathers ; lores
naked ; nostrils oblong ; legs long, slender ; toes long, unit-
ed by membranes ; wings armed with two spurs.

C. Chavaria, Tern. Body above brown ; neck and abdomen black ;
temples and throat white; occiput with pendant blackish fea-
thers. Size of the domestic cock. S. America. — Shaw, xii. 272.

ST*UTHIO. BIRDS. 283

ORDER XII.— CURSORES.

Bill middle-sized, or short ; legs long, naked above the knee ;
and with only two or three toes, directed forwards.

The birds which compose this order live always in the fields, and most frequently
in desert places, remote from woods. They are polygamous, and feed on herbs,
seeds, and insects. Some few of the species are incapable of flight, and others fly
little and near the ground. They run, however, with great celerity, not only when
pursued, but habitually, and differ, in this respect, from the greater number of the
waders, which walk by measured steps. All of them capable of rising from the
ground stretch their legs backwards in flight

Gen. 1. STRUTHIO, Lin.

Bill obtuse, straight, depressed at the tip, which is rounded
and unguiculated ; mandibles equal and flexible ; nostrils
near the middle of the bill ; legs very long, robust, and mus-
cular, with only two strong toes directed forwards, but the
inner much shorter- than the outer ; the former provided with
a large and blunt claw, the latter clawless ; tibia very fleshy
to the knee ; wings unfit for flight, being composed of long,
soft, and flexible feathers, and armed with a double spur.

S. camelus, Lin. The Ostrich. Body black, the feathers varied

with white and gray ; primary quills and tail-feathers white ;

the female brown or ash gray, where the male is black. Inhabits

Africa and Asia — Shaw, xi. pi. 27.

This is the largest species of the feathered tribe, weighing about eighty pounds,
and often measuring upwards of eight feet in height, and as many in length, from
the tip of the bill to the end of the tail ; but, from the ground to the top of the back
it seldom exceeds four feel, the rest of its height being made up by its extremely
long neck, the greater part of which is flesh-coloured, with a few scattered hairs.
The feathers on the body are lax and waving, the webs on both sides being equal,
and incapable of locking into a compact whole. There are two alar spurs, namely,
one on the end of the wing, and another on the spurious wing. These birds run
with great rapidity. The natural aliment of the ostrich is entirely of a vegetable
description, as grass, fruits, grain, &c. and they may frequently be seen pasturing
with the zebra and quagga. Yet so keen is their voracity that they will often swallow
hard, and even noxious matters, as wood, plaster, glass, stones, lead, copper, &c. " I
saw one at Oran," says Dr Shaw, u that swallowed, without any seeming uneasiness
or inconvenience, several leaden bullets, as they were thrown upon the floor, scorch-
ing hot from the mould." According to Adanson, the ostrich is able to run with
a full grown man on its back.

Gen. 2. RHEA, Briss. — Struthio, Lin.

Bill straight, short, soft, depressed at the base, a little com-
pressed at the tip, which is obtuse ; lower mandible much
depressed, flexible, and rounded at the tip ; nostrils on the
lateral surface of the bill, large, longitudinally cleft, and
open ; legs long, with three toes before, and a callosity be-
hind ; wings short, with feathers more or less long, and ter-
minating in a spur.

B. Americana, Tern. American Ostrich. Body white, wings and

284 BIRDS. CURSORES.

back obscurely gray. About 6 feet in height. Inhabits S.America.
—Shaw, xi. pi. 28.

This bird is somewhat less than the ostrich, being about six feet in height, of which
the neck is two feet eight inches. The wings stretch from tip to tip no less than
eight feet ; but, on account of the webs being disunited, they are useless in flight,
hanging over, and hiding the tail, which is composed of short feathers of equal
length.

Gen. 3. DROMICEUS, Vieill. — Casuarius, Lath.

Bill straight, the edges greatly depressed, tip rounded ; head
feathered ; throat naked ; feet three-toed, the toes placed be-
fore ; wings very short.

D. Novas Hollandice. The Emu. Body hairy, colour brown and
gray mixed, paler on the under parts ; head and neck feathered ;
tibiae serrated behind ; wing quills feathered. Nearly seven feet
long. Inhabits New Holland — Shaw, xiv. pi. 39.

Gen. 4. CASUARIUS, Briss.— Strnthio, Lin.

Bill straight, short ; compressed, rounded towards the point; ridge
keeled, and a bony rounded protuberance at the base ; inferior
mandible soft, flexible, and angular near the extremity; nostrils
round, in the lateral part of the point of the bill ; legs muscu-
lar, with three toes placed forwards, the inner short, and
armed with a very long and strong claw ; tibiae almost en-
tirely covered with feathers ; wings not adapted for flight.

E. galealus, Steph. Galeated Cassowary. Body black, crowngaleated ;
body hairy ; head and part of the neck naked and bluish ; crest or
horny protuberance on the head reaching from the base of the
bill to the middle of the crown ; a pendant caruncle on each side
of the neck. 5 £ feet long. Inhabits India. — Shan>3 xi. pi. 29.

Gen. 5. OTIS, Lin.

Bill straight, conical, compressed ; tip of the upper mandible
slightly arched ; nostrils open, oval, approximated, but remote
at the base ; legs long, naked above the knee ; three toes
before, short, united at their base and bordered by a mem-
brane ; wings of medium length, third quill-feather longest.

These are heavy birds, which fly little, and are extremely shy. When fatigued
in the course, or on the point of being captured, they graze along the ground with
a rapid and well sustained flight. They inhabit corn-fields or bushy plains, and
feed on herbs, grains, seeds, and insects. One male is attended by several females.

* Mandibles compressed at the base.

O. tarda, Lin. The Great Bustard. Head, neck, breast, and margin
of the wings bluish-gray ; a black streak along the crown of the
head ; upper parts of the body reddish yellow, striped with black ;
under parts white ; tail white at its base, brownish orange in the
middle, and crossed by two black bars ; a tuft of long wiry-fea-
thers, with the webs disunited, at the base of the under man-
dible. 3 feet 3 inches long. Europe. B.— Selby, Illust. pi. 64.

CUHSORIUS. BIRDS. 285

O. tetraxy Lin. The Little Bustard. Variegated with black, rufous
and white, with black zigzag markings above ; white beneath ;
neck black, with a double white ring. Collar of the female of
the same colour as the back, and the breast rufous- white, streaked
with dusky. 18 inches long. Europe. B — Selby, Illust. pi. 65.

** Mandibles depressed at the base.

O. houbara, Lin. Bill long, depressed at the base ; a large tuft of
slender feathers on the head ; similar feathers on the sides of the
neck ; body above yellow, spotted with brown ; beneath white ;
tail ochreous, with black fasciae, and white] tips. 2 feet long.
Inhabits Barbary and Arabia; sometimes found in the South of
Europe. — Tern. Man. 509.

Gen. 6. CURSORIUS, Lath. — Charadrius, Gmel.

Bill shorter than the head, depressed at the base, curved to-
wards the end and pointed ; nostrils oval, surmounted by a
small protuberance ; legs long and slender ; toes, three before,
very short, and entirely divided, the interior one shortest ;
claws very small, second wing-feather the longest.

The species belonging to this genus hitherto discovered are few, and these natives
of the warmer parts of Africa and Asia. In Europe one species only is an accidental
visitor.

C. Isabellinus, Meyer. Swiftfoot. General plumage buff-orange or
senna-yellow, palest upon the belly and wing-coverts ; a double
black band behind the eye, going to the occiput ; quills black ;
lateral feathers of the tail black toward the tip. 9 inches long.
Inhabits Europe. B. — Lewiris Brit. Birds, i. pi. 187-

C. Asiaticus, Lath. Crown of the head red ; breast and neck chest-
nut ; nape, wings, and tail brown ; rump, coverts, and extremity
of the tail-feathers white ; bill black. 8 inches long. Inhabits
India — Tern. Man. 514.

C. bicinctus, Tern. Top of the head brown, varied with reddish ;
cheeks and neck yellow, with longitudinal brown stripes; a double
nuchal collar, the lower black, as are the quills, the upper
white. 8 inches long. Inhabits Africa — Tern. Man. 515.

ORDER XIII.— GRALLATORES.

Bill of various forms, but most frequently straight, in the form
of an elongated cone, and compressed, more rarely depressed,
or flat ; legs slender, long, more or less naked above the knee,
three toes before and one behind, the posterior one jointed
at the level of those before, or more elevated.

The birds included in this order are almost all semi-nocturnal, stalking along the
margin of the sea, lakes, or rivers, and feeding on fish or their fry, reptiles, worms,
or insects. Those which have a hard bill feed on fishes and reptiles ; those with a

BIRDS. GRALLATORES.

soft or flexible bill on worms and insects. All are furnished with long wings, suited
to the extensive migrations which they undertake at stated seasons, and for which
purpose they associate in numerous bands, the young and the old travelling sepa-
rately. They extend their legs behind when they fly, and their walk is slow, and
as it were by measured steps. They are divided into two sections ; those which have
three toes only forming the first, and the others with a hind toe forming the second.
Many of them enter into the water without swimming, but they are capable of the
latter, and even of diving when occasion requires.

FAMILY I. — With three toes only.
Gen. 1. GEmcNEMUs, Tern.— Otis, Lath. — Charadrius,Um.

Bill longer than the head, straight, strong, compressed at the
tip, the ridge carinated; lower mandible forming an angle with
the upper ; nostrils placed in the middle of the bill, longitu-
dinally cleft, and open in front ; legs long and slender, with
three toes before, united to the second joint by a membrane,
which extends along the toes ; tail distinctly wedge-shaped.

CE. crepitans, Tern. Thick-kneed Bustard. Gray-brown, with dusky
longitudinal lines above, the two primary quills white in the
middle ; a longitudinal white band on the wings ; belly and thighs
white j knees thick, as if gouty. 18 inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope. B. — Shaw, xi. pi. 33.

CE. magnirostris, Tern. Body above bluish, striated with black ;
beneath grayish ; quills with a white spot j feet blue. Inhabits
New South Wales.— Sharv, xi. 462.

CE. longipes, Vieill. Crown, back, and wings blue-gray, marked
with black streaks, largest on the back and crown ; beneath the
eyes on the ears a large patch of brown. Inhabits New South
Wales — Shaw, xii. 184.

Gen. 2. CALIURIS, Illig. — Tringa, Lin. Charadrius, Lath.

Bill middle-sized, slender, straight, soft, flexible in its whole
length, compressed from the base, depressed towards the tip,
flattened and obtuse ; nostrils lateral, and longitudinally cleft;
legs slender, with three toes before, almost entirely divided ;
wings middle-sized, the first quill-feather longest.

C. arenaria, Illig. (Tringa, Lin.) The Sanderling. Upper parts
and sides whitish ash-coloured, with a deeper line on the centre
of each feather ; throat, face, and lower parts white ; border of
the wings black ; tail ash-coloured, margined with white. 7 in-
ches long — Sharv, xi. pi. 35.
The Sanderling, the only species of the genus, is found in Europe and the north

of Asia and America, frequenting the sea-shores, especially in spring and autumn,

and feeding on minute marine insects and worms.

Gen. 3. FALCINELLUS, Cuv. — Numenius, Lath.
Bill arched, soft, compressed in its whole length, depressed at
the point ; nasal furrow elongated ; nostrils basal, lateral, li-
near ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; only three toes, di-
rected anteriorly.

HIMANTOPUS. BIRDS. 287

F. pygmceus, Pigmy Curlew, Perm. Head and occiput dusky brown,
divided by two longitudinal rufous bands ; back and scapulars black,
edged with rufous ; quills and outer tail-feathers margined with
white; body beneath and rump white. 6J inches long. Inha-
bits Europe. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 6. The only species of the genus.

Gen. 4. HIMANTOPUS, Briss. — Charadrius, Lin.

Bill long, slender, cylindrical, flattened at the base, compressed
at the point ; mandibles laterally channelled to the half of
their length ; nostrils lateral, linear, long ; legs very long and
slender, with three toes before, of which the intermediate is
united to the outer by a broad membrane, and to the inner
by a rudimentary one ; claws very small and flat ; wings
very long, the first much longer than the others.

H. melanopterus, Meyer. Black-winged Long-Shanks. Face, neck,

breast, and lower parts white, with a slight rose tint on the breast

and belly ; occiput and nape blackish, with white spots ; back and

wings black, with greenish reflections; tail ash-coloured; legs very

long. 1 4 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 23.

This is the longest legged bird in proportion of any known species, its limbs being,

in fact, thrice as long as its body, and extremely slender. Though generally spread

over the world, it is scarce in many countries. In Britain it is very rare.

H. nigricollis, Vieill. (Recurvirostra himantopus, Wils.) Body
black above ; forehead and lower parts white ; tail ash-coloured ;
bill black ; legs red. N. America. — Wilsons Amer. Orn. pi. 58.

Gen. 5. H^EMATOPUS, Lin.

Bill long, stout, compressed, tip much compressed and cuneat-
ed ; nostrils lateral, longitudinally cleft in the channel of the
bill ; legs strong and muscular, with three toes before, the
middle one united to the first joint, and the inner margined
by a rudimentary membrane ; wings middle-sized, the first
quill longest.

H. ostralegus, Lin. The Oyster-Catcher. Head, neck, top of the
breast, back, wings, and tail, deep black ; collar, under the throat,
rump, origin of the quill and tail-feathers, and all the lower parts
white ; bill and naked circle round the eyes orange. 15^ inches
long. Inhabits coasts of Europe, B. — Shaw, xi. pi. 36.
This species feeds on marine insects, shell-fish, and mollusca, and derives its

name from insinuating its bill into the open shells of oysters.

H. palliatus, Tern. Differs from the preceding in the brown ash-
colour of the back, scapulars, and wings, and larger bill. — In-
habits South America — Tern. Man. 532.

H. nigcr, Cuv. Plumage totally black ; bill and legs coral red. A
little larger than the common oyster-catcher. Inhabits Africa.
— Tern. Man. 533.

Gen. 6. CHARADRIUS, Lin.
Bill shorter than the head, slender, straight, compressed ; man-

288 BIRDS. GRALLATOBKS.

dibles gibbous towards the tip ; nostrils longitudinally cleft
in the large membrane which covers the nasal furrow ; legs
slender, with three toes before, the outer connected to the
middle one by a short membrane, and the inner divided ;
tail slightly rounded or even ; wings middle-sized, the second
quill-feather longest.

Plovers frequent watery situations, the marshy banks of rivers, or the sea-shore,
and feed on small worms and aquatic insects. The greater part of them live in
little bands, and migrate in flocks more or less numerous, the old preceding the
young in these annual journeys. Some foreign species have spurs on the wings, and
many have fleshy excrescences on the head or mandibles.

C. pluvialis, Lin. Golden or Green Plover. Upper parts of the
body, wings, and tail sooty black, marked with spots of golden
yellow on the margins of the webs. 10J inches long. Inhabits
Europe, B. — Shaw, xi. pi. 34.

C. morinellus, Lin. The Dottrel. Top of the head and occiput
blackish ash-colour ; eye-brows reddish white, uniting on the oc-
ciput ; upper parts blackish ash-colour, tinged with greenish ;
breast and flanks with a reddish tinge ; a line on the breast, and
the middle of the belly white ; tail terminated with white. In-
habits Europe, B — Penn. Brit. Zool. ii. pi. 73.

C. hiaticula, Lin. (C. torquatus, Leach.) Ringed Plover. Gray-
brown above, white beneath j breast black ; forehead dusky, with
a white stripe ; crown of the head brown ; bill three-fourths
orange red, tip black ; legs orange. 7 inches long. Inhabits
Europe.— Lenin's Brit. Birds, v. pi. 184.

C. minor, Meyer. Occiput and upper parts gray brown, under parts
white ; frontal band, and a line on the breast black ; bill entirely
black; legs yellow. Inhabits Europe. — Tern. Man. 542.

C. Cantianus, Lath. The Kentish Plover. Head and neck of a
bright red ; upper parts brown gray ; two large black or brown
spaces on the sides of the breast ; quill-feathers with white shafts ;
bill and feet black. 6^ inches long. Inhabits Europe, B.—
Lewin's Brit. Birds, pi. 185.

C. nigrifrons, Tern. Reddish brown, longitudinally striped with
white ; beneath white ; with the forehead, a stripe on the crown,
and another behind the eyes, and a band on the breast black. 6
inches long. Inhabits New Holland — Tern. PI. Col. 4Jy fig. 1.

FAMILY II — With four toes.
Gen. 7. VANELLUS, Briss. — Trmga, Lin. — Squatarola, Cuv.

Bill short, slender, straight, compressed, tip gibbous ; nostrils
lateral, longitudinally cleft ; legs slender, with three toes be-
fore and one behind, the middle toe connected with the outer
by a short membrane, and the hinder one almost obliterated,
or very short, not touching the ground ; wings elongated.

In some of the foreign species the base of the wing is armed with a long and
sharp spur, and a few have wattles or a crest. The two indigenous species undergo

VANELLUS. BIRDS. 289

a double moult, and, like other vermivorous birds in this country, are migrants.
The plumage of both sexes is the same.

* With thejirst quill-feather longest.

V. melanogasler, Bechst. Forehead, throat, and middle of the bel-
ly, thighs, abdomen, and upper coverts of the tail white ; fore
part of the neck, eyebrows, sides of the breast and flanks varied
with brownish spots ; upper parts brownish black, with yellowish
green spots ; tail white, but reddish towards the end, banded
with brown. 10 inches long. — Shaw, xi. 505.

** With the three exterior quill-feathers graduated, the fourth
andjifth the longest.

V. cristatus, Meyer. ( Tringa vanellus, Lin.) The Lapwing. Top
of the head, crest, fore part of the neck, and breast black ; upper
parts deep glossy green ; sides of the neck, belly, and base of
the tail, white ; tail-feathers terminated with a large black space,
except the exterior feather ; occipital feathers long, slender, and
turned upwards. 12 J inches long. Europe, B. — Shaw, xi. pi. 38.

In France, and some other countries, the great body of Lapwings is migratory ;
but in Britain most of them seem to remain the whole year, congregating in large flocks
in autumn. On dry ground, though usually near some marsh, the female prepares
3. little bed of grass, on which she lays four olive-coloured eggs, spotted with black,
with their narrow ends in contact, so as to occupy little space. On these she sits
about twenty days ; and the young are able to run within two or three days after
they are hatched, though they are incapable of flying till they are nearly full grown.
The parent shows them the greatest attachment, and practises her wiles to allure boys
and dogs from their retreat. When as near them as she can venture with safety,
she rises from the ground with a loud screaming voice, as if just flushed from hatch-
ing, though possibly not within a hundred yards of her nest. She now flies with
great clamour and apparent anxiety, whirring and screaming, striking at her dis-
turbers with her wings, and sometimes fluttering as if wounded. To complete the
deception, she becomes still more clamorous as she recedes from the nest. If very
near it. she appears to be altogether unconcerned ; and her cries subside in propor-
tion as her fears increase. The food of the lapwing consists chiefly of worms, which
it draws from their holes, beating the ground around the worm casts to make them rise.

Gen. 8. STREPSILAS, Illig. — Tringa, Lin.

Bill middle-sized, hard at the point, strong, straight, slightly
bent upwards, ridge flattened, tip truncated ; nostrils basal,
lateral, half closed by a membrane ; a short naked space above
the knee ; the three anterior toes connected at the base by a
very snort membrane, and the hinder one articulated to the
tarsus ; wings acuminated.

S. collaris, Tern. The Turnstone. Plumage varied with black,
white, and ferruginous above ; abdomen white ; under parts of
the cheeks and neck black ; base and tip of the tail white, the mid-
dle black. 8 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B Shaw, xi. pi. 39.

The Turnstone, the only species of the genus, inhabits both the old and new con-
tinent, but is more common in the northern than in the southern regions. Though
not known to breed in Britain, it visits some of our shores in August, and departs
in spring. It has its vernacular name from its habit of turning up stones, to get
at worms and marine insects. It is found only on the coast.

VOL I. T

290 BIRDS. GRALLATORK*'.

Gen. 9. GRUS, Pallas. — Ardea, Lin.

Bill as long as, or longer than the head, strong, straight, com-
pressedj obtuse towards the tip ; lateral base of the mandible
deeply sulcated, ridge elevated ; nostrils in the middle of the
bill closed behind by a membrane ; region of the eyes and
base of the bill naked and papillous, or covered with feathers ;
legs long, with a large naked space above the knees, the mid-
dle fore toe united to the outer by a rudimentary membrane,
the inner divided ; hind toe articulated higher on the tarsus,

Cranes are periodical migrants, frequenting marshy places, and rarely the sea-
shore, subsisting on herbs, seeds, worms, frogs, slugs, &c. There are several spe-
cies, but only one indigenous to Europe. In most the trachea of the male is of a
particular construction, having several convolutions.

G. cinerea, Bechst. (Ardea grus, Lin.) Common Crane. Body
cinereous ; throat, fore part of the neck, and occiput dusky ; fore-
head and space between the eye and bill with black hairs ; top
of the head red and naked ; some of the secondary quills arched,
long, and with divided webs. 3 feet 8 or 10 inches long. In-
habits Europe and Asia — Shaw, xi. pi. 40.

These birds inhabit Europe and Asia, and in autumn regularly migrate in flocks
to the southern parts of Asia and Africa. They were formerly not uncommon in
the fenny districts of England. In France they make their appearance from Sep-
tember to November, but only as passengers southward ; and they return in March
and April, on their way to the north, which is their breeding station. In winter
they resort in crowds to Egypt, and the warmer parts of India. In their migratory
expeditions they fly very high, and arrange themselves in a triangular form, the bet-
ter to cleave the air. When the wind freshens, and threatens to break their array,
they collect their forces into a circle ; and they adopt the same disposition when
menaced by the eagle. They travel chiefly in the night, and betray their course by
their loud screams. During their nocturnal voyages, the leader frequently calls to
rally his troops, and to point out the track, and the signal is repeated by the flock,
each individual answering, as if to give notice that it follows, and keeps its rank.
Their cries during the day are conceived to forebode rain, and their noisy tumultuous
screams to announce a storm. The flesh of the Crane was prized by the Romans as
a delicacy ; and it was also formerly used at table in England.

G. pavonina, Tern. (Ardea pavonitia, Lin. Anthropoides, Vieill.)
Balearic Crane. Bluish, with the head black, adorned with an
erect hairy yellowish crest ; wings white ; tail black. 2 feet 9
inches long. Inhabits Africa. — Edw. pi. 192,

G. virgo, Tern. (Ardea virgo, Lin.) Numidian Crane. Body blue-
gray, the head and tip of the primary quills black ; behind the
eyes, on each side, a recurved, elongated, and feathery white
crest ; feathers of the breast long and pendant. 3 feet 3 inches
long. Inhabits Asia and Africa.— Edw. pi. 134.

Gen. 10. ARAMUS, Vieill. — Grus, Cuv.

Bill longer than the head, straight, hard, inclined at the point,
which is gibbous ; lower mandible tumid towards the mid-
dle, angular, pointed ; nostrils lateral, distant from the base
of the bill ; legs long ; toes entirely divided, the hind one
articulated posteriorly ; third wing-feather longest.

AIIDEA. BIRDS. 291

A. scolopacca. (Ardea, Lath.) Plumage coppery brown, with the
neck and breast striped with white ; throat black. 25 inches
long. Inhabits Cayenne. Shaw, xi. 540 — The only species of
the genus.

Gen. 11. ARDEA, Lin. Tem.

Bill as long as or longer than the head, strong, straight, com-
pressed, pointed ; upper mandible slightly sulcated, ridge
rounded ; nostrils lateral, placed almost at the base of the
bill, longitudinally cleft in a groove, and half closed by a
membrane ; orbits and lores naked ; legs long and slender,
with a naked space above the knee ; the middle toe connect-
ed with the outer by a short membrane ; claws long, compres-
sed, that of the middle toe dentated interiorly.

The birds of this genus reside on the banks of lakes or rivers, or in marshy situa-
tions, subsisting on fish and their spawn, testacea, field-mice, frogs, insects, snails,
worms, &c. Many of them nestle together. In flight their neck is contracted and
bent over the back, while their legs are stretched out behind. They migrate pe-
riodically in large flocks, and moult once in the year. The sexes resemble each
other ; but the young differ much in appearance from the adults.

* Bill much longer than the head ; upper mandible nearly straight ;
a great portion of the tibia naked.

A. cinerea, Lath. Common Heron. Plumage of a bluish ash-co-
lour ; a long tuft of pendulous black feathers on the occiput, and
a similar one of silvery white ones hang from the base of the
neck ; scapulars elongated, silvery ; forehead, neck, middle of
the belly, margins of the wings, and thighs, white ; sides of the
breast and flanks deep black ; on the fore part of the neck large
longitudinal black and ash-coloured spots ; middle toe and claw
much shorter than the tarsus. 3 feet long, Inhabits Europe. B.
— Penn. Brit. Zool. ii. pi. 3.

The Common Heron is dispersed over most of the countries of the world. In some
latitudes it is migratory, and in others stationary, though it frequently changes its
residence without- varying the climate. It chiefly haunts woods in the neighbour-
hood of lakes, rivers, or swamps. Having waded as far as it can into the water, it
patiently awaits the approach of its prey, and seizes it with undeviating aim.
The heron has a demure and melancholy air, and is extremely shy, and impatient
of confinement ; but the young are capable of being tamed. They fly very high in the
air, especially befoie rain. In the day time they are often inactive, or indulge in
repose. Although in general shy and solitary in their habits, herons are grega-
rious during the breeding season, and many of them build their nests in the same
place, which is called a heronry. The eggs are usually four ; but sometimes five or
six, of the size of those of a duck, and of a greenish-blue cast. When the female
incubates, the male fishes for her, and fetches a portion of his captures.

A. purpurea, Lin. The Purple Heron. Plumage of a bright red,
or reddish ash-colour ; tuft of slender blackish green feathers on
the occiput, and purplish white at the base of the neck ; scapu-
lars elongated, and purple red ; top of the head and occiput
black, with green reflections ; throat white ; lateral parts of the
neck red, with three narrow black bands ; fore part of the neck
with longitudinal, red, black, and purple spots ; flanks and breast
purple. 2 feet 9 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Lewin's
Brit. Birds, iv. pi. 151.

292 BIRDS. GfiALLATORES.

A. egret la, Lin. Great Egret. Plumage pure white ; a pendant
crest on the head ; some long feathers on the back, with strong
shafts and loose slender webs ; legs long, slender ; a large naked
space above the knee ; claws very long. 3 feet 2 inches long.
Inhabits Europe. B — Lewin's Brit. Birds, iv. pi. 150.

A. garzetta, Lin. Little Egret. All the plumage pure white ; oc-
ciput with a pendant crest of two or three long and narrow fea-
thers ; a large tuft of similar feathers at the base of the neck ;
feathers of the upper part of the back elongated and silky ; bill
bluish. 2 feet long. Inhabits S. Europe. B. — Shaw, xi. pi. 41.

** Bill as long as, or a little longer than the head, much com-
pressed; upper mandible slightly bent.

A. nycticorax, Lin. Night Heron. Head, occiput, back, and sca-
pulars, black, with blue and greenish reflections; three long
white feathers on the nape ; lower part of the back, wings, and
tail ash-coloured ; forehead, space between the eyes, throat, and
lower parts white ; bill black ; iris red. 1 foot 8 inches long.
Inhabits Europe. B. — Shaw, xi. pi. 47-

A. stellar is, Lin. Common Bittern. Top of the head and mou-
staches black ; ground colour of the plumage yellowish red, mark-
ed on the sides of the neck with zigzag brown lines, and upon
the fore part of the neck with brown and red spots ; on the lower
parts large black longitudinal stripes ; quills banded alternately
with red and gray. 2 feet 4 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B.
— Shaw, xi. pi. 45.

A. ralloides, Scopoli. The Squacco Heron. Crested, with the fore-
head and crown yellow, marked with longitudinal black spots ;
upper parts of the body rufous ; under parts, throat, rump, and
tail, white. 16 inches long. Asia and Africa. — Shaw, xi. 573.

A. minuta, Lin. Little Heron. Top of the head, occiput, back,
scapulars, secondary wing-feathers, and tail, of a fine black, with
greenish reflections ; sides of the head, neck, wings-coverts, and
lower parts reddish yellow ; quills black ash-coloured ; the young
with longitudinal brown spots on the breast. 13 inches long.
Inhabits Europe. B. — Shaw, xi. pi. 44.

Gen. 12. CICONIA, Tern. — Ardea, Lin.

Bill long, straight, stout, cylindrical, in the form of an elonga-
ted pointed cone ; ridge rounded, of equal height with the
head ; under mandible slightly bent upwards ; nostrils longi-
tudinally cleft in a groove of the horny substance ; eyes sur-
rounded with a naked space ; legs long ; the three anterior
toes united to the first joint, the hind toe jointed on the
same level as the others ; wings of moderate size.

Storks live in marshy situations, and feed principally on reptiles, frogs, and their
spawn, as well as on fish, small mammiferous animals, and birds. Jn maiiy coun-
tries they are a privileged race, being cherished and protected on account of the
noxious animals which they destroy. They moult in autumn, migrate in large bo-

AKASTOMCTS. BIRDS. 293

dies, and are easily tamed. The young of the first year do not very materially dif-
fer in appearance from the full-grown birds.

C. alba, Bellon. ( A. ciconia, Lin.) Common Stork. Body white ;
scapulars and wings black ; bill and feet red, the bill perfectly
straight ; naked skin round the eyes black ; iris brown. 3 feet
6 inches long. Inhabits Europe — Shaw, xi. pi. 48.

The White Stork, from its use in destroying reptiles, and the familiarity of its dispo-
sition, has long enjoyed the protection of man, and is a privileged bird in most coun-
tries of the world. In Holland, boxes are sometimes placed on the roofs of the
houses for the reception of its nest. It rarely visits England. The stork sleeps
upon one leg, and, before its migration, makes a singular snapping noise with
its bill. Previous also to this migration storks assemble in numerous flocks ; and
some idea of the number which thus change their residence may be conceived from
Dr Shaw mentioning that he saw three flights of them leaving Egypt, and passing
over Mount Carmel, each half a mile in breadth, and which took three hours in
passing.

C. nigra, Bellon. Black Stork. Plumage above of a shining brown ;
the wings and tail blackish, with purple and green reflections ;
lower part of the breast and belly white ; naked skin of the eyes
and throat crimson-red ; bill straight, red ; iris brown. 3 feet
long. Inhabits Europe. — Shaw3 xi. 620.

C. Maggiari, Tern. American Stork. Head, neck, back, tail, and
lower parts pure white ; feathers at the back of the neck long
and pendant ; wings and upper tail-coverts blackish, with green
reflections ; a large naked space below the throat ; this, with the
space round the eyes, crimson ; bill slightly bent upwards. 3 feet
long. Inhabits America. — Tern. Man. 563.

Gen. 13. A^ASTOMUS, Illig.

Bill thick, much compressed, gaping towards the middle ; up-
per mandible denticulated on the margins, furrowed at the
base ; nostrils linear ; legs long, slender ; the three exterior
toes united by a short membrane ; hind toe jointed on the
same level as the others.

A. Coromandelianus, Tern. Head, rump, belly, and wing-coverts
white ; face, upper part of the back, quills, and tail black ; sides
of the bill serrated ; tip dentated ; wings short. 14 \ inches long.
Inhabits India. Shaw, xi. 633 — The only species of the genus.

Gen. 14. SCOPUS, Briss.

Bill compressed, soft, bent at the point ; upper mandible sur-
mounted in all its length by a projecting ridge, accompanied
by a groove ; nostrils oblique ; feet with four toes, the middle
one shorter than the tarsus, the outer toes connected by a
membrane to the first joint ; hind toe leaning on the ground.

S. umbretta, Lath. Body of an uniform umber colour, the under
parts paler ; a dense crest of loose feathers on the occiput ; tail
with three or four bands of deeper brown. 20 inches long. South-
ern Africa. Shaw, xi. pi. 50. — The only species of the genus.

JL~. JLl

294 BIRDS. GRALLATORES,

Gen. .15. PHQENICOPTERTJS, Lin.

Bill thick, strong, deeper than broad, dentated> naked at the
base, upper mandible bent over the under at the tip ; the
under broader than the upper ; nostrils longitudinal, in the
middle of the bill, covered by a membrane ; legs very long,
with three toes before, and a very short one articulated high
on the tarsus behind, the fore-toes connected to the claws ;
wings middle-sized.

P. ruber, Lin. Red Flamingo. Head, neck, and lower parts rose-
coloured ; wings bright red ; back and scapulars rose-coloured ;
quills deep black ; the long red secondary feathers of the wings
considerably exceeding the quills in length ; bill blood-red at the
base, black towards the tip. 4 feet 4 inches long. Inhabits the
warmer parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia — Shaw, xii. pi. 24.
Flamingos inhabit the warmer latitudes of both continents, and are not often met
with higher than the 40th degree, north or south. Their food consists of small fish-
es and their spawn, testacea, and aquatic insects. When flying in bands, they form
an angle, like geese. These beautiful birds were held in high estimation by the an-
cient Romans, who often used them in their entertainments. Pliny, Martial, and
other writers, celebrate the toHgue as the most delicate of eatables.

Gen. 16. RECURVIROSTRA, Lin.

Bill very long, slender, feeble, depressed throughout its length,
flexible and turned up at the point, the upper mandible chan-
nelled on its surface, the under laterally ; nostrils linear and
long ; legs long and slender, the three fore-toes united as far
as the second joint by a membrane, the hind toe placed high
up, and very short ; wings acuminate, the first quill longest.

These birds, of which only one species inhabits Europe, frequent salt marshes,
or the banks of rivers, where the water is shallow. They migrate and live in pairs ;
their flight is rapid and sustained ; and their food is minute insects. They do not
habitually swim, although provided with palmated toes.

R. avocetta, Lin. Common Avoset. Plumage white, with the ex-
ception of the top of the head ; posterior part of the neck, scapu-
lars, coverts of the wings, and quills deep black; feet bluish.
18 inches long. Inhabits Europe, &c. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 22.

R. Americana, Lath. Head, neck, top of the back and breast red-
dish-yellow ; face whitish ; middle of the back and front of the
scapulars black j tail grayish. 18 inches long. Inhabits North
America. — Wils. Amer. Orn. vii. pi. 63, fig. 2.

Gen. 17. CANCIIOMA, Lin.

Bill longer than the head, much depressed ; broader than deep,
dilated towards the middle ; ridge prominent, with a groove
on each side ; upper mandible in the form of a reversed boat ;
the lower pointed ; nostrils oblique, in the nasal groove ; the
three anterior toes united at their base ; hind toe on a level
with the others.

PLATALEA. BIRDS. 295

C. cochlearia, Lin. The Boat-bill. Plumage above cinereous ; bel-
ly rufous ; a long black pendant crest on the occiput ; a black
spot on the base of the neck ; bill dusky. 22 inches long, bill 4
inches. Inhabits South America. Shaw, xi. pi. 51. — The only
species of the genus.

Gen. 18. PLATALEA, Lin.

Bill very long, much flattened, dilated towards the extremity,
and rounded like a spoon or spatula ; upper mandible chan-
nelled, and transversely sulcated at the base ; nostrils ap-
proximated, oblong, open, bordered with a membrane ; face
and head wholly or partially naked ; legs long ; the three
anterior toes connected to the second joint by deeply cut
membranes ; the hinder one long, and bearing on the ground.

Spoonbills live in society, subsisting on small fish and their spawn, on frogs, and
other small reptiles, fluviatile testacea, and aquatic insects. They undergo one re-
gular moulting in the year, and are migratory. They are but thinly dispersed over
various parts of the world.

P. leucorodia, Lin. (P. nivea, Cuv.) White Spoonbill. Plumage
pure white, with the exception of the breast, on which is a large
patch of reddish-yellow ; naked space round the eyes and throat,
pale yellow ; a crest on the occiput of long subulate yellowish-
white feathers. 2^ feet long, bill 8^ inches. Inhabits Europe.
B.— Shaw, xi. pi. 52.
The other known species of this genus are the PL tenuirostris and azaza.

Gen. 19- TANTALUS, Lin. Tern.

Bill very long, straight, without a nasal furrow, ciliated at the
tip, which is curved ; upper mandible arched, the base broad,
sides dilated, tip compressed and cylindrical ; edges of both
mandibles much inflected and sharp ; face naked ; nostrils
longitudinally cleft in the corneous substance ; legs very long,
tarsus double the length of the middle toe ; lateral toes unit-
ed by a broad scalloped membrane.

T. loculator, li\n. Wood Tantalus. Plumage white ; quills and
tail black ; thighs and legs dusky ; skin of the fore part of the
head and round the eyes black ; that of the neck dusky-brown,
rough and warty. 3 feet long, bill nine inches. Inhabits South
America — Shaw, xii. pi. 1.
The other described species of this genus are T. kucocephalus and ibis, Lath.

Gen. 20. IBIS, Lacep. — Tantalus, Lin.

Bill long, slender, arched, broad at the base, tip depressed, ob-
tuse, and rounded ; upper mandible deeply furrowed in its
whole length ; nostrils near the base, at the upper part of
the bill, oblong, straight, and perforated in the membrane
which covers the furrow ; the face, and frequently a part of
the head and neck, naked ; legs naked above the knee ; the
fore-toes united as far as the first joint, the hind toe long,
and reaching the ground.

296 BIRDS. GBALLATORES.

The birds of this genus frequent the margins of streams and lakes, and feed on
insects, worms, shell-fish, and sometimes vegetables. Their destroying reptiles and
serpents is a popular fable. They migrate periodically. The Lfaltinellus, as well
as the /. religiosa, were held sacred by the Egyptians ; and both species are found
in great numbers in the vast catacombs of the ancient Memphis.

\.falcinellus, Tern. Glossy Ibis. Head, neck, front of the body,
and top of the back, of a beautiful chestnut hue ; rump, back,
wings, and tail, blackish-green, with bronze and purple reflec-
tions ; bill greenish-black, and the tip brown ; irides brown ; and
legs greenish-brown. 22 inches long. Inhabits Europe and Asia.
B — Skarv, xii. pi. 2.

I. religiosa, Cuv. (T. Mthiopicus, Lath.) Sacred Ibis. Plumage
white, with the head and upper part of the neck brown ; back
behind and quills black. Inhabits Egypt. — Shaw, xii. 10.

I. rubra, Vieill. Scarlet Ibis. Face, bill, and legs red ; body scar-
let ; wings tipped with black ; in the female the bill is yellow-
ish-gray ; a mixture of white and gray prevails in different parts
of the plumage, and the tips of the two first quills are of a deep
azure. 22 inches long. S. America. — Shaw, xii. pi. 3.

I. plumbea, Tern. Plumage leaden-blue, with the feathers of the
occiput and nape whitish in the middle ; forehead with a white
band. 27 inches long. South America Tern. PL Col. 235.

Gen. 21. NUMENIUS, Briss. — Scolopax, Lin.

Bill long, slender, arched, compressed, point hard, and slight-
ly obtuse ; upper mandible projecting beyond the lower,
rounded at the end, and channelled through three-fourths of
its length ; nostrils lateral, linear, and pierced in the furrow ;
face feathered ; legs slender, naked above the knee ; the
three fore-toes united by a membrane to the first joint ; the
hinder articulated to the tarsus, and touching the ground.

The birds of this genus frequent the neighbourhood of waters and marshes. Their
food principally consists of earthworms, insects, slugs, and testacea. Their flight is
lofty and well sustained. They migrate in large flocks, but live in an insulated
state during the breeding season.

N. arquata, Lath. Tern. Common Curlew. General plumage
bright cinereous, with brown longitudinal opots on the neck and
breast ; belly white, with longitudinal spots ; feathers of the back
and scapulars black in the middle, and edged with rufous j tail
whitish-cinereous, striped with transverse brown bands ; upper
mandible black-brown, the under flesh-coloured; iris brown ; legs
deep cinereous. 2 feet long. Europe, B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 4.

The bill of this species is generally from five to six inches long. This instrument
is admirably fitted tor picking worms, small crabs, &c. out of the sand, and is, at
the same time, successfully used as a weapon of defence aganst the shieldrake
and gull.

N. phceopus, Lath. (Phceopus, Cuv.) The Whimbrel. Plumage
bright cinereous, with brown longitudinal spots on the neck and
breast ; a longitudinal band of yellowish- white on the middle of

TRINGA. BIRDS. 297

the head, with a broad brown one on each side j belly white ;
feet lead-coloured. 16 inches long. Europe. — Shaw, xii. pi. 5.

Gen. 22. THINGA, Briss. Tern.

Bill middle-sized, or long, very slightly arched, curved or
straight at the tip, soft and flexible through its whole length,
compressed at the base, depressed, dilated, and obtuse at the
point ; both mandibles channelled to near their extremities ;
nostrils lateral, conical, in the membrane which covers the
nasal furrow ; legs slender, naked above the knee ; the three
fore-toes quite divided ; but in a few species the middle and
outer toe are connected by a membrane ; the hinder articu-
lated to the tarsus.

These birds frequent marshy soils near rivers, lakes, and seas, and search
the ooze, mud, shifting sands, or heaps of sea weed, thrown on the beach, in quest
of coleopterous insects, larvae, worms, mollusca, the contents of small bivalve shells,
&c. The young, before their first moulting, are very unlike their parents, and
the female is, for the most part, somewhat larger than the male.

* Anterior toes entirely divided.

T. subarquata, Tern. (Scolopax Africana, Gmel.) Red Sandpiper,
Penn. Back, scapulars, and wing-coverts brownish cinereous ;
face, throat, and under parts white ; a brown stripe between the
bill and eye j bill arched, much longer than the head ; the two
middle tail-feathers longer than the lateral ones ; tarsus fourteen
lines long. 7i inches long. Europe, &c. — Tern. Man. 609.

T. variabilis, Meyer. ( T. rujtcollis and Scolopax pusilla, Gmel.)
The Purre, Penn. Plumage brown cinereous above, white be-
low ; bill almost straight, black, slightly sloping at the tip, and
a little longer than the head ; the two middle tail- feathers longer
than the lateral ones, and terminating in a point ; length of the tar-
sus nearly twelve lines. 7 incheslong. Europe. (B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 15.

In its winter plumage, Cinclns, and Cinclus minor, of Brisson ; and in its sum-
mer dress, T. alp'ina, Gmel. Lath. Wils. and Numenius variabilis, Bechst. At the
time of its two periodical moultings, it is the Cinclus torguatus^ and Gallinago An-
glicana, of Brisson.

T. platyrhyncha, Tern. Bill slightly bent at the point, longer
than the head, much depressed at the base ; lateral feathers of
the tail equal, the two middle ones longer ; tarsus ten or eleven
lines long. 6^ inches long. Europe — Tern. Man. 616.

T. maritima, Brunn. (T.nigricans, Mont.) Purple Sandpiper, Shaw.
Bill slightly inclined at the point, longer than the head ; almost
no naked space above the knee ; feet and base of the bill reddish-
yellow ; tarsus ten lines long. 7i inches long. Europe Tern.

Man. 619.

T. Temminckiiy Leisler. Temminck's Sandpiper. Bill slightly in-
clined at the point, shorter than the head ; lateral feathers of the
tail graduated, the exterior pure white; tarsus eight lines long.
5£ inches long. Inhabits Europe.- — Tern. Man. 622.

298 BIRDS. GRALLATOHES.

T. minuta, Leisler. Bill straight, shorter than the head ; tail
doubly forked, lateral feathers brown cinereous, margined with
white ; length of the tarsus ten lines. 5 \ inches long. Inhabits
Europe — Tern. Man. 624.

T. cinerea, Lin. (Calidris, Cuv. T. grisea, Canutits, Islandica, nce-
via, and Australis, Gmel. T. ferruginea, Meyer, and T. rufa,
Wils.) The Red Knot. Bill straight, a little longer than the
head, turgid and dilated towards the tip ; all the tail-feathers of
equal length. 9^ inches long. Europe — Shaw, xii. pi. 14.

** Middle and exterior toe united to the first joint. MACHETES, Cuv.

T. pugnax, Lin. (T. littorea, Gmel. T. Grenovicensis and eques-
tris, Lath. Totanus cinereus, Briss.) The Ruff. Bill very
slightly inclined, and gibbous towards the tip ; legs long ; tail
rounded, the two middle tail-feathers striped, the three lateral
always of a uniform colour. 11J inches long. Europe. B. —
Shaw, xii. pi. 16.

The details of the markings in this species are so variable, that two individuals
are seldom found identical in this respect. The male is distinguished by a ruff, or
large tuft of feathers, which he does not acquire till the second year, and which falls
- off in moulting, leaving him more like his mate till spring, when he not only re-
sumes the ruff, but certain red tubercles on the face. These birds are particularly
. abundant in Holland, haunting moist and marshy meadows, and sometimes visiting
the sea-shore in spring. At that season they arrive in this island ; and, with a very
few exceptions, which seem to be accidental, they leave it in autumn. The males
are of a very pugnacious disposition, and fight keen battles for the females.

Gen. 23. TOTANUS, Bechst. — Scolopaoc and Tringa, Lin.

Bill of moderate length, straight, compressed, rarely recurved,
soft at the base, hard, sharp at the tip, which is pointed ;
mandibles furrowed at the base, the extremity of the upper
slightly bent down on the under ; nostrils linear, longitudi-
nally cleft in the furrow ; legs long, slender, naked above the
knee, the middle toe united to the outer by a membrane,
which sometimes extends to the second joint.

These birds, which travel in small troops, live indiscriminately on the banks of
lakes and rivers, and in meadows adjacent to fresh-waters, and also at times frequent
sea-shores, and the muddy and oozy margins of large rivers. With the hard. point
of their bill they pick up worms, testaceous animals, and sometimes fish.

* Mandibles straight.

T. semipalmatus, Tern. Semipalmated Snipe, Lath. Plumage above
uniform brown ; breast ash-coloured, with brown striae ; throat
and belly white ; quills black, with a white spot ; bill thick, very
strong ; toes semipalmated. Inhabits North America. 15 inches
long. — Wils. Amer. Orn. vii. pi. 56. fig. 3.

T.fuscus, Leisler. Plumage above gray ash-coloured, with black
stripes ; under parts and rump white ; upper coverts of the wings
striped with white and blackish ; base of the lower mandible red.
11 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B — Bewick's Birds, ii.pl. 88.

T. calidris, Bechst. Red-shanked Sandpiper. Plumage above

TOTANUS. BIRDS. 299

brown ash-coloured j rump and belly white ; the half of both
mandibles red ; the rudiment of a membrane uniting the inner to
the middle toe ; secondary wing-quills white the half of their
length. 10 inches long. Europe. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. ii. pi. 10.

T. stagnaiilis, Bechst. Bill very long, slender, and subulate, the
exterior webs of the tail-feathers with two zigzag longitudinal
brown bands ; legs very long, greenish. 9 inches long. Inha-
bits Northern Europe. — Tern. Man. 647-

T. Bartramia, Wilson. Top of the head and back blackish-brown,
the feathers margined with yellow ; flanks banded with fine zig-
zag lines ; belly white ; tail very long, surpassing the extremity
of the wings, graduated and rounded ; bill short. 9^ inches long.
Inhabits North America — Wilsons Amer. Orn. vii.'pl. 59, fig. 2.

T. ochropus, Tern. Back brown-green ; base of all the tail-fea-
thers white for two-thirds of their length ; two or three of the
exterior quills white, or having a spot at their end. 8^ inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 17-

T. glareola, Tern. Wood Sandpiper. All the feathers of the tail
banded transversely with white and brown. 7i inches long.
Inhabits Europe. — Tern. Man. 655.

T. macularia, Tern. Spotted Sandpiper. Upper parts of the bo-
dy brown ash-coloured, slightly shaded with olive ; lower parts
naked, with large rounded spots. 8 inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope.— Shaw, xii. 19.

T. hypoleucos, Tern. Common Sandpiper. Upper parts brown-
olive, with reflections ; a black stripe along the shafts ; feathers
of the wings and back striped transversely with zigzag bands of
white and blackish ; under parts white, without spots. 7 inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B — Lewins Brit. Birds, v. pi. 172.

* Mandibles a little, recurved, straight at the point.

T. glottis, Bechst. Greenshank. Plumage gray-brown, with dusky
spots ; under cov\ rts of the wings striped with brown ; legs green-
ish ; bill strong, compressed at the base. 12^ inches long. In-
habits Europe — Shaw, xii. pi. 13.

Gen. 24. LIMOSA, Briss. — Limicula, Veill. — Scolopax, Lin.

Bill very long, more or less recurved, soft and flexible, depres-
sed, flattened towards the tip ; both mandibles channelled
longitudinally ; tip dilated and obtuse ; nostrils lateral, longi-
tudinally cleft in the sulcus ; legs long and slender ; a large
naked space above the knee ; the middle toe united to the
outer by a membrane to the first joint, hind toe articula-
ted on the tarsus.

These are tall birds, with long bills, destined to live in marshes, and on the
swampy shores of rivers, their soft and flexible bill being unfit for picking food from
the surface of ,a hard or gravelly soil, and only adapted to perforate slime or moist
sand. Hence they live in marshy meadows, and habitually resort to the mouths of

300 BIRDS. GilALLATOIlES.

rivers, where the mud is deep, and supplies them with worms, the larvze of insects,
&c. Their period of migration coincides with that of the snipes. They moult twice
a-year, and the females later than the males.

L. melanura, Leisler. Black-tailed God wit. Upper parts brown
uniform ash-colour ; throat, breast, and flanks clear gray ; a white
spot on the quills ; tail uniform black ; pure white at the base ;
claw of the middle toe long and dentated. 1 6 inches long. In-
habits Europe. B — Shaw, xii. pi. 11.

L. rufa, Briss. Red Godwit. Bill turned upwards ; all the fea-
thers of the tail on both webs with eight or nine blackish bands ;
claws of the middle toe short, without dentations. 13 J inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B.— Shaw, xii. pi. 12.

Gen. 25, SCOLOPAX, Lin.— Rusticdla, Vieill.

Bill long, straight, compressed, slender, soft, with the tip tu-
mid ; both mandibles channelled the half of their length, the
tip of tbe upper projecting beyond that of the under, and the
tumid portion being hooked ; nostrils lateral, basal, longi-
tudinally cleft near the edges of the mandible, and covered
by a membrane ; legs slender, with a very small naked space
above the knee ; the three fore toes quite divided, or rarely
the outer and middle united.

The species which compose this genus live in woods or marshes, and subsist on
small slugs or worms. In some countries they are stationary, but in most migra-
tory. They abound more in the northern than in the southern regions, and they
moult twice a-year, but without inducing those remarkable changes of plumage ob-
servable in some of the preceding families. Cuvier. remarks that the peculiar character
in these birds, of having the head much compressed, and large eyes, placed much
behind, giving them a stupid appearance, is not contradicted by their manners.

* With the tibia Jeathered to the knee.

S. rusticola, Lin. (Rusticola vulgaris, Vieill.) The Woodcock.
Upper parts varied with reddish-yellow and ash-colour, and
marked with large black spots ; occiput banded transversely ;
under parts reddish-yellow, with zigzag brown lines j quills band-
ed with red and black upon the exterior webs. 13 inches long.
Inhabits Northern Europe. B — Shan, xii. pi. 7-
This well-known species inhabits the northern regions of Europe, Asia, and Afri-
ca, migrating on the approach of winter to more temperate latitudes. In this island
it seldom appears in numbers till about the middle of November. They generally
come with northerly or easterly winds ; and, if intense cold suddenly overtakes them,
they sometimes arrive on the coasts in large flocks, and after remaining for a day to
recruit their strength, disperse over the interior of the country.

* * Inferior part of the tibia naked.

S. major, Lin. Great Snipe. Upper parts varied with black and
bright red, the red dispersed longitudinally ; lower parts whitish-
red ; tail of sixteen feathers ; shaft of the first quill-feather whit-
ish. 10 inches long. Northern Europe. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 8.

S. galtinago, Lin. Common Snipe. Tail composed of fourteen
feathers ; all the shafts of the quills brown. 10 inches long. In-
habits Europe. B — Bewick, ii. 68.

RYNCHOSA. BIRDS. 301

The Snipe is met with in marshy situations in almost every part of the world,
and is very plentiful in Britain. In very wet seasons it resorts to the hills ; but
it more generally frequents tke marshes in plains, where it can penetrate the soil
with its long bill in quest of worms. Some few remain with us the whole year, and
breed in the extensive wet moors and mountainous bogs. The nest is formed of
coarse grass, or heath, lined with feathers, and placed in a dry spot, contiguous to a
pool or swamp. The eggs, which are usually four or five, are whitish, spotted with
cinereous and brown, and, like those of the Lapwing, much pointed, and invariably
ranged with their small ends inwards.

S. gallinula, Lin. The Jack Snipe. The tail composed of twelve
feathers ; a broad longitudinal black band, spotted with rufous,
running from the forehead to the nape. 7i inches long. Inha-
bits Europe. B. — Lenin's Brit. Birds, iv. pi. 159.

*** Exterior and middle toe united by a very short membrane.

S. grisea, Gmel. Red-breasted Snipe. Top of the head, breast,
and coverts of the wings ashy-brown, without spot ; eyebrows,
throat, and thighs white ; tail-feathers twelve, with numerous
black and white bands. 10 inches long. Inhabits Europe and
America. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 9.

Gen. 26. RYNCH<EA,CUV. — Scolopax, Lin. — Rostratula, Vieill.

Bill longer than the head, gibbous towards the point, much
compressed, inflected towards the end ; upper mandible fur-
rowed in its whole length, the under only at the point ; nasal
furrow prolonged to the middle of the bill ; tongue as long
as the bill, pointed ; nostrils linear ; tarsus longer than the
intermediate toe ; the anterior toes wholly divided ; hind toe
articulated on the tarsus.

R. Capensis, Tern. Cape Snipe. Plumage reddish-brown ; bill,
and a line on the vertex, reddish ; a black band on the breast,
and a white line on each side of the back. 10 inches long. In-
habits Cape of Good Hope. — Shaw, xii. pi. 10.

Gen. 27. EURYPYGA, Illig. Ardea, Lin.

Bill long, straight, hard, compressed, with the point a little
tumid ; nasal furrow very deep ; sides of the lower mandi-
ble sulcated ; point of the bill notched ; nostrils basal, li-
near, long ; legs long, slender ; tarsus longer than the mid-
dle toe ; the external toe united by a membrane, the internal
divided, but all with membranous borders; hind toe on a
level with the others ; tail very long.

E. Helias, Tern. Body banded with black, fulvous, and white ; ab-
domen and stripes on the head white ; neck rufous, with trans-
verse black lines ; tail clouded, with a black bar. 15 inches long.
Inhabits Guiana — Shaw, xiv. 323. The only species of the genus.

Gen. 28. RALLUS, Lin.

Bill longer than the head, slender, slightly arched, or straight,
compressed at the base, cylindrical at the tip ; upper mancli-

302 BIRDS. GltALLATOllES.

ble channelled ; nostrils lateral, longitudinally cleft in the fur-
row, half-closed by a membrane ; legs long and stout, with a
small naked space above the knees, the three anterior toes
divided, the posterior articulated on the tarsus ; wings round-
ed, the third and fourth feathers longest.

The body of these birds is much compressed and loaded with fat, and they run more
than they fly. Their chief residence is in the immediate neighbourhood of fresh
waters, overgrown with herbage and shrubs ; and their food principally consists of
worms, insects that have no wing-cases, slugs, vegetables, and seeds.

R. aquations, Lin. Water Rail. Throat whitish ; sides of the head,
neck, breast, and belly lead-coloured ; flanks of a deep black,
transversely banded with white ; feathers of the upper parts red-
dish-brown, and black in their middle ; bill reddish. 9J inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B — Shaw, xii. pi. 25.
The Water Rail flies slowly, with its legs hanging down, and generally alights at no

great distance from the spot from whence it first arose- When running, it flirts up

its tail and exposes the white of the under tail-coverts. It wades in the water, swims,

occasionally dives, and forms its nest among aquatic plants.

R. Australis, Tern. Plumage ashy rust-coloured; wings and tail
dark-brown, the feathers banded with black. 17 inches long. In-
habits New Zealand — Shaw, xii. 206.

Gen. 29. GALLINULA, Briss. — Rallus, Lin.

Bill shorter than the head, compressed, conical, deeper than
broad at the base ; the ridge advancing on the forehead, and,
in some species, dilated into a naked plate; tips of both man-
dibles compressed, and of equal length, the upper slightly
curved, the lower forming an angle ; nostrils lateral, in the
middle of the bill, longitudinally cleft, half-closed by a mem-
brane, which covers the large nasal furrow ; legs long, naked
above the knee ; fore-toes long, divided, and furnished with a
narrow edging.

The birds of this genus, like the Rails, have their body much compressed. They
swim with ease, dive with facility, run with speed on land, and often on the leaves of
aquatic plants on the surface of the water. Their food consists of insects and vege-
tables. The males are only distinguished from the females in their colours being
brighter ; and the young do not acquire their mature plumage till the second year.
These birds composed part of the genera Rallus and Ful'ica of Linnaeus ; but were
properly brought together by Latham under the present generic term.

* Ridge of the upper mandible between the feathers of the fore-
head, but not dilated into a plate.

G. crex, Lath. Land-Rail or Corn-Crake. Plumage gray above,
rufescent white beneath ; wings reddish-rusty ; bill and legs brown-
ash ; feathers of the body reddish -brown, the upper ones blackish
in the middle ; a large ash-coloured eyebrow prolonged on the
sides of the head ; chin very pale ; irides hazel. 9 J inches long.
Inhabits Europe. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 26.

The Land-Rail is a migratory species, appearing in Britain about the latter end
of April, and departing about the middle or close of September. In Ireland it is
supposed to remain throughout the year. On its first appearance, and until the fe-

GALLINULA. BIRDS. 305

male begins to sit, the male is frequently heard to make a singular kind of noise,
much resembling that of a comb when the finger is drawn along its teeth. The nest
is loosely formed of moss or dry grass, generally in some hollow place among thick
grass, and the female lays from seven to sixteen eggs, of a reddish- cinereous white,
marked with rusty and ash-coloured spots and blotches. The young run about as
soon as hatched.

G. porzana, Lath. Spotted Water-Hen or Spotted Rail. Plumage
olive-brown., variegated with spots and dashes of black and white
above ; ash-coloured, with white markings beneath^; bill greenish-
yellow, but red at the base ; legs greenish-yellow ; iris brown.
7^ inches long. Europe. B. — Donov. Brit. Birds, v. pi. 122.

G. pusilla, Bechst. Dwarf Rail. Plumage above olive-gray ; wings
ending at the extremity of the tail ; bill and legs bright green ;
feathers of the middle of the back marked with little white but
not numerous lines. The female differs much from the male. 7
inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 28.

G. Baillonn, Vieill. Plumage olive-red ; wings ending at half the
length of the tail ; bill deep green ; legs flesh-coloured ; a great
number of white spots on the back and wings. 6| inches long.
Inhabits Europe. — Shaw, xii. pi. 27-

* Ridge of the upper mandible dilating on the forehead into a
naked plate.

G. chloropus, Lath. (Fulica, Lin.) The Water-Hen. Head, throat,
and lower parts of a slaty-blue ; upper parts olive-brown ; the
exterior margin of the wings, longitudinal spots on the flanks,
and the lower tail-coverts white ; base of the bill and frontal
plate bright red, point of the bill yellow ; legs greenish ; a red
naked circle on the tibia. 12 to 14 inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 30.

G. Cayanensis, Tern. Plumage olive-brown ; crown and under parts
red ; cheeks dusky ; quills black. 7 inches long. Inhabits Cay-
enne.— Shaw, xii. 220.

Gen. 30« PARRA, Lin. — Jacana, Briss.

Bill as long as the head, straight, slender, compressed, some-
what inflated towards the tip, the depressed base dilated in
front into a naked plate or elevated crest; mandibles unequal;
nostrils lateral, placed near the middle of the bill, oval, legs
very long, slender ; nudity of the tibia very long ; toes very
long, slender, entirely divided ; wings ample.

The birds of this family are natives of Asia, Africa, and South America. In their
natural habits and dispositions, the shortened form of their body, the figure of their
bill, and the smallness of their head, they resemble the Gallinulse ; but they have
spines or spurs on their wings, and most of them have caruncles onjthe forehead ;
their toes are completely separated, and their claws are extremely long, straight, and
slender. They haunt the marshes of hot countries; walk on the broad'and floating
leaves of plants on the surface of the water with great nimbleness ; and fly more
frequently and more vigorously than the Gallinulae. They are monogamous, nestle
on the ground among the aquatic herbage, and lay four or five eggs. The young
as soon as hatched follow their parents.

304 BIRDS. PlNNATIPEDES.

P. Jacana, Lath. Chestnut Jacana. Hind claws very long, .legs
greenish, bill of a deep yellow, carunculated at its base; the throat,
neck, and under parts black, tinted with purple ; back, upper
wing-coverts, and scapulars of a rich chestnut hue. 10 inches
long. Inhabits S. America — Shaw, xii. pi. 32.

P. cenea, Cuv. Bronzed Jacana. Plumage black, glossed with blue
and violet ; head and neck glossy green ; rump and tail-feathers
blood-red; a white spot behind the eyes; bill with the base naked.
Inhabits Brazil. — Shaw, xii. pi. 33.

Gen. 31. PORPHYRIO, Briss.

Bill strong, hard, thick, conical, nearly as deep as long, and
shorter than the head ; the upper mandible dilated and de-
pressed as it approaches the cranium ; nostrils lateral, pierced
in the corneous mass of the bill, nearly round and pervious ;
legs long and stout ; toes very long in some species, the an-
terior quite divided, and edged with a very narrow membrane.

This genus of birds, like the Gallinulae, reside in or near fresh waters, haunt the
extensive rice-fields of the south, and prefer grain to aquatic herbs, their formidable
bill being well adapted to remove the husks, and break the straws, while their legs,
and very long retractile toes, are equally suited to lay hold of the stalks of the plant,
and to carry the ears to their mouth.

P. hyacinthinus, Tern. (Gallinula porphyrio, Lath. Fulica porphyrio,
Lin.) Purple Water Hen. Ridge of the upper mandible almost
identified with the skull ; the middle toe clawless, and longer
than the tarsus ; all the plumage blue ; the frontal plate termi-
nating behind the eyes. 18 inches long. Europe. — Edw. pi. 87^
The Greeks and Romans tamed and fostered this bird, and introduced it into
their palaces and temples. According to Sonnini, it abounds in Lower Egypt, ap-
pearing in the rice-fields in May, and the following months, and breeding in the desert.

P. smaragnotus, Tern. Ridge of the upper mandible suddenly in-
flected, less elevated than the cranium ; frontal plate not sur-
passing the posterior margin of the eye ; middle toe clawless, and
nearly the length of the tarsus. 14 J inches long. Inhabits Sou-
thern Africa — Tern. Man. 700.

P. melanotus, Tern. Ridge of the upper mandible on a level with
the frontal plate, which passes beyond the posterior margin of
the eye ; middle toe clawless, shorter than the tarsus. Inhabits
New Holland — Tern. Man. 701.

ORDER XIV.— PINNATIPEDES.

Bill middle-sized and straight ; upper mandible slightly curved
at the tip ; legs of medium size ; tarsi slender or compressed ;
three toes before and one behind, with rudiments of webs
along the toes ; hind toe articulated interiorly on the tarsus.

FULICA. BIRDS. 305

The birds included in this order are monogamous, but unite in large bands for
their periodical voyages, which they perform by flight or swimming. They swim
and dive with equal facility, and stretch their legs backwards in flight. In gene,
ral, there is no very marked difference between the male and the female. Their
food consists of insects, worms, fish, and their spawn, and occasionally of vegetables.
Their body is covered with an abundant down ; and their plumage is close and
glossy.

Gen. 1. FULICA, Lin.

Bill midle-sized, strong, conical, straight, compressed, much
deeper than broad at the base ; the ridge projecting in front,
and dilated into a naked plate ; both mandibles of the same
length, the upper slightly curved, and widened at the base,
the lower forming an angle ; nostrils lateral, in the middle
of the bill, longitudinally cleft, half closed by a membrane ;
legs long, slender, naked above the knee ; all the toes very
long, connected at their base, and furnished along their sides
with scalloped membranes.

The Coots are more decided residents in the water than even the Gallinulae, being
rarely seen on land, and swimming and diving with equal facility. They inhabit
fresh waters, gulfs, and bays, but venture not into the deep and open seas. Th«
sexes are scarcely distinguishable, and the young differ very little in appearance
from the adults. Their food chiefly consists of insects and aquatic vegetables.

F. atra, Lin. Common Coot. Head and neck deep black ; upper
parts slaty gray ; under parts bluish ash- coloured ; frontal plate
very broad, white ; bill white, tinged witli rose colour. 15 to 16
inches long. Inhabits Europe. B — Shaw, xii. pi. 29.

F. cristaia, Lath. Body dusky blue, with a red, green, and yellow
ring above the knee ; caruncle red, bifid, erect. 18 inches long.
Inhabits Madagascar. — Shaw, xii. 239.

Gen. 2. PODOA, Illig. — Plotus, Lath. — Heliornis, Vieill.

Bill as long as the head, cylindrical, straight, pointed ; point
notched, ridge distinct ; nasal furrow large ; nostrils lateral,
towards the middle of the bill ; legs short, placed very far
back ; tarsus rounded ; the three anterior toes united by a
lobed membrane ; hind toe smooth ; tail very broad.

P. Surinamcjisis, Tern. Body above brown, white beneath ; crown
and neck behind black ; throat, jugulum, and stripe near the
eye white ; sides of the neck banded with black and white. 13
inches long. Inhabits Surinam. — Shaw, xiii. 22.

P. Sencgalensis, Tern. Body brown above, white beneath ; sides
of the neck and back spotted with black ; tail wedge-shaped,
rigid and narrow ; bill and legs red. Senegal.— -Shan, xiii. 21.

Gen. 3. PHALABOPUS, Briss. — Tringa, Lin.

Bill long, slender, feeble, straight, depressed at the base, both
mandibles channelled to the tip ; the extremity of the upper
bent down on the lower, and obtuse ; point of the lower man-
VOL. i. u

306 BIRDS. PINNATIPEDES.

dible subulate ; nostrils basal, lateral, oval, prominent, sur-
rounded by a membrane ; legs middle-sized, slender, tarsi
compressed ; the anterior toes connected to the first articula-
tion, and the rest of their length furnished with scalloped
and serrated membranes ; the hind toe without a membrane.

The few species which belong to this genus are among the smallest of swimming
birds, and flit over the waves with much grace and nimbleness. On land they run
heavily. They are often observed at a great distance from the shore ; and they
principally subsist on small insects and marine worms, which they pick up on the
surface or margin of the water. Like the sea-fowls, they have their body fur-
nished with down, and their plumage thick-set and glossy.

* Bill slender, depressed at the base, subulate at the point.

P. hyperboreus, Lath. Red Phalarope. Top of the head, nape,
sides of the breast, space between the eye and bill deep cinereous ;
lateral parts and front of the neck bright red ; throat, middle of
the breast, and lower parts white ; flanks with ash-coloured spots ;
back, scapulars, wing-coverts, and two middle feathers of the tail
black. 7 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B — Shaw, xii. pi. 21.
This is the type of Cuvier's genus LoUpes.

** Bill depressed through its whole length, compressed at the point.

P.platyrhynchus,Tem. (P. lobatns, glacialis, Lath. P. rufus, Bechst.
Tringa hyperborea, glacialis, Gmel.) Gray Phalarope. Plu-
mage cinereous above, with a black band on the nape ; a trans-
verse white band on the wings ; bill broad, depressed, flattened
at the base ; tail long, and much rounded. 8 inches long. In-
habits Europe. B — Shaw, xii. pi. 20.

Cuvier forms of this species his genus PJialaropus.

Gen. 4. PODICEPS, Lath. — Colymbus, Gmel.

Bill middle-sized, straight, hard, compressed, in the form of
an elongated and pointed cone ; tip of the upper mandible
slightly inclined ; nostrils lateral, concave, oblong, closed
behind by a membrane, open in front, and pervious ; legs
long, placed far backwards ; tarsi much compressed ; fore toes
much depressed, connected at their base, and furnished with
a simple lobe ; hind toe compressed and scalloped ; claws
broad, much depressed ; no tail ; wings short.

All the Grebes have the under parts of their body, and especially the breast, cover-
ed with a very compact and glossy down. They dive, swim rapidly even un-
der water, and pursue fish to a considerable depth. On land their motions are
awkward, owing to the conformation of their legs. They alike frequent the sea and
the fresh waters ; and fishermen sometimes catch them in their nets even at the
depth of twenty feet The males and females seldom exhibit any very marked dif-
ferences of appearance.

P. cristatus, Lath. Crested Grebe. Top of the head, flat occipi-
tal tuft, and ruff on the cheeks black, shading to red on the
sides of the head ; under parts silvery white ; bill longer than
the head, reddish, the point white ; distance from the anterior
margin of the nostrils to the point of the bill 17 or 18 lines. 18
inches long. Inhabits Europe. B — Pcnn. Brit, Zool. ii. 130.

PODICEPS. BIRDS. 307

P. rubricollis, Lath. Tern. Red-necked Grebe. Bill black, the length
of the head, yellow at the base; occipital crest very short ; no ruff ;
distance from the anterior margin of the nostrils to the point of
the bill eleven lines ; chin, cheeks, and region of the ears cine-
reous, under part of the neck and breast rusty red ; belly and
secondary quill-feathers white. 15 to 17 inches long. Inhabits
Europe. B — Penn. Brit. Zool. ii. 139.

P. cornutus, Tern. (P. obscurus and Caspicus, Lath.) Dusky Grebe.
Bill strong, shorter than the head, compressed throughout its
length, black, but red at the tip ; iris double ; distance from the
anterior margin of the nostrils to the tip of the bill six or seven
lines ; crown of the head, and very broad ruff of a deep and glossy
black ; two large tufts of rufous feathers placed above and behind
the eyes; neck and breast of a bright shining rufous; under
parts pure white ; nape and upper parts blackish. 12 to 13 in-
ches long. Inhabits Europe. B — Shaw, xiii. pi. 1.

P. auritus, Lath. Top of the head, face, short occipital tuft, and
ruff, deep black ; a pencil of long, slender, yellow feathers behind
the eyes ; upper parts, throat, neck, and sides of the breast black ;
flanks and thighs deep- red chestnut, lower parts white ; bill short-
er than the head, black, base depressed, point recurved; dis-
tance of the nostrils from the tip of the bill 6 or 7 lines. 11^ or
12 inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Penn. Brit. Zool. ii. pi. 24.

P. minor, Tern. (P. Hebridicus, Lath. Hebridicus and minor, Gmel.)
Black Chin Grebe. Bill very short, strong, compressed ; neither
crest nor ruff; distance from the anterior margin of the nostrils
to the tip of the bill five lines ; tarsi posteriorly furnished with
long asperities. 9 to 10 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B.— -
Shaw, xiii. pi. 2.

ORDER XV.— PALMIPEDES.

Bill of various forms ; legs short, placed more or less backwards ;
the anterior toes partially or wholly connected by webs, and,
in some families, ail the four toes united by one membrane ;
the hinder toe interiorly articulated to the tarsus, or in some
genera wanting.

Most of the species belonging to this numerous order may be termed sea.birdi.
Their plumage is thicker, closer, and better furnished with down, than that of other
birds. Some of the order both swim and dive, others only swim or skim over the
surface of the sea, but never plunge under water, while a few are almost habitually
resident in the ocean, repairing to the shore only to breed. They subsist on fish
and their fry, testaceous animals, and marine insects ; and a few, as geese, swans,
and some species of ducks, also feed on vegetables. They breed in holes, among
rocks, or sometimes on the stony beach. Most of them moult twice a-year ; the
female, in some instances, moulting later than the male. The young, during the
first year, and, in some cases, during several years, differ much in appearance from
the full grown birds. For the most part they are polygamous and prolific. The
flesh of most of the species is eatable, and that of some is highly prized.

308 , BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

Gen. 1. CEREOPSIS, Lath.

Bill very short, strong, almost as deep at the base as long, co-
vered by a cere prolonged towards the point, which is arch-
ed and truncated ; nostrils very large, in the middle of the
bill, open ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; hind toe long,
jointed on the posterior part of the tarsus ; toes palmated,
with deeply notched membranes ; claws thick and strong ;
wing-coverts almost as long as the wings.

C. Novce Hollandice, Tern. Plumage ashy-gray ; brownish above,
with some of the wing-coverts spotted with black. 39 inches
long. Inhabits New Holland. — Shaw, xii. pi. 44.

Gen. 2. CHIONIS, Forst. — Vaginalis, Lath.

Bill strong, hard, conico-convex, compressed, inclined towards
the point ; base of the upper mandible half covered by a
moveable corneous sheath, with longitudinal furrows; nos-
trils marginal, in the middle of the bill, on the border of the
corneous substance ; naked part of the tibise small ; toes with
a rudimentary border ; the middle and exterior ones semipal-
mated, the anterior united only at the base; wings tuberculated.

C. Forsteri, Tern. Sheath-bill. Plumage snowy white ; knob at
the head of the wings blackish ; bill black at the base, the ap-
pendage or sheath yellowish ; papillae on the face orange. 15 to
18 inches long. Inhabits New Zealand — Shaw, xii. 281.

Gen. 3. RHYNCHOPS, Lin.

Bill long, straight, flattened into a blade, truncated at the apex ;
upper mandible much shorter than the under ; nostrils late-
ral, marginal, remote from the base ; legs slender ; tarsus
longer than the middle toe ; the fore toes united by a mem-
brane ; hind toe jointed on the tarsus ; tail forked, and short-
er than the wings.

R. nigra, Lin. Black Skimmer or Cut- water. Blackish above ;

white beneath ; wings with a transverse white band ; legs red.

18 to 20 inches long. Asia and America — Shaw, xiii. pi. 16.

This bird is ever on the wing, sweeping the surface of the water, and dipping in
its bill, or at least the under mandible, to scoop out the smaller fishes on which
it feeds. In stormy -weather it frequents the shores, and subsists on shell-fish.

R. flavirostris, Vieill. Body above ashy brown, beneath white ;
bill yellow ; legs brown. Inhabits Senegal. — Shaw, xiii. 138.

Gen. 4. STERNA, Lin.

Bill as long as, or longer than the head, almost straight, com-
pressed, slender, edged, and pointed ; mandibles of equal
length, the upper slightly sloping towards the tip ; nostrils
in the middle of the bill, longitudinally cleft, and pervious ;

STKHNA. BIRDS. 309

legs small, naked above the knee ; tarsus very short, the three
anterior toes connected by a membrane, the hinder detached ;
tail more or less forked ; wings very long and pointed.

The Terns are almost constantly on the wing. In the course of their wheeling
flights, they graze the surface of the sea, or pounce down abruptly in pursuit of small
fish or insects. Their cry is incessant, shrill, and piercing. They nestle in nume-
rous flocks in the same places.

S. Caspia, Pallas. The Caspian Tern. Forehead and part of the
crown white ; occiput black and white ; nape, back,, scapulars,
and coverts of the wings bluish cinereous ; quills brown cinere-
ous ; lower parts white ; bill thick,, strong, bright red ; height
of the tarsus 1 inch 8 lines j tail short, forked. 20 to 21 inches
long. Inhabits coasts of the Baltic Sea, &c. — Shaw, xiii. 145.

S. Cantiaca, Gmel. (S. Boysii, Lath.) Sandwich Tern. Back
scapulars, and wing-coverts bluish cinereous ; nape, top of the
back, and lower parts white ; bill long, black, yellowish at the
tip ; feet short and black ; height of the tarsus one inch ; tail
long, much forked, shorter than the wings. 15 to 16 inches long.
Inhabits Europe, B — Don. Brit. Birds, v. pi. 120.

S. Dougallii, Montagu. Roseate Tern. Top of the head and nape
deep black ; back, scapulars, and wings, cinereous ; lower parts
white ; bill entirely black ; legs orange-coloured ; tarsus 9 lines
long ; the middle toe, including the claw, shorter than the tarsus ;
tail much longer than the wings. 15 inches long. Inhabits coasts
of Europe. — Shaw, xiii. 153.

S. hirundo, Lin. Common Tern or Sea Swallow. Top of the head
and long feathers of the occiput black j back and wings bluish
cinereous ; white below ; bill middle-sized, red, with the tip
black ; legs red ; length of the tarsus 10 lines ; tail much fork-
ed, of the same length as the wings, or even shorter. 14 inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Shaw, 'xiii. pi. 18.

S. Arctica, Tern. Arctic Tern. Top of the head and long fea-
thers of the occiput deep black ; back and wing-coverts bluish ci-
nereous ; a small part of the abdomen, inferior coverts of the
tail, and a band below the eyes, white ; bill slender, red, with-
out black at the tip ; length of the tarsus six lines ; tail much
forked, and sometimes rather exceeding the wings in length. 13
to 14 inches long. Inhabits Northern Europe. B — Shaw, xiii. 1 52.

S. Anglica, Mont. Marsh Tern. Top of the head, neck, and lower
parts, white ; upper parts bluish cinereous ; bill very short, thick,
and quite black ; legs long and black ; length of the tarsus 1 inch
and 3 or 4 lines ; tail slightly forked, the wings extending 3
inches beyond its extremity ; hinder toe straight. Inhabits Eu-
rope. B — Tern. Man. 744.

S. leucopareia, Natterer. Bill and legs lake red ; middle toe with
the claw much longer than the tarsus, which is 10 lines long ; tail
slightly forked, the wings extending 1^ inch beyond its extremity.
11 inches long. Inhabits Southern Europe.— -Tern . Man. 746.

310 BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

S. leucoptera, Tern. Bill brown ; legs coral red ; membranes of
the toes much gashed ; the internal rudimentary ; length of the
tarsus 9 lines ; tail slightly forked ; wings extending 2 inches 4
lines beyond its extremity. 9J inches long. Inhabits coasts of
Southern Europe — Tern. Man. 747-

S. nigra, Lin. Black Tern. Bill black ; legs purple brown, webs
gashed to the half of their length ; height of the tarsus 7 or 8
lines ; tail slightly forked, and the wings extending an inch and
a half beyond its extremity. 9 inches long. Inhabits marshes,
Sec. in Northern Europe. B. — Sharv, xiii. pi. 19.

S. minuta, Lin. Minute or Lesser Tern. Bill orange-coloured,
but black at the tip ; legs orange ; length of the tarsus 7 lines ;
tail much forked; forehead white. 8| inches long. Inhabits
Shores of Europe. — Don. Brit. Birds, iv. pi. 96.

S. stolida. Lath. Foolish Tern or Noddy. Body black ; forehead
whitish ; eye-brows, bill, and legs, black ; occiput cinereous. 15
inches long. Inhabits Brazil, &c — Shaw, xiii. pi. 17-

Gen. 5. LARUS, Lin.

Bill long, or middle-sized, strong, hard, compressed, edged,
bent towards the tip ; lower mandible angulated near the
point ; nostrils lateral, in the middle of the bill, longitudi-
nally cleft, straight, and pervious ; legs slender, naked above
the knee ; tarsus long ; three fore-toes quite webbed, the
hinder free, short, placed high on the tarsus ; tail-feathers
of equal length ; wings long.

The birds of this genus are diffused over every coast Flocks of them haunt the
sea-shore in pursuit of living or dead fish ; and such is their voracity, that hardly
any thing comes amiss, for they greedily feed on putrid carcasses of whales, and
the refuse of the tide. Like other predacious birds, they throw up pellets of fea-
thers, and other indigestible matters. Like most ravenous animals, they are also
capable of enduring protracted abstinence. The young do not attain their full plu-
mage till the second or third year. Gulls breed among the rocks or downs, and
some of the smaller species in meadows adjacent to the coast. When they flock in
numbers to the land, and are clamorous along the coast, or when at sea they alight
on ships, they are said to portend a storm.

L. glaucus, Brun. Glaucous Gull. The Burgomaster of the Dutch.
Back, shoulders, and \ving-coverts, bluish cinereous ; legs livid ;
length of the tarsus within a line or two of three inches ; quill-
feathers terminated by a large white space ; shafts white ; bill
of a beautiful yellow, with the angle of the lower mandible bright
red ; orbits red ; iris yellow. 2 feet 2 inches long. Inhabits
Europe. B. — Lenin's Brit. Birds, vi. pi. 7-

L. marinus, Lin. Great Black-Backed Gull. Shoulders slate-
black ; legs white ; length of the tarsus nearly 3 inches ; fold-
ed wings stretching a very little beyond the tail ; quill-feathers
black towards the end, but tipt with white ; bill whitish yel-
low, the angle of the lower mandible bright red. 26 to 27 in-
ches long. Inhabits Europe. B.— Tern. Man. 760,

3

LARUS. BIRDS. 311

L. argentatus, Brun. Silvery Gull or Herring-Gull of Latham,
Mantle bluish-cinereous ; legs livid ; length of the tarsus two
inches and a half; wings very little exceeding the tail ; quilU
feathers black, near the extremity, but tipt with white, and their
shafts blackish. 21 to 22 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B. —
Leivin's Brit. Birds, vi. pi. 7-

"L.fuscus, Lin. Lesser Black-Backed Gull. Mantle slate-black ;
legs yellow ; length of the tarsus two inches and one or two lines ;
the wings stretching about two inches beyond the extremity of
the tail ; the bill proportionally shorter and more slender than in
the preceding. 18 or 19 inches long. Europe. B — Shaw, xiii. 194.

L. eburneus, Lin. Ivory Gull. Body quite white ; legs black ; a
very small naked spot on the tibia ; length of the tarsus one inch
five lines. 19 inches long. Inhabits Greenland. — Tern. Man. 769.

L. canus, Lin. Common Gull or Sea Mew. Head, occiput, nape,
and sides of the neck white, spotted with blackish brown ; all
the lower parts white ; back, scapulars, and wings bluish cinere-
ous ; quills towards the tip deep black ; length of the tarsus two
inches ; wings reaching beyond the tail ; shafts of the two outer
quill-feathers black ; bill small. 16^ inches long. Inhabits Eu-
rope. B — Don. Brit. Birds, vi. pi. 79.

L. tridactylus, Lath. Tarrock or Kittiwake Gull. Top of the
head, occiput, nape, and part of the sides of the neck, bluish
ash-coloured ; fine black lines before the eyes ; region of the eyes,
lower parts, rump, and tail, white ; back and wings bluish ash-
coloured, the exterior quill-feather bordered with black ; bill
greenish yellow ; iris brown ; length of the tarsus one inch four
lines ; a clawless tubercle in place of a hind-toe. 15 inches long.
Inhabits European Seas. B.— Shaw, xiii. pi. 21.

L. melanocephalus, Natterer. Adriatic Gull. Bill thick and strong;
shoulders and back pure ash-coloured; all the feathers of the
wings terminated by a large white space; length of tarsus 2 inches.
15 inches long. Coasts of the Adriatic Sea. — Tern, Man. 777-

L. atricilla, Lin. Bill and legs deep lake red ; shoulders and back
deep bluish cinereous ; quill- feathers black, extending two inches
beyond the tail ; length of the tarsus 1 inch 9 lines. Nearly 14
inches long. Inhabits Europe and America. — Tern. Man. 779.

L. ridibundus, Leisler. (Z/. cinerarius, Gmel. ; the young, Sterna
obscura, Lath, and after moulting L. eri/thropus.) Red-legged
Gull. Head, neck, and tail white, with the exception of a black
spot before the eyes, and another on the surface of the ears ;
breast, belly, and abdomen, whitish, slightly tinted with rose-co-
lour ; back, scapulars, and coverts of the wings bluish ash-co-
loured ; exterior margin of the wings white ; length of the tar-
sus 1 inch and 8 or 9 lines ; bill and legs vermilion. 14 inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B.— Shaw, xiii. pi. 22.

L. capistratus, Tern. Brown Masked Gull. A clear brown mask,

312 BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

which terminates at the occiput ; length of the tarsus one inch
and a half; outer quill-feathers with white shafts. 13^ inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Tern. Man. 785.

L. m'mutus, Pallas. Pigmy Gull. Length of the tarsus 11 lines;
shafts of the primary quills brown ; wing -feathers tipt with pure
white ; legs, when extended, reaching only to three-fourths of
the length of the tail ; hind toe very small, with an inconspicu-
ous claw. 10 inches long. Inhabits Europe — Tern. Man. 787-

L. Sabini, Tern. (Xema, Leach.) Sabine's Gull. The thigh feather-
ed to within three-eighths of an inch of the knee ; length of the
tarsus 1 inch and a half; the hinder toe small, and placed high.
12 to 14 inches long. Inhabits Greenland — Shaw, xiii. pi. 20.

Gen. 6. LESTRIS, Illig. — Stercorariuz, Briss. — Larus, Lin.

Bill middle-sized, hard, strong, cylindrical, sharp-edged, com-
pressed, and hooked at the tip ; upper mandible covered with
a cere, the lower angulated ; nostrils near the apex of the bill,
diagonal, straight, closed behind ; legs slender, naked above
the knees ; tarsi long ; tbe three anterior toes completely
webbed, the hind one nearly obliterated, and on a level with
those before ; claws large and much hooked ; tail slightly
rounded, with the two middle feathers elongated.

The birds which compose this genus are much bolder and intrepid than the gulls,
which they persecute, and, compelling them to disgorge their food, catch it with
great dexterity as it falls in the air. They likewise fasten on the carcasses of whales,
and sometimes eat shell-fish. Their principal abode is in the northern regions ; and
they may be distinguished at a considerable distance by their jerking and leaping
mode of flight There is no very marked distinction between the sexes, but age im-
prints on their plumage very different shades of colouring, of which bistre-brown and
white are the prevailing. The young are very unlike the full grown individuals.

L. catarractes, Tern. (Larus catarractes, Lin.) Brown or Skua
Gull. Head and region of the eyes deep brown ; neck and low-
er parts reddish gray, shaded with brown ; back and scapulars
dull red ; quill-feathers white the half of their length, the other
half deep brown ; tail white ; shape and dimensions of the bill
similar to those of the same part in the herring gull ; the pro-
jecting tail-feathers broad to the end ; inconspicuous asperities
on the hinder part of the tarsus, which is about two inches and
a half in length. 20 to 21 inches long. Inhabits Northern Eu-
rope. B. — Lenin's Brit. Birds, vi. pi. 211.

L. pomarinus, Tern. Pomarine Skua. Size and form of the bill
as in the Larus eburneus; the two long feathers of the tail broad to
the end, where they are rounded ; marked asperities on the pos-
terior part of the tarsus, which measures 1 inch 11 lines. 15 or
16 inches long. Inhabits Northern Europe — Shaw, xiii. pi. 24.

L. parastticus, Tern. Parasitic Gull. Face, top of the head, occi-
put, back, wings, and tail, uniform deep brown ; feathers of the
neck long, subulate, and of a golden yellow colour ; throat, fore part
of the neck, belly, and abdomen, white ; a broad collar on the

PfiOCKLLARIA. BIRDS. 313

breast formed of brown spots ; bill of the shape and size of that
of the Larus canus ; the two middle tail-feathers much elongated,
slender, and pointed at the extremities ; a few warts on the hind-
er part of the tarsus, which measures 1 inch 7 lines. 14 or 15
inches long ; the long tail-feathers 3 to 5 more. Inhabits Northern
Europe.— •Shaw, xiii. pi. 23.

Gen. 7. PROCELLARIA, Lin.

Bill as long as, or longer than the head, very hard, edged, de-
pressed, and dilated at the base ; the tip compressed and
arched ; both mandibles channelled, and abruptly inflected
towards the extremity ; nostrils prominent, at the surface of
the bill, united and concealed in a tube, which either forms
a single opening, or exhibits two distinct openings ; legs mid-
dle-sized, often long, slender, the tarsi compressed ; the three
front toes entirely webbed and long, and the hinder repre-
sented by a pointed claw ; wings long.

This genus is composed of a number of species, of which many are but little
known to naturalists. All the species are semi-nocturnal, or seek their food in the
morning or evening twilight, and conceal themselves in fissures of rocks, caverns, or
holes during the day. They chiefly frequent those portions of the ocean that are
the abodes of cetaceous animals, and are seldom seen along the shores, or at a dis-
tance from the sea. unless driven by violent gales from their ordinary stations. They
feed on the flesh of the morse and whale, and on such mollusca, insects, and worms,
as float on the surface of the ocean. They breed in the crevices of rocky cliffs, or
the deserted burrows of quadrupeds, discharging a sort of oily liquid from their nos-
trils on those who attack them or their young. The female is rather smaller than
the male, but not otherwise distinguishable ; and the young are not so unlike the
mature birds as in the two preceding genera. Temminck divides the genus into
three sections, according to the structure of the nasal tube.

1. PETRELS. — Bill thick, hooked, gibbous towards the point; nos-
trils united in a tube or furrow on the surface of the bill ; tail
rounded or conical.

P. glacialis, Lin. Fulmar Petrel. Plumage whitish ; back hoary ;
bill and feet yellowish ; nostrils composed of two tubes, lodged
in a common sheath. 16 inches long. Inhabits Arctic Circle. B.
~—Shaw, xiii. pi. 27-

2. PUFFIN PETRELS. — Bill generally longer than the head, slen-
der, much compressed at the point ; nostrils opening in two tubes
approaching the surface of the bill.

P. puffinus, Lin. (P. cinerea, Gmel.) Puffin or Cinereous Petrel.
Bill depressed at the base, channelled above, compressed and tur-
gid at the tip ; nostrils consisting of two openings under a com-
mon sheath; bill two inches long; tarsi 1 inch 10 lines; tail
conical. 18 inches long. Inhabits all seas — Tern. Man. 805.

P. Anglorum, Tern. Manks Petrel. Bill very slender, 1 inch and
7 or^8 lines in length ; tail rounded, the wings projecting a little
beyond its extremity ; length of the tarsus 1 inch 9 lines. 13
inches long. Inhabits Isle of Man, &c. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 26.

314 BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

P. obscura, Gmel. Dusky Petrel. Bill very slender, 1 inch 1 line
long ; tail rounded, wings ending at its extremity ; length of the
tarsus 1 inch 6 lines ; plumage dusky above, white beneath. 10
inches long. Southern Seas. — Tern. Man. 808.

3. SWALLOW PETRELS — Bill shorter than the head, much com-
pressed at the point ; nostrils in a single tube with two distinct
orifices ; tail square or slightly forked,

P. pelagica, Lin. Stormy Petrel, Mother Carey's Chicken. Tail
square, extremity of the wings a very little exceeding its tip ;
length of the tarsus 10 lines ; head, back, wings, and tail, dull
black ; under parts sooty ; a broad transverse and pure white
band on the rump ; scapulars and secondary wing-quills tipped
with white ; bill and legs black ; iris brown. 5£ inches long.
Inhabits Europe, &c. — Pen. Brit. Zool. ii. pi. 36.

P. Leachii, Tern. Head and body dull black ; sides of the belly
and upper tail coverts white, with the shafts brown ; quills and
tail black ; tail forked, extremity of the wings not surpassing it ;
length of tarsus 11 lines. 7i inches long. Inhabits St Kilda.— -
Shaw, xiii. pi. 25.

P. gigantea, Lath. Giant or Osprey Petrel. Plumage brownish,
spotted with white above, white beneath ; shoulders, wings, and
tail, brown; bill and legs yellow; a naked, wrinkled, yellow mem-
brane at the corners of the mouth. 3£ feet long. Inhabits South-
ern Seas. — Shaw, xiii. 237-

Gen. 8. PACHYPTILA, Illig.— Procellaria, Lath.

Bill thick, strong, much depressed, very broad ; upper mandi-
ble gibbous on the sides, interior margin with cartilaginous
plates ; ridge distinct, terminated by a compressed hook ; nos-
trils basal, opening by two apertures in a short tube ; three
toes before, with deeply cut membranes ; a short claw in place
of the hind toe.

P. Forsteri. (P. vittala, Lath.) Plumage above bluish ash, be-
neath white ; quills, tail-feathers at the tip, and band on the
expanded wings brown black. 12 inches long. Inhabits South-
ern Hemisphere. — Shaw, xiii. 251.

Gen. 9. HALADROMA, Illig. — Procellaria, Lath.

Bill short, straight, compressed, edged, furrowed longitudinally,
tip hooked ; lower mandible with a small dilatable and nak-

ed pouch ; nostrils distinct, the base concealed under a tube ;
legs short ; only three toes, directed forwards, palmated ;
wings short.

H. urinatrix. Diving Haladrome. Plumage dark brown above ;
chin black ; white below. 8£ inches long. Inhabits New Zea-
land— Shaw, xiii. 257.

DIOMEDEA. BIRDS. 315

Gen. 10. DIOMKDEA, Lin.

Bill very long, stout, edged, compressed, straight, suddenly
curved ; upper mandible channelled on the sides, and much
hooked at the point, the under smooth and truncated at the
extremity ; nostrils lateral, remote from the base, tubular,
covered on the sides, and open in front ; legs short, with
only three very long toes, entirely webbed ; the lateral one
margined; wings very long and narrow, with the primary quills
short, and the secondaries long.

D. exulans, Lin. Wandering Albatross, or Man of War Bird. Plu-
mage above brown red, striped and spotted with dusky ; white
beneath ; the upper part and sides of the neck transversely striped
with brown ; greater quills black ; the lesser and tail dusky lead-
coloured ; bill yellowish ; feet reddish brown. 3J to 4 feet long.
Inhabits between the Tropics — Shaw, xiii. pi. 30.

These birds are extremely voracious, preying on shoals of salmon.in the mouths of
rivers, and on the flying or other fishes, which they swallow whole, and in such quan-
tities, as to be occasionally prevented by their weight from rising. They chiefly
occur between the tropics. Towards the end of June they migrate in thousands to
the coasts of Kamtechatka, the Sea of Ochotsk, &c. The Kamtschadales catch these
birds with rude hooks, baited with fish, chiefly for the sake of the bones of the
wings, which they convert to various domestic uses.

D.fuliginosa, Lath. Sooty Albatross or Quaker Bird. General
plumage brown ; head, bill, tail, quill-feathers, and claws, sooty
brown ; area of the eyes white. 3 feet long. Inhabits Southern
Ocean — Sharv, xiii. 263.

Gen. 11. ANAS, Lin.

Bill middle sized, robust, straight, more or less depressed, cover-
ed by a thin skin, often deeper than broad at the base, which is
furnished with a fleshy tubercle, or smooth ; always depressed
towards the tip, which is obtuse, and furnished with a nail ;
edges of both mandibles divided into conical or flat lamellated
teeth ; nostrils almost at the surface of the bill, at some dis-
tance from the base, ovoid, half closed by the flat membrane
that covers the nasal furrow ; legs short, feathered to the knee,
and placed near the abdomen ; the three fore toes webbed, the
hinder detached, and either destitute of a web, or having only
a rudimentary one.

The birds which compose this numerous family swim with ease and gracefulness,
feeding on fish, testacea, insects, vegetables, and grains. Some make use of their
long necks to catch, with their submersed bill, the food most suited to their taste,
and others dive, and remain a considerable time under water ; a practice to which
most of them have recourse when closely pursued. Many of the species are found
on fresh, and others on salt water, or on the sea-shore. Their gait is awkward and
hobbling. Most of them moult twice a-year, namely, in June and in November,
the male only changing the colour of his plumage ; assuming in June a part of
that more appropriate to the female, and in November his bridal attire, which he
retains till hatching time. The females moultflater than the males. When journey,
ing in Lapland, in 1732, Linnaeus observed the river Calix quite covered with birds

316 BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

of this genus for eight days successively, migrating to the sea in search of a warmer
latitude. Their numbers, he tells us, exceeded those of the army of Xerxes. The
larvas of the common gnat, an insect which swarms in countless myriads in the
moist and woody districts, during the short summer of these northern regions, supply
whole legions of web-footed fowls with a favourite food.

1. GEESE. — Bill shorter than the head, a little conical, with conical
dentations on the margins : neck of medium length.

A. hypcrborea, Gmel. Blue-winged Goose. Forehead much elevated,
yellowish ; head, neck, and body white ; quills white the half of
their length, the rest black ; upper mandible red ; lateral portion
of the bill cut on each side by longitudinal channels and serratures.
2 feet 5 or 6 inches long. Arctic Regions. — Edrv. Glean, pi. 152.

A. anser, Lath. The Wild Goose. Plumage cinereous above ; pale
beneath ; the folded wings do not reach to the extremity of the
tail; bill robust, thick, and of an uniform orange-yellow. 2
feet 8 or 10 inches long. Inhabits the eastern and central parts
of Europe. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 41.

At the time of their migrations in Autumn, flocks of this species, consisting of
from fifty to a hundred individuals, are often seen flying at very great heights, and
their cry may be frequently heard when they are too elevated to be visible. On the
ground they always arrange themselves in a line ; and they seem to descend ra-
ther for rest than refreshment. Their flight is conducted with great regularity,
for they always proceed either in a line abreast, or in two lines, joining in an an-
gle at the middle, like the letter V. In this order they generally take the lead by
turns, the foremost falling back in the rear, when tired with cleaving the air, and
the next in succession occupying its place. In these lofty flights they are seldom
within reach of a fowling piece ; and, even when they move in a lower track, they
file so equally, that one discharge rarely kills more than a single bird. Their food
consists of aquatic vegetables and all kinds of grain. Domesticated breeds of
this species are reared in most countries ; and in Britain great numbers are kept
in the fens of Lincolnshire, several persons there having as many as a thousand
breeders. They are stripped once a-year for their quills, and no fewer than five
times for the feathers. The first plucking for both commences about Lady-day,
and the other four are between that and Michaelmas. It is alleged that, in ge-
neral, the birds do not materially suffer from these operations, except cold weather
happens to set in, when numbers of them die. The old ones submit quietly to be
plucked, but the young ones are very noisy and unruly. These geese breed in general
only once a-year, but, if well kept, sometimes twice. During their sitting, each has
a space allotted to it, in rows of wicker pens placed one above another. The goose
lives to a great age, to eighty years it is said, or even to a hundred.

A. segetum, Gmel. The Bean Goose. Plumage ashy-brown above,
whitish beneath ; scapulars and wing-coverts margined with whit-
ish ; folded wings extending beyond the extremity of the tail ;
bill long, depressed, and of a dusky orange hue. 2J feet long.
Inhabits Arctic Regions. B. — Lewin's Brit. Birds, vi. pi. 239.

A. albifrons, Lin. White- Fronted Goose. Plumage above brown
ash-coloured; quills black ; secondaries tipped with white; breast
and belly whitish, varied with black feathers ; a large white spot
on the forehead. 27 inches long. Inhabits Arctic Regions. B.
— Don. Brit. Birds, v. pi. 102.

A. leucopsis, Tern. (Anas erythropus, Lin.) Bernacle Goose. Plu-
mage cinereous, with black and white undulations above ; neck,
top of the breast, tail, and quills black ; face and belly white, bill,

ANAS. BIRDS. 317

and legs black. 26 inches long. Inhabits Arctic Regions. B.

Leivin's Brit. Birds, vii. pi. 242.

A. bernicla, Lin. Brent Goose. Head, neck, and top of the breast
blackish ; on the lateral part of the neck a space formed of black-
ish feathers, tipped with white; back, scapulars, and wing-coverts
deep gray, terminated with brown ; middle of the belly, crown,
abdomen and tail-coverts white ; secondaries and tail-feathers
black ; bill and legs black. 22 or 23 inches long. Inhabits Arctic
Regions. B. — Bewick's Birds, ii. 311.

This species was long conceived to have been produced in the shell of the Lepas
anatifcra of Linnaeus, growing on old timber ; and even Gerard the botanist strong-
ly asserts the improbable circumstance.

A. nificollis, Lin. Red-breasted Goose. A white space between
the eye and the bill, and white behind the eyes, and on the sides
of the neck ; a girdle of the same colour surrounds the lower part
of the breast, and rises to the back ; top of the head, throat, belly,
tail and all the upper parts deep black ; abdomen, lower coverts
of the tail, and rump, white. 20 to 21 inches long. Inhabits
Arctic Regions. — Sham, xii. pi 43.

2. SWANS. — Nostrils pierced in the middle of the bill; neck very long.

A. cygnus, Lin. Wild, or Whistling Swan. Bill semicylindrical and
black ; cere yellow ; body white ; head and nape very slightly
tinted with yellowish ; iris brown ; legs and feet black. 4 feet
5 to 4 feet 9 inches long. Arctic Regions. — Shaw, xii. pi. 37-

The Whistling Swan inhabits Europe, Asia, and America, affecting chiefly the
northern regions of the globe, and appearing in small flocks of eight or ten on
the coasts of England and France in hard winters : but on the approach of spring
they quit their southern stations, and again retire northward, to breed. A few, how-
ever, remain in the Hebrides, the Shetland and Orkney islands. In the two latter,
and in the Faroe islands, large flocks of them annually arrive in October, and pass
the winter about the numerous fresh water lakes. Early in spring they take their
departure for the Arctic Regions. Great bodies of them occur on the large rivers
and lakes near Hudson's Bay, and those of Kamtschatka, Lapland, and Iceland. They
are said to resort to the last mentioned island in flocks, of about a hundred at a time,
in spring, and also to pour in on it from the north, in nearly the same manner, on
their way south, toward the close of autumn, flying very high in the air, and in
such compact array, that the bill of the one seems to touch the tail of the other. In
their flight they emit a note, which has been expressed by whoogh, ivlioogh, and
which is very loud, hoarse, and shrill, but not disagreeable when heard at a distance
and modulated by the breeze. The Icelanders compare it to the sound of the violin ;
and, when heard at the end of their long and dreary winter announcing the approach of
genial weather, it will no doubt be associated in their minds with all that is agreeable.
But the musical notes of the swan, and its dying strains, so often alluded to by the
ancient writers, have no further support than the lively imagination of the poet.

A. olor, Lin. Tame or Mute Swan. Bill red; fleshy tubercle at
the base and edges of the mandibles black ; the body white. 4£
feet long. — Shaw, xii. pi. 38.

Nothing can exceed the graceful and elegant appearance of these birds, when glid-
ing along the surface of the water. Multitudes of this species are found in Russia
and Siberia, as well as farther south, in an unreclaimed state. They likewise occur
without any owner, on the Trent, on the inlet of the sea near Abbotsbury in Dorset-
shire, and on some rivers and lakes in different parts of the British isles. Those on
the Thames have been for ages protected as royal property ; and it is still reckoned

318 BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

felony to steal their eggs. In former times, great numbers were reared for the table ;
but they are now reckoned by most a coarse sort of food. A fattened cygnet, how-
ever, is still accounted a delicacy. It is generally believed that the swan lives to a
great age. The young do not acquire their full plumage till the second year.

3. DUCKS. — Bill much depressed, broad towards the extremity, and
the serratures long andjlat ; the hind toe detached and untvebbed,
or with the rudiment of a free membrane.

* Hind toe without a membrane.

A. rutila, Pallas. Ruddy Shieldrake. Plumage reddish-brown ; head
and upper half of the body mouse gray ; collar and quill-feathers
black ; rump and tail greenish black ; middle wing-coverts tipped
with white ; bill black. 20 inches long. Inhabits Eastern Europe,
&c. — Tern. Man. 832.

A. tadorna, Lin. Sheldrake or Shieldrake. Head and neck dusky
green ; lower part of the neck, wing-coverts, back, flanks, rump,
and base of the tail white ; scapulars, a broad band at the middle
of the belly, abdomen, quills, and extremity of the tail-feathers
black ; a red band on the breast ; bill, and fleshy protuberance on
the forehead blood red ; legs flesh-coloured. Inhabits Europe. Bf
— Sham, xii. pi. 45.

A. boschas, Lin. Wild Duck or Mallard. Head and neck deep-
green ; upper parts striped with very fine zigzag cinereous and
whitish lines ; speculum of the wing violet green ; four middle
tail-feathers recurved into a semicircle; bill yellowish green; legs
orange. 1 foot 9 or 10 inches long. Inhabits Northern Europe
and America. — Don. Brit, Birds, v. pi. 124.

This species, the origin of the domestic varieties, inhabits the northern countries
of the globe, and migrates southward in large bodies in autumn, when they spread
themselves over the lakes and humid wastes of the more temperate latitudes. Con-
siderable numbers return northward in the spring; but many remain in Britain
throughout the year. They breed only once in the year, the pairing time commencing
about the end of February or the beginning of March. The incubation lasts thirty
days, and in three months the young are able to fly. The reclaimed breeds of this
species assume very various markings, but the male, or Drake, even in confinement,
retains the curling of the tail-feathers. The Chinese hatch numbers by means of
artificial heat. Great quantities of the wild species are annually taken in the fens
of Lincolnshire by means of ingeniously contrived decoys.

A. strepera, Lin. Gadwall Duck. Head and neck marked with
brown points, on a gray ground; under part of the neck, the back,
and breast, with black crescents ; the scapulars and flanks with
blackish and white zigzag lines ; middle wing-coverts rufous-
chestnut; great coverts, rump, and under tail-coverts, deep black;
bill black ; tarsi and toes orange ; webs blackish. 18 or 19 in-
ches long. Northern Europe. B. — Lewin's Brit. Birds, vii. pi. 258.

A. acuta, Lin. Pintail Duck. Top of the head varied with brown
and blackish; cheeks, throat, and top of the neck brown, with violet
and purple reflections ; a black band on the nape, bordered with
two white ones ; under part of the body white ; back and flanks
with zigzag black ash-coloured lines ; two middle feathers of the
tail elongated, greenish black. 23 or 24 inches long. Northern
Europe and America. B — Lenin's Brit. Birds, vii, pi, 261.

ANAS. BIRDS. 319

A. Penelope, Lin. The Widgeon. Head and neck red chestnut ;
forehead whitish yellow; throat black; breast wine-coloured; wing-
coverts and lower parts whitish ; speculum of the wing of three
bands, the middle one green, the lateral deep black ; scapulars
black, edged with white ; back and flanks with zigzag black and
white lines; bill blue, black at the tip. 18 inches long. Inhabits
Northern Europe. B. — Lewin's Brit. Birds, vii. pi. 251.

A. clypeata, Lin. Shoveler Duck. Head and neck deep green, with
reflections ; belly and flanks red chestnut ; wing-coverts blue ;
scapulars white, with blackish points and spots ; bill broad, rounded
like a spoon, brownish black, yellowish beneath. 18 inches long.
Inhabits Europe. — Shaw, xii. pi. 48.

A. querquedula, Lin. The Garganey Teal. A white band on the
sides of the head ; small wing-spot cinereous green ; throat deep
black ; head and neck reddish brown, with small white points ;
a white band on the middle of the scapulars ; wing-coverts bluish;
belly whitish yellow; zigzag black lines on the flanks; bill black-
ish. 16 inches long. Inhabits Europe. B.— Shaw, xii. pi. 51.

A. crecca, Lin. The Common Teal. Head, cheeks, and back chest-
nut red ; a broad green band extends from the eyes to the nape ;
lower part of the neck, back, scapulars, and flanks striped with
black and white zigzag lines ; breast reddish, with round spots ;
belly yellowish white ; speculum of the wings half white and half
black, edged with two white bands ; bill blackish. 1 4 inches long.
Northern Europe. B. — Lewin's Brit. Birds, vii. pi. 260.
The flesh of this species was much prized by the Roman epicures, and is still in

request for the table.

** Hind toe with a loose membrane.

A. mollissima, Lin. Eider or St Cuthbert's Duck. On each side
and above the eyes a broad band of black violet ; cheeks, a band
on the top of the head and occiput greenish white ; back, scapu-
lars, and smaller coverts white ; breast reddish white ; belly and
rump deep black ; base of the bill laterally prolonged into two
flattened plates on the forehead ; bill and legs greenish-ash. 21
to 22 inches long — Shaw, xii. pi. 60.

This species inhabits the high and icy latitudes of Europe, Asia, and America, and
feeds chiefly on testaceous animals and fish. They are very abundant during sum-
mer in all the islands situated in the Greenland sea. Their appearance in great
numbers is an indication of the proximity of land. They are capable of protrac-
ted flights in the day time, but generally return to their stations at night They
are rarely, if ever, seen in the south of England, but they breed in the Orkneys and
the Hebrides in June and July. The nest is composed of marine plants, and lined
with down of exquisite fineness, which the female plucks from her own body. The
eggs are usually four, of a pale olive green, and rather larger than those of a common
duck. About Iceland the eider ducks generally build their nests on small islands not
far from the shore. When the collectors come to the nest, they carefully remove
the female, and take away the superfluous down and eggs. They then replace the
mother, and she begins to lay afresh, covering the eggs with new down ; and this is
repeated several times. When the young ones leave the nest, it is once more plun-
dered. The best down and most eggs are got during the first three weeks of her
laying ; and it has been generally observed, that they lay the greatest number of eggs

320 BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

in rainy weather. One female, during the time of laying, usually yields half a pound
of down, which, however, is reduced one-half after it is cleaned. It is extremely
soft and warm, and so light and elastic, that two handfuls squeezed together are
sufficient to fill a quilt five feet square. A large quantity is procured every year
from Iceland by the merchants of Copenhagen.

A. spectabilis, Lin. King Duck or Gray-headed Duck. Top of
the head, occiput, and neck of a fine bluish gray ; cheeks shining
sea green ; upper part of the back, wing-coverts, and two large
spots on each side of the rurnp white ; breast reddish white ; lower
part of the back, wings, tail, and under part of the body deep
black; base of the bill laterally prolonged on the forehead into two
processes, which rise in the form of crests ; bill and legs of a fine
vermilion hue. 22 to 24 inches long. Inhabits the Frozen Ocean.
— Lewin's Brit. Birds, vii. pi. 245.

A. perspicillata, Lin. Black Duck. Plumage black, with the crown
and nape white ; two long protuberances on the lateral part of
the bill ; no speculum on the wings. 20 inches long. Inhabits
North America. — Edrv. Glean, pi. 155.

A. fusca, Lin. Velvet or Great Black Duck. No protuberance at
the base of the bill ; wing-spot small and white ; tarsi and toes
red ; almost the whole plumage of a deep velvet black ; a white
crescent under the eyes ; webs black. 20 to 21 inches long. In-
habits N. Europe, &c. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. ii. pi. 41.

A. nigra, Lin. Black Diver. Plumage wholly black ; no wing-
spot ; a spherical protuberance on the base of the bill ; nostrils and
a longitudinal band on the bill orange ; naked circle of the eyes
yellow; tail very conical; toes brown, membrane black. 16 in-
ches long. Inhabits Arctic Regions — Shaw, xii. pi. 59.

A. leucocephala, Lath. Ural Duck. Top of the head deep black ;
forehead, cheeks, and throat white ; lower parts of the neck and
nape black ; breast, upper parts of the body, and flanks fine deep
red, with zigzag lines of brownish-black ; bill very broad, blue ;
wings very short; tail long, conical. 15 to 16 inches long. In-
habits salt lakes in Eastern Europe — Tern. Man. 859.

A. glacialisj Lin. Long-tailed Duck. Plumage white, with a large
brown-chestnut spot on the sides of the neck ; breast, back, rump,
and part of the wings black ; bill very short, black, with a trans-
verse red band ; two middle tail-feathers very long, sooty brown.
21 inches long. Inhabits Arctic Seas. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 58.

A. rujtna, Pallas. Red-Crested Duck. Back and wings brown ;
head and neck reddish-brown ; breast, belly, and abdomen deep
black ; a tuft of long silky feathers on the head ; bill long, depres-
sed towards the point. 20 inches long. Inhabits Northern Eu-
rope.— Tern. Man. 864.

A. Marila, Lin. Scaup or White-faced Duck. Head and upper
part of the neck black, with green reflections ; lower part of the
breast and rump deep black ; top of the back and scapulars whit-
ish, with distant fine zigzag lines ; wing-coverts marbled black

ANAS. BIRDS. 321

and white ; bill broad ; wing band white. 17 to 18 inches long.
Inhabits Arctic Regions. B. — Lervin's Brit. Birds, vii. pi. 250.

A.ferina, Lin. Red-Headed Widgeon. Head and neck bright red ;
upper part of the back, breast, and rump black ; back, scapulars,
coverts of the wings, flanks, thighs, and abdomen pale cinereous,
with numerous zigzag lines ; bill long, with a blue transverse
band on the upper mandible. 16 inches long. Inhabits North-
ern Europe — Pen. Brit. Zool. ii. 271.

A. clangula, Lin. Golden Eye. Bill very short ; base broader than
the tip ; nostrils situated near the latter ; tarsi and toes yellowish ;
back, rump, and part of the scapulars deep black ; coverts of the
wings and under parts white; tail cinereous; iris brilliant yellow.
17 inches long. Inhabits Arctic Regions. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 56.

A.fuligula, Lin. Tufted Duck. Body black; abdomen and spe-
culum of the wing white; point of the bill broader than the base;
nostrils near the base ; tarsus, bill, and toes bluish, membranes
black. 15 to 16 inches long. Arctic Regions. — Shaw, xii. pi. 54.

A. leucophthalmos, Bechst. Ferruginous Duck. Plumage dark oli-
vaceous, with the head, neck, and breast chestnut ; bill long ; iris
white; speculum of the wing white, terminated by black; a white
spot under the bill. 15 inches long. Inhabits Eastern Europe.
B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 55.

A. histrionica, Lin. Harlequin Duck. Head and neck blackish
violet ; a large white space between the bill and eye ; a spot be-
hind the eyes, longitudinal band on the sides of the neck, collar,
a half crescent on the sides of the breast, and part of the scapu-
lars pure white ; lower part of the neck and breast blue cinere-
ous ; flanks reddish ; belly brown ; back, wings, and rump black,
with green and blue reflections ; bill short, compressed ; nostrils
approaching. 16 inches long. Inhabits Arctic Regions. B.— -
Shaw, xii. pi. 57'

Gen. 12. MERGUS, Lin.

Bill middle-sized or long, slender, in the form of an elongated
cone, and almost cylindrical, base broad ; tip of the upper
mandible much hooked, and furnished with a nail ; edges of
both mandibles serrated in a backward direction ; nostrils
lateral, towards the middle of the bill; legs short, placed
backwards on the abdomen, the three fore toes completely
webbed, the hind toe articulated on the tarsus.

The birds of this tribe are nearly allied to the ducks, residing on the water, and
usually swimming with the body submerged, the head only appearing above the
surface. They dive frequently, and with great facility; while, by means of their
wings, they can advance quickly under water. They are capable, too, of sustaining
a protracted and rapid flight. They feed principally on fish and amphibious reptiles.
Their appropriate and breeding stations are in the cold latitudes, and they appear
in the temperate regions only in winter. The males moult in the spring, and the
females and the young in autumn.

M. merganser, Lin. Goosander. Head and upper part of the neck
VOL. I. x

322 BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

black, with green reflections ; lower part of the neck, breast, belly,
abdomen, and coverts of the wings white, shaded with rose-yel-
low ; top of the back and scapulars next to the body deep black ;
wing speculum white, without transverse bands ; male with a
thick and short tufted crest. 26 to 28 inches long. Inhabits
Arctic Regions. B — Shaw, xii. pi. 53.

M. serrator, Lin. Red-breasted Merganser. Wing-spot white, cros-
sed by two black bars in the male, and by one in the female ; the
mature male with a long and filamentous crest ; head, tuft, and
upper part of the neck black, with green reflections ; a white
collar round the neck ; five or six large white spots, bordered with
black at the insertion of the wings ; belly white ; bill and iris red.
20 inches long. Northern Europe. B — Do?i. Brit. Birds, ii. pi. 38.

M. albelhis, Lin. Smew or White Nun. Crest pendant ; occiput
greenish-black; body white; back and tern pies green-black; wings
variegated with white, ash-coloured and black ; tail ash-coloured ;
flanks and thighs varied with ash-coloured zigzag stripes ; bill,
tarsi, and toes bluish ash-coloured. 15 to 16 inches long. In-
habits Europe. B — Shaw, xii. pi. 52.

Gen. 13. PELECANUS, Lin.

Bill long, straight, broad, much depressed ; upper mandible
flattened, terminated by a nail, or very strong hook ; the lower
formed by two bony branches, which are depressed, flexible,
and united at the tip ; from these branches is suspended a
naked skin, in form of a pouch ; face and throat naked ; nos-
trils basal, in the form of a narrow longitudinal slit; legs short
and stout ; all the four toes connected by a web.

The Pelicans are large birds, residing on rivers, lakes, or along the sea-coasts.
Though excellent swimmers, they also occasionally perch on trees. They are gre-
garious, very fond of fish, and when harassed or pursued readily reject the con-
tents of their stomach, like the gull tribe. They store up their prey in their gular
pouch, from which it is gradually transferred into the oesophagus, as the process of
digestion goes on. Though remarkable for their voracity, some of the species have
been trained to fish for mankind. In external appearance the two sexes very nearly
resemble each other.

P. onocrotalus, Lin. White or Common Pelican. Plumage white,

faintly tinged with flesh colour, except the quills, which are black ;

upper part of the bill bluish, yellowish in the middle, and the

margins reddish ; face naked ; pouch bright yellow. 5 to 6 feet

long. Inhabits Eastern Europe — Shaw, xiii. pi. 12.

This bird has its specific name from its cry, which is loudest during flight, and

which the ancients compared to the braying of an ass. During the summer months

many of them take up their abode on the borders of the Black Sea and the shores

of Greece. They are rare in France, and unknown in Great Britain. In fishing,

they do not immediately swallow their prey, but fill their bag, and return to the

shore to consume at leisure the fruits of their industry. The female feeds her young

with fish from her pouch.

P. Australia, Lath. Plumage white, with the upper part of the
back, quills, and tail black. 5 feet long. Inhabits New Hol-
land— Shaw, xiii. 113.

4

CARBO. BIRDS.

Gen. 14. CAKBO, Meyer. — Pelecanus, Lin. — Phalacrocorax,
C u v . — Hydrocorax, Vieill.

Bill middle-sized, or long, straight, compressed ; upper mandi-
ble much bent at the tip, the lower compressed ; base of the
bill involved in a membrane which extends to the throat ;
face and throat naked ; nostrils basal, linear, and concealed ;
legs strong, short, situated far behind ; all the toes included
in a web, and the middle claw serrated.

The birds which compose this genus are very expert divers, and swim with ease
under water. They feed much on river fish, especially eels, and they are more ad-
dicted than the pelicans to perch on trees. Their moulting is partially double.

C. cormoranus, Meyer. (P. Carbo, Lin.) The Cormorant or Cor-
vorant. Top of the head, neck, breast, lower parts, and rump,
blackish green, with reflections; small whitish stripes on the neck ;
feathers of the back and wings brown cinereous or bronze in the
middle, bordered with blackish green ; quills and tail black ; tail
of 14 feathers ; guttural pouch small, yellowish ; iris green ; legs
black ; bill 2 inches 3 lines longer than the head. 27 to 29 inches
long. Inhabits Northern Europe. B. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 10.
The Cormorant is not uncommon on many of our own shores, building its nest of
sticks, seaware, and grass, on the highest parts of cliffs that impend over the sea,
and laying three or more green eggs about the size of those of a goose. Cormorants
were formerly occasionally trained in this country to catching fish for the table. For
this purpose they were kept with great care in the house, and when taken out for
fishing, they had a leathern thong tied round their neck, to prevent them from swal-
lowing their prey. Mr Patrick Neill, a zealous and able naturalist, has long pre-
served tame specimens in his collection at Canonmills.

C. graculus, Meyer. The Shag or Green Cormorant. Head, throat,
neck, and lower parts greenish-black ; feathers of the back and
wings cinereous in the middle, bordered with black ; tail very
long, graduated, conical, composed of twelve feathers ; bill 1 inch
10 lines longer than the head. 23 to 24 inches long. Inhabits
Europe, &c. B. — Lervin's Brit. Birds, vii. pi. 264.

C. cristatus, Tern. Crested Cormorant. Body glossy green, obscure
beneath ; head crested ; bill very long, slender, 2 inches 4 lines
longer than the head ; tail very short, composed of 12 feathers. 2
feet 1 or 2 inches long. N. Europe. B — Pen. Brit. Zool. ii. pi. 47»

C. pygmceus, Tern. Dwarf Cormorant. Plumage above blackish
cinereous, each feather bordered with a black band ; bill 1 inch
2 lines shorter than the head; tail long, graduated, of 12 feathers;
scapulars and coverts of the wings long ; breast greenish ; legs
cinereous. 21 inches long. Eastern Europe.— Tew. Man. 90L

Gen. 15. TACHYPKTES, Vieill — Pelecanus, Lin/
Bill long, stout, edged, depressed at the base, flattened at the
sides, with a suture above ; tips of both mandibles strongly
curved, and the upper terminated by a very pointed hook ;
nostrils more or less concealed, and linear ; legs placed far
back, very short ; tarsus shorter than the toes, and half-fea-

324 BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

thered ; the three fore-toes long, and half-webbed ; wings
very long and straight ; tail much forked.

T. aquilus, Vieill. (Pelecanus aqxilus, Lath.) Frigate Bird. Body
and orbits black, glossed with green ; bill red; belly of the female
white. The old male has a bright red fleshy membrane under
the throat. 3 feet long. Southern Seas. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 13.
This species has its English name from its lengthened form, rapid movement, and

the spirited manner in which it attacks the birds which it compels to disgorge.

Gen. 16. SULA, Briss. — Pelecanus, Lin.

Bill long, stout, in the form of an elongated cone, very thick
at the base, compressed towards the tip, which is obliquely
curved ; cleft beyond the eyes ; edges of both mandibles ser-
rated ; face and throat naked ; nostrils basal, linear, conceal-
ed ; legs short, stout, placed far behind, all the toes connect-
ed by a web ; claw of the middle toe serrated ; wings long ;
tail conical, and composed of twelve feathers.

S. alba, Meyer. (P. Bassanus, Lin.) The Gannet or Soland Goose.
Top of the head and occiput ochre-yellow ; the rest of the plu-
mage milk-white, except the quills of the bastard wing, which
are black ; bill bluish, cinereous at the base, white at the point ;
naked membrane surrounding the eyes blue; the membrane which
forms the prolongation of the opening of the bill, and that extend-
ing on the middle of the throat blackish-blue ; iris yellow ; claws
white ; tail conical. 2 feet 7 or 8 inches long. Inhabits Nor-
thern Europe, £c. B. — Shan, xiii. pi. 11.

This species chiefly haunts the northern regions of the two continents. They
breed abundantly on the Bass Island in the Firth of Forth, on Ailsa, off the coast
of Ayrshire, the Skellig Isles, on the coast of Kerry in Ireland, the Islands of St
Kilda, Orkney, Shetland, Faroe, &c. The Gannet arrives in the districts which we
have just mentioned in March, and continues till September; and a few seem to
stay about their breeding stations all winter. The female lays one egg, or more
frequently two, which are white, of a rough surface, a long shape, and remarkably
small for the size of the bird, being scarcely larger than those of a duck. The male
and female incubate, and go a-fishing by turns. The young begin to be taken in
August, and are sold every season in numbers in the markets of Edinburgh.

S. Candida, Briss. (P. piscator, Lin.) The White Gannet. Body
white ; face red ; quills black. 2 feet 7 inches long. Inhabits
China and New Holland. — Shaw, xiii. 103.

Gen. 17. PLOTUS, Lin.

Bill long, perfectly straight, slender, spindle-shaped, sharp-
pointed ; edges of the upper mandible dilated at the base, but
compressed and inflected in the other portions ; both mandi-
bles finely serrated ; nostrils linear, and hid in a shallow
groove ; legs short, thick, and strong, tarsus much shorter
than the middle and outer toe ; all the toes connected by a
web ; wings long ; tail very long.

P. melanogaster, Lath. The Black-bellied Darter. Back, scapu-

•

PHAETON. BIRDS. 325

lars, and wing-coverts brownish ; lower part of the neck, sides,
and wing-coverts with oval white spots ; scapulars streaked lon-
gitudinally with white ; a dull rufous bar across the breast ;
belly, quills, and tail black ; bill dusky yellow, covered at the
base with a skin of the same colour. 3 feet 3 inches long. —
Shaw, xiii. pi. 15.

P. anhinga, Lin. The White-bellied Darter. Head small, and
neck long and slender ; throat and fore part of the neck gray ;
upper part of the back and scapulars dusky-black ; lower part of
the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts black ; under parts pure
silvery- white ; tail of twelve broad glossy black feathers. 2 feet
10 inches long. Inhabits Brazil. — Shaw, xiii. 132.

Gen. 18. PHAETON, Lin.

Bill as long as the head, thick, stout, hard, sharp-edged, much
compressed, pointed, slightly sloped from the base ; edges of
the mandibles widened at the base, compressed and serrated
in the rest of their length ; nostrils basal, lateral, covered
above and near the base by a naked membrane, and pervious ;
legs very short, placed far back, all the toes connected by a
web ; wings long ; tail short, but the two filamentous middle
feathers very long.

P. phcenicurus, Lin. Common Tropic Bird. Plumage of a roseate
flesh-colour ; bill, and two middle tail-feathers red ; superciliary
band and the legs black ; two middle tail-feathers very long. 2
feet 10 inches long, including tail-feathers. Inhabits South Seas.
— Shaw, xiii. pi. 14.

These birds are well known to navigators, and generally announce their approach
to the tropics. They are capable of supporting long flights, and of reposing on the
water, feeding on the flying and other fishes that approach the surface. They rarely
alight on the ground, and walk awkwardly ; but they glide through the air or along
the water with grace and agility. They breed in desert or unfrequented islands.

Gen. 19. COLYMBUS, Lath.

Bill of medium size, straight, very pointed, compressed ; nos-
trils basal, lateral, concave, oblong, half closed by a mem-
brane ; legs placed far behind ; tarsi compressed ; the three
fore toes very long, and webbed ; the hinder short, with a loose
rudimentary web ; wings short ; tail very short and rounded.

The species of this genus reside chiefly in the water, and are almost habitual di-
vers. On the land, which they scarcely ever visit but in the breeding season, they
walk with difficulty. They nestle on small islands or headlands, generally lay two
eggs, and devour quantities of fish and their fry, marine insects, and even vegetable
productions. The plumage of the young is very different from that of the adult birds.

C. glacialis, Lin. Great Northern Diver. Head, throat, and neck
greenish black, with bluish reflections ; back, wings, flanks, and
rump deep black ; feathers of the back and scapulars with two
white square spots at the extremity ; breast and lower parts white ;
upper mandible almost straight, the under bent upwards, broad

326 BIRDS/ PALMIPEDES.

in the middle, and channelled beneath ; length of the bill 4 inches,
and from 1 to 4 lines, according to the age. 27 to 29 inches long.
Inhabits Arctic Regions. B. — Shaw, xii. pi. 61.

C. &rcticus, JLin. Black-throated Diver. Head and nape brown
cinereous ; throat black, with violet reflections ; back, rump, and
flanks black, without spots ; scapulars banded transversely with
12 or 13 white bands ; upper mandible slightly bent upwards ; the
middle of the lower mandible of the same breadth with the base,
without grooves below ; length of the bill 3 inches 3 to 6 lines.
24to26 incheslong. Arctic Regions. B. — Penn. Brit. ZooL ii. pi. 30.

C. septentrionalis, Lin. Red-throated Diver. Sides of the head,
throat, and sides of the neck, mouse-coloured ; top of the head
with black spots ; occiput, posterior and inferior part of the neck
with longitudinal black and white bands ; on the fore part of the
neck a long band of bright chestnut; breast and lower parts white;
flanks and upper parts blackish brown ; bill straight, slightly bent
upwards ; edges of both mandibles bent inwards ; length of the
bill 2 inches 10 lines or 3 inches. 21 to 24 inches long. Inhabits
Arctic Regions.— Penn. Brit. Zoo/, ii. pi. 30.

Gen. 20. URIA, Briss. Tern. — Colymbus and Alca, Lin.

Bill middle-sized, or short, stout, straight, pointed, compressed ;
upper mandible slightly bent towards the point, the lower
forming an angle more or less open ; nostrils basal, lateral,
concave, longitudinally cleft, half-closed by a broad mem-
brane covered with feathers, and pervious ; legs short, placed
far behind ; tarsi slender ; only three toes before, entirely
webbed ; wings short.

The Guillemots, like the Divers, inhabit the northern seas, are little fitted for mov-
ing on land, and seldom venture on shore except in breeding time, or when impel-
led by tempests. During the rigour of their native climates, they migrate south-
wards, along the coasts of some of the countries of Europe. They dive with great facili-
ty, and swim nimbly under water. They breed in company, in the holes of rocks, each
female laying only one large egg. They moult twice a-year, and the complete win-
ter plumage of the sexes is the same ; nor do the young materially differ in their
markings from the mature birds.

* Bill longer than the head.

U. troilef Lath. (Colymbus troile, and Colymbus minor, Gmel.)
Foolish or Lesser Guillemot. Upper parts velvety-black, slight-
ly cinereous ; lower parts white ; bill much compressed in its
whole length, longer than the head ; wings of an uniform colour,
but the secondaries tipped with white; legs dusky. 15 to 17
inches long. Northern Europe. "B.—Sharv, xii. pi. 62, fig. I.

U. Brunnichii, Sabine. Body fuliginous ; breast and abdomen snow
white ; secondary quills white on the tip j bill dilated, broad at
the base, as long as the head ; wings with the secondary feathers
tipped with white ; legs greenish. 18 inches long. Inhabits
Northern Ocean. — Sham, xii. pi. 62, fig. 2,

PHALKEIS. BIRDS. 327

U. grylle, Lath. (ColymbusgryIle,Ltin.) Black or Spotted Guillemot.
Black above, white beneath, and on the cheeks ; a large white
patch on the middle of the wings ; legs red ; iris brown. 14
inches long. Inhabits Northern Ocean. B — Shaw, xii. pi. 64.

** Bill shorter than the head.

U. alley Tern. (Alca alle, Lin. Mergulus, Vieill.) Little Auk, or
Small Black and White Diver. Plumage above black ; under
parts and tips of posterior quills white ; bill very short, about
half as long as the head, and very little arched. 8^ inches long.
Inhabits the Polar Regions. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 3.

These birds inhabit the northern seas, at least as high as latitude 76% where they
abound among the channels between the floes of ice. During storms or intense cold
some of them are impelled into more southerly climates. They feed much on a
small species of crab, and breed in the holes and crevices of craggy rocks, the fe-
male laying one bluish-green egg, generally without spots, but sometimes minutely
sprinkled with dusky.

Gen. 21. PHALERIS, Tern.— Alca, Lath.

Bill shorter than the head, depressed, dilated on the sides, near-
ly quadrangular, notched at the tip, the lower mandible form-
ing a salient angle ; nostrils marginal, in the middle of the
bill, linear, half-concealed, and pervious ; legs short, placed
far behind ; tarsus slender ; three toes before ; claws much
bent ; wings middle-sized, the first quill longest.

P. cristatella, Tern. (Alca cristaiella, Lath.) Tufted Stariki or
Tufted Auk. Body dusky ; back with rusty spots ; a tuft on
the forehead, composed of several short feathers, from the middle
of which rise six long filamentous and silky ones, which bend for-
ward on the bill ; bill red. 12 inches long. Inhabits Islands
between Asia and America.— Shaw, xiii. pi. 5.

P. Psittacula, Tern. Body dusky, abdomen white ; face produced
and straightened towards the base of the bill ; bill red ; legs dirty-
yellow ; membrane brown. Size of a blackbird. Inhabits Kamt-
schatka. — Shaw, xiii. 44.

Gen. %2. MORMON, Illig.— -Alca, IJm.<-—Fratercula, Vieill.

Bill shorter than the head, deeper than long, and much com-
pressed ; both mandibles arched, transversely furrowed, and
notched towards the tip ; ridge of the upper mandible ele-
vated above the level of the skull ; nostrils lateral, marginal,
linear, naked, almost wholly concealed by a large naked
membrane ; legs short, placed far behind, furnished with
only three toes, all directed forwards and webbed ; claws
much hooked ; wings short.

The birds of this genus are nearly allied to the Guillemots and the Penguins, with
the last of which they have been generally classed. They fly less than the former,
and are seldom found on land except during the breeding season.

M. fratercula, Tern. (Alca arctica, Lin.) The Puffin. Top of the

BIRDS. PALMIPEDES.

head, all the upper part, and a large collar surrounding the neck
of a deep lustrous black ; quills blackish -brown ; a broad band
above the eyes, and the throat clear gray j breast and belly
white ; bill compressed^ cinereous at the base, yellow in the mid-
dle, and red at the point ; upper mandible with three grooves,
the under with two ; naked margins of the eyes red ; legs orange.
12^ inches long. Northern Europe. B — Shaw, xiii. pi. 4.

M. glacialis, Tern. Northern Puffin. Body black ; cheeks slaty-
white ; breast and abdomen white ; bill pale, with the base black.
Inhabits Northern Regions. — Shan1, xiii. 40.

M. cirrhata, Tern. Tufted Puffin. Body dusky ; forehead, sides
of the head and throat white ; eyebrows white, with an elongat-
ed crest rising over each eye. 19 inches long. Inhabits Kamt-
schatka. — Shatv, xiii. 40.

Gen. 23. ALCA, Lin.

Bill straight, broad, compressed, much bent towards the tip,
both mandibles half covered with feathers, and grooved near
the point, the upper hooked, the lower forming a salient
angle ; nostrils lateral, marginal, linear, situated near the
middle of the bill, almost entirely closed by a membrane, and
covered with feathers ; legs short, placed far behind, with
three toes directed forwards and palmated ; wings short.

The Auks have nearly the same habits as the other marine arctic birds, seldom
being seen on land, except for the purpose of breeding, and resembling the Guille-
mots, in particular, in their mode of life, and in laying one large egg.

A. torda, Lin. Razor-lulled Auk. Body black, beneath from the
middle of the throat white ; a white line on each side from the
bill to the eyes ; wings ending at the rump ; tail in the form of
an elongated cone, 14J inches long. Inhabits Arctic Regions.
B.— Dow. Brit. Birds, iii. pi. 64.

A. impennis, Lin. Great Auk or Penguin. Body black ; under
parts from the middle of the throat, the tips of the secondary
quills, and an ovate spot before the eyes, white ; wings destitute
of feathers capable of flight ; tail short. 2 feet 1 or 2 inches
long. Inhabits Northern Regions. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 6.

Gen, 24 SPHENISCUS, Briss. — Aptenodytes, Lath. — Eudyptes>

Vieill.

Bill shorter than the head, compressed, very thick, strong,
straight, hooked at the tip, obliquely grooved ; edges of both
mandibles bent inwards, the under covered with feathers at
the base, and truncated, or obtuse at the tip ; nostrils small,
lateral, placed near the middle of the bill, and cleft in the
furrow ; legs very short, thick, placed very far behind ; four
toes directed forwards, of which three are webbed, and the
fourth is little more than a tubercle; wings incapable of flight.

APTENODYTES. BIRDS. 329

The birds of this genus inhabit the South Seas, from the equator to the antarctic cir-
cle, and are analogous to those of the preceding in food and habits. They are for-
tified against cold by an abundance of fat ; they swim very swiftly ; and on land
they cackle like geese, but in a hoarser tone.

S. demersus, Tern. Cape Penguin. Bill and legs black ; eyebrows
white ; pectoral band black ; plumage black above, white beneath.
21 inches long. Cape of Good Hope, &c. — Shaw, xiii. pi. 9.

S. minor. Tern. Little Penguin. Bill of the same conformation
as the preceding, with the upper mandibles blackish, and the in-
ner blue at the base ; plumage above ash-blue, and dusky-brown
at the origin of the feathers ; the under parts white. 14 inches
long. Inhabits New Zealand. — Shaw, xiii. 61.

S. chrysocome, Tern. Crested Penguin. Bill red, brown, three
inches long ; upper mandible curved at the end, the lower ob-
tuse ; an erect, frontal, and reflexed auricular crest of a sulphur
colour ; head, neck, back, sides, and wings black ; legs yellowish.

2 feet long. Inhabits Falkland Islands.— Shaw, xiii. pi. 8.

Gen. 25. APTENODYTES, Forster.

Bill longer than the head, slender, straight, inflected at the tip ;
upper mandible furrowed throughout its length, the under
wider at the base, and covered with a naked and smooth skin ;
nostrils in the upper part of the bill, concealed by the fea-
thers of tbe forehead ; legs very short, thick, placed very far
behind ; four toes directed forwards, three of which are web-
bed, and the fourth very short ; wings incapable of flight.

A. Palachonica, Lath. (Eudyptes, Vieill.) Patagonian Penguin.
Bill and legs black ; ears with a golden spot ; lower mandible
tawny at the base ; irides hazel ; head and hind part of the neck
brown ; back dark-blue ; breast, belly, and vent white. 4 feet

3 inches long. Inhabits South Sea Islands — Shaw, xiii. pi. 7-

The A. Chilocnsis., is the only other known species.

ORDER XVI.— INERTES.

Bill of different forms ; body probably thick, covered with down
and feathers with distant webs ; legs placed much behind ;
tarsus short ; three toes before, divided to the base ; hind toe
short, articulated exteriorly ; claws thick and sharp ; wings
improper for flight.

Temminck places in this order two genera of little known birds, which are con-
nected in some respects with the Sphenisci and Aptenodytes, though their divided toes
approach them to the Cursores.

Gen. 1. APTERYX, Shaw.

Bill very long, straight, subulate, soft, furrowed in all its length,
inflected and gibbous at the point ; base covered by a cere

330 BIRDS. INERTES.

furnished with hair ; nostrils opening near the point of the
mandible, at the end of a tubular furrow ; legs short, feathered
to the knees ; wings rudimentary, terminated by a spur.

A. Amtralis, Shaw. Southern Apteryx. Ferruginous-gray, with
yellowish-brown bill and legs. 2^ feet long. Inhabits New Zea-
land.— Maw, Nat. Mis. xxiv. pi. 1057, 1058.

Gen. 2. DIDUS, Lin.

Bill long, stout, broad, compressed ; upper mandible bent at
the point, transversely furrowed ; lower mandible straight,
gibbous and bent upwards at the point ; nostrils in the mid-
dle of the bill, placed obliquely in a furrow ; tarsus short ;
three toes before, divided, the hind toe short, claws short,
bent ; wings incapable of flight.

D. ineptus, Lin. The Dodo. Plumage cinereous,, soft ; belly and
thighs whitish; head large ; wings and tail yellowish ash-colour.
Nearly 3 feet long. Inhabits the Mauritius. — Shaw, xiv. pi. 40.

Fossil remains of birds are known under the name of Orni-
tholites. They are more rare than the fossil remains of qua-
drupeds, either from their being more recent productions of the
animal kingdom, or because the bones of birds are more suscep-
tible of decomposition. Such remains as are found are also less
easily referred to known genera ; for the parts which in birds
serve to characterize the different families, as the corneous man-
dibles and the claws, have in most instances lost their form,
from the compression and rupture to which they have been
subjected.

The principal and best authenticated fossil remains of birds
have been found in the gypsum quarries in the neighbourhood
of Paris, where fragments referable to six or seven genera have
been discovered.

REPTILES. 331

CLASS III.— REPTILES. (Reptilia.)

Vertebrated animals with cold red blood, respiring by lungs ;
body naked, or covered with scales.

MANY of the animals of this class were well known to the
ancients ; and Pliny in his Natural History has embodied all
the information known to his time respecting the different spe-
cies. The earliest of the modern writers on the same subject,
such as Gesner, Aldrovandus, and Johnston, though they ad-
ded somewhat to the general stock of information, yet, from the
prejudices of their age, or the want of accurate observation, pro-
ceeded but little way in separating fact from fable, and redu-
cing the fictions of poets and the representations of travellers to
the capability of ordinary belief. This class of animals, most
of them forbidding in their appearance, and many of them dan-
gerous in their nature, seems particularly to have become the
subject of exaggeration ; and many are the fables which have
been related of their magnitude and power, from the African
serpent of 120 feet in length which stopped the army of Attilius
Regulus, to the basilisk which killed its observer by a glance.

The celebrated John Ray, the precursor of Linnaeus in me-
thodical arrangement, was the first to introduce a system upon
intelligible principles. In his Synopsis Methodica Animalium
Quadrupedum et Serpentini generis, published in 1693, he
arranges reptiles into 1. Oviparous Animals with red blood,
respiring by lungs, and having a heart with one ventricle ; 2. Li-
zards ; and, 3. Serpents. The first of these divisions includes
the frogs, divided into aquatic and terrestrial, the toads, and the
tortoises. The second division includes the Saurian reptiles of
Cuvier; and the third the Ophidian reptiles of the same author.

Ray was followed as a systematic writer by Linnaeus, who,
in his Systema Naturce, arranged this tribe of animals, under
the title of AMPHIBIA, into three orders, viz. Reptilia, Serpentes,
and Nantes. This last order, which included the cartilaginous
fishes, was removed to its proper place in the class of fishes by

332 REPTILES.

Gmelin, in his edition of the Systema Natures published in
1788.

Klein, in his Tentamen Erpetologia 1 755, arranged the ser-
pents into two classes, 1. those which have the head distinct
from the body, and the tail elongated ; 2. those which have the
head not distinct from the body, and the tail obtuse. Laurenti,
in 1768, in his Synopsis of Reptiles, divides them into three
orders, viz. Leapers, as the frogs ; Walkers^ as the lizards ;
and Serpents. By a strange oversight, however, it has been
observed that he forgot to place the Tortoises in his arrange-
ment. Scopoli and Gmelin followed in proposing methodical
arrangements ; but as these were but slight modifications of that
of Linnaeus, it is not necessary to notice them further.

Lacepede's arrangement, the next to be noticed, appeared in
his excellent work on Oviparous Quadrupeds and Serpents,
published in 1790, as a continuation of Buffon's great work.
It differs not materially from that of Linnaeus, but is valuable
for the accuracy of the details and the precision of the charac-
ters, besides the introduction of many new genera.

The arrangement of reptiles which has been generally adopt-
ed is that of Alexander Brogniart, who in 1799 proposed a
classification, of which the highest praise is, that it has been
followed by Cuvier in his Regne Animal. This naturalist
derived his orders from the differences of organization in the
principal organs, such as those of respiration and generation ;
and with these characters combined others which appear next
in importance to the exercise of the animal functions ; for
instance, the organs of touch, of digestion, and of locomotion.
The result of this comparison was the division of the class into
four Orders, viz.

I. CHELONIANS. Body covered with a shield or plate.
II. SAURIANS. Body covered with scales.

III. OPHIDIANS. Destitute of feet.

IV. BATRACHIANS. Body covered with a naked skin.

Latreille, in his Histoire Naturelle des Reptiles, making part
of Deterville's edition of BufFon, and in his Families Naturelles
du Regne Animal, (1825,) has made some slight changes in
the arrangement of Brogniart ; but the general principle of the

REPTILES. 333

division has been preserved both by this author, by Dumeril in
his Elemens des Sciences Naturelles, and by Daudin in his
Natural History of Reptiles, written for Sonnini's edition of
Buffon.

Besides the systematic writers, there are many others from
whose works much information may be derived in the details of
the structure, history, and habits of this class of animals. A
list of the chief of these will be given at the end of this volume.
The third volume of Shaw's General Zoology may be men-
tioned, as containing good figures of the principal species de-
scribed, and as easily accessible.

This department of Natural History is frequently treated of
under the general title of Herpetology, the term being derived
from egmlos, a reptile, and Xoyog, a discourse.

In Reptiles the heart is so disposed, that at each contraction
only a portion of the blood which it receives is conveyed to the
lungs ; and from this it results that the action of oxygen on the
blood is much less than in the mammiferous animals and birds,
where all the blood is exposed to the action of the air. As re-
spiration gives the blood its heat, and muscular fibre its sus-
ceptibility for nervous irritation, the temperature of reptiles
is comparatively lower, and their muscular strength weaker
than that of quadrupeds, and much less than that of birds.
Their motions are chiefly confined to crawling and swim-
ming ; and though many at times leap and run very quick-
ly, yet their general habits are sluggish, their sensations obtuse,
their digestion slow, and in cold or temperate countries they
pass almost the whole winter in a state of torpidity.

The heart is composed in Frogs of an auricle and a ven-
tricle ; in Serpents of two auricles, and a ventricle of two com-
partments ; and in the Tortoises and Lizards of two auricles
and a ventricle of communicating cavities.

The general resemblance in point of form which characterizes
the two preceding classes, is not applicable to the present class;
for while some, as the Serpents, have no members at all, others
have two short legs ; and the Lizards, Tortoises, and Frogs
have four, adapted in the two last to progression in the water
and on the land. Neither is there a common external cover-

334, REPTILES.

ing for the class, as fur for the quadrupeds, or feathers for the
birds. Their low temperature, not differing much from the
medium in which they live, renders such a covering to re-
tain the heat unnecessary. The skin is naked in Frogs, scaly
in Lizards and Serpents, and covered with a shelly plate in
the Tortoises.

The brain in Reptiles is small, their nerves are very solid,
and the relation of their sensations to a common centre seems
less necessary to their animal and vital functions than in the
higher classes. They continue to live 'and possess voluntary
motion for a considerable time after the brain has been remov-
ed, and even when their head is cut off. The connection of the
nervous system with the muscular fibre is also less necessary
to its contraction ; and their muscles preserve their irritability
longer after being separated from the body, than in the previous
classes. Even in some species the heart beats many hours after
it has been taken from the body, and the body itself to move
for a still longer period, after the removal of this essential organ.

Reptiles possess five senses, but none of them in great per-
fection. Thus their sense of touch is obtuse, from the scales,
plates, or shells of some species ; and even when the skin is
naked it is not adherent to the body, but envelopes it like a bag,
as is seen in the frog. Sometimes, as in the serpents, their eyes
have no eyelids, are often immoveable, and covered with a cor-
neous substance ; in some three eyelids are to be distinguished ;
while some again appear to be destitute of sight. They have no
cochlea, and but a small bone under the tympanum. Their
nostrils are small, and their sense of smell appears weak.
Their taste is not delicate, for the greater number swallow their
prey whole, and in those which have the tongue soft and flexible,
this organ serves chiefly for the seizure of their food.

Many species of Reptiles have no ribs, as the Frogs ; among
others, as the Serpents, these ribs are free and without a ster-
num ; in the Tortoises they are all fixed together ; and in the
Lizard family the ribs are disposed nearly as in birds. The
lungs are always included in the same cavity as the intestines.
The smallness of the pulmonary vessels permits reptiles to
suspend their respiration without stopping the circulation of
the blood ; and thus they can remain for a long time under
water with ease. The cells of their lungs are few in number,

REPTILES. 335

and generally large, and this organ has sometimes the form of
simple sacs, scarcely cellular. They are provided with a tracheal
artery and larynx, although all have not the faculty of uttering
sounds.

No species of reptile is possessed of true fleshy lips. Some, as
the Tortoises, have a horny bill like the parrot ; others have
teeth of various forms, not serving, however, in general for the
maceration of food, but for retaining their prey; while others, as
certain serpents, have hollow fangs, which are erected when the
animal opens its mouth to bite, and which insert an active poi-
son into the wound made by these teeth. Reptiles have but one
opening for rejected solid and fluid matters, and for the organs
of generation.

The females have a double ovary and two oviducts, and, though
oviparous, none of the species hatch their eggs. Those which
couple deposit eggs covered with a hard envelope ; and the
eggs of those species which do not are soft and glairy. The
greater part abandon their eggs after having deposited them in
a convenient place ; though some species carry them about with
them. The young on quitting the ova appear sometimes in
the form which they preserve through life ; but in other cases
they are at this period of their existence organized like fishes,
are not fully developed till after a certain period, and undergo
a complete metamorphosis. Such are the tadpoles of the frog.

Many species of this class are used as articles of foodnn dif-
ferent countries. The use of others in the economy of nature
is apparent, in limiting the excessive reproduction of in sects and
worms ; while they themselves, on the other hand, form the
principal food of some families of birds. The poisonous spe-
cies are not very numerous, and their range is daily diminish-
ing as cultivation and population increase.

According to the arrangement of Reptiles by M. Brogniart,
and followed by M. Cuvier, founded upon their organization,
and which is adopted in the following summary, they are di-
vided, as noticed above, into four orders, viz. CHELONIAN REP-
TILES or Tortoises ; SAURIAN REPTILES or Lizards ; OPHI-
DIAN REPTILES or Serpents ; and BATRACHIAN REPTILES
or Frogs.

336 REPTILES. CHELOKIA.

ORDER I.— CHELONIA.

Heart with two auricles; body enveloped in two plates or shields,
formed of the ribs and sternum ; four feet.

In the Chelonian reptiles (so named from ^t\d>t),, a tortoise,) the heart consists of
two auricles, and a ventricle with two unequal chambers which communicate together.
' The blood of the body enters the right auricle, that of the lungs into the left, but
both kinds of blood are partially mixed in passing through the ventricle. These
animals are distinguished externally by the double shield in which all their body
is inclosed, except their head, neck, tail, and feet. The upper shield or plate is
formed by their ribs, consisting of eight pairs, widened and united together, and at the
annular portion of the dorsal vertebrae by dentated sutures, in such a manner that all
these parts are deprived of mobility. The lower shield, or breast-plate, is formed of
pieces which are a substitute for the sternum, and which are generally to the num-
ber of nine. A circle of bony pieces, which appear analogous to the cartilaginous
part of the ribs in the mammalia, generally surrounds the upper shell, uniting all
the ribs which comprise it. The vertebrae of the neck and tail are alone moveable.

These two bony cases being covered by the skin or by scales, the scapula, and
all the muscles of the arm and neck, in place of being attached to the ribs and spine,
are below, wlflch has made the tortoise be termed in this respect a retroverted ani-
mal. The vertebral extremity of the scapula is articulated with the shield, and the
opposite extremity of the clavicle with the breast- plate, in such a manner that the
shoulders form a ring for the passage of the trachea and oesophagus. A third bone,
larger than the other two, and directed backwards and downwards, represents, as in
birds, the coracoid apophysis.

The lungs are extensive, and in the same cavity with the other viscera. The
thorax being immoveable in the greater number, it is by the action of the mouth
that the tortoise respires. Keeping the jaw shut, it alternately lowers and raises the
hyoid bone. The first movement allows the air to enter by the nostrils, and the
tongue afterwards closing the interior opening, the second movement forces the air
to penetrate into the lungs.

Tortoises have no teeth ; their jaws are covered with horn, as the mandibles of birds,
except in the Chelides, where they are simply covered with skin. Their chest and
palatine arch are fixed to the cranium, and immoveable. Their tongue is short, and
rough with fleshy threads ; their stomach simple and strong ; and their intestines
of medium length, and deprived of coscum.

Tortoises lay numerous eggs, covered with a hard shell. These eggs, deposited
in the warm sand, under a southern sun, and in summer, are hatched without the
parents' care by the influence of the atmosphere. The under shell or breast- plate of
the male is concave, that of the female cenvex.

Tortoises are very tenacious of life, and they have been known to move without
the head for many weeks. They subsist on little food, and they are able to pass
months and even years without eating.

* Land Tortoises.
Gen. 1. TESTUDO, Brogniart.

Upper shell gibbous, supported by a solid bony frame, and
joined through the greater portion of its sides to the under
shell ; feet with short toes, united nearly to the nails, and
capable, as well as the head, of being withdrawn within the
shell ; fore feet with five nails, these behind with four, all
thick and conical.

T. Grceca, Lin. The Common Tortoise. Shell hemispherical, mar-
bled with black and yellow, gibbous behind ; disc composed of 13
convex pieces, of an oblong square form, and 25 marginal ones ;
under shell pale yellow, of twelve pieces, with a broad blackish

EMYS. REPTILES. 337

band down each side ; legs short, covered with ovate scales ; tail
short, conical, terminating in a horny tip. Shell 6 to 8 inches
long. Inhabits Greece, Italy, &c. — Shaw, iii. pi. 1.
This species, one of the most common of the land tortoises, digs its winter retreat
about the end of autumn, and reappears about the middle of April. It lives to a
great age ; and there is a well ascertained fact of one, introduced into the archiepiscopal
garden at Lambeth, in the time of Archbishop Laud, about the year 1G33, which
survived till the year 1753, and was then supposed to have perished rather from accfc
dental neglect than old age.

T. Indica, Vosm. Indian Tortoise. Shell convex, deep brown, with
the anterior margin reflected ; a tubercle on the three upper scu-
tella ; tail terminating in a horny tip. Shell 3 feet long. Inha-
bits Coromandel. — Shaw, iii. pi. 3.

T. geometrica, Lin. The Geometrical Tortoise. Shell black, ovate,
with the scutella regularly ornamented with yellow lines in rays
arising from a disc of the same colour ; disc with 13 or 14 pieces ;
marginal pieces 24 to 26. Shell nearly a foot long. Inhabits
Africa — Shaw, iii. pi. 2.

T. radiata, Shaw. Radiated Tortoise. Shell black, ovate, smooth,
with flattish scutella, radiated with yellow. Shell a foot or upwards
in length. Inhabits Madagascar. — Shaw, iii. pi. 2.

T. tabidata, Schcepf. Tabular Tortoise. Shell oblong, gibbous,
brown, with the scutella of the disc rectangular and furrowed,
and yellowish centres. Shell 5 or 6 inches long. — Shaw, iii pi. 8.

** Fresh water Tortoises.
Gen. 2. EMYS, Brong.

Upper shell gibbous, divided into compartments by large scales :
feet with distinct toes, terminated by crooked nails ; toes
more or less palmated ; five toes before and four behind.

This genus has the shell generally more flattened than in the land tortoises. They
feed on insects and small fishes.

E. Europcea, Cuv. The European Tortoise. Shell oval, slightly
convex, smooth, blackish, strewed with yellowish points disposed
in rays ; disc composed of 13, and the margin of 25 pieces ; under
shell whitish yellow, tinged with brown at the joints. Inhabits
Europe — Shaw, iii. pi. 5.

E. picta, Cuv. The Painted Tortoise. Shell oblong, slightly con-
vex, smooth, brown, and each of the scutella bordered with yel-
low, broadest on the anterior margin ; disc composed of 13 'and
the margin of 25 pieces. Shell 4 to 6 inches long. Inhabits
North America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 10.

E. scripta, Cuv. The Lettered Tortoise. Shell orbicular, depressed,
whitish, tinged with yellow, marked with variously formed black
narrow lines and undulations ; marginal pieces spotted beneath.
Shell \l inch long — Shaw, iii. pi. 12.

E. serrata, Cuv. The Serrated Tortoise. Shell brown, fasciated
with yellow, with the posterior marginal pieces tridentated, and

VOL. I. Y

338 REPTILES. CHELONIA.

live brown spots in one row upon the lower edge of the mar-
ginal plates. Shell about a foot long. Carolina. — Shaw, iii. pi. 9.

Gen. 3. CISTUDA, Fleming — Tortues a boite, Cuv.

Back plate emarginate in front, with two notches behind; un-
der shell with one or two moveable divisions ; lips corneous.

C. Amboinensis, Cuv. Shell convex, brown, with yellow border ;
head spotted with yellow ; breast-plate moveable before and be-
hind. Inhabits Amboyna — Daud. ii. 309.

C. tricarinata, Cuv. Shell ovate, blackish, slightly convex, with
the margin entire, and all the scutella of the disc carinated ; tail
short, conical, scaly, pointed ; breast-plate moveable before and
behind. Size of a large walnut. — Shaw, iii. pi. 11.

C. Pennsylvania, Cuv. Pennsylvanian Tortoise. Shell brown,
smooth, elliptic, with flattish back ; the middle row of scutella
subrhomboid and subimbricated, the first subtriangular ; breast-
plate moveable before and behind. Shell 3 or 4 inches long.
Inhabits N. America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 14.

C. clausa, Cuv. Close or Box Tortoise. Shell brownish-black, ir-
regularly spotted with yellow ; scutella striated parallel to their
sides, yellowish in the middle, and the dorsal ones carinated ; an-
terior part of the under shell moveable. Shell 4 or 5 inches long.
Inhabits N. America — Shaw, iii. pi. 7-
This species has its name from the manner in which the under part of the shell is

applied to the upper, after the animal withdraws its head and legs within the shell.

Gen. 4. CHELONQRA, Fleming.

Extremities incapable of being withdrawn within the shell ; tail
about as long as the shield; upper shell carinated, with sharp
processes behind.

C. serpentwa, Fleming. Snake Tortoise. Shell ovate, depressed,
triply carinated, rounded, and acutely serrated at the posterior
margin ; tail as long as the body, very thick at its base, covered
with scaly tubercles, of which those above project and form a
crest. Shell 4 feet long. Inhabits N. America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 19.

*** Sea Tortoises.
Gen. 5. CHELONIA, Brongniart.

Feet flattened into scaly fins ; toes unequal, elongated, scaly,
and united by a membrane, with very small nails upon their
exterior border, terminated by scaly laminae.

C. mydas, Cuv. Green Turtle. Shell brown, heart-shaped, of 13
dorsal segments, surrounded by 25 marginal pieces ; the brown
variegated with deeper undulations. 5 to 6 feet long. Inhabits
Seas in the Torrid Zone — Shaw, iii. pi. 22.

This is the species now imported regularly, and so much esteemed as an article of
food. Jt lays a great number of eggs, about a thousand annually, which it deposits

CHELYS. REPTILES. 339

in the sand. When turned on its back on shore it cannot recover itself. Turtles
feed in great numbers on the algae at the bottom of the sea ; and various modes of
taking them are practised when in this situation, swimming on the surface of the
water, or on shore.

C. imbricata, Cuv. Imbricated or Hawksbill Turtle. Shell heart-
shaped, with thirteen imbricated semitransparent and variegated
scales on the disc ; marginal pieces twenty- five; head small ; neck
long ; beak narrow and sharp. 3 to 5 feet long. Inhabits seas of
the Torrid Zone.—Shuw, iii. pi. 26.
This is the species which affords the tortoise shell of commerce. Fire is applied

below the shell, to separate the plates from their bony support. Tortoise shell was

extensively used to ornament furniture by the ancient Romans.

C. Caouana, Cuv. Shell oval or heart-shaped, dentated on the mar-
gin, more or less brown or reddish, with fifteen scales on the disc,
the intermediate ones ridged posteriorly; point of the upper man-
dible hooked ; fore feet long and narrow. Inhabits the Mediter-
ranean Sea — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 13.

C. coriacea, Cuv. Coriaceous Turtle. Body without scales, but
covered with a brown skin resembling leather ; upper part oval,
and pointed behind, with longitudinal prominent ridges. 7 to 8
feet long. Inhabits Mediterranean Sea. — Shaw, iii. pi. 21.
This species grows to a large size, and has sometimes been taken on the coast of

England.

Gen. 6. CHELYS, Dumeril.

Shell too small to receive the members ; mouth cleft across ;
lips fleshy, with the nose prolonged into a small trunk ; toes
webbed.

C.Jimbriata, Cuv. Shell oval, subconvex, brown, rough with pyrami-
dal eminences; neck with fimbriated membranaceous appendages;
snout cylindrical, truncated ; disc of 13 semicircular pieces ; mar-
ginal pieces 25, almost square. 2 feet 3 inches long; shell 15
inches. Inhabits Guiana. — Shaw, iii. pi. 18.

Gen. 7. TKIONYX, Geoff.

Lips fleshy ; nostrils prolonged into a cylindrical tube ; back-
plate destitute of scales, but covered with a coriaceous skin,
studded near each extremity with hard knobs ; only three of
the five toes with nails.

T. Mgyptiacus, Geoff. Soft Tortoise of the Nile. Back slightly
convex, of a green colour, spotted with white. Inhabits the Nile,
and devours the young crocodiles when newly hatched. — Ann.
du Mus. xiv. 1.

T.ferox, Cuv. Soft Tortoise of America. Shell brownish, ovate,
osseous in the middle, cartilaginous on the margin, obscurely mark-
ed with five or six transverse bands, and granulated with small
warts, of larger size near the margin ; head small, trigonal ; snout
much lengthened ; nostrils tubular, prominent, 18 inches long.
Inhabits N. America. — Shdrv, iii. pi. 17«

340 REPTILES. SAURIA.

This species inhabits the rivers of Carolina and Georgia ; lies in ambush among
the reeds, &c. and preys on birds, the smaller reptiles, and young alligators. Its
flesh is eaten.

ORDER II.— SAURIA.

Body elongated, covered with scales, generally with four feet ;
toes with claws, at least in part ; tail more or less long ; mouth
armed with teeth.

The Saurian family (so named from 0-awgoc a lizard) have the heart composed, as
in the preceding order, of two auricles, and a ventricle sometimes divided by imperfect
partitions. Their ribs are moveable, partly attached to the sternum, and capable of
being elevated and depressed by respiration. Their lung extends more or less towards
the hinder part of the body ; it penetrates often before into the lower belly, and the
transverse muscles of the abdomen glide under the ribs and even towards the neck
to embrace it. Those species which have the lung very large possess the singular fa-
culty of changing the colours of their skin as they are influenced by their wants or
passions.

The mouth in Saurian reptiles is always armed with teeth ; their toes have nails,
at least in part ; and their skin is covered with scales more or less impacted. All have
a tail more or less long, and almost always thick at the base. The greater number
have four legs ; but some have only two. Their food is chiefly animal. They also
deposit their eggs in places convenient for their being hatched without the care of
the parent ; and the animal when produced has the form which it afterwards preserves.

The Saurian reptiles are distinguished from the Chelonian by the want of a shield
and by the presence of teeth ; from the Ophidians because they have eyelids and
the branches of the jaws united, a sternum and two lungs ; and from the Batrachians
by their having ribs, nails, a scaly skin, and in not undergoing a metamorphosis.

FAMILY I. — CROCODILID^E.

Body elongated, covered with square scales, of which the upper
and under are the largest, and those above raised into a ridge
in the middle ; four feet, with five toes before, and four be-
hind, the three interior with nails, and all more or less united
by membranes ; a single row of pointed teeth in each jaw ;
tongue fleshy, flat, and attached almost entirely to the lower
jaw; tail flattened on the sides, with a strongly dentated crest.

Crocodiles are reptiles of large size, with the body covered by square scales, of
which those above form projecting lines, raised into a double crest on the tail. Their
head is long and heavy, and their jaws are articulated behind the cranium. Their
nostrils form a long canal which has its origin in the throat, and terminates at the
point of the muzzle, where the crescent-shaped orifice opens and shuts at will. Their
eyes have three eyelids ; the exterior ear can be shut at pleasure by two fleshy co-
verings ; and under the throat are two small holes, the orifices of glands which secrete
a musky substance. Crocodiles are the only Saurian animals which are destitute of
clavicular bones ; but their cor acoid apophysis is attached to the sternum, as in all the
others. The eggs of crocodiles are hard and as large as those of a goose. The fe-
males watch the eggs, and when they are hatched take charge of the young for some
months.

Gen. 1. GAVIALA, Cuv.
Muzzle narrow, cylindrical, and much elongated ; teeth nearly

CROCODILUS. REPTILES. 341

equal ; hind legs dentated on the external margin, and pal-
mated to the claws.

G. Gangetica, Cuv. The Gangetic Crocodile. Muzzle narrow, as
long as the head ; upper jaw with 28 teeth on each side ; lower
jaw with 25 ; two carinated plates upon the neck ; eyes very
large, with a large hole in the cranium behind them, which may
be felt thro ugh the skin. 12 to 18 feet long. India. — Shaw, iii. pi. 60.

G. tenuirostris, Cuv. Muzzle double the length of the head ; both
jaws furnished with 27 teeth on each side ; four carinated plates
disposed in a square upon the neck. 2^ feet long. Inhabits India.
Reg. An. ii. 20.

Gen. 2. CROCODILUS, Cuv. — Lacerta, Lin.

Muzzle oblong and depressed ; teeth unequal ; legs dentated,
and feet palmated ; the fourth tooth in the lower jaw on each
side lying along a groove in the upper.

C. vulgcuis, Cuv. (L. crocodilus, Lin.) The Common Crocodile.
Blackish brown above, yellowish white beneath ; upper parts of
the legs and sides varied with deep yellow, and in some parts
tinged with green ; fourth tooth on each side of the lower jaw
passing into a groove in the edge of the upper jaw ; six rows of
square carinated plates, nearly equal, along the back ; plates of
the neck six ; tail with two lateral crested processes. 20 to 30
feet long. Inhabits rivers of Africa. — An. Mus. x. 82.

The Common Crocodile, the largest of the Saurian family of reptiles, has been
known from the earliest times. It has the general form of the lizard, with an elon-
gated and flattened head rounded at the extremity. The number of teeth is about
36 in the upper jaw and 30 in the under one, in one single row, but the number
is not constant. These teeth are strong, conical, striated, and of unequal length.
It was long believed that the upper jaw of the crocodile was alone moveable, but
modern investigation has proved that the lower jaw, as in other animals, is possessed
of motion. The error, however, was natural ; for the centre of motion being in this
tribe behind the cranium, their head appeared to be raised by the opening of the
mouth. With the exception of the top of the head, the whole body is covered with
scaly plates. The eggs of the crocodile are deposited in the sandy shores of the
Nile, to be hatched by the heat of the sun. The young on their departure from the
egg take to the water ; but numbers of the eggs and young are destroyed by the ich-
neumon and other animals. The age to which the crocodile arrives is not ascer-
tained ; but as their growth is slow, it is supposed to be great. This animal is
considered to be the Leviathan of the Sacred Writings. Among the ancient Romans,
crocodiles were sometimes exhibited in the public spectacles ; and Scaurus during
his asdileship displayed no fewer than five of these animals in a temporary lake for
the gratification of the populace.

C. Suchus, Geoff. The Sacred Crocodile. Body green, with black
spots ; plates of the neck longer than broad ; cranium smooth, elon-
gated. 5 feet long. — An. Mus. x. 84.

This animal is the Sacred Crocodile of the Egyptians, and was first distinguished
as a species by M. Geoffroy-St-Hilaire, from the inspection of many crocodiles brought
by him from Thebes. The weakness of its jaws prove that it was not a very dange-
rous animal ; and Herodotus mentions that the priests tamed this species, which was
held in veneration, and adorned it with ear-rings and bracelets.

C. biporcatus, Cuv. With eight rows of oval plates along the back,

342 REPTILES. SAUHIA.

. and two projecting ridges on the top of the muzzle ; plates of the
i* neck six. Inhabits India Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 20.

C. acutus, Cuv. Muzzle elongated, gibbous at the base ; plates of
, . the back ranged in four rows, the exterior ones placed irregularly
and^with the ridges more projecting ; plates of the neck six. In-
habits West India Islands. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 21.

C. rhombifer, Cuv. Muzzle subconvex, with two converging ridges;
plates of the neck six ; scales of the back in sixes, square ; those
of the limbs thick and carinated — Ann. Mus. x. 65.

C. galealus, Cuv. Top of the head with a bidentate elevated crest;
plates of the neck six. Inhabits India — Ann. Mus. x. 65.

C. biscutatus, Cuv. Intermediate scales of the back square ; outer
ones irregular, both in form and situation ; plates of the neck two.
— An. Mus. x, 65.

Gen. 3. ALLIGATOR, Cuv.

Muzzle broad, obtuse, teeth unequal ; the fourth tooth on each
side of the lower jaw entering a cavity in the upper ; feet
semipalmated, and with dentations.

A. sclerops, Cuv. (Lacerta alligator, Lin.) The Alligator. Green-
ish brown above, with irregular marblings of greenish ; pale yel-
low below; muzzle flat, a little narrower than the head, with a
transverse ridge uniting before the projecting margin of its orbits ;
jaws with nineteen teeth on each side; neck withfour rowsof strong
plates. 18 to 20 feet long. Inhabits Guiana and Brazil. — An.
du Mus. x. 31.

The Alligator or American Crocodile abounds in the rivers and lakes of Carolina
and Florida. They pass the winter in holes or burrows in the marshes. In the
spring at the period of their coupling, they make a loud bellowing ; and at other
times, make a noise by opening and shutting their jaws forcibly. They swim with
facility, but their movement on land is slow. The young feed chiefly on insects.

A. Lucius, Cuv. Muzzle parabolic, depressed, with four large plates
on the neck, and eighteen transverse rows of carinated plates on
the back. 11 to 14 feet long. N.America. — An. du Mus. x. 29.

A. palpebrosus, Cuv. With bony palpebrae; neck furnished with four
bony carinated bands ; 21 teeth on each side in the lower jaw,
19 above. — Ann. du Mus. x. 35.

A. trigonatus, Cuv. With bony palpebrse, and the neck furnished
with irregular triangular carinated scales. — Seba, i. pi. 105, fig. 3.

FAMILY II. — LACERTINID^E.

This family is distinguished by a slender and extensible tongue, terminating in
two long filaments, as among the vipers. Their body is elongated and their motions
quick. All their feet have five toes, armed with nails, separate and unequal, espe-
cially those of the hind feet. Their scales are disposed under the belly and around
the tail in transverse and parallel bands. Their tympanum is on a level with the
head ; a production of the skin, longitudinally cleft, and which shuts by a sphincter,
protects the eye ; under the anterior angle is the vestige of a third eyelid. Their
false ribs do not form a complete circle. The male organ of generation is double,
and the anus is a transverse cleft.

MONITOR. KEPTILES. 343

Gen. 4. MONITOR, Cuv.^-Tupinambis, Lacepede.

Scales on the head, belly, and tail, small and imbricated ; tail
compressed laterally ; teeth in both jaws, but none on the
palate.

According to Cuvier, Marcgrave, speaking of a lizard of America, says that it was
named teyu-guacu, and among the Tupinambous, temapara. Seba has taken the
first word for the name of the animal, and the later naturalists have copied him in
making it a generic term.

* Tail compressed and carinated.

M. elegans, Cuv. Elegant Monitor. Body brownish black, with white
concentric lines above the head and neck ; nine transverse bands
of round white spots upon the back ; belly white. Inhabits In-
dian Archipelago. — Reg. An. ii. 24.

M. variegatus, Cuv. (L. varia, Shaw.) Variegated Monitor. Black-
ish above, variegated with double transverse rows of rounded
yellow spots and lines ; tail twice as long as the body. Inhabits
New Holland.— Shaw, Nat. Mis. pi. 83.

M. maculatus, Cuv. Spotted Monitor. Black above, irregularly
marked with transverse bands, and seven longitudinal rows of
greenish spots on the upper parts ; neck plaited below ; tail half
the length of the body. — Seba, i. pi. 110. fig. 4.

** Tail almost rounded, with a dentated ridge above.

M. Nilolicns, Cuv. (Lacerta Nilotica, Lin.) The Monitor of the
Nile or Ouaran. Back brown, with whitish spots, forming small,
oval, and irregular compartments ; tail almost triangular ; 24 to
30 teeth in each jaw. 3 feet long. Egypt — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 25.

M. ornatus, Cuv. Body black ; throat white, with transverse black
bands ; seven transverse rows of round white spots on the back,
and from 12 to 18 whitish rings round the tail ; 24 to 30 teeth
in each jaw. 5 to 6 feet long. Africa — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 25.

M, albigularis, Cuv. White Throated Monitor. Lower part and
sides of the head and neck whitish, spotted with brown ; two
whitish lines running from the eyes to the neck; tail long. Daud.ii.
pi. 32.

*** Tail almost round, not carinated.

M. terrestris, Cuv. Back uniform brown or yellowish green. In-
habits Egypt. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 25.
The jugglers of Cairo train this animal to play tricks, after having extracted its teeth.

Gen. 5, DRACCENA, Cuv.

With angular plates on the head ; large carinated scales on the
back, and forming crests on the tail ; scales under the neck
small ; those of the belly and around the tail rectangular ;
teeth conical ; tail rounded at the base, and compressed to-
wards the end,

344 REPTILES. SAURIA.

D. Guianensis, Cuv. Body reddish brown, shaded with green. 4 to 6
feet long, of which the tail forms one-half. Inhabits Guiana. —
Shaw, iii. pi. 67-

It frequents savannahs and marshy plains. Its flesh is eaten-

Gen. 6. TKIUS, Merrem. — Les Sauvegardes, Cuv.

With all the scales of the back small and smooth ; a row of in-
distinct pores under the thighs ; teeth notched ; tail more or
less compressed, carinated or smooth ; scales of the belly
longer than broad.

* Tail carinated.

T. bicarinat^ls, (Lacerta, Lin.) Body reddish brown, more or less
tinged with greenish ; two rows of carinated scales on the back,
confluent on the tail, and forming a serrated crest. 2 feet 5 inches
long. Inhabits South America. — Shaw, iii. 212.

** Tail smooth, compressed towards the point.

T. Teguixin, ( Lacerta, Lin.) Body black, spotted with blue above,
bluish below ; tail banded with blue and black. Nearly six feet
long. Inhabits Brazil — Shaw, iii. pi. 73.
This species runs rapidly, takes the water when pursued, and dives freely. It

feeds on insects, reptiles, &c. Its flesh is eaten.

Gen, 7. AMEIVA, Cuv. — Lacerta, Lin.

Tail entirely cylindrical, covered, as well as the belly, with
transverse rows of square scales ; those of the belly broader
than long ; scales of the throat small ; head pyramidal.

A. vulgaris, (L. ameiva, Gmel.) The Common Ameiva. Body
grayish-blue above, paler below ; with four longitudinal rows of
round whitish spots on each side ; neck transversely plaited be-
low. 12 inches long. South America, &c. — Shaw, iii. pi. 75.

A. litterata, Cuv. Body bluish green, variegated above with ob-
long black spots and transverse black bands, dotted with white,
on each side ; neck transversely plaited below — Seba, i. pi. 83.

A. ccerulocephala, Cuv. Blue-headed Ameiva. Head blue, with
a white longitudinal line along the middle of the back ; two yel-
low parallel lines on each side ; thighs dotted with white ; tail
twice the length of the body. — Seba, i. pi. 91, fig. 3.

A. lemniscata, Cuv. (Lacerta, Gmel.) Striped Ameiva. With
nine white longitudinal lines upon the back and sides ; tail long,
blue on the upper part ; thighs spotted with white ; dorsal line
forked at the head. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw, iii. pi. J5.

Gen. 8. LACERTA, Cuv.

Palate armed with two rows of teeth ; a collar on the under side
of the neck formed by a transverse row of large scales, sepa-
rated from those of the belly by very small ones ; bone of the
.cranium projected on the temples and orbits.

TAKYDJIOMUS. REPTILES. 345

L. ocellata, Daud. Eyed Lizard. Body black above, with lines and
rings, or eye-like spots of a light green ; below pale yellow, with-
out spots. 12 inches long. Inhabits South of France, Spain,
Italy, &c. — Daudin, iii. pi. 33.

L. viridis, Daud. The Green Lizard. Body bright green, marked
above with numerous black or brown points ; pale green below,
without spots — Daudin, iii. pi. 34.

L. bilineala, Daud. . Two-lined Lizard. Back with two longitu-
dinal white lines, margined above with brown ; a longitudinal row
of brown spots and white points on the sides ; tail long — Daudin,
iii. pi. 35, fig. 1.

L. agilis, Cuv. Ash-coloured above, whitish below ; back marked
with a longitudinal dotted brown line, and a subreticulated brown
longitudinal line edged with paler colour on the sides. Inhabits
Europe. B. — Daudin, iii. pi. 38, fig. 1.

L. arenicola, Cuv. Body brownish-gray, with a row of brown spots
on the back, and a double series of brown ocellated spots, dotted
with white, and a single row of white dots on each side ; pale
below, and without spots. Europe. — Daud. iii. pi. 38, fig. 2.

Gen. 9. TAKYDROMUS, Cuv.

Body and tail excessively elongated ; rows of square scales on
the back ; pores on the thighs ; two vesicles on the sides of
the anus.

T. quadrilineatus, Cuv. Brown above, whitish below, with two lon-
gitudinal white lines on each side — Davdin, iii. 252.

T. sexlmeatus, Cuv. Bright shining blue, with three longitudinal
black lines on each side — Daudin, iii. pi. 39.

FAMILY III. — IGTJANID.E.

General form of the Lizard ; but with the tongue thick and
fleshy, not extensile, and notched at the point.

Gen. 10. CORDYLUS, Cuv.

Belly and back covered with large scales in transverse rows, form-
ing spinous circles on the tail ; line of large pores on the
thighs ; head simple ; no palatine teeth .

C. Capensis, (L. cordylus, Lin.) Body livid bluish or sometimes
blackish-brown. About the size of the common green lizard. In-
habits Cape of Good Hope. — Seba, i. pi. 84, fig. 3, 4.

Gen. 11. STELLIO, Daud.

Body covered with pointed scales ; spines of the tail of medium
size ; head inflated behind ; ears surrounded with spines ;
thighs destitute of pores ; tail long and pointed ; no palatine
teeth.

346 REPTILES. SAUEIA.

S. vulgaris, (L. stellio, Lin.) Common Stellio. Body olive-coloured,
shaded with blackish, with a few transverse bands of larger scales
on the back and thighs. 12incheslong. Egypt. — Cuv.Reg.An.ii.32.

The Mahometans kill this species, because they say it lowers its head as mocking
their attitudes in prayer.

Gen. 12. MASTIGURA, Fleming.

Scales of the body smooth and uniform, those of the tail larger
and more spinous than the preceding; pores under the thighs ;
no palatine teeth.

M. spimpes, Daud. Body inflated, meadow-green, covered with
minute scales, spinous on the tail above, and on the thighs. 2 or
3 feet long. Inhabits Egypt.— Geoff. Rept. Egypt, pi. 2, fig. 2.

M. quetz-paleo, Daud. Scales edged and carinated ; tail spinous
above and below ; body gray, with two black spots forming a se-
micollar on the nape. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 33.

Gen. 13. AGAMA, Daudin. — Lacerta, Lin.

Body oblong, more or less thick, entirely covered with small cari-
nated scales, raised into rough points in different parts of the
body, and chiefly above the region of the ears ; head tumid ;
skin of the throat loose, plicated transversely, and capable of
inflation.

A. vulgaris, (L. agama, Gmel.) Common Agama. Body brownish,
with a row of small spines on the nape, and some groups round
the ears. Inhabits Guiana.—- Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 34.

A. muricata, Cuv. Body grayish ; rows of large spinous scales in
transverse bands upon the back and tail ; throat capable of infla-
tion, and furnished with scales elongated into points, which form
a sort of beard ; similar scales on the flanks and behind the ears ;
tail twice as long as the body. Upwards of a foot long. Inhabits
New South Wales. — Shaw, iii. pi. 65.

A. orbicularis. Cuv. Body orbicular and rough, depressed and va-
riegated above with brown ; head like that of a toad ; tail short.
6 inches long. Inhabits South America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 71-

Gen. 14. TRAPELUS, Cuv.

Body oblong ; head tumid ; scales small, smooth, and without
spines.

This genus is founded by M. Cuvier on a small animal discovered by M. Geoffrey,
which is even more remarkable for the change of its colours than the chameleon.

T. Egyptiacus, Cuv.— Geoff: Rept. Egypt, pi. 5, fig 3, 4.

Gen. 15. CALOTES, Cuv.

Body covered with imbricated scales, edged on their margin, those
on the middle of the back forming a crest.

LOPHYRUS. REPTILES. 347

C. vulgaris. Body fine blue, with transverse white bands ; two rows
of spines behind the ears ; tail very long. 18 inches long. In-
habits India. — Shaw, iii. pi. 64.

Gen. 16. LOPHYRUS, Dumeril. — Lacerta, Lin.

Body shagreened ; dorsal crest prolonged upon the tail ; tail
compressed vertically.

L. scutatus, (L. scutata, Lin.) Dorsal crest high on the neck,
formed of many rows of vertical scales ; two bony ridges continued
from the muzzle, terminating in a point at the eye. 1 2 to 1 6 inches
long. Inhabits Ceylon. — Shaw, iii. pi. 68.

L. superciliosus. Body pitchy black ; back and tail crested above ;
a slight appearance of a ridge over the eyes j occiput callous and
spinous ; scales of the body rhomboid. 12 to 16 inches long.
Inhabits S. America — Shaw, iii. pi. 68.

Gen. 17. BASTLISCUS, Daud. — Lacerta, Lin.

Crests edged, supported by long spiny apophyses of the verte-
bras, extending on the back and at least part of the tail ; crests
scaly, as the rest of the body ; scales of the belly and tail small,
of a square form ; teeth strong, compressed, without notches ;
no palatine teeth ; a row of pores on the thighs ; skin of the
throat loose, without forming a pouch.

The Basilisks of modern naturalists have nothing of the deadly properties attribu-
ted by the ancients to their fabulous animal of this name. Though rather repulsive
in their appearance, they are harmless animals, inhabiting woods, feeding on insects,
and leaping from branch to branch by the assistance of their crested back and tail.

B. mitratus, Cuv. (L. basiliscus, Lin.) Mitred Basilisk. With a
crest on the back,, another on the first half of the tail, and a third
on the occiput ; tail long and pointed. 2 to 3 feet long. In-
habits Brazil. — Shaw, iii. pi. 63.

B. Ambomensis, Cuv. Head quadrangular, with a convex scale on
the middle ; crest on the origin of the tail, and dorsal crest pec-
tinated ; tail long. 4 feet long. Amboyna. — Shaw, iii. pi. 62.

Gen. 18. DRACO, Lin.

Six false ribs, extending in a right line and supporting an exten-
sion of skin, which forms a kind of wing ; body covered with
imbricated scales, those of the tail and legs carinated ; a long
pointed gular pouch under the throat ; tail long ; no femoral
pores ; a small dentation on the nape ; four incisors in each
jaw, a long and pointed canine, and twelve triangular molar
teeth.

This genus possesses the scales and gular pouch of the Iguanas, with the head and
teeth of the Stellios. They are of small size, seldom exceeding ten inches in length.

D. lineaius, (D. volans, Lin.) The flying Dragon. Body varie-
gated with blue and gray above; wings brown, longitudinally stri-

348 REPTILES. SAURIA.

ated with white. 9 or 10 inches long. Inhabits Asia and Africa.

— Sharv, iii. pi. 54.

Notwithstanding the terror of its name, as celebrated by poets and historians, the
flying dragon of modern naturalists is a very innocent animal, inhabiting trees and
feeding on insects, which it seizes in leaping from branch to branch. The lateral
expansions or wings are merely aids to it in leaping, and quite incapable of support-
ing it in continued flight. These wings are triangular, and their upper surface is
furnished with small scales. They are strengthened by six bony rays, unequal in
length, and extend from the fore to the hind feet. This species walks with difficulty
on the ground.

D. viridis. Body green, rather scaly ; wings gray, transverse, mark-
ed with four brown bands, and connected with the thighs. — .
Daud. iii. pi. 41.

T>.fuscus. Body brown above, paler beneath, scarcely scaly ; wings
brown — Dfiud. iii. 307-

Gen. 19. IGUANA, Cuv. — Lacerta, Lin.

Body and tail covered with small imbricated scales ; a row of
spines or impressed and pointed scales along the back ; throat
with a pendant and inflated skin, compressed laterally ; femo-
ral pores ; head plated ; a row of compressed triangular and
serrated teeth around the jaws ; and two little rows on the pos-
terior margin of the palate.

I. vulgaris, (L. Iguana, Lin.) The Common Iguana. Body blue
above, changing to green and violet, paler below ; dorsal spines
large ; a large round plate under the tympanum, at the angle of
the jaws ; sides of the neck furnished with pyramidal scales scat-
tered among the others ; anterior margin of the gular pouch den-
tated. 4 to 5 feet long. Inhabits S. America. — Shaiv, iii. pi. 61.
Tliis animal lives generally among trees, goes sometimes to the water, and feeds

on fruits, grains, and leaves. Its flesh is much esteemed.

I. nudicollis, Cuv. (7. delicatissima, Laur.) Head with gibbous
plates; no tubercles oiithe sides of the neck; gular pouch without
dentations. Inhabits India — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 40.

Gen. 20. POLYCHRUS, Cuv. — Lacerta, Lin.
No dorsal crest ; toes not dilated ; head covered with plates ;
body and tail with small scales ; throat extensible and capa-
ble of inflation ; femoral pores ; maxillary teeth edged and
dentated, and small ones on the palate.

This genus has the faculty, like the Chameleon, of changing colour. Their lungs
are large, filing a great part of the body and dividing into many branches ; and
their false ribs, like the same genus, surround the abdomen, uniting to form com-
plete circles.

P. marmoratns, Cuv. Reddish gray, marbled with irregular trans-
verse bands of red brown ; tail very long. Inhabits Guiana. —
Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 41.

Gen. 21. ANOLIUS, Cuv. — Lacerta, Lin.
Skin of the toes extended in the antepenult joint into an oval

3

GECKO. REPTILES. 349

disc, striated across below ; claws much hooked ; tail uniform-
ly shagreened with small scales ; a gular pouch in the great-
er number ; teeth edged and dentated as in the preceding
genus, and small ones on the palate.

This genus has the faculty of changing colour almost equal to the Chameleon ;
and their false ribs form circles as in the preceding. The skin of the tail forms slight
folds, of which each comprehends circular rows of scales.

* Tail crested.

A. principalisj Cuv. Body bluish-black, with a crest on the half
of the tail supported by five rays composed of the spinous apo-
physes of the vertebrae ; gular pouch extending under the belly.
A foot long. Inhabits Jamaica — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 42.

A. bimaculatus, Cuv. Body greenish j spotted with brown towards
the snout and upon the sides, and a black spot upon each shoul-
der. 6 inches long. Inhabits S. America — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 43.

** Tail rounded.
A. bullaris, Cuv. Body greenish ; muzzle short, spotted with brown ;

eyelids projecting. Inhabits S. America. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 43.

This is a small animal, and when enraged its gular pouch becomes as red as a
cherry. It changes colours too with great facility.

FAMILY IV. — GECKOTTD.E.
Gen. 22. GECKO, Daud. — Ascalabotes, Cuv.
Body flattened, particularly the head ; eyes large ; tongue fleshy
and not extensible ; jaws furnished with a row of very small
and close-set teeth ; skin shagreened above with small scales,
and often tubercles, below with smaller, flat, and imbricated
ones; tail with circular folds ; toes widened in all their length,
or at the extremity, with the skin folded or scaly.

The species of this numerous genus are found in the warmer parts of both con-
tinents. They are dull and heavy- looking animals, and the structure of their feet
enables them to walk on perpendicular surfaces and even ceilings. Sir Everard
Home, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1816, has demonstrated the peculiar
mechanism by which this is effected. The claws vary according to the species, and
are entirely wanting in some. Cuvier divides this genus into five sections or sub-
genera.

1. PLATYDACTYLI. — Toes widened throughout, and furnished be-
low with transverse scales.

Some of the species of this section want nails, and their thumb is very small ; and
others want the femoral pores.

G. inunguis, Cuv. Body violet above, white below ; with a black
line upon the sides. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 46.

G. ocellatus, Oppel. Body gray, covered with ocellated spots, white
in the middle. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 46.

G. Cepediensis, Peron. Body black-coloured, marbled with blue, and
a white line along each side ; femoral pores distinct. Inhabits
Isle of France. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 46.

Gr.fascicularis, Daud. (L. Mauritania, Lin.) Common Gecko.

350 REPTILES. SAURIA.

Body deep gray ; upper part of the body tuberculated, each tu-
bercle formed of three or Jour smaller ones ; scales below the tail
similar to those of the belly ; no nails on the thumbs or on the se-
cond and fifth toes ; no femoral pores. Inhabits Southern Eu-
rope and Asia — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 46.

G. guttatus, Baud. (Stellio Gecko, Schneid.) Bddy reddish, with
rounded tubercles above, and numerous round white spots ; un-
der part of the tail with square and imbricated scales ; no nails
on the thumbs ; a row of pores before the anus. Inhabits Indian
Islands — Lacep. i. pi. 29.

G. vittatus, Cuv. Body brown, with a white band on the back, bi-
furcated on the head and on the base of the tail, with white rings
around the tail ; no nails on the thumbs. India. — Daud. iv. pi. 50.

2. HEMIDACTYLI. — Base of the toes furnished with an oval disc,
formed below by a double row of scales ; from this disc rises the
second phalange, which is slender and supports the nail joint ;
nails on all the toes, and a row of pores on both sides of the anus ;
scales under the tail large.

G. tuberculosus, Daud. The Tokay. Body marbled with bluish
and reddish; the body and tail" rough with conical tubercles.
About a foot long. Inhabits Indian Islands. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 47.

3. THECADACTYLI Toes widened throughout their whole length and

furnished with transverse scales, the scales divided by a longitu-
dinal furrow ; no nails on the thumbs ; tail covered above and be-
low with small scales ; no femoral pores.

G. Icevis, Daud. Body gray, marbled with brown and granular above;
tail long and plicated. Inhabits Surinam — Daud. iv. pi. 51.

4. PTYODACTYLI. — Toes dilated only at the tip, and striated below ;

the nails crooked, placed in a fissure.

G. lobatus, Geoff. The House Gecko. ^Stellio Hasselquistii, Schn.)
Body smooth, reddish-gray, spotted with brown ; scales and tuber-
cles very small ; toes free; tail round. Inhabits Egypt. — Geoff.
Rept. Egypt, iii. pi. 5.
This species frequents houses. Its voice resembles the croaking of a frog.

Q.Jimbriatus, Cuv. The Fimbriated Gecko. Head, body, and legs
flattened at the sides, and bordered with a fringed membrane ;
feet semipalmated. 8| inches long. Inhabits Madagascar.—
Shaw, iii. pi. 78-

G. caudiverbera. Body blackish ; no fringe on the body but only on
the tail, on which there is also a membranous vertical crest.
About a foot long. Inhabits S. America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 78.

5. PHYLLURI. — Similar inform to the Geckos, but without the toes

widened; tail flattened, cordiform.

G. phyllurus, (Stellio phyllurus, Schn. L. platura, White.) Body
gray, marbled with brown above, and rough with pointed tuber-

CHAMELEON. REPTILES. 351

cles ; tail smooth and flattened longitudinally, like a cordiform
leaf. 4 to 6 inches long. New Holland. — Shaiv, iii. 247-

FAMILY V.-
Gen. 23. CHAMELEON, Cuv.

Body shagreened with small scaly granules, compressed, and
the back edged ; tail round and prehensile ; five toes on all the
feet, but divided into two sets; the one of three toes, the other
of two, each united by a membrane to the nails ; tongue
fleshy, cylindrical, and extremely extensible ; teeth trilobed ;
eyes large, but almost covered by skin, and with separate
movements ; no external ear ; occiput pyramidal ; lungs very
large.

The Chameleons have long been known for their property of changing colour. The
great size of their lungs is, according to Cuvier, the cause of this property ; not as
was formerly believed according to the body upon which they were placed, but ac-
cording to their wants and passions. When the lungs are inflated their body seems
transparent, which occasioned the ancients to fancy that they fed on air. Chameleons
inhabit trees, and feed on insects, which they take with the glutinous extremity of
their tongue. They are very sluggish and inactive animals. The species of this
genus have been accurately described by Mr Gray in the Philosophical Magazine,
Vol. ii. p. 209.

C. vulgaris, Daud. Common Chameleon. Head keeled over the
eyes ; occiput crested ; crest reaching to the middle space between
the eyes ; scales small, uniform ; dorsal and medial ventral line
from the chin to the vent larger, naked ; ventral line white.
22 inches long. Africa and India. — Phil. Mag. ii. 209.

C. pumilus, Laur. Eyebrows crested; occiput keeled; scales
square, with scattered ovate shields on each side of the back ;
head tubercular, with two oval smooth places on each side ; back
part of the tail and chin denticulated. 5 inches long. Inhabits
Cape of Good Hope — Phil. Mag. ii. 211.

C. Senegalensis, Daud. Eyebrows crested, denticulated ; occiput
flat, rather convex behind, not denticulated, bony ; scales small,
uniform, granular, those of the head rather larger and ovate ;
back of the neck, throat, and belly denticulated. 8 inches long.
Phil. Mag. ii. 212.

C. bifurcus, Brong. Eyebrows arched ; occiput lunate, obliquely
crested ; face between the front of the eyes and tip of the nose
extended into two lanceolate lobes ; scales flat, quadrangular,
those of the head larger, hexangular ; occipital crest and back of
the neck denticulated. 10 inches long — -Phil. Mag. ii. 212.

C. Parsonii, Cuv. Eyebrows arched ; occiput obliquely expanded
over the back of the neck ; front of the head over the nostrils
expandedinto two short, compressed, serrated lobes ; scales of the
head large and hexangular, those of the body small and quadrangu-
lar, separated into ovate groups. 12 inches long. Phil. Mag.ii.213.

C. tigris, Cuv. MS. Body slender, dull reddish, sprinkled with

352 REPTILES. SADHIA.

black spots ; head small ; two tubercular lines behind the eyes,
running into one elevated median line. — Phil. Mag. ii. 213.

C. Seychellensis, Peron. MS. Body reddish ; no dorsal or abdomi-
nal crest ', crest of the head with four bony tubercles ; orbits sur-
rounded with a tuberculous bony margin. Seychell's Islands, ib.

FAMILY VI. SCINCIDJE.

Legs short ; tongue not extensible ; body covered with equal
imbricated scales.

Gen. 24. SCINCUS, Baud. — Lacerta, Lin.

Body long, covered with elliptical or rounded imbricated shining
scales ; tongue fleshy, little extensible, and slightly cleft ;
jaws with small close-set teeth, and two little rows on the
palate ; feet with five toes, free and unguiculated.

S. qfficinalis, Schn. (L. scincus, Lin.) Officinal Scink. Body
silvery gray, with transverse blackish bands ; muzzle pointed and
a little recurved ; tail shorter than the body, silvery yellowish.
6 to 8 inches long. Inhabits Arabia, &c. — Shaw, iii. pi. 79.
The Officinal Scink has held a high place in eastern countries from time immemorial
as a restorative. In Arabia it is said to cure cutaneous diseases, and even elephantiasis ;
and Pliny reports that it was considered a specific against poisoned arrows. Accord-
ing to Bruce it burrows in the sand, and performs this operation so quickly that it
is out of sight in an instant, and appears rather to have found a hole than made one.

S. occiduus, (L. occidua, Shaw.) The Galley Wasp. Body reddish,
with irregular whitish transverse bands ; molar teeth rounded ;
two little lobes before the tympanum ; tail scarcely the fourth of
the total length. 12 to 18 inches long. Inhabits Jamaica —
Shaw, iii. pi. 81.

S. Schneiderii, Daud. Scales smooth, of a greenish yellow colour ;
a pale line on each side, and a triple elevation before the ears ;
tail longer than the body. Inhabits the Levant. — Cuv. Reg.
An. ii. 54.

S. ocellatus, Daud. Body greenish gray above, with little brown
spots circled with white ; tail short and slender. 2 inches long.
Inhabits Western Europe and Asia. — Daud. iv. pi. 56.

Gen. 25. SEPS, Daud.

Body, neck, and tail very long, cylindrical, covered with im-
bricated scales of a rounded or elliptical form ; tongue short,
slightly cleft at the tip; feet small, the two pairs widely
separated ; toes four or five.

S. pentadactylus, (Lacerta serpens, Lin.) Five- toed Eft. Body
bay or ash-coloured above, with numerous longitudinal brown
streaks ; whitish below ; feet with five toes, furnished with claws.
5^ inches long. Inhabits Java. — Shaw, iii. 307*

S. tridaclylus. Three-toed Eft. Feet with three very short toes

BIPES REPTILES. 353

without nails ; body ash-coloured above, with four longitudinal
brown streaks, paler below. — Daud. iv. pi. 57-

S. monodactylus. (Lacerta anguina, Lin.) One-toed Eft. Feet
extremely thin and short, composed of one toe, without a claw ;
tail three times as long as the body. 15 inches long. Inhabits
Cape of Good Hope — Skaiv, iii. pi. 85.

Gen. 26. BIPES, Lacep.

No fore feet, the scapulars and clavicles being concealed un-
der the skin ; feet slightly divided, or without divisions.

B. apus. (Lacerla apus, Gmel.) Head and body without distinct
separation ; tail long and round ; scales small, imbricated ; two
feet near the anus, with slight divisions. Inhabits shores of the
Volga Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 56.

B. Gronovii. (Anguis bipes, Lin.) Dorsal scales dotted with brown ;
tail shorter than the body ; two feet, round, and without divi-
sions.— Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 56.

Gen. 27. CHALCIDES, Daudin.

Body excessively elongated ; feet four, short and distant, toes
varying according to the species ; scales not imbricated, but
forming transverse bands or rings.

C. tridactylus , Three-toed Chalcides. Feet three-toed, short, and
without claws ; tail a little longer than the body. — Daud. iv. pi.
58, fig. 3.

C. monodactylus, (L. anguina, Lin.) One-toed Chalcides. Feet
short and very slender, with one toe ; tail longer than the body,
cylindrical. — Daud. iv. 370.

Gen. 28. CHIROTES, Cuv.
Hind feet wanting. In other respects resembling the preceding.

C. lumbricoides. (Bipede cannele, Lacep.) Hind feet wanting;
fore feet with five toes, of which four are clawed and one naked ;
sides of the body longitudinally furrowed. 8 or 10 inches long.
Inhabits Mexico.— Lacep. i. pi. 41.

ORDER III OPHIDIA.

Heart with two auricles ; body much elongated, cylindrical,
destitute of feet, generally covered with scales.

The Ophidian reptiles, (so named from o$/c, a serpent) have no feet; and in
consequence that division to which the name of Reptiles is more properly applied.
They are readily known from this character ; from their cylindrical form and elon-
gated body ; by the wonderful flexibility of their dorsal spine ; and by their craw-
ling with the assistance of the large scaly plates on their belly.

Cuvier divides the order into three families. In ti\ejirstt or Anguines, the teeth and
VOL. I. Z

354 REPTILES. OPHIDIA.

tongue are similar to those of the genus Seps of the preceding order ; and the eye is
furnished with three eyelids. Latreille places them indeed at the end of the Saurian
reptiles. The second family, or the True Serpents, comprehends the genera without
sternum or vestiges of shoulder bones, in which the ribs sarround a great part of
the circumference of the trunk, and in which the vertebrae are articulated to one
another by a convex and concave surface. They want the third eyelid and tympa-
num. Although their head be large, the cranium forms but a small part of it.
Their eyes are fixed, and they have no external ear. Their nostrils are short, not
much developed, and generally situate at the extremity or sides of the muzzle.
The tongue varies much ; but although soft, moist, long, and forked, it appears
rather destined to assist in seizing their food than as an organ of taste. Their sense
of touch is blunted by the scaly epidermis which covers their body, and which they
change at least once in the year. The third family comprehends the Naked Ser-
pents, or those singular animals which form the genus Ccecilia.

All serpents are furnished with conical and curved teeth, calculated rather for
securing their prey than for breaking down their food. Some of the genera have
pervious teeth or fangs in the upper jaw, which, pressing a gland or sac, forces the
included poison into the wounds they inflict. The jaws are often not united in the
middle, in consequence of which they are enabled to dilate the mouth very consider-
ably. The digestion of serpents is very slow, and when they have taken food,
they fall into a state of languor or lethargy. The organs of generation and the
cloaca terminate in a common opening.

The circulation in serpents is slow. They possess a heart with two auricles and
one ventricle divided into two compartments, and a single lung. Their voice is
feeble, and they emit only a hissing noise. The ova have in general a slightly cal-
careous covering, and they are commonly united together in a chaplet form. Some-
times these ova are developed in the body of the female, and the young are pro-
duced alive. The females take care of the young for some time.

FAMILY I. ANGUINES,

Teeth small and of nearly equal size ; tongue notched in a luna-
ted form ; ribs more or less united, to supply the place of a
sternum ; eye furnished with three eyelids.

Gen. 1. OPHISAURUS, Daud. — Anguis, Lin.

Tympanum externally visible ; maxillary teeth conical, and two
small groups of teeth on the palate.

O. ventralis, Cuv. Body yellowish green, spotted with black above ;

under parts pale yellow; a line on each side furnished with smaller

scales, and a deep longitudinal furrow ; tail longer than the body.

18 to 24 inches long. N. America. — Catesby, Car. ii. pi. 59.

This animal is said to be so very brittle as to be denominated in Carolina the
Glass-snake.

Gen. 2. ANGUIS, Cuv.

Tympanum concealed under the skin ; maxillary teeth com-
pressed and hooked ; no palatine teeth.

A.fragilis,^\Ti. Blind- Worm, Penn. Body silvery yellow above,
blackish below ; scales smooth and shining ; three black longitu-
dinal dorsal streaks, changing with age into a series of points, and
finally disappearing ; tail longer than the body. 10 to 12 inches
long. Inhabits Europe. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 5.
The excessive fragility of this animal has been greatly overrated. Dr R. E.
Grant has had living species in his possession for months, which sustained no injury
by a fall from a table. This animal feeds on lumbrici and insects, and is viviparous.

ACONTIAS. REPTILES. 355

Gen. 3. ACONTIAS, Cuv. — Anguis, Lin.

No vestige of a sternum or pelvis ; teeth conical ; second lobe
of the lungs rudimentary.

A. meleagris, Cuv. Tail obtuse,, and much shorter than the prece-
ding ; eight rows of longitudinal brown spots on the back. In-
habits Guiana. — Seba, ii. pi. 21, fig. 1.

FAMILY II. — SERPENTES.

This numerous family includes those genera which are destitute of a sternum and
scapular bones, and want the third eyelid and tympanum. Cuvier divides them
into two tribes, the first of which has the lower jaw supported, as in all the pre-
ceding genera of reptiles, by a tympanal bone articulated to the cranium ; the
two branches of this jaw fixed before, and those of the upper jaw to the cranium
and to an intermaxillary bone, which prevents them from dilating, as in the se-
cond tribe. The eyes are small; the body cylindrical and covered with scales; the
tongue short; the trachea long; the heart very much behind; and they have only
a single lung.

I. JAWS NOT DILATABLE.

Gen. 4. AMPHISILENA, Lin.

Body surrounded with circular rows of quadrangular scales ; a
row of pores before the anus ; teeth not numerous, conical,
in the jaws only ; oviparous.

A. alba, Lacep. Body white, without spots ; head covered with
six large scales ; eight small tubercles around the anus. Inha-
bits S. America. 18 inches long — Sharv, iii. pi. 134.

A.fuligivosa, Lin. Body black, variegated with white ; head with
six large scales in three rows ; tongue broad, rough above, fork-
ed and free ; eyes small, and covered by a membrane ; anus sur-
rounded by eight tubercles. 2 feet long. Inhabits Ceylon. —
Shaw, iii. pi. 135.

Gen. 5. TYPHLOPS, Schn. — Anguis^ Lin.

Body covered with small imbricated scales ; snout depressed,
furnished with plates ; tongue long and forked ; eyes scarce-
ly visible through the skin ; anus almost at the extremity of
the body.

T. lumbricalis, Cuv. ( A. lumbricalis, Lacep.) Extremity of the
body thicker than the anterior part ; colour livid white. About 8
inches long. Inhabits S. America. — Lacep. ii. pi. 20, fig. 1.

T. nasutus. (A. nasutus, Gmel.) Muzzle elongated, with a yel-
low spot ; body greenish brown, with a yellow spot and lines on
the tail ; abdominal scales 218, subcaudal 12. 12 inches long.
Inhabits Surinam. — Shaw, iii. 587.

II. JAWS DILATABLE.

The second tribe have the tympanal bone or pedicle of the lower jaw moveable,
and almost always suspended to a bone analogous to the mastoid, attached to the
cranium by muscles and ligaments, which leave it considerable motion. The branch.

356 REPTILES. OPHIDIA.

es of this jaw are also not united ; and those of the upper jaw are united to the
intermaxillary only by ligaments. From this structure these animals have the faculty
of dilating their jaws, so as to swallow bodies thicker than themselves. Their pala-
tine arches participate in this mobility, and are armed with sharp teeth curved
backwards, — one of the most constant characters of the tribe.

These serpents are naturally divided into those which are poisonous and those
which are not ; and these again may be subdivided into poisonous serpents with
many maxillary teeth, and poisonous serpents with isolated fangs. In those not
poisonous, the jaws and the palatine branches have fixed and solid teeth ; four rows of
these teeth, nearly equal, being in the upper part of the mouth, and two rows be-
low.

1. Body cylindrical ; tongue short.
Gen. 6. TORTRIX, Oppel. — Anguis, Lin.

Scales of the belly and under the tail larger than the others ;
tongue thick and short ; tail extremely short.

T. scytale, Oppel. Body fulvous, with irregular black and white
rings. From 1 to 2 feet long. S. America — Shaw, iii. 581.

T. corallinus, Cuv. Body pale red, with broad alternate bands and
variegations of deep coral-red. 18 inches long. Inhabits South
America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 131.

T. ater, Cuv. Body white, with black bands. Inhabits S. Ame-
rica.— Shaw, iii. pi. 132.

T. maculatus, Cuv. Body yellowish or orange-coloured, with an
alternately fasciated black dorsal band. 18 to 20 inches long.
Inhabits South America. — Shaw, iii. 585.

2. Occiput more or less gibbous ; tongue forked and exten-
sible.
Gen. 7. BOA, Lin.

Anus with a hook on each side ; body compressed, thickest in
the middle ; tail prehensile ; scales small, at least upon the
posterior part of the head.

The largest of serpents, some species reaching thirty or forty feet in length, and
swallowing dogs, deer, and even oxen, according to some travellers. This genus
formerly comprehended all serpents, poisonous and not poisonous, of which the bo-
dy and tail were furnished with transverse scaly bands, and which had neither
spur nor rattle at the end of their tail.

B. constrictor, Lin. With a long chain-like line, formed alternate-
ly by large blackish spots, irregularly hexagonal, and pale oval
spots, hollowed at their ends, running along the back. 20 to 35
feet long. India, Africa, and S. America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 92, 93.

B. cenchris, Lin. The Ringed Boa. Body fawn-coloured, with a
chain of large brown rings along the back, and variable spots on
the sides. 265 abdominal plates, 57 subcaudal. 20 feet long.
Inhabits Surinam. — Shaw, iii. pi. 94.

B. scytale, (and murina,) Lin. The Anaconda. Body bright-
brown ; a double row of deep brown round spots along the back ;

4

Eaix. REPTILES. 357

ocellated spots on the sides. 20 feet long. Inhabits S. Ameri-
ca.— Shaw, iii. 343.

B. kortulana, Lin. Back variegated with deep brown, purplish, and
whitish ; sides with angular spots ; abdomen yellowish, with
dusky spots. The arrangement of colours on the head resembles
lace. 2 feet 2 inches long. S. America — Shaw, iii. pi. 98.

B. phrygia, Shaw. Body white, with a grayish cast on the back,
elegantly marked with black lace-like variegations. 4 feet long.
Inhabits India. — Shaw, iii. pi. 97-

B. canina, Lin. Head large ; body green, with transverse undu-
lated white dorsal bands. 4 feet long. Inhabits S. America. —
Shaw, iii. pi. 95.

Gen. 8. ERIX, Daud. — Anguis, Lin.

A longitudinal row of scales, larger than the others, under the
body and tail ; nine large plates on the head ; teeth small
and pointed.

E. Clivica. Body variegated with gray arid brown. Inhabits Duchy
of Cleves.—Skaw, iii. 589.

Gen. 9. ERPETON, Lacep.

Two soft prominences, covered with scales, at the extremity of
the -muzzle ; head furnished with large plates ; those of the
belly a little smaller, and those under the tail slightly different
from the other scales.

E. tentaculatus, Lacep. About four inches long, of which the tail
forms a third. — Lacep. An. Mus. ii. pi. 50.

3. Shields under the tail ranged in pairs. — COLUBER, Lin.

Gen. 10. PYTHON, Daud. — Coluber, Lin
Anus with lateral hooks ; ventral plates narrow ; plates of the
head large and numerous.

P. Javamcus, Cuv. The Oular-Sawa*. Body gray, striped with
blue, and crossed by blue stripes with yellowish edges ; abdomi-
nal scales 312, subcaudal 93. 20 to 30 feet long. — Shaw, iii. 441.

P. ordinatus, Cuv. Body bluish-green, with whitish dorsal line, and
sides spotted with brown. 2 to 3 feet long. Inhabits N. Ame-
rica.— Catesby, ii. pi. 51.

P. rhombeatns, Cuv. Body gray or brownish, with three alternating
longitudinal rows of ovate but somewhat rhomboid dusky spots,
with bluish centres. 2 or 3 feet long. S. America. — Shawt iii. 437.

Gen. 11. HUREIA, Daud. — Coluber, Lin.

With a double row of longitudinal plates under the extremity of
the tail ; the rest of the body below with one row only .

This genus was instituted by Daudin for the reception of some species of Indian

358 REPTILES. OPHIDIA.

serpents figured by Russell ; but Cuvier expresses a doubt of the necessity for this
minute subdivision.

Gen. 12. DIPS AS, Laurenti. — Coluber, Lin.

Body compressed, less broad than the head ; scales on the ridge
of the back larger than the others.

D. Indica, (C. bucephulus, Shaw.) Bull -headed Snake. Body nar-
rower than the head, brownish, with broad transverse whitish
bars ; large, cordated, depressed head, compressed body, and very
long slender tail. 4^ feet long. Ceylon. — Shaw, iii. pi. 109.

Gen. 13. COLUBER, Cuv.

With transverse plates on the belly, divided into two under the
tail, or forming a double row ; head flattened, with nine larger
plates ; teeth almost equal ; no poison fangs.

C. natrix, Lin. Ringed Snake. Body ash-coloured, with black
spots along the sides, and three white spots forming a collar on
the neck ; scales carinated. It feeds on insects, frogs, &c. and its
flesh is eaten. 4 feet long. Europe. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 5.

C. atro-virens, Lacep. Body spotted with black and yellow above,
yellowish-green below, with a row of black spots down each side ;
scales smooth. Size of the preceding. Common in France. — Shaw,
iii. 449.

C.Austriacus, Gmel. Body reddish-brown, marbled with steel-colour
below ; two rows of small blackish spots along the back ; scales
smooth, brown towards the point. 4 feet long. Common in France.
— Shaw, iii. 515.

C. viperinus, Latr. Body gray-brown ; a row of zigzag black spots
along the back ; and another of smaller ocellated spots along the
sides ; belly spotted with black anrf grayish ; scales carinated. 3
feet long. Inhabits France. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 70.

C. Girondicus, Daud. Body gray, with numerous bands, bordered
with black ; scales smooth, and the spots on the back smaller and
more separated than the preceding. Inhabits South of France
and Italy — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 70.

C. Elaphis, Shaw. Body fawn-coloured, with four brown or black
lines upon the back; abdomen white. France, &c. — Shaw, iii. 450.

This is the largest of the European serpents, sometimes exceeding six feet in length.
It is supposed to be the Boa of Fliuy.

C. Msculapu, Shaw. JEsculapi an Snake. Body brown above, straw-
yellow on the belly and sides ; scales of the back oval and cari-
nated, those on the sides smooth. 4 feet long, and thicker than
thepreceding. Inhabits Southern Europe and Asia. — 8haw,iu.452.

This is supposed to be the animal which the ancients represented in their statues
of jEsculapius. Linnasus was mistaken when he applied this specific name to an
American species. It ia'common in Italy, where it is often tamed, and taught to
play tricks.

ACROCHORDUS. REPTILES. 359

C. viridissimus, Lin. (C. janthinus, Merrem.) Body bright blue-
green, with a tinge of purple on the back ; abdomen whitish, with
the scales dilated towards the middle. 3 feet long. Inhabits
Surinam. — Sham, iii. 471.

C. lineatus, Lin. (C. jaculatrix and atratus, Seb. — terlineatus,
Lacep.) Body bluish-green above, with three or live brown longi-
tudinal stripes, of which the middle one is broadest. 2 to 3 feet
long. Inhabits India. — Shaw, iii. 529.

The other foreign species of this genus .ire very numerous. Some are remarkable for
the vivacity of their colouring ; others by the regularity of its distribution ; and others
by their extremely slender forms. Few of them are of any large size.

Gen. 14. ACROCHORDUS, Hornsted.

Body and tail covered with small uniform tuberculous scales ;
two rows of teeth ; body much thicker than the tail.

A. Javensis, Lacep. (Anguis granulatus, Schn.) Body black above,
whitish below ; sides gray, spotted with black ; scales raised, each
into three small ridges, and sometimes resembling isolated tuber-
cles. 8 feet long ; tail less than one-fourth of the total length.
Inhabits Java. — Shaw, iii. pi. 128.

4. With poison fangs.

The jaws of this section are organized and armed nearly as the preceding ; but
the number of teeth in the exterior row is smaller, and the first of these teeth, larger
than the others, is hollow, and conducts the poison into the wound.

Gen. 15. PSEUDOBOA, Oppel. — Boa, Schn.

Plates of the belly and under the tail single, head short, covered
with large plates ; occiput a little prominent ; back carinated,
with a longitudinal row of broader scales.

P. fasciata, Cuv. Body subtri angular, yellowish, with numerous
dusky blue transverse longitudinal bands. 5 feet long. Inha-
bits India. — Shaw, iii. pi. 99.

P. lineala, Cuv. (Boa lineata, Shaw.J Body blackish-blue, with
white dotted transverse arcuated lines and whitish abdomen. In-
habits India — Shaw, iii. 356.

Gen. 16. TRIMERESURUS, Lacep.

Plates under the tail, near the vent, single, and double plates
towards the extremity ; head with large plates.

T. leptocephalus, Lacep. With nine large plates on the head; scales
of the upper part of the back striated, the others smooth ; head
very small. — An. Mus. iv. pi. 56, fig. 1.

Gen. 17. HYDROPHIS, Cuv. — Hydrus, Shaw, Schn.

A row of scales on the belly a little larger than the others ;
head small, not tumid, covered with large plates ; tail com-
pressed vertically.

360 REPTILES. OPHIDIA.

H. favis, Cuv. (Aipysiirus, Lacep.) With 151 large plates un-
der the body ; twenty-eight small scales under the tail ; neck
very broad ; thirteen plates on the head. Inhabits New Hol-
land.— An. Mus. iv. pi. 56, fig. 3.

H. curtus, Cuv. Body compressed ; head flattish ; colour pale yel-
low, with a series of decurrent dusky bands, somewhat confluent
above. About a foot long. Inhabits India. — Shaw, iii. 562.

H. spiralu, Cuv. Body much compressed, the back rising into a
ridge j colour yellow, barred from head to tail with deep chest-
nut fasciae, widening on the abdomen ; body alternately natter on
one side than the other. 2 feet long. — Sharv, iii. pi. 125.

Gen. 18. PELAMIS, Cuv.

Belly and head with larger plates ; occiput tumid on account
of • the length of the pedicles of the inferior jaw, which is
very dilatable ; all the scales of the body small and equal ;
tail compressed vertically

P. bicolor, (Angms platurus, Lin.) Head and upper parts deep
black ; lower parts pale yellow ; tail spotted ; back carinated ;
scales of the sides small, and brighter yellow. 2^ feet long. In-
habits Sea at Otaheite — Shaw, iii. pi. 126.

This species, although poisonous, is eaten at Otaheite.

Gen. 19. CHERSYDRUS, Cuv.

Head and body equally covered by small scales ; posterior part
of the body and tail compressed vertically.

C.JasciatuSj Cuv. (Acrochordus fasciatus, Shaw.) Body dusky
brown, with carinated abdomen, and whitish ascending lateral
bands. 18 inches long. Rivers of Java. — Shaw, iii. pi. 130.

5. With isolated poison fangs.

The poisonous serpents with isolated fangs have a particular structure in their
organs of manducation. The superior maxillary bones are very small, supported
on a long pedicle, and very moveable. Into these is fixed a sharp pervious tooth,
through which issues, when pressure is applied, a fluid secreted by a gland situat-
ed under the eye. It is this fluid which, injected into the wound by the tooth, pro-
duces effects more or less serious, according to the species which inflicts the wound.
The tooth is concealed in a fold of the gum when the animal does not use it ; and
behind are many germs of new fangs, destined to replace the original one, should it
be broken by any accident or left in a wound. Naturalists have named these teeth
moveable fangs ; but it is properly the maxillary bone which moves. In these serpents
there are only two rows of palatine teeth in the upper part of the mouth. All poi-
sonous species of which the history is known are viviparous, which has occasioned
them to have received the name of vipers, an abbreviation of the term viviparous.
The poisonous serpents present exterior characters nearly the same as the preceding
genera. But the greater number have the jaws very dilatable, and the tongue ex-
tensible. Their head, being broad behind, gives them a ferocious aspect, which
in some measure announces their nature. They may be divided into two groups,
the Rattlesnakes and Vipers.

Gen. 20. CROTALUS, Lin.
Head broad, triangular, and flattened ; scales carinated ; tongue

SCYTALUS. REPTILES. 361

forked ; a hollow behind the nostrils ; upper maxillary bones
with isolated fangs ; plates or transverse bands under the
body and tail ; extremity of the tail with a rattle formed of
hollow, moveable, and sonorous plates.

This group is celebrated for the active nature of the poison they communicate.
They have, as the Boas, simple transverse plates under the body and tail ; but what
distinguishes them chiefly is the hollow moveable scales at the termination of the tail.
This rattle, as it is called, is formed of horny plates, which sound when the animal
crawls or moves its tail. The number of these plates augment with age, and they
acquire an additional one at each shedding. All the species of which the country
is known come from America. Rattlesnakes creep slowly, and never bite unless
provoked, or to kill their prey. Although they rarely climb trees, their principal
food is birds, squirrels, &c. Tt has long been supposed that they had the power
of fascinating small animals, or overpowering them by their breath. The agi-
tation and terror of the birds, however, and anxiety to lead the snake from their
young brood or nests, by provoking his attention, are sufficient to account for the
observed fact, without the necessity of having recourse to a particular and mysteri-
ous power of fascination.

* Scales of the head and back similar.

C. horridus, Lin. The Rattlesnake. Body brown, with transverse
irregular blackish bands ; extremity of the tail black. 4 to 6
feet long. Inhabits America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 88.

C. durissus, Lacep. The Striped Rattlesnake, Body brown, with
lozenge-formed spots bordered with black, and four black lines
along the top of the neck. 5 feet long. Inhabits Guiana.—
Shaw, iii. pi. 89, 90.

Both these species are equally dangerous, and their bite causes death in a few mi-
nutes. The poisonous fangs, even when withdrawn from the animal, have been
known to retain the power of inflicting fatal wounds for years.

** Head furnished with large plates.

C. miliaris, Lin. Body gray brown, with a red line along the
back, interrupted by a series of black spots, bordered with white ;
sides and under parts with smaller spots. 2 feet long. Inhabits
Carolina. — Catesby, Car. ii. pi. 42.

Gen. 21. SCYTALUS, Latr.

Body and tail below with a row of transverse plates ; poisonous
fangs in the upper jaw ; no hollows behind the nostrils ; tail
destitute of rattles.

S. ziczac, Daud. (Boa horatta, Shaw.) Body dark brown, with
a waving yellow band on each side, and a row of yellowish dor-
sal spots, edged with black ; head with four dark spots. 15 in-
ches long. Inhabits India. — Shaw, iii. 359.

kGen. 22. AcA^Trfopms, Baud-
With double plates under the tip of the tail, which is terminat-
ed by a pointed spur ; large plates on the anterior part of
the head ; no hollows behind the nostrils ; poisonous fangs
in the upper jaw ; hind part of the head tumid, and with
scales similar to those of the back.

362 REPTILES. OPHIDIA.

A. palpebrosus, Cuv. {Boa palpebrosa, Shaw.) Body pale gray,
with black transverse bands on the back, and two rows of black
points below. 15 inches long. — Shaw, iii. 362.

A. Brownii, Leach. Body blackish, with the lower lip white ; a
transverse groove before the nostrils ; tail short and flattened la-
terally. 8 inches long. New Holland — Leach, Zool. Mis. pi. 3.

Gen. 23. L ANGARA, Brug.

Body covered anteriorly with small scales above ; plates be-
hind the anus surrounding the tail ; tail towards the end
furnished with small scales ; muzzle long and pointed ; poison-
ous fangs in the upper jaw.

L. nasuta, Shaw. Head with seven large scales ; muzzle with a
tendinous prolongation, covered with small scales ; body covered
with reddish and violet and yellow points ; scales rhomboidal.
2 feet 8 inches long. Inhabits Madagascar — Shaw, iii. pi. 127«

6. — With transverse plates under the belly, divided into two
under the tail. — VIPERA, Daud.

Gen. 24. TRIGONOCEPHALUS, Oppel.

Head widened behind, in some covered with scales similar to
those of the back, in others granulated ; depressions behind
the nostrils ; poison fangs in the upper jaw ; tail often ter-
minated by a small horny spur.

T. lanceolatus, Cuv. {Coluber Megcera, Shaw.) Body brown, with
yellow variegations ; head flat, cordate j a large orifice on each
side between the eyes and nostrils. 5 to 6 feet long. Inhabits
Martinico. — Shaw, iii. 406.

T. Alecto. (Coluber Alecto, Shaw.) Body whitish, with rectangu-
lar rhomboidal brown spots along the back, and cordated ferru-
g'nous head ; a black lateral stripe. 5^ feet long. Inhabits
eylon. — Shaw, iii. 405.

T. atrox. (Coluber atrox, Lin.) Body gray brown, with trans-
verse linear whitish stripes ; abdomen dusky, with white trans-
verse variegations. 18 inches long. Ceylon. — Sharv, iii. 429.

T. viridis, Cuv. (Trimeresurus, Lacep.) Body green, with three
large plates and two smaller under the tail ; top of the head co-
vered with scales similar to those of the back. Inhabits New
Holland.— An. Mus. iv. pi. 56, fig. 2.

Gen. %5. PLATLTRUS, Latr.

Tail compressed ; with two rows of plates, and terminated with
two large ones ; head covered with larger plates ; poison
fangs in the upper jaw.

P. laticaudatus, Cuv. (Hydrus Colubrinus, Schn.) Body cinereous,
banded transversely with white and blackish stripes; scales rhom-
boidal. 2 feet long. Inhabits Indian Seas.— Shaw, iii. pi. 123.

NAIA. REPTILES. 363

Gen. 26. NAIA, Laurenti.

Plates larger on the body near the head ; head covered with
large plates, and hind head furnished with a hood ; poison-
ous fangs in the upper jaw.

N. vulgaris, (Coluber naja, Lin.) The Cobra de Capello. Body
ferruginous yellow ; neck capable of inflation, and marked above
by white marks, with black edges, in the form of spectacles. 3
to 4 feet long. Inhabits India. — Shaw, iii. pi. 107-

N. haje, (Coluber haje, Lin.) Neck widened as in the preceding;
body greenish, bordered with brown. 5 to 6 feet long. Inha-
bits Egypt. — Geoff. Rept. Eg. pi. 7-

This species is conceived by Cuvier to be the aspic of the ancients. The jugglers of
Egypt, by pressing on the nape of .the neck with the finger, throw the animal into a
kind of catalepsy, which renders it stiff and immoveable. The habit which this
species has of raising itself up when approached, induced the ancient Egyptians to
believe that it guarded the fields where it was found ; and it is sculptured on the gates
of their temples as an emblem of the protecting divinity of the world.

Gen. 27. ELAPS, Schn. — Coluber, Lin.

Large plates on the head; jaws with poison fangs, but not capable
of much dilatation ; head behind same breadth as the neck.

E. lemniscatus, Cuv. (C. lemniscatus, Lin.) Body yellowish or
white, with triple ferruginous or blackish bands ; point of the
muzzle black. Inhabits Asia. — Shaw, iii. 485.

E. lacteus, Cuv. Body white, the back marked by double black
spots ; head black, with a longitudinal white line. 18 inches long.
Inhabits India and South America. — Shaw, iii. 427.

E. lubricus, Cuv. Body white, with equidistant black bands ; head
marked with a black band across the muzzle, and on the top by two
oblique stripes nearly meeting at an angle in front. 18 inches
long. Inhabits Africa. — Shaw, iii. 487-

Gen. 28. COBRA, Laurenti.

Scales on the head carinated ; head from the eyes to the mouth
subtriangular ; poisonous fangs in the upper jaw.

C. Atropos, Cuv. (Coluber, Lin.) Body whitish, with four rows
0f red round spots, white in their centre ; four black spots on the
head. 15 inches long. Inhabits S. America. — Shaw, iii. 404.

C. Lachesis, Cuv. Body yellowish-gray, variegated with brown,
with loose carinated scales ; head indistinct, and short tail. 4 to
5 feet long. Inhabits Ceylon — Shaw, iii. pi. 105.

C. Clotho, Cuv. Body grayish-orange, with numerous transverse
undulated black bands ; beneath ash-coloured, with black varie-
gations. 6 feet long. Inhabits Ceylon. — Shaw, iii. 401.

Gen. 29. VIPERA, Cuv. — Coluber, Lin.

Scales on the head rough or granulated ; plates under the belly
divided in two under the tail ; poisonous fangs in the upper jaw,

364 REPTILES. OPHIDIA.

V. BeruSj Cuv. The Common Viper. Brown, with a black zigzag
line along the back, and a row of black spots on each side ; belly
slate-coloured. 2 to 3 feet long. Europe. B — Shaw, iii. pi. 101.
The Viper or Adder, as it is called in Scotland, is pretty generally diffused over all
the old continent. It is plentiful in some counties of England, and abounds in
several of the Hebrides. The viper grows to the length of two feet, and sometimes
more. The ground colour of the body is a dirty yellow, and along the back runs a
chain of irregular black spots joined at the points. This is the only poisonous Brit-
ish species ; but olive oil is said to be a certain remedy for the bite, if speedily ap-
plied. Viper's flesh is still used medicinally in some countries.

V. ammodytes, Cuv. (Col. aspis, Gmel.) Body glaucous brown,
with dentated black dorsal band, and upright nasal wart. Inha-
bits Southern Europe. — Shaw, iii, 379.

V. cerastes, Cuv. Body pale yellowish or grayish, with distant
subovate transverse brown spots ; a pointed and solid horn on each
eyelid. 1 to 2 feet long. Inhabits Egypt.— Shaw, iii. pi. 103.

V. Cherscea, (Col. Cherscea, Lin. — C. berus, Daudin.) Body subfer-
ruginous, with black flexuous dorsal band ; three larger plates on
the middle of the head. About a foot long. Inhabits Northern
Europe. — Shaw, iii. 382.

The variety of a black colour has been named the Black Viper. (CoL prester, Lin.)
V. hcemachates, Cuv. (Col. hcemachates, Gmel.) Body brownish-
red, marbled with white ; abdomen yellowish-white ; head co-
vered with plates. 2 feet long. Inhabits Persia and India.—
Shaw, iii. 425.

FAMILY III. — NAKED SERPENTS.

This division comprehends but one very singular genus, which many naturalists
seem inclined to refer to the Batrachians.

Gen. 30. CECILIA, Lin.

Body cylindrical ; skin naked, with longitudinal folds ; eyes ex-
tremely small.

This genus is thus named, because its eyes are excessively small, and nearly con-
cealed under the skin. Smooth, viscid, and naked as the eels, when the skin is dried
the vestiges of scales are scarcely perceived ; but transverse folds are seen on the sides.
The head is depressed, and the anus round and near the extremity of the body.
The articulation of the vertebrae is accomplished by the faces of a hollow cone filled
by a gelatinous cartilage, as in the fishes ; and the cranium is united to the first ver-
tebra by two tubercles, as in the Batrachian reptiles. The maxillary bones cover
the orbit, which is pierced with a very small hole, and those of the temples cover
the temporal depression, in such a manner that the head presents above a conti-
nuous bony shield. The maxillary and palate teeth, pointed and curved backwards,
resemble those of the serpents, properly so called ; but their lower jaw has no move-
able pedicle. They deposit their eggs, with a semi-membranous skin, united in long
strings.

C. glutinosa, Lin. Brown, with a white line on each side ; wrinkles
very close and numerous. About a foot long. Inhabits S. Ame-
rica.— Shaw, iii. pi. 137-

C. tentacidata, Lin. Body above bluish brown, abdomen paler ; two
tentacula on the upper lip. A foot long. Inhabits S. America.
—Shatv, iii. pi. 136.

RANA. REPTILES. 365

ORDER IV.— BATRACHIA.

Heart with one auricle ; body covered with a naked skin ;
lungs two when mature, but with branchiae like fishes in their
early stage.

BATRACHIA, (from /2ctTg*^oc, a frog.) The animals of this order have a heart
with a single auricle and ventricle. They have all two lungs, to which are added,
in the first stage of their existence, branchice or gills, more or less analogous to those
of fishes. The greater part lose these branchiae on arriving at their perfect state.
In two genera only, Sirena and Proteus, they are preserved during life. While the
branchiae subsist, the aorta in going from the heart is divided into as many branches
on each side as there are gills. The blood of the branchiae returns by veins, which
unite towards the back into a single arterial trunk ; and it is from this trunk, or
from the veins which form it, that the arteries arise which nourish the body, and
even those which conduct the blood to the lung. In the species which lose their
branchiae, the branches which lead to them become obliterated except two, which,
uniting in a dorsal artery, give off each a little branch to the lung. It is, as Cuvier
observes, the circulation of a fish changed into that of a reptile.

Batrachian reptiles have neither scales, nor shield, nor nails on their toes, — a naked
skin covering the whole body. The envelope of their ova is membranous. In
some species the male assists in their extrusion, and impregnates them as they are
extruded ; in others the ova are deposited. The young differ not only from the
adult by the presence of gills ; their feet are developed only by degrees ; and many
species possess in their first stage a snout and a tail, which they afterwards lose.

Gen. 1. RAN A, Lin.

Body slender ; hind-feet very long, muscular, and completely
palmated ; skin smooth ; upper jaw furnished with a row of
small teeth, and an interrupted transverse one in the middle
of the palate ; males with a thin membrane under the ear,
which is inflated with air when they cry.

In their perfect state frogs have four legs and no tail. Their head is flat, their
snout rounded, and the opening of their jaws large. Their tongue is soft, not attached
to the gullet, but to the edge of the jaw, and folds inwards. They have four toes
on the fore feet ; the hind feet have five, and sometimes the rudiment of a sixth.
The skeleton of this family is entirely destitute of ribs ; and a cartilaginous plate on
the head supplies the place of a tympanum. The eye has two fleshy eyelids, and a
third, transparent and horizontal, concealed under the inferior one. Inspiration in
these animals is effected by the muscles of the throat, which in dilatation receive the
air by the nostrils, and, contracting while the nostrils are shut by the tongue,
force the air to penetrate into the lungs. Expiration, on the contrary, is performed
by the muscles of the lower belly. The embraces of the male are long continued.
His thumbs are furnished with a spongy inflation, which is increased in the coup-
ling season, and which assists in attaching him to the female. The ova are im-
pregnated at the moment of expulsion. The tadpole is at first provided with a long
fleshy tail, and a horny beak, and has no other apparent members but little
fringes at the sides of the neck. These disappear at the end of a few days, and are
replaced by branchiae or gills. These gills, by which they respire at this period, are
formed of numerous small tufts attached to four cartilaginous arches placed on
each side of the neck, adhering to the hyoid bone, and enveloped in a membra-
nous tunic covered by the general skin. The water which enters by the mouth
passes in the intervals of the cartilaginous arches, and is extruded sometimes by two
openings, sometimes by one, in the middle or left side of the exterior skin, accord-
ing to the species. The hind feet of the tadpole are developed by degrees, the
fore feet being developed under the skin, which they afterwards pierce; the tail
is gradually absorbed; the beak falls off, and discovers the true jaws, which

366 REPTILES. BATBACHJA.

were at first soft and concealed by the skin. The branchiae or gills also dis-
appear, and leave the lungs to exercise the function of respiration, as in other rep-
tiles. At last the eye, seen through a transparent skin in the tadpole, appears with
its three eyelids. The intestines, at first long, slender, and convoluted spirally, are
now shortened, and take the necessary form of the stomach and colon, to accommo-
date the changed animal to its new food. The period of this change varies accord-
ing to the species. In cold and temperate countries the perfect animal buries itself
in the mud or under ground during winter, and passes that season in torpidity.
The members of the tadpole are regenerated as those of the salamanders.

R. esculenta, Lin. Green Frog. Body green, spotted with black ;

three yellowish dorsal lines ; abdomen whitish. — Shaw, iii. pi. 31.

This is the largest of the European frogs, and is found plentifully in France, Ger-
many, and many other parts of Europe. The croaking of these animals in the
breeding season is excessively annoying to those in their neighbourhood. They, how-
ever, furnish a wholesome and agreeable food.

R. temporaria, Lin. Common Frog. Body yellowish brown, spot-
ted with black, with an elongated brown patch extending from
the eye over the ear. Inhabits Europe. B — Shaw, iii. pi. 29.

This species appears early in spring ; goes oftener on land than the preceding, and
croaks much less.

R. paradoxa, Lin. Paradoxical Frog. Body greenish, spotted with
brown ; irregular brown lines along the thighs and legs. 16 in-
ches long. Inhabits Guiana. — Shaw, iii. pi. 36.
Of all the species this has its tadpole the largest before its metamorphosis. Its very

large tail and singular form led the early observers to suppose that it became a fish ;

or that the full grown frog, contrary to the usual rule, took again the tadpole form.

R. taurina, Cuv. (Tl. pipiens, Daud.) The Bull Frog. Body olive
green, spotted with black ; a yellow line along the back. 12 to
18 inches long. North America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 33.

Gen. 2. HYLA, Cuv. — Rana, Lin.

Body slightly compressed, elongated, smooth; tongue short
and thick ; the two fore feet furnished with four toes, the
hinder with five, all without claws, but terminated by lenti-
cular tubercles ; male with a gular pouch capable of inflation.

H. arborea, Lin. Tree-Frog, Body bright green above, whitish
below, with a yellow and blackish lateral line on each side of the
body ; abdomen granulated ; feet not webbed. Inhabits Eu-
rope.— Sharv, iii. pi. 38.
In the beauty of its colours, elegance of its form, and agility of its movements,

the arborca exceeds every other European species. It is plentiful on the continent

of Europe, but has not been found in Britain. It suspends itself by its feet to the

twigs of trees for the purpose of catching its prey.

H. tinctoria, Cuv. Stained Tree-Frog. Body smooth, with two
longitudinal lines and one transverse yellowish one upon the back.
Inhabits South America. — Sharv, iii. 135.

Gen. 3. BUFO, Cuv.

Body thick, short, and broad, covered above with warts or pa-
pillae, which exude a fetid fluid ; a thick projection behind the
ears; no teeth; eyes large and protuberant; fore feet with four
toes, separate ; hind feet short, with five toes, generally palmated.

BUFO. REPTILES. 367

B. vulgaris, (R. bufo, Lin.) The Common Toad. Body reddish
or brownish gray, sometimes olive-coloured or blackish, the back
covered with rounded tubercles, those on the belly smaller and
closer together ; hind feet semipalmated. Inhabits Europe. B.

This well-known animal is found in gardens, woods, and fields, and often makes
its way into cellars and other obscure places. It passes the winter in holes in a state
of torpidity. The female produces small eggs in very great numbers, united by
a transparent jelly in two strings, often twenty or thirty feet in length. The tadpole
is blackish, and its branchial opening is on the left. The toad lives about fifteen
years, and produces at four. The warts on its back exude an acrid fluid.

B. calamila, Cuv. (R- mephitica, Shaw.) Body olive above, with
dark spots and reddish pustules ; a longitudinal yellow line along
the middle of the back. Inhabits Europe. — Shaw, iii. pi. 43.

This animal diffuses a mephitic odour, resembling the smoke of gunpowder. It
does nut leap, but runs very quickly ; climbs walls to creep into crevices ; and for
this purpose its fore-feet are furnished with two small osseous tubercles. It is not
found in water but in the breeding season. The male has a gular pouch.

B. fuscus. Laurenti. (R. alliacea, Shaw.) Body clear brown,
marbled with deep brown or blackish; tubercles on-the back not
numerous, the size of lentils ; belly smooth ; hind feet with length-
ened and palmated toes. Germany, &c. — Shaw, iii. pi. 41.
The eggs of this species are attached by a single string. The tadpole has but one

branchial opening, on the left side. It has a strong garlic smell when irritated.

B. bombinus, Cuv. (R. bombina, Gmel.) The Natter-jack. Body
grayish brown above ; blackish blue with orange yellow spots
below ; feet completely palmated, and almost as long as those of
the frog. Inhabits Europe. B — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 2.

B. obsletricans, Laur. Body gray ; the tubercles on the back black-
ish ; whitish on the sides. Common in the neighbourhood of
Paris. — Daud. pi. 32, fig. i.

The male of this species assists the female to expel the eggs, which are attached
in clusters to the thighs by means of a glutinous matter. When about to be hatch-
ed, the animal seeks some stagnant water in which to deposit them. They soon
afterwards open, and the tadpole swims out.

B. variabilis. (R. variabilis, Gm.) Body whitish, spotted with green;
remarkable for the changes of colour of its skin, according to the
light it is in, or as it wakes or sleeps. Found near Paris. — Daud,
pi. 28. fig. 2.

B. marinus. (R. marina, Gmel.) Body ash gray, irregularly spotted
with brownish ; warts large ; parotid glands large and gibbous.
8 or 10 inches long, without including the legs. Inhabits Guiana.
— Shaw, iii. pi. 44.

B. cornutus. (R. cornuta, Gmel.) The Horned Toad. Head and
jaws very large ; a conical tubercle above each eye. Inhabits
South America. — Shaw, iii. pi. 48, 49.

B. margaritiferus, (R. margaritifera, Gmel.) With an erect stiff
rounded lobe behind each eye, and numerous warts on the body,
bearing some resemblance to pearls ; hind feet semipalmated, —
Daud. pi. 33.

368 REPTILES. BATRACHIA.

Gen. 4. PIPA, Laurenti.

Body flattened horizontally ; head large and triangular ; tongue
wanting; tympanum concealed under the skin; eyes small, to-
wards the margin of the upper jaw ; toes of the fore feet cleft
into four small points ; larynx of themale very long, triangular.

P. Surinamensis. (Rana pipa, Lin.) Body broad, flattened, olive-
coloured, with red spots j head short, with a crenulated coria-
ceous appendage at the angles of the mouth. 5 inches long. In-
habits Surinam. — Shaw, iii. pi. 50, 51.

Gen. 5. SALAMANDRA, Brongniart. — Lacerta, Lin.
Body elongated ; tail long, cylindrical or flattened ; head de-
pressed ; ears concealed, and with a small cartilaginous plate
upon the opening; jaws furnished with numerous small teeth,
and two longitudinal rows of similar teeth on the palate ;
tongue short, thick, and fixed in the lower jaw ; no third
eyelid ; feet four, with four toes before and five behind.

This genus has the general form of the lizards. In the adult state they respire
in the same manner as the frog and tortoise. The tadpoles respire at first by three
tufted branchiae on each side of the neck, which are afterwards obliterated. These
tufts are not covered. The fore feet are developed before the hind feet, and the toes
appear in succession.

* Terrestrial. — Tail rounded when adult.

S. terrestris. (Lacerta Salamandra, Lin.) Black, with large spots
of bright yellow ; rows of tubercles upon the sides, which exude
a milky liquor, which acts as a poison on small animals. 7 or 8
inches long. Inhabits Europe. — Shaw, iii. pi. 82.
It is perhaps owing to this milky exudation that the fable of the salamander's be-
ing able to resist fire has arisen. They inhabit moist places, retire into holes, feed
on lumbrici, insects, &c. Their young are deposited in marshy situations, and at
first have their tail flattened vertically, but in their adult state it is rounded.

** Aquatic. — Tail compressed vertically — TRITON, Laurenti.
The experiments of Spallanzani on the astonishing power of reproduction in these
animals are well known. Another faculty no less singular is that of being able to
survive after being a long time frozen in ice. The ova are expelled in long chap-
lets ; the young are hatched fifteen days after, and preserve their gills for a longer
or shorter period, according to the species.

S. marmorata, Latr. Skin shagreened, pale green above, with
large irregular brown spots ; brown, dotted with white below ; a
crest on the back of the male ; tail much compressed. Inhabits
Europe. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 100.

S. punctata, Latr. Skin smooth, clear brown above, paler below or
reddish, with black and round spots ; black streaks on the head ;
crest of the male festooned. Inhabits Europe. — Cuv . Reg. An. 100.

S. palmata, Latr. (L. aquatica, Lin.) Back brown ; top of the
head waved with brown and blackish ; sides paler, with round
blackish spots ; belly whitish, without spots ; male with three small
crests on the back ; toes dilated and united by membranes ; tail
terminating in a small filament. Europe. B. — Shaw, iii. pi. 83.

PKOTEUS. REPTILES. 369

S. gigantea, Barton. Body bluish black. 15 to 18 inches long. In-
habits lakes and rivers in North America. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 101.

The Axolotl of Mexico, the Siren pisciformis of Shaw, which was long considered
as the larva of a large species of Salamander, has persistent branchiae ; four feet,
with four toes before and five behind ; and the organs of generation have been found
in a developed state by Sir Everard Home, in specimens brought from Mexico by
Mr Bullock.

Gen. 6. PUOTEUS, Laurenti.

Body elongated, cylindrical; tail compressed; tongue short, thick,
and free only before ; eyes excessively small, arid concealed
by the skin ; fore feet with three toes ; hind feet with two, all
without claws ; interior lungs and persistent branchiae.

P. anguinus, Laur. (Siren anguina, Schn.) Body smooth and whit-
ish ; tail compressed vertically ; branchiae bright red or carmine
coloured. About a foot long. — Shaw, iii. pi. 139.
This species, the only one of the genus, is found in the subterranean streams by
which some lakes in Carniola communicate together. Besides lungs it has, like the
salamanders, three tufted branchiae on each side, which it appears to preserve through
life. The skeleton somewhat resembles that of the salamander, but the vertebras
are more numerous, and the general conformation of the head decidedly different.

Gen. 7. SIREN, Lin.

Body elongated, cylindrical, and terminated by a compressed
tail ; tongue short, thick and adherent ; only two feet, placed
forwards on the body, with each four toes ; interior lungs and
persistent branchiae.

S. lacertina, Lin. The Siren. Body blackish, resembling that of
an eel. 2 to 3 feet long. Inhabits marshes of South Carolina.
—Shaw, iii. pi. 138.

This species, the only one of the genus, retains during life, as the Proteus, three
free branchial tufts on each side of the neck, at the same time with interior lungs.
The vertebrae are much more numerous than those of the salamanders, and of a
different form. The eyes are very small ; the ears concealed ; the inferior jaw armed
with teeth all around, and many rows on both sides of the palate. By a curious
mistake, Cuvier describes the feet as having five toes ; and Mr Gray in the Annals of
Philosophy, Vol. X. asserts the same. But in a live specimen which we have seen
there are only four, as mentioned by the older naturalists. It inhabits the marshes of
Carolina, and chiefly those formed for the culture of rice, feeds on insects, worms, &c.

Dr Garden of Charleston, South Carolina, first sent specimens of what he justly
regarded as a very curious reptile, preserved in spirits, to Mr Ellis of London. The
Doctor remarked, that he had seen the reptile of all sizes, but all possessing gills, and
having only fore-feet ; and that there was no lizard in South Carolina of which it
could be regarded as the larva. Mr Ellis communicated one of the specimens to
Linnaeus, and that illustrious naturalist did not hesitate to pronounce it a perfect
animal, of the most truly amphibious character, and to create for it a new order,
Meantes, in his class Amphibia, giving it the generic name of Siren. A number of
distinguished naturalists, however, have disputed this opinion, as Camper, Pallas, and
Lacepede ; and have insisted that the Siren is only a larva. Within these few years
past, Configliachi and Rusconi in Italy, and Dr Fleming in our own country, have
published opinions to the same purpose. But Baron G. Cuvier, after dissecting the
animal, has given his verdict in favour of the opinion of Garden, Ellis, and Linnaeus,
that it is a perfect animal, destined through life to breathe either by external branchiae
or internal lungs, according to the situation it may for the time occupy in its native
marshes.

VOL. I. A a

370 REPTILES. BATRACHIA.

The habits of the Siren are still but little known. It seems indeed to be a rare
animal even in America ; for M. Bosc sought it in vain during eighteen months of
his residence at Charleston. The latest account of it, which is contained in Silli-
man's Journal for October 1826, is far from satisfactory. It may here be mentioned r
that, in May 1825, a living specimen was received from Charleston by Dr Monro
of Edinburgh. The professor fortunately confided the charge of this interesting ani-
nial to Patrick Neill, Esq. a gentleman fully qualified to observe and record its pe-
culiar characters and habits, in whose collection at Canonmills it still remains. This
excellent naturalist lately communicated the result of his observations for a period of
upwards of two years to the Wernerian Society. The Siren is kept in a box among
•water, but where it has the choice of leaving the water, and reposing among moss or
hypnum, if so inclined. It is fed with earth-worms, which it takes at intervals of some
days. It is quite lively, particularly in the summer months. It begins to croak like
a frog in April, but has no v ox cantillans, or at least no change of note. The water
box in which it is kept is placed on a trellis shelf in a hot-house, about three feet
from the ground. On one occasion it had made its way over the margin of the box
and had fallen to the ground ; but it was not hurt, and is not therefore a fragile ani-
mal, as was long supposed. It may be added, that on this particular occasion it
lived for many hours out of water, when it must have breathed solely by its internal
lungs. On the other hand, it has often been observed to lie quiet at the bottom of
the water for many hours, breathing of course wholly by means of the air separated
from the water by its external branchia;. Upon the whole, the observations made
on this living specimen decidedly tend to confirm the opinion of Linnaeus and Cuvier,
that the Siren is a perfect animal.

FOSSIL REPTILES.

Fossil Reptiles are met with in different parts of Europe. Of the Chelonian Or-
der, fossil marine tortoises have been found in the coarse marine limestone at the vil-
lage of Melsbroeck in the neighbourhood of Brussels, in the coarse chalk of the hill
of St Peter near Maestricht ; and in the limestone slate of Claris. The gypsum quarries
near Paris have afforded specimens of fresh water tortoises. In England, fossil re-
mains of tortoises have been found in the Isle of Sheppey ; in the iron-sand beds of
Tilgate Forest, in the argillaceous limestones called Purbeckbeds; and in the Stones-
field slate and lias ; and impressions of the feet of an animal considered to be of this
order have been found in the red sandstone of Corncockle Quarry in Dumfries-shire.

Of Saurian Reptiles, fossil crocodiles have been found in the bluish-gray compact
limestone at the bottom of the cliffs of Honfleur and Havre ; at Altorf near Nurem-
berg, in coarse gray 'marble; and in England, near Whitby, in pyritical slate ; at
Brentford, in Lancashire silt, in the clay of Sheppey, the-iron-sand of Tilgate Forest,
and near Oxford. Fossil remains of Monitors have been found on the Continent ; in
the quarries of Maestricht, one gigantic species twenty-four feet long ; at Thuringia,
near Manheim, and in the quarries of Aichstedt. In Britain, in the calcareous slate
of Stonesfield, near Woodstock, the remains of the Megalosaurus, a gigantic ani-
mal, intermediate between the Crocodile and Monitor, and supposed to have been
forty feet long. The Iguanodon^ another gigantic species supposed to have been up-
wards of sixty feet long, occurred in the iron-sand of Tilgate Forest. The fossil
genus Ichthyosaurus^ from the lias limestone of England, furnishes several remarka-
ble remains, partaking of the characters of the Dolphin, Crocodile and Lizard, with
the vertebra of a fish. And the species of Mr Conybeare's genus Plesiosaurus oc-
cur in lias at Lyne and in the Kimmeridge clay.

Of the Ophidian order remains of vertebrae occur in the red calcareous breccia in
the environs of Cette, mixed with bones of other animals.

Fossil remains of Batrachian reptiles have been found on the Continent in the
fetid calcareous schistus of CEningen, among remains of fishes. The Proteus of CEn-
ingen, first described and figured by Scheuchzer as the remains of an antediluvian hu-
man being, was afterwards ascertained by Cuvier to be an extinct species of Sala-
mander. A fossil toad has been found in the same strata.

None of the fossil species of reptiles hitherto discovered are identical with the
existing species.

FISHES. 371

CLASS IV.— FISHES. (Pucet.)

Vertebrated animals with cold red blood, respiring by gills or
branchice, and moving in the water by the aid of Jins.

THOUGH fishes have been known and used as food from the
earliest ages, Aristotle is regarded as the first writer who has
considered them in a general view as forming a particular class
of animals. After him the work of Pliny, as in the other branches
of Natural History, may be considered as the great receptacle
of all the facts known to his time in regard to the history, cha-
racters, and manners of fishes. Among the comparatively mo-
dern writers on this subject, Belon, a French physician, who in
1551 published a work entitled Histoire des Poissons, is the
first who attempted to arrange the class in anything like con-
nected families. In one of his groups he placed Cartilaginous
flat fishes ; in another flat fishes not cartilaginous ; and in a third
and fourth, were separated the sharks and eels or elongated fish-
es, as marked by prominent and distinguishing characters.

Some years after (1554) William Rondelet, professor of me-
dicine at Montpellier, published a work on fishes in one volume
folio, illustrated by figures from wood. Though this writer cannot
be said to have very much improved the scientific arrangement
of the class, yet his work is valuable for accurate specific descrip-
tions. The figures, too, are in most cases capable of being re-
ferred to their prototypes. In the same year, Hippolyto Sal-
viani, a physician at Rome, published a work entitled Aquati-
lium Animalium Historia, with good figures of many fishes.

From this period a taste for the study of Ichthyology, as this
branch of Natural History has been termed, (from tyjug a fish,
and 'My 05 a discourse) seems to have been disseminated. But
passing over the intervening authors, we only notice that part
of the work of Aldrovandus, published in the beginning of the
following century, which treats of fishes, and where they are ar-
ranged according to their habitats, such as Littoral fishes, — those
which are found among Rocks, — and Pelagian or deep-sea fishes.

572 FISHES.

The work of Willughby, entitled De Historia Piscium libri
quatuor^ published in 1686 by his celebrated countryman and
coadjutor John Ray, may be considered the earliest mo-
dern work in which the classification of fishes is founded on a
scientific basis. Willughby's volume was followed, in 1713,
by the Synopsis Methodica Piscium of Ray, a posthumous
work, published along with his Synopsis of Birds, by his
friend Dr Derham, after the death of their author. This
work of Ray contains nearly the same arrangement as he had
adopted in the previous one of Willughby ; and it continued to
be the standard and model for ichthyological inquiries till the
publication of the tiystema Naturae of Linnaeus. Ray in his
synopsis distinctly marked the leading division of this class of
animals into Cartilaginous and Osseous ; distinguished the fami-
lies with soft or spinous fins ; and was the first to direct attention
to the characters which theposition and the number of the fins and
their rays afford as the foundation of family distinctions. Though
he included the Cetacea among his fishes, yet he was perfectly
aware of their anomalous character ; for he observes (p. 4.) that,
excepting in the external figure, naked skin, and in their pro-
gressive motion by swimming, they had nothing in common with
fishes, but were otherwise allied to the viviparous quadrupeds.
And even Artedi, the friend and coadjutor of Linnaeus, who, it
may be noticed, adopted Ray's principles of classification and most
of his leading characters in the arrangement of this portion of
the animal kingdom, included the Cetaceous Mammalia among
the fishes.

The work of Artedi, who died before its completion, was pub-
lished by Linnaeus, in 1738, under the title of Ichthyologla. The
method of Artedi it is not necessary here to detail. It was adopted
by Linnaeus in the first edition of his great work, was modified
considerably in the second, and in the twelfth edition, the last
which this eminent man lived to publish, the fishes were included
in four orders, according to the position of the fins, viz. 1.
APODES, or fishes destitute of ventral fins. 2. JUGULARES, those
which have the ventral fins placed before the pectoral ones.
3. THORACICI, those which have the ventral fins placed under the
pectoral. And 4. ABDOMINALES, or those which have the ven-
tral fins placed behind the pectoral ones. Linnaeus removed the

FISHES. 373

Cetaceafrom the class of fishes to place them asmammiferous ani-
mals in his first class ; and the cartilaginous fishes of Ray were
placed in his order NANTES, in the class AMPHIBIA. Gmelin,
however, in his edition of the Systetna Naturce, transferred the
cartilaginous fishes to their proper place. Linnaeus, relying on
imperfect observation, had placed them among the Amphibia.

It is not necessary to detail all the subsequent attempts at the
classification of fishes by Groonvius, Klein, Schceffer, Brunnich,
Scopoli, Bonaterre, and others, since either in themselves, or as mo-
difications of the systems proposed by Ray, Artedi,and Linnaeus,
they had little effect on the subsequent progress of ichthyology,
Among those who contributed to that progress, however, by ac-
curate representations of the animals, Mark Eliazar Bloch, a
Jewish physician at Berlin, deserves to be noticed. His Ich-
thyologie, ou Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, in six volumes
folio, was published in 1785-95, with 452 coloured plates, the
greater part of which are accurately drawn and described from
nature, and the facts connected with the history, specific dif-
ferences, and uses of fishes, detailed with equal accuracy, have
furnished most subsequent writers with a storehouse of informa-
tion on the subject of the European species. The original edi-
tion being difficult to be procured, a small copy in ten volumes
18mo was published at Paris in 1801.

The next systematic writer in this department of Zoology to
be noticed, is the Count de Lacepede. His Natural History
of Fishes, a continuation of the work of Buffon, appeared in
five volumes quarto from 1798 to 1803. The arrangement
adopted in this work, the most extensive which had hither-
to appeared, is partly adopted from Ray and Linnaeus, and
partly his own. He divides the fishes into two subclasses —
the Cartilaginous and Osseous, — and each of these subclas-
ses is formed of four divisions, taken from the structure
or absence of the operculum and the branchial membrane
Thus thejirst division of the Cartilaginous Fishes is formed of
those which have neither operculum nor branchial membrane ;
the second of those which have the operculum ; the third of those
which have a branchial operculum and no membrane ; and the
fourth of those which have both an operculum and branchial mem-
brane. The Osseous Fishes follow an inverse order, — that is, the

374 FISHES.

jirst division includes fishes which have both appendages ; the
second those which have a branchial operculum and no mem-
brane ; the third those which have simply a membrane ; and the
fourth those which have neither operculum nor branchial mem-
brane. Each of these groups is further divided into four orders,
viz. Apodes, Jugulares, Thoracici and Abdominales, borrowed
from the Linnsean arrangement, making in the whole thirty-two
orders, of which, as Dr Fleming remarks, fifteen have no exam-
ples in nature.

Lacepede has preserved all the generic terms used by Lin-
naeus, and has formed many others to characterize the new
groups which he had found it necessary to establish. But these
generic terms are not alweiys happily applied ; and he has
been blamed even by his own countrymen for want of precision
in this respect. The work of Lacepede, however, will always
retain its place as an extensive collection of useful and varied in-
formation on a very important and interesting class of animals.

Blainville, in his Prodromus of a new distribution of the ani-
mal kingdom, arranges the Fishes into two subclasses, the Car-
tilaginous and Osseous, the first of which includes four orders,
and the second two tribes, three orders, and four sub-orders.

The classification, however, now most generally adopted is
that given by Baron Cuvier in his Regne Animal ; and as this
is the arrangement meant to be followed in the following pages
it is necessary to give it in detail. The Class of Fishes, he ob-
serves, present many difficulties when an attempt is made to di-
vide them into orders established on fixed and precise characters ;
but the two great divisions, founded on the character of their
bones, as being Cartilaginous or Osseous, are natural andwellmark-
ed. The FIIIST SERIES or Chondropterygii have, as a general
character, the palatine bones arranged so as to supply the place
of those of the upper jaws. These he divides into three orders, viz.

I. CYCLOSTOMI. Jaws fixed in an immoveable ring, and the
branchial openings numerous.

II. SELACHII. With the branchiae as in the preceding order,
but not their jaws. *

* In his Introductory observations on the characters of the class, Cuvier indicates
these two divisions as orders ; but in the after details he arranges them as two fatni-

FISHES. 375

III. STURIONES. Branchiae opening as usual in a cleft pro.
tected by an operculum.

The SECOND SERIES consists of the Osseous Fishes, or fishes
with fibrous and hard bones, and these are subdivided into
orders as follows :

IV. PLECTOGNATHI. Maxillary bone and palatine arch
fixed to the cranium.

V. LOPHOBRANCHII. Fishes with complete jaws, but with
the branchiae in small tufts.

For the subdivision of the remainder of this numerous class
M. Cuvier, after much investigation, found no characters bet-
ter suited than those employed by Ray and Artedi, derived
from the nature of the rays of the dorsal and anal fins.
This great portion of the class he therefore divides into two
groups, viz. 1. MALACOPTERYGII, in which all the rays are
soft, except sometimes the first of the dorsal or pectoral fins ;
and 2. ACANTHOPTERYGII, which have always the first por-
tion of the dorsal fin, or the first dorsal fin itself where there
are two, supported by rigid or spinous rays, and where also the
anal fin possesses some rays of the same nature, and the ventrals
at least one each. To make these two groups orders would
naturally occur as the most proper division ; but both include
so many genera, and such a multitude of otherwise disjoined
species, that Cuvier subdivides the first, or the Malacopterygii,
into three orders, according to the position of their ventral fins.
The necessity of a double term for these orders cannot in this
view be avoided.

VI. MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. Ventral fins on the
hinder part of the abdomen.

VII. MALACOPTERYGII SUBRACHIATI. Ventral fins under
the pectorals, on the throat.

VIII. MALACOPTERYGII APODES. Destitute of ventral fins.

This method of subdivision M. Cuvier having found imprac-
ticable with the numerous group of Acanthopterygious fishes,
he divides them into natural families, to which the charac-
ters of the subordinate groups afford considerable facilities;

lies of his Chondropterygii with fixed branchiae. We have preferred, with Latreille,
the arrangement which makes them separate orders. But in any view they are natural
families with strongly marked characters.

376 FISHES.

and though in his arrangement they of course form but one
order, yet these families are so well distinguished that no in-
convenience can arise from this circumstance.

IX. ACA^THOPTEKYGII. First portion of the dorsal fin,
or first dorsal fin where there are two, with spinous rays. This
very numerous order is divided into seven families, 1. Tcenioi-
des ; 2. GoUoides ; 3. Labroides ; 4. Percoides ; 5. Scombe-
roides ; 6. Squamipennes ; 7. Fistularidce. — The arrangement
in a tabular form will stand thus :

SUB-CLASS I.— CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.

ORDER I. CYCLOSTOMI,

II. PLAGIOSTOMI, (SELACHII, Cuv.)
III. STURIONES.

SUB-CLASS II.— OSSEOUS FISHES.

ORDER IV. PLECTOGNATHI,
V. LOPHOBRANCHII,
VI. MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES,
VII. MALACOPTERYGII SUJBRACHIATI,
VIII. MALACOPTERYGII APODES,
IX. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

In addition to the systematic writers on Ichthyology now
mentioned, many others might be noticed, whose labours in de-
lineating and describing portions of this important class of ani-
mals have been useful to science. A list of the chief of these
will be found at the end of this volume. Pennant in his British
Zoology, Montague and Donovan, the last of whom particu-
larly in his extensive works on British Zoology, have done much
towards the investigation of indigenous species ; and Baron
Cuvier's extensive and important work on fishes, now in pro-
gress, which is intended to include the whole discovered species,
will, it is probable, leave little to be desired regarding our know-
ledge of this class. The portion of Dr Shawls General Zoolo-
gy on fishes may be referred to for good figures of many spe-
cies, though most of them are copied from previous writers.

The form of fishes seems as admirably adapted for motion in
water as that of birds for flight in the air. Suspended in a li-
quid of nearly the same specific gravity as their own bodies.

FISHES. 377

they do not require extended members for their support. Their
general form is elongated, but thicker in the middle than at the
extremities; and the tail, the principal instrument in their pro-
gressive motion, is always long, and terminated by a vertical fin,
capable of expansion and contraction like a fan. The organs
of locomotion assume in this class the form of fins, of which
those named thoracic or pectoral, from their situation on the
body, have been considered as analogous to the fore-feet of
quadrupeds ; and those placed further backwards, called ab-
dominal or ventral fins, have been conceived to represent the
hind feet of the first class of vertebrated animals. The vertical
fins on the back are termed dorsal fins, and those on the under
surface of the body anal fins; the fin by which the tail is terminat-
ed being termed the caudal fin. The membranes of these fins
are supported by rays or bands more or less numerous; and
those of the pectoral and ventral fins, according to the suppos-
ed analogy between the organs of fishes and quadrupeds, have
been supposed to represent the toes of the feet. Other rays,
placed at the extremity of the spinous processes, support the ver-
tical fins of the back, those under the tail, and at its extremity.
These radii or rays are of two kinds ; those of a solid, bony, and
pointed form, sometimes flexible and elastic, are called spinous
rays ; and those composed of a number of small joints, generally
divided into branches at their extremity, are called soft or ar-
ticulated rays.

In the number of the members as many varieties are observed
among the fishes as among the reptiles ; for though generally
speaking the fishes have four, yet in some families there are
but two, and others want them altogether.

The greater part of fishes make their progressive motion in the
water by means of their expanded tail, which, striking the water
alternately from right to left, impels themforward; and they change
their direction by striking more rapidly, or with greater force on
one side than another. The fins which are in pairs appear to
be intended, besides aiding in progression, to maintain their
equilibrium in the water, and to regulate the direction of their
course. Some families, however, as the Rays, swim chiefly by
means of these fins ; but the particular form of the body must
naturally influence their medium of locomotion.

378 FISHES.

The greater part of Fishes, besides having their bodies ad-
mirably constructed for the liquid in which they move, have
in addition a singular apparatus, for rendering them specifically
lighter or heavier than water. This consists in a membranous
sac containing air, called the air-vessel or swimming-bladder,
which is placed under the spine, and by compressing or dilating
which they are supposed to rise or sink in the water. This ves-
sel forms two compartments in the carp, and often communicates
with the intestines in fishes which inhabit lakes or rivers.

One of the chief differences in structure which characterizes
the present class of animals is their respiratory apparatus. Liv-
ing in a fluid element, their respiration is necessarily adapted
to the nature of that fluid. This is accomplished by means of
an apparatus named gills or branchiae, placed on the sides of
the neck or head. These branchiae consist of numerous lami-
nae, suspended on arches attached to the hyoid bone, each com-
posed of a great number of separate laminae, covered with a
tissue of innumerable blood-vessels. The water which they
swallow passes between these laminae, and escapes by the bran-
chial openings. In its passage, the blood which is sent from
the heart to the gills is acted upon by the air contained in the
water. After undergoing this change, it is collected in an arte-
rial trunk situate under the spine, which, though resembling in
anatomical situation the aorta of animals with double heart, per-
forms the functions of a left ventricle, and distributes it by nu-
merous ramifications through the body, from which it returns
to the heart by the veins. The branchial openings are cover-
ed either by an osseous moveable plate, which is termed the gill-
cover or operculum, or by a simple membrane, with one or more
openings.

The whole of the blood in fishes is sent by the heart to the
branchial vessels, and is then venous or dark blood ; but when
it has been exposed to the air in the water, it assumes the ar-
terial or red colour, and passes into other vessels, which unite
in the great arterial trunk under the spine. Thus the heart
has but a single auricle, a single ventricle, and a single artery ;
and it is believed, that the little portion of heat developed in
this mode of respiration is owing to the small quantity of air
to which the blood is at one time exposed in passing through
the branchiae.

3

FISHES. 379

The vertebrae of fishes are united together by concave sur-
faces, filled with cartilage. In the greater number these vertebrae
have long spinous processes which keep the body in a vertical
position. The ribs are often joined to transverse processes.

Though the head in fishes varies more in point of form
than in any other class of animals, it always consists of the
same number of bones. The frontal bone is composed of six
pieces ; the parietal of three ; the occipital of five ; the sphenoi-
dal bone of five, and each temporal bone of two pieces. The
cranium forms but a small portion of the head. The brain is
enveloped by a gelatinous matter, and forms many ganglions
or consecutive knots, as in the reptiles ; and there are ganglions
or knots, besides, at the base of the olfactory nerve. A superficial
nerve also runs along the body, almost immediately under what
is called the lateral line, from the head to the tail. Sensation
appears to be weak in almost all the class, although many, as
the eel, possess irritability after being cut into small portions.

The nostrils in fishes are simple cavities or hollows at the
point of the snout, in the interior of which are disposed laminae
in a radiated form. These cavities are often divided into two
compartments, and sometimes, as in the lamprey, the two nostrils
are united into one. The eye is possessed of a very flat cornea,
with but little aqueous humour, but the crystalline lens is al-
most globular and very hard. In general the eyes of fishes are
large in proportion to their size, and they are destitute of eye-
lids. The pupil, or the opening by which light penetrates in-
to the eye, varies much in form. In the greater part of the
species of which the eyes are vertical, anatomists remark a
singular disposition of the pupillary orifice, which presents the
fringes of the iris arranged in such a manner as to dilate or con-
tract, in order to weaken or augment the quantity of light which
enters the eye. In the Pleuronectes both eyes are on the same
side of the mesial line.

The ear consists of a sac which represents the vestibule, in
which are suspended bones of a stony hardness, and of three semi-
circular membranous canals, situate rather in the cavity of the
cranium than in the substance of its walls, except among the
Chondropterygii. There is neither Eustachian tube nor tympa-
nal bones ; and the order Selachii have only an oval plate on a

380 FISHES.

level with their head. It is probable that the vibrations of the
water may communicate a sensation analogous to that of sound.

The sense of taste in fishes cannot be delicate, as their tongue
is often osseous and furnished with teeth or other hard covering ;
they are destitute of salivary glands ; and the greater part swallow
their food without maceration. Neither is the sense of touch very
acute, as in most the body is covered with scales, and in all the
organs of prehension are wanting. The cirri or filamentous fleshy
processes of some families may perhaps supply the imperfections
of their organs of touch.

In the greater number of fishes the intermaxillary bone forms
the margin of the upper jaw, having behind it the maxillary
or labial bone. The palatine arch, composed of the palate bones,
the two pterygoid processes, the zygomatic process, the tympa-
num, and the squamous portion, forms, as in birds and serpents,
a kind of interior jaw, and furnishes behind an articulation for the
lower jaw, which has two bones on each side ; but these pieces are
reduced to the smallest number in the Chondropterygii. The
teeth of fishes present many varieties. Some have none at all,
and in others the jaws are so hard that they form a kind of solid
beak ; in some these teeth are pointed, edged, crenated, or flat ;
and in others they are placed on the lips, the jaws, the palate,
the tongue, the gullet, or in all these parts at the same time.
The stomach is almost always simple, and the intestinal canal
short, as in carnivorous animals ; the liver is very large ; and
there is but one opening for rejected matters, the milt of the
male and the ova of the female.

The sexes in fishes are in the greater portion in separate indi-
viduals. The ova are generally impregnated by the male after ex-
trusion, and the young are developed without the care of the
parent. The male is known, besides other distinctions, by the
presence of the testes or milt, and the females by the ovary or
roe, which both occupy the same relative place in the body of the
animals. Those are said to be viviparous in which the ova
are matured, and the young developed before extrusion. In
the developement of the embryo, the heart first appears, after-
wards the spine, eyes, and tail. Of the organs of motion the
pectoral fins first appear, followed in succession by the caudal,
dorsal, and anal fins.

FISHES. 381

Among the oviparous fishes, hermaphroditism was long con-
sidered as a rare and accidental circumstance. Baster noticed
this occurrence in the Whiting, Duhamel in the Carp ; Haller
gave his testimony to facts of the same nature ; and Pallas be-
lieved that the genus Syngnathus had no males. Lastly, Sir
Everard Home, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1815,
states the same fact regarding the Lampern or Pride, and the
Gastrobranchus coccus of Blocli.

The amazing reproductive powers of fishes are well-known.
In the ovary of the Cod in December were found 3,686,760
ova; in the Flounder in March, 1,357,400; in the Herring
in October, 36,960 ; and in the Tench 383,252.* And Blocli
relates, as the result of an experiment regarding the reproduc-
tive power of the Carp, that, in a pond of seven acres, in which
were placed four males and three females, ^the increase was
11 0,000 young carp, — a number far too great for the size of the
pond, and the necessary supply of food. But this astonishing
capability of increase is modified by a thousand circumstances
which regulate the number produced to the supply of their food.
Myriads of these ova form the food of different species ; and
myriads more of the young may be supposed to be destroyed
in an element where almost all are destined to become the prey,
of one another. Notwithstanding these deductions, however, the
importance of this class as an object of commerce, and as a sup-
ply of food, hold out an inexhaustible field for the enterprize
of nations whose territories approach the sea.

Of the migrations of fishes, and the causes which prompt
these annual influxes of certain fishes on certain coasts, little
is with certainty known. Probably they are regulated by the
same causes which influence the migrations of birds, — to find
food and proper places for reproduction ; and the same instinc-
tive impulse which induces the salmon at certain seasons to as-
cend rivers, may bring myriads of fishes to the shores for a si-
milar purpose.

Little is known with regard to the comparative age of fishes.
The carp has been known to reach 200 years, and the pike to
260 ; and if whales be found of less size now than in former
ages, when their fishery was but little attended to, it may be
conjectured, that their age is still more considerable.

• See a paper by Thomas Harmer in Phil. Trans. Vol. Ixvii. 280.

382 FISHES. CYCLOSTOMI.

SUB-CLASS I.— CAR TIL A GINO US FISHES

(Chondropterygii, Cuv.)

THE bones of tliis division are essentially cartilaginous, and in general are never
formed of bony fibres. The calcareous matter being deposited in minute grains, and
not in fibres or filaments, it necessarily follows that no sutures occur in the cranium,
which is always in a single piece. The parts analogous to those in the crania of
other fishes may however be distinguished by projections, hollows, and openings.
Even the moveable articulations of the other division are not found in this ; for in some
of the rays a part, and in the lampreys the whole, of the vertebral column is united,
and the divisions not distinguished but by annular marks. In the greater number
of the genera also, some of the articulated portions of the bones of the face are want-
ing. In other respects however, as for instance in the nervous system, and in the
organs connected with nutrition, the arrangement of parts is as complete as in the
other fishes ; and many genera have besides the organs of reproduction in a form
equally perfect with those of the Reptiles.

The most general character common to the Cartilaginous Fishes, and sufficient to
distinguish them from all others, is that of wanting entirely, or having only in a rudi-
mentary form, the maxillary and intermaxillary bones, the place of which is supplied
by bones analogous to the palatine ones, and even sometimes by the vomer.

This sub-class Cuvier divides into three Orders., viz. those which have the branchiae
fixed, which includes the Cyclostomi and Plagiostomi ; and those in which the bran-
chiae are free, which comprises the Sturiones.

ORDER I.— CYCLOSTOMI.

Jaws fixed in an immoveable ring; branchiae fixed, and the
openings numerous.

The branchiae in this order, in place of being free at their external margin, and
all the intervals opening into a common receptacle, as is generally the case, are on
the contrary attached to the skin ; and the water escapes by as many openings in
this skin as there are intervals between them. Another peculiarity in these fishes
consists in having small cartilaginous arches or ribs suspended in the flesh at the ex-
terior margin of the branchiae.

The fishes of this order are with regard to their skeleton the most imperfect of
vertebrated animals. Destitute of pectoral and ventral fins, their elongated body
is terminated before by a circular fleshy lip, supported by a cartilaginous ring. The
vertebrae are united in a tendinous cord, filled interiorly with a mucilaginous sub-
stance, and covered exteriorly with indistinct cartilaginous rings, more or less solid.
The ordinary ribs are wanting, but the branchial ribs or supports, scarcely visible
in the sharks and rays, are much developed, and united to one another. The bran-
chiae in place of being pectinated, as in all the other fishes, have the appearance of
purses, from the junction of their faces to the opposite faces of the neighbouring
ones. The labyrinth of the ear is inclosed in the cranium ; the nostrils open by one
orifice, before which is a blind cavity, which some writers have improperly named
a spiracle ; and the intestinal canal .is short.

Gen. 1. PETIIOMYZON, Dum. Lin.

Maxillary ring armed with strong teeth ; lips formed for suc-
tion ; tongue with two rows of small teeth ; a dorsal fin before
and another behind the anus.

P. marinus, Lin. The greater, or Sea Lamprey. Body yellowish,
marbled with brown ; silvery below ; the first dorsal fin distinct
from the second ; two large approximated teeth at the top of the

SCYLLIUM. FISHES. 383

maxillary ring. 2 or 3 feet long. Inhabits European Seas. B.
—Shaw, v. pi. 133.

This species ascends in spring into the mouths of rivers.

P. Jluvialilis, Lin. The Lesser Lamprey. Silver- coloured, black-
ish,, or olive- coloured on the back; the first dorsal fin distinct
from the second ; two large teeth at the top of the maxillary ring.
12 to 18 inches long. Rivers. B — Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 10.

P. Planeri, Bloch. Body olive-coloured above, paler below ; two
large teeth in the upper part of the maxillary ring ; dorsal fins
contiguous or united. Inhabits fresh waters in Germany. — Cuv.
Reg. An. ii. 119.

Gen. 2. AMMOCOSTES, Dum. — Petromyxon, Lin.
Body soft and membranous; branchial openings nearly the same
as in the lampreys ; lip semicircular, and covering only the
upper part of the mouth ; no teeth ; dorsal fins united to the
caudal one, forming a low and sinuous ridge.

A. branchialis, Cuv. The Common Pride. Body marked with
transverse lines ; tail lanceolate. 6 to 8 inches long. Inhabits
Rivers. B. — Pen. Brit. ZooL iii. pi. 10.

Gen. 3. GASTROBRANCHUS, Bloch. — Myxine, Lin.
Maxillary ring membranous, with only one tooth above ; late-
ral dentations of the tongue strong, and in two rows on each
side ; two spiracles under the abdomen.

Linnaeus placed the animal which forms the type of this genus in his class Vermes,
though its organization is analogous to that of the lamprey, except in regard to the
branchial openings, which in this genus, in place of an outward aperture, open into
a common canal on each side, and these two canals terminate in two apertures situ-
ate under the belly. The mouth is circular, surrounded with eight cirri, and at its
superior margin is an opening which leads into the interior. The body is cylindri-
cal, and furnished with a fin on the hinder part, which surrounds the tail. It has
no eyes. Through the lateral pores of this singular animal a mucous fluid exudes
in great abundance.

G. coccus, Bloch. (M . glutinosa, Lin.) Glutinous Hag. Body whit-
ish, reddish towards the head and tail; a double row of lateral
pores. 4 to 6 inches long. European seas. B Shaw, v. pi. 134.

G. Dombeyi, Lacep. Head rounded, broader than the body. In-
habits South American Seas Shaw, v. 267-

ORDER II.— PLAGIOSTOMI, Dumeril.— Selachii, Cuv.

Branchiae pectinated, the openings numerous, without operculi
or membranes ; palatine and postmandibulary bones armed
with teeth in place of jaws.

The ordinary bones of the jaws in this family are merely rudimentary. One
single bone connects these jaws to the cranium, and supplies the place of the tympa-

384 FISHES. CYCLOSTOMI.

nal, jugal, and temporal bones. The hyoid bone, attached to this pedicle, supports
rays as in the ordinary fishes, and is accompanied with branchial arches. These
fishes have pectoral and ventral fins, the last placed backwards on the abdomen.
Some species of this order are viviparous, and others oviparous, the ovum in this
case being inclosed in a quadrangular coriaceous shell. The males have appendages
at the internal margin of the ventral fins, of which the use is not known.

FAMILY I. — SQUALIDES.

Body elongated; tail thick and fleshy; pectoral fins pretty large;
branchial openings on the side of the neck ; eyes lateral ;
snout supported by three cartilaginous branches, which sup-
ply the place of the anterior portion of the cranium.

Gen. 1. SCYLLIUM, Cuv. — Squalus, Lin.

Snout short and obtuse ; nostrils near the mouth, continued in
a furrow ; spiracular openings ; teeth notched ; dorsal fins
placed much behind ; branchial openings in part above the
pectoral fins ; caudal fin truncated at the end.

S. canicula, Cuv. Body narrow and elongated,, reddish above with
numerous brown spots ; anal fin below the space between the dor-
sal ones. Inhabits European Seas. 3 to 4 feet long Pen. Brit.

Zool. iii. pi. 19.

S. catulus, Cuv. (S. catulus and stellaris, Lin.) Body cinereous,
streaked in some parts with red ; spots larger and less numerous
than in the preceding ; ventral fins united. About 2 feet long.
Inhabits European Seas — Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 19.

S. Africanus, Cuv. Body gray, with seven longitudinal blackish
bands ; anal fin placed behind the second dorsal fin. 2^ feet long.
Inhabits African Seas. — Shaw, v. 345.

S. denliculatus, Cuv. (S. tuberculatus , Schn.) Body gray or ash-
brown, with large unequal rufous spots above ; a row of tuber-
cles running from between the eyes to the first dorsal fin La-

cep. i. pi. 11- fig- L

In other foreign species of this genus, the anal fin is placed behind the second
dorsal ; the spiracles are excessively small ; the fifth branchial opening is often con-
cealed in the fourth ; and the lobules of the nostrils are generally prolonged into
cirri.

Gen. 2. CARCHARIAS, Cuv. — Squalus, Lin.
Snout prominent, conical and depressed ; nostrils under its
middle ; teeth in many rows, edged, pointed, and often den-
tated on their margin ; no spiracles ; first dorsal fin before
the ventrals, and the second nearly opposite the anal fin ;
last openings of the branchiae extending over the pectoral fins.

C. vulgaris, Cuv. (Sq. carcharias}"Lm.) The White Shark, Body
pale cinereous, darker on the upper parts ; tail trilobed ; teeth
in the form of an isoceles triangle, with rectilineal and dentated
sides. 20 to 25 or 30 feet long. Inhabits all seas. — Shaw, v.
pi. 148.

LAMNA. FISHES. 385

This animal, the terror of mariners, is one of the most voracious of fishes. But how-
ever large and dangerous the existing race may be, yet, from the magnitude of the
fossil teeth found at Malta and elsewhere, some of them measuring 4^ inches from
the point to the base, and 6 inches from the point to the angle, the animal to which
they belonged must have much exceeded the present species in size.

C. vulpes, Cuv. The Fox Shark. Body lead-coloured, whitish be-
neath ; head short and conical ; upper lobe of the tail as long as
the body. 13 feet long. Inhabits Mediterranean and other seas.
—Shatv, v. 333.

C. glaucus, Cuv. The Blue Shark. Body slender, slate-blue co-
loured above, whitish beneath ; snout long and pointed ; tail
deeply bilobed, the lower lobe longer than the upper. 10 to 14
feet long. Inhabits all seas. B. — Sharv, v. pi. 151.

Gen. 3. LAMNA, Cuv. — Squalus, Gmel.
Snout pyramidal, with the nostrils at the base ; teeth numerous,
in rows ; branchial openings before the pectoral fins.

L. Cornubiensis, Cuv. Porbeagle Shark. Body above blackish-blue,
white or silvery beneath, with a projecting keel on each side of
the tail, and the caudal lobes almost equal ; teeth slender, with
two processes at their base ; tail semilunar. 4 to 8 feet long.
Inhabits European seas. B. — Lin. Trans, iii. pi. 153.

The L. Monensis does not seem to differ from the present species.

Gen. 4. ZYG^ENA, Cuv. — Squalus, Lin.
Head flattened horizontally, truncated before, and its sides pro-
longed transversely into branches, like the head of a hammer ;
eyes at the extremity of the branches, and the nostrils at
their anterior margin.

Z. vulgaris, Cuv. The Hammer-headed Shark. Body elongated,
brown above, whitish beneath ; first dorsal fin falcate, towards the
upper part of the back ; second small and near the tail. 5 to 15
feet long. Mediterranean and Indian seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 154.

Z. Blochii, Cuv. Nostrils placed nearer the middle, and the second
dorsal fin closer to the caudal one than in the preceding. — Cuv.
Reg. An. ii. 127.

Z. Tiburo, Cuv. Head flattened, cordiform ; body grayish, belly
white, and skin covered with small tubercles. Inhabits European
and American Seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 154.

1. With spiracles and anal Jin.
Gen. 5. GALEUS, Cuv. — Squalus, Lin.

Body elongated ; snout produced, pointed ; with temporal ori-
fices ; teeth dentated on their exterior side ; first dorsal fin
nearly above the pectorals.

G. vulgaris, Cuv. The Common Tope. Body above light cinereous,
white below ; fins small and blackish. 5 feet long. Inhabits
European seas — Penn. Brit. Zoo/. Hi. pi. 18.

VOL. I. B b

386 FISHES. CYCLOSTOMI.

Gen. 6. M-USTELUS, Cuv. — Squalus, Lin.

Body elongated ; snout blunt ; with temporal orifices ; teeth
blunt and crowded ; dorsal fins unarmed.

M. vulgaris, Cuv. (Sq. mustelus, Lin.) Body brownish above,
whitish beneath ; pectoral fins short ; first dorsal fin large, and
placed nearly in the middle of the back, the second nearly oppo-
site the anal fin. 2 feet long. European seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 153.

Gen. 7. NOTIDANUS, Cuv. — Squalus, Lin.

Head small, depressed, and obtuse, with temporal orifices ; teeth
compressed and serrated ; dorsal fin single.

N. griseus, Cuv. Body pale brown, with small carinated scales ;
six branchial openings on each side ; teeth triangular above, ser-
rated below. 2i feet long. Mediterranean sea — Shaw, v. 346.

Gen. 8. SELACHE, Cuv. — Squalus, Lin.

Body elongated ; head small, with temporal orifices ; branchial
openings embracing nearly the circle of the neck ; teeth small,
conical, and without dentations ; first dorsal fin nearly be-
tween the pectorals and ventrals.

S. maximus, Cuv. The Basking Shark, Penn. Body deep lead-
colour above ; belly white ; first dorsal fin very large ; teeth small,
conical, very numerous. About 30 feet long. Inhabits European
seas. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 16.

This species has nothing of the ferocity of the C. vufgaris, though it surpasses
it in size. It is common in some seasons on the western coasts of Britain. In
swimming the dorsal fin is often above the surface of the water.

Gen. 9. CESTRACION, Cuv. — Squalus, Schn.

Jaws pointed, as long as the snout, armed with small pointed
teeth, and towards the angles with larger rhomboidal ones ;
a spine before each dorsal fin.

C. Philippi, Cuv. Body brown above, white beneath ; mouth wide,
with ten or eleven rows of teeth ; a lengthened lobe on each side
of the head. 2 feet long. Inhabits seas of New Holland —
Shaw, v. 341.

2. With spiracles, but destitute of anal fins.
Gen. 10. SPINAX, Cuv. — Squalus, Lin.

Snout elongated, blunt at the end ; teeth small, edged, in many
rows ; a strong spine before each dorsal fin ; no anal fin.

S. acanthias, Cuv. Picked Dog-Fish. Body brown above, whitish
below ; nose blunt. The young are spotted with white. 2 to 3
feet long. Common on the British Coasts. This species is ovo-
viviparous — Shaw, v. 338.

S.fuscus, Will. Body dusky above, abdomen nearly black. In-
habits European seas. — Sharv, y. 339.
3

CENTRING. FISHES. 387

Gen. 11. CENTRINA, Cuv. — Squalus, Lin.
Skin very rough ; teeth of the lower jaw edged, and in one or
two rows, those of the upper slender, pointed, and in many
rows ; second dorsal fin placed above the ventrals ; no anal
fin ; tail short.

C. vulgaris, Cuv. (Sq. centrina, Lin.) Body subtrigonal, brown co-
loured above, white below ; head small and flattened ; spiracles
behind the eyes. 3 to 4 feet long. Inhabits European seas. —
Shaw, v. pi. 153. *

C. squamosa, Cuv. Snout oblong, depressed ; eyes oblong ; body
covered with ovate carinated scales. 3 feet long. — Shaw, v. 348.

Geii. 12. SCYMNUS, Cuv. — Squalits, Risso. Lin.
Snout short, obtuse ; teeth in the lower jaw edged, in one or two
rows, in the upper pointed, and in many rows ; no spines before
the dorsal fins.

S. borealis, Fleming. Greenland Shark. Body gray ; first dorsal
fin larger than the second, more advanced than the ventrals ;
pectoral fins large ; ventrals elongated, the two sides nearly pa-
rallel. About fourteen feet long. Inhabits Northern Seas. B. —
British Animals, 166.

S. Nicensis, (Sq. Americanus, Gmel.) Scales small and angular ;
snout short and obtuse ; second dorsal fin largest ; ventral fins
near the tail. 3 feet long. European seas — Shaw, v. 347-

Gen. 13. San AT IN A, Dumeril. — Squalus, Lin.
Body broad, and flattened horizontally ; head round ; mouth ter-
minal; temporal orifices; pectoral fins very large and ex-
tended forwards, separated from the neck by a cleft, in which
are the branchial openings ; the dorsal fins behind the ven-
trals ; no anal fin.

S. Icevis, Cuv. (Sq. squatina, Lin.) The Angel Fish. Body gray
above, and covered with tubercles, white beneath ; head circular,
broader than the body. 6 to 8 feet long. Inhabits European
seas. B. — Shaw, v. pi. 155.

The Romans used the rough skin of this species for polishing wood and ivory, and
it still furnishes the finest shagreen.

Gen. 14. PRISTIS, Latham. — Squalus, Lin.
Body flattened anteriorly, with four or five branchial openings
below on each side ; two spiracles behind the eyes ; no anal
fin ; head prolonged into a depressed bony beak, with strong
pointed spines on each side ; teeth crowded, flattened.

P. antiquorum, Lath. (Sq. pristis, Lin.) The Saw-Fish. Beak
armed with twenty-four large teeth on each side ; body gray-
brown above, paler below ; jaws with several rows of small blunt

388 FISHES.

teeth. 15 feet long; beak nearly a third of the total length. In-
habits European seas. — Sharv, v. 357-

P. pectinatus, Lath. Beak armed with thirty-four sharp teeth on
each side ; tail longer than the preceding. Inhabits European
seas. — Lin. Trans, ii. pi. 26. fig. 2.

P. cuspidatus, Lath. Beak armed with twenty-eight teeth on each
side, of nearly equal breadth throughout. Inhabits European seas.
— Lin. Trans, ii. pi. 26. fig. 3.

FAMILY II. — PLATYSOMI.

Body much flattened, discoidal, with the eyes and spiracles on
the back ; nostrils, mouth, and branchial openings below ;
sides bordered by large pectorals.

The body in this family is much flattened horizontally and resembles a disc, from
its union with the extremely large and fleshy pectoral fins. These fins, which are
joined to one another before or to the snout, extend backwards on both sides of the
abdomen to the base of the ventral fins. The scapulae of the pectoral fins are arti-
culated with the spine behind the branchiae. The dorsal fins are almost always on
the tail. The ova of this family are brown, coriaceous, and square, with pointed angles.

Gen. 15. RHINOBATUS, Schn. — Raia, Lin.
Five branchial openings on each side below ; snout angular ;
body flat ; tail long and very thick at the base ; dorsal and
caudal fins distinct ; teeth serrated, and in quincunx order.

K. vulgaris, Cuv. Body elongated, brown above, paler below, with
one row of dorsal spines ; first dorsal fin behind the ventral ones.
4 feet long. Inhabits European seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 147.

R. Djiddensis, Forsk. Body pale cinereous, with three rows of
spines on the anterior part of the back ; first dorsal fin above the
ventral ones. Inhabits the Red Sea. — Shaw, v. 319.
The genus RHINA of Schneider differs not from the present, otherwise than in

the type of it, R. ancyclostomus, having the snout short, broad, and rounded.

Gen. 16. TORPEDO, Dum. — Raia, Lin.

Body smooth, depressed, obtuse before, and nearly circular ; an-
terior border formed by productions of the snout, which ex-
tend along the sides to meet the pectoral fins ; five branchial
openings on each side, beneath ; electrical organs on the
sides ; teeth small and pointed ; tail short and fleshy.

This singular tribe of fishes, and their electrical powers, was well known to the an-
cients. Oppian relates, that when taken by a hook and line they benumb the astonish-
ed fisherman; and Pliny affirms, that, when touched by a spear or stick, the paralyz-
ing effect is communicated in a high degree. The observations of Redi and others
in the 17th century tended in some degree to make known the peculiar action and ana-
tomy of the Torpedo ; and later investigations have elucidated the singular faculty it
possesses. The electrical apparatus, contained in the space between the pectoral fins
and the head and branchiae, is formed of small united membranous tubes, subdivided by
horizontal diaphragms and minute cells filled with a mucous substance. These are
abundantly provided with nerves, which come from the eighth pair. In this appara-
tus resides the electric power which has rendered the fishes of this genus so celebrat-
ed, and which perhaps is given them for the purpose of stunning their prey.

4

i

RAIA. FISHES. 389

T. vulgarly, Cuv. The Torpedo. Body circular ; cinereous above,
marked by five large circular dusky spots, paler in the centre ;
under surface whitish. 2 to 4 feet long. Inhabits European

seas Shaw, v. pi. 146.

The other European species of this genus, the T. unimaculata, marmorata, and

Galvanii of Risso, have been confounded with this species by most naturalists.

Gen. 17. RAIA, Cuv.

Disc rhomboidal ; five branchial openings on each side beneath ;
mouth below ; tail slender, with two small dorsal fins near its
extremity; teeth small, crowded, and in quincunx order; males
with hooked spines on the pectorals.

R. clavata, Lin. The Thornback. Snout subacute ; body cine-
reous, rough with bony tubercles, each furnished with a hooked
spine, the dorsal row longest ; tail longer than the body, with
three rows of spines. 2 to 4 feet long. Inhabits European Seas.
B. — Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 13, 14.

R. radiata, Donov. Starry Ray. Snout slightly prominent, front
obtuse ; base of the spines enlarged, radiated. Inhabits British
seas. — Donov. Brit. Fishes, pi. 114.

R.oxyrhynchus, Lin. Sharp-nosed Ray. Body much depressed,
cinereous, with several pale or whitish spots and dusky streaks
above ; white beneath, with dusky spots ; snout prolonged, sub-
acute ; the row of dorsal spines extending along the tail, which is
short. 4 to 6 feet long. Inhabits British seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 138.

R. rubus, Lin. The Rough Ray. Body yellowish gray, variegated
with dusky or brownish spots, and rough with minute spines; spines
around the eyes and on the snout, and three rows of larger ones
on the tail. Upwards of three feet long. Inhabits British seas.
— Donov. pi. 20.

R. microcellala, Mont. Small-eyed Ray. Body above brown, with
scattered spots and lines, and rough with minute spines; snout ob-
tuse ; one row of small hooked spines on the tail, running along
the dorsal ridge to the head ; eyes very small. 20 inches long. —
Wern. Mem. ii. 430.

R. Balis, Lin. The Skate. Body brown or cinereous above, gray-
ish below; skin rough, but without spines, except a row on the tail.
Inhabits European Seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 136.
This species attains large dimensions, some individuals weighing upwards of 200

Ibs. It is spotted when young, but assumes in age a more uniform tint of colour.

R. undulata, Lacep. Undulated Ray. Body pale gray brown above,
with numerous undulated dusky transverse streaks, whitish be-
low. Inhabits European Seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 140.

Gen. 18. TUYGON, Adans. — Raia, Lin.

Head joining with the pectorals to form an obtuse angle ; teeth
slender, united in a quincunx form ; tail armed with a den-
tated or serrated spinous point ; no fins on the tail.

390 FISHES. CYCLOSTOMI.

T. pastinaca; Cuv. The Sting Ray. Body subrhomboidal, approach-
ing to ovate, yellowish olive, smooth ; snout pointed ; tail slender,
\vith a long serrated bone towards the base. 2 to 3 feet long.
Inhabits European seas — Pen. Brit. Zoo/, iii. 125.

T. tuberculala, Cuv. With subobtuse distant depressed glossy spines
down the back and tail ; tail long and slender, with a serrated
spine, and without a fin. Inhabits American seas. — Shaw, v. 290.

T. Lymna, Cuv. Body reddish brown above, with numerous oval
blue spots of different sizes ; tail longer than the body, marked
half its length with two longitudinal blue stripes ; tail pinnated,
with one or two spines. Inhabits the Red Sea. — Shaw, v. 237-

T. sephcn, Cuv. Body cinereous brown above, with tubercles on the
back and anterior part of the tail reddish ; white beneath ; the three
central tubercles largest. 11 feet long. Red Sea. — Shaw. v. 288.

Gen. 19. MYLIOBATIS, Dumeril. — Raia, Lin.
Head projecting beyond tbe pectoral fins, which are broader
transversely than in the other rays, and pointed ; jaws with
large flat teeth, in different proportions ; tail extremely long
and slender, terminating in a point and armed with a bony
spine, serrated on both sides, with a small dorsalfin near its base.

M. aquila, Cuv. The Sea Eagle. Snout projecting and parabolic ;
teeth in the middle of the jaws broader than long, and in one row ;
the lateral ones of a hexagonal form, and in three rows. Of large
size. Inhabits Mediterranean Sea. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 137-

Gen. 20. CEPHALOPTERA, Dumeril. — Raia, Schn.
Body depressed ; head truncated before ; teeth slender and fine-
ly dentated ; five or six branchial openings on each side, be-
low ; pectoral fins large, projecting before the head ; tail slen-
der, conical, narrower than the body.

C. Giorna, Cuv. Body blackish above, bordered with violet, white
beneath ; horns or appendages blackish, longitudinally striated,
with eight rows of tubercles ; pectoral fins triangular ; tail very
long. 4 feet broad. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Shaw^v. pi. 145.

C. Massena, Risso. Margins of the fins bent back j horns or ap-
pendages black at the extremity ; tail with three rows of asperi-
ties. Grows to a large size. Mediterranean sea — Risso, 15.

FAMILY III. — CHIM^EE.*, Lin.
With one branchial opening on each side.

This group resembles the Sharks in general form ; but all their branchiae open out-
wards by a single aperture on each side, which communicates, however, with five
others at the bottom of the general cavity. The bones of the upper jaw are represent-
ed by the vomer, and hard bony plates in place of teeth occupy the lower jaw.
The elongated snout is marked by lines of pores ; and the first dorsal fin, armed with
a strong spine, is over the pectorals. The males are recognized as among the Squali
by spinous plates at the base of the ventral fins, and a fleshy spinous appendage be-
tween the eyes.

CHIMERA. FISHES. 391

Gen. 21. CHIMERA, Cuv.

Body elongated, compressed; snout conical ; one branchial open-
ing on each side of the neck ; tail terminated by a long fila-
ment; second dorsal fin commencing immediately behind the
first.

C. monstrosa, Lin. Northern Chimsera. Body compressed laterally,
silvery white, marbled with brown ; head large, two broad incisors

in each jaw. 3 to 4 feet long. Inhabits Northern Seas. B

Shaw, v. pi. 157.

Gen. 22. CALLORYNCHUS, Gronov. — Chimcera, Lin.
Snout terminated by a fleshy protuberance resembling a hoe ;
second dorsal fin commencing over the ventrals, and ending
opposite the beginning of the fin under the tail.

C. Australis, Cuv. Body silvery, tinged with yellowish brown above;

fins pale brown. 3 to 4 feet long. Inhabits South Seas Shaw,

pi. 158, 158*.

ORDER III.— STURIONES.

Branchial openings much cleft, furnished with an operculum,
but without rays in the membrane ; branchiae free.

Gen. 1. ACIPENSER, Lin.

Body elongated, and furnished, as well as the head, with rows
of bony prominences ; mouth placed under the snout, cylin-
drical, retractile, and without teeth ; four cirri beneath the
snout.

The fishes of this genus have the general form of the sharks ; but their body is
more or less covered with bony prominences in longitudinal rows. Their eyes and
nostrils are on the sides of the head, the dorsal fin behind the ventrals, and the anal
under it. Sturgeons ascend the rivers in the northern seas at certain seasons in vast
numbers, and in these rivers their fishery is of great importance. Their flesh is an
agreeable food ; caviar is prepared from the roe ; and the large swimming-bladder
affords the isinglass of commerce.

A. Sturio, Lin. The Sturgeon. Body long, pentagonal, cinereous,
with dusky variegations, and covered with five rows of large bony
tubercles, one on the back and two on each side ; belly flat, whit-
ish ; pectoral fins oval ; dorsal fin near the tail ; tail bifurcated,
the upper lobe much longer than the under. 10 to 18 feet long.
Inhabits European seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 159.

A. Ruthemis, Lin. The Little Sturgeon. Body elongated, brown-
ish, the sides spotted with pale red ; three rows of bony plates
above ; the lateral ones carinated and numerous, and those of the
belly flat. 3 feet long. Inhabits the Danube and other rivers
which run into the Black and Caspian Sea. — Shaw, v. pi. 160.

A. huso, Lin. The Great Sturgeon. Body black above, white be-

392 FISHES. PLECTOGNATHI.

low, the sides bluish ; fins small, grayish ; lateral plates smaller,
and snout and cirri shorter than in the common sturgeon ; skin also
smoother. 15 to 25 feet long. Inhabits Caspian and Black Sea.
—Shaw, v. pi. 159.

It is from the sounds of this species that the best isinglass is made.

Gen. 2. SPATULARIA, Shaw.

Snout very much prolonged, in the form of a spatula ; branchial
openings one on each side of the neck, with very large oper-
culi ; mouth beneath, with sharp serrated teeth.

S. reticulata, Shaw. Body subcylindric, tapering to the tail ; head
and snout nearly as long as the rest of the body, the snout reti-
culated with prominent lines ; lateral line strongly marked ;
dorsal fin near the tail ; tail lunated. 12 inches long, young
specimens. — Shaw, v. pi. 156.

SUB-CLASS II — OSSEOUS FISHES.

This division includes the fishes with free branchia, and of which the bones,
though varying in hardness, are always fibrous. The cranium is divided by sutures.

ORDER IV.— PLECTOGNATHI.

Bones fibrous ; upper jaw formed by the intermaxillary bone,
which is immoveably fixed upon the side of the maxillary ;
palatine arch fixed to the cranium ; branchial cleft simple.

This order approaches the cartilaginous fishes by the imperfection of the jaws and
the softness of the bones. The bones, however, are fibrous, and the skeleton has all
the structure of the ordinary fishes. The principal distinctive character consists in
the maxillary bone being firmly attached to the side of the intermaxillary, which
alone forms the jaw ; and the palatine arch, being connected by a suture with the
cranium, has in consequence no motion. The operculi and rays are concealed
under a thick skin, and nothing is seen externally but a small branchial cleft. Of
true ribs but slight vestiges are found, and they are destitute of proper ventral fins ;
the intestinal canal is ample, but without ccecums ; and almost all have a swimming-
bladder of considerable size. This order comprises two natural families, charac-
terized by their teeth.

FAMILY I. — GYMNODONTES.

This family, in place of apparent teeth, have the jaws furnished with a substance
like ivory, divided interiorly into laminae, which are in fact true teeth united. Their
operculi are small, with five rays on each side but both imperfectly seen. They feed
on Crustacea and fuci. Their flesh is not much esteemed, and that of some spe-
cies seems poisonous nt certain seasons.

Gen. 1. DIODON, Lin.

Jaws undivided, formed of one piece above and another below,
with a rounded portion furrowed across behind the cutting

TETHAODON. FISHES. 393

edge of each ; nostrils with double fleshy tentaculi ; skin
armed in every part with thick pointed spines ; body capable
of inflation like a globe.

D. atinga, Lin. Body elongated, spines close together ; caudal fin
rounded ; back broad, round, and blackish ; belly white, spotted
with black, and edged with brown ; dorsal and anal tins opposite.
15 to 18 inches long. Inhabits Indian Seas.~#/oc£, pi. 125.

Gen. 2. TETRAODON, Lin.

Jaws divided in the middle by a suture in such a manner as to
present the appearance of four teeth, two above and two be-
low ; skin furnished with small spines ; body capable of in-
flation.

T. lineatus, (T.physa, Geoff.) Back and sides striped longitudi-
nally with brown and blackish ; spines small, numerous. 10 to
12 inches long. Inhabits the Nile. — Cuv. Reg, An. ii. 147»
At the period of the inundation of the Nile many of this species are thrown up-
on land, and serve for sport to the children.

T. stellatus, Donov. (T. lagocephalus, Penn.) Globe Tetraodon.
Body oblong, rich blue on the back ; tail and tins brown ; sides and
belly white, shagreened or wrinkled, with numerous small sharp
spines attached at the base by four rays. 19 inches long. Eu-
ropean and American seas. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 23.

T. testudineus, Bloch. Body ferruginous brown, with blue spots
above ; bluish, with longitudinal brown bands beneath. 2 feet
long. Inhabits Indian seas — Bloch, pi. 139.

T. electricus, Paterson. Body brown above, yellow on the sides,
sea-green beneath, and varied with red, green, and white spots.
7 or 8 inches long. Inhabits Indian and American seas. — PhiL
Trans. Ixxvi. pi. 13.

Gen. 3. CEPHALUS, Shaw. — Orthagoriscus, Schn.
Jaws undivided ; body short, compressed, terminating abruptly,
and without spines, not capable of inflation ; tail short, and
very high vertically ; dorsal and anal fins high and pointed,
uniting with the caudal fin ; no swimming-bladder.

This genus is distinguished from all others by the singular shortness of the body,
which seems as if it were cut off abruptly, the posterior parts wanting, and rather
resembling the head of a large fish than a complete animal.

C. brevis, Shaw. (T.mola,Lin.) Short Sun Fish. Body brown,
with a silvery tinge on the sides and abdomen ; skin rough ;
pectoral fins small, rounded, and placed horizontally. 8 to 10
feet long. Inhabits European seas. B — Shaw, v. pi. 175.

C. oblongus, Shaw. Oblong Sun Fish. Back dusky, with some
variegations ; abdomen silvery ; a few dusky streaks pointing
downwards between the eyes and pectoral fins. Inhabits Eu-
ropean Seas. H.—Shan>, v. pi. 176.

394 FISHES. PLECTOGNATHI.

FAMILY II. — SCLERODERMI, Cuv.

This family is distinguished by their conical or pyramidal snout, prolonged from
the eyes, and terminated by a small mouth, with distinct teeth in each jaw. The
skin is generally rough, or covered with hard scales. Two dorsal fins, the first spi-
rious, the second soft ; no ventral fins ; swimming bladder oval, large.

Gen. 4. BALTSTES, Lin.

Body compressed, covered with hard rhomboidal scales ; eight
teeth in a single row in each jaw ; first dorsal fin with three
spines, the first the largest, the third much smaller and sepa-
rate ; extremity of the pelvis projecting and prickly.

The fishes of this genus abound in the tropical seas near rocks on a level with
the water, and are remarked/or the brilliancy of their colours. Their flesh is not
much prized, and is said to be dangerous at certain seasons.

1. Tail unarmed.

B. capriscus, Lin. Mediterranean File-Fish. Body ovate,, brown-
ish gray, spotted with blue or green ; tail unarmed ; scales be-
hind the branchial opening not larger than the others. 1 to 2
feet long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Shaw, v. 411.

B. stellaris, Schn. Body gray above, with small white spots ; sides
and abdomen whitish ; first dorsal fin with four spines, the first
longest ; second dorsal and anal fins speckled with white bars ;
tail unarmed. Inhabits Indian seas. — Sharv, v. 417.

~B.forcipatus, Lin. Skin marked into scale-like arese ; first dorsal
fin three-spined, the first extremely thick and strong ; second
dorsal and anal fin with numerous small round spots ; tail un-
armed, forked. 16 inches long. Inhabits Indian seas — Shaw,
v. 416.

B. vetula, Bloch. Body broad and thin, rough, the scales divid-
ed into small trapezoidal figures, yellowish olive above, paler
beneath ; three spines in the first dorsal fin, the first largest ;
tail unarmed, forked, with blue bands. 1 to 2 feet long. In-
habits Indian and American seas. — Bloch, pi. 150.

2. Tail armed with two rows of spines.

B. lineatus, Schn. Tail with two rows of spines ; scales behind the
branchial openings larger than the others — Schn. 87.

3. Tail with three rows of spines,

B. cinereus, Lacep. (JB. arcuatus, Schn.) Body cinereous, marked
on each side by a black thoracic band, and three lunated blue
spots near the tail; tail slightly lunated, with three rows of
spines. Inhabits Indian Seas.— -Shaw, v. 410.

B. aculeatus, Lin. Body ferruginous, with the top of the head and
sides of the thorax streaked with blue ; skin rough and reticulated ;
tail rounded, with three rows of recumbent spines. 2 inches
long. Inhabits Indian, American, and Red Seas. — Shaw, v.
pi. 169.

MONOCANTHUS. FISHES. 395

4. Tail armed with four rows of spines.

R.fasciatus, Shaw. (B. rectangulus, Schn.) Body rhombic-ovate,
slightly lengthened ; upper parts pale yellow, the head deep yel-
low ; an oblique black band on each side ; lower parts red brown ;
tail armed with four longitudinal rows of small spines. Inhabits
Indian Seas — Shaw, v. 409.

5. Tail armed with six or seven rows of spines.
B. ringens, Bloch. Body entirely black, strongly marked by cross
lines into rhombic divisions ; a streak of blue along the base of
each of the pectoral fins, and across the tail ; tail slightly lunated.
10 or 12 inches long. Inhabits Indian and American seas. —
Block, pi. 152, fig. 2.

6. Tail with from twelve to fifteen rows of spines.
B. Sonneratii, Shaw. (JLe Baliste bourse, Lacep.) Body ovate, gray
brown above, bluish white beneath ; on each side of the head a
black crescent, passing downwards as far as the base of the pec-
toral fins. 6 to 10 inches long. Indian seas. — Shaw, v. 406.

Gen. 5. MONOCANTHUS, Cuv.

Scales very small, rough with scabrosities ; extremity of the
pelvis projecting and spinous ; first dorsal fin with one large
serrated spine ; eight teeth in a single row in each jaw.

M. Chinensis, Bloch. Pelvis moveable and attached to the abdomen
by an extensible membrane ; body broad, rough, compressed on
the sides, pale gray, and marked with small yellow spots ; a double
row of teeth on the dorsal spine. A few inches long. Inhabits
Indian Seas. — Bloch, pi. 152. fig. 1.

M. tomentosus, Bloch. Body compressed on the sides, yellowish
brown ; abdomen ventricose, yellow, with semilunar, rough, black
spots; dorsal spine strong, serrated behind; tail rounded, the
sides with stiff hairs. A few inches long. Inhabits Indian seas.
—Shaw, v. pi. 169.

Gen. 6. ALUTERES, Cuv. — Balistes, Lin.
Body elongated, covered with crowded, scarcely perceptible
granules ; a single spine at the first dorsal fin ; pelvis not
projecting; eight teeth in each jaw, in a single row.

A. monoceros, Cuv. Body cinereous, spotted irregularly with brown.
1 foot long. Inhabits Asiatic and American seas. — Bosc* Nouv.
Diet. iii. 208.

A. Icevis, Cuv. Body elongated, pale yellowish brown, marked on
the fore part with four or five longitudinal blue stripes reaching to
the middle of the body, and behind by transverse bands of the
same colour. 12 inches long. Indian seas — Bloch, pi. 414.

Gen. 7. TRIACANTHTJS, Cuv. — Balistes, Bloch.
Ventral fins composed of a single large spinous ray ; first dor-

396 FISHES. PLECTOGNATHI.

sal fin with one large spine and three or four smaller ones ;
skin covered with small crowded scales ; eight teeth in each
jaw ; tail elongated.

T. biaculeatus, Cuv. Body elongated, dusky on the upper parts,
whitish on the sides and abdomen ; snout elongated ; first ray of the
first dorsal fin much longer than the others ; ventral spines lon°-
and pointed ; tail forked. 6 to 8 inches long. Inhabits Indian
seas.-— Shaw, v. pi. 169.

Gen. 8. OSTRACION, Lin.

Head and body covered with osseous plates ; jaws armed with
ten or twelve conical teeth ; destitute of the bones of the pel-
vis and ventral fins ; branchial openings with a cutaneous
lobe, but having within an operculum with six rays ; one
dorsal and one anal fin.

The fishes of this genus have the bony plates by which they are covered fixed into
an inflexible shield, in such a manner that the tail, fins, mouth, and the lobes of the
branchiae are alone moveable. The greater number of the vertebras are also fixed.
Cuvier proposes the division of the genus according to the form of the body and
the spines ; but the differences in this respect, which may be only sexual, have not
been well ascertained.

1. Body triangular, without spines.

O. triqueter, Bloch. Triangular Trunk- Fish. Body reddish-brown,
with a white spot in the centre of each hexagonal space ; sides
sloping obliquely from the ridge of the back ; abdomen flat ; fins
yellowish; tail rounded. 12 inches long. Inhabits Indian and
American seas. — Bloch, pi. 130.

O. concatenates, Bloch. Plates of the body of various shapes, but
in a reticulated order ; colour brown, the dividing lines pale rose-
coloured ; sides violet or grayish ; belly white ; tail fins reddish-
brown. Inhabits American seas — Bloch, pi. 131.

2. Body triangular, with spines behind the abdomen.

O. bicaudalis, Bloch. Body marbled with gray and pale yellow,
with numerous small round black spots ; two spines near the anus.
Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 170.

O. trigonus, Bloch. Back very convex ; head thick and truncated ;
opening of the mouth small ; plates hexagonal, with numerous
small tubercles ; colour brownish-yellow ; fins yellow, with a blu-
ish border ; two subcaudal striated spines. 1 foot long. Inha-
bits South American seas — Bloch, pi. 135.

3. Body triangular, with two frontal and two subcaudal spines.

O. quadricornis, Bloch. Body subtrigonal, very convex above; plates
of the body in large hexagons, and marked with numerous and
very small tubercles ; two strong spines on the top of the head
pointing forwards, and two before the anal fin pointing back-
wards ; colbur deep brown, with elongated spots ; tail and fins

OSTRACION. FISHES. 397

yellow, the tail with black spots. 12 inches long. Inhabits In-
dian seas. — Block, pi. 134.

4. Body triangular, with spines on the ridges.

O. bicuspis, Blumen. (0. stellifer, Schn.) With two dorsal spines.

Inhabits coasts of China and America — Abbild. Nat. Hist. Ge-

gen&t. pi. 58.

5. Body quadrangular, without spines.
O. cubicus, Bloch. Body quadrangular ; plates hexagonal, with a

brown circle and white central spot, and covered with tubercles ;

sides gray; head yellowish ; tail and fins reddish-brown. One foot

long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Bloch, pi. 137-

O. meleagris, Shaw. (O.punctatus and lentiginosus, Schn.) Body
quadrangular, the plates hexagonal and of a deep blackish chest-
nut-colour, the whole marked with numerous small white spots ;
fins and tail whitish, with chestnut-coloured rays. — Shaw, v.
pi. 172.

O. nasus, Bloch. Head convex, sloping downwards, and rounded
off in front into an obtuse snout, beneath which the mouth is si-
tuate ; plates forming by their borders hexagonal stars, with a
round red spot in the centre of small tubercles ; general colour
grayish ; tail and fins reddish brown. Inhabits Indian and Ame-
rican seas — Shan, v. pi. 171-
6. Body quadrangular, with frontal and subcaudal spines.

O. cornulus, Bloch. Body quadrangular, yellowish-brown, deeper
below ; head short and truncated ; two long stout spines project-
ing forward from the head ; and two circular ones pointing back-
wards on each side of the anal fin. 8 or 10 inches long. Inha-
bits Indian Seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 170.

7. Body quadrangular with spines on the ridges.

O. turritus, Bloch. Body subquadrangular, the back rising into a
pyramidal hunch, terminated by a very strong, short, and striated
spine, curving slightly backwards ; abdomen with three to five
spines on each side curved slightly backwards ; plates with lines
and elevated borders of a triangular shape, forming various figures;
colour yellowish-brown, with irregular brown spots. 10 to 12
inches long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 171.

8. Body compressed ; abdomen carinated, with scattered spines.

O. auritus, Shaw. Body thick, broad, and short, with the back
very convex ; above each eye a very strong, thick, sharp pointed
spine, curving backwards ; on each side of the dorsal ridge two
others ; two spines on each side of the abdomen, and one shorter
on each side of the body ; colour deep brown, except the fins and
spines, which are paler. 4^ inches long. Inhabits Indian seas.
—Shaw, v. pi. 173.

398 FISHES. LOPHOBRANCHII.

ORDER V.— LOPHOBRANCHII, Cuv.

Jaws complete ,• branchiae in the form of small round tufts, dis-
posed in pairs along the branchial arches.

This order is distinguished from all the other fishes by the character of their bran-
chiae, which, in place of being pectinated, are disposed in tufted pairs along the
branchial arches. These are covered by a large operculum attached on every side,
but in which is a small opening for the exit of the water. The fishes of this order
are besides distinguished by their body being armed with bony cushions, which render
its appearance angular. They are generally of small size.

Gen. 1. SYNGNATHUS, Lin.

Body long and slender ; snout tubular, much produced, of
nearly equal thickness ; mouth at the extremity, cylindrical,
subvertical ; branchial opening toward the neck ; no ventral
tins.

The ova of this genus are hatched in a pouch, formed by an expansion of the skin,
which in some is placed under the belly, and in others at the base of the tail, and
which opens to allow the young to get out.

* With two pectoral Jins, and one dorsal, caudal, and anal Jin.

S. typhle., Lin. Smaller Pipe- Fish. Body hexagonal, marbled with
yellow and black ; fins grayish ; beak slender, a little compressed
on the sides ; eighteen plates on the body and thirty-six on the
tail, forming as many articulations ; tail square. 12 to 15 in-
ches long. Inhabits Northern Seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 179.

S« acus, Lin. The great Pipe-Fish. General form of the preceding ;
trunk with twenty plates, and the tail, which is hexagonal, of
forty-three, with broad alternate bands of a yellowish-white and
brown ; the plates slightly radiated. 1 to 2 feet long. Inhabits
European seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 179.

** Wanting the anal Jin.

S. pelagicus, Risso. Body heptagonal, yellowish brown, variegated
with narrow transverse deep brown bars placed at intervals along
the body. 12 inches long. European seas. — Shaw, v. 454.

*** Wanting anal and pectoral Jins.

S. cequoreus, Lin. Body rather compressed and angular, with an
acute dorsal and abdominal ridge, which, together with three slight
angles on each side, give it an octangular appearance ; thirty plates
from the gills to the vent, and about sixty-six from the vent to
the point of the tail, which is long and slender ; colour yellowish,
with transverse pale lines and dark margins. Inhabits British
seas. — Mont. Wern. Trans, i. pi. 4.

**** Wanting all but the dorsal Jin.

S. ophidion, Lin. Body rounded, greenish, without fins, except a
dorsal one. 1 to 2 feet long. Inhabits Northern seas — Bloch,
pi. 91, fig. 3.

SOLENASTOMUS. FISHES. 399

Gen. 2. HIPPOCAMPUS, Cuv. — Syngnathus, Lin.
Snout tubular; trunk of the body compressed laterally, and more
elevated than the tail ; joinings of the scales raised into ridges,
and the projecting angles spinous ; no ventral fins ; bran-
chial openings on the neck.

H. vulgaris, (S. hippocampus, Lin.) The sea Horse. Body hep-
tagonal, and furnished with seven rows of tubercles ; belly pro-
jecting, with dentated edge ; tail square, terminating in a finless
point ; head large, with a cartilaginous excrescence above the nose,
and four above the eyes, terminating in cirri ; colour gray on the
back and sides, with a number of black and white spots and
streaks ; belly brown. 8 to 12 inches long. Inhabits European
Seas— Shaw, v. pi. 179.

This species has its name from its head in the dried state, having some resem-
blance to that of a horse ; when recent, however, the head, as in other fishes, is in a
straight line with the body.

H.foliatus, Cuv. (S.Jbliatus, Shaw.) Foliated Hippocampus. Ge-
neral form of the preceding, but larger in proportion, with leaf-
like appendages on the head, back, tail, and abdomen ; colour
dusky or blackish-olive, thickly sprinkled on all parts, except ori
the appendages, with small whitish round specks ; fins soft and
transparent. 10 inches long. Inhabits Coasts of New Holland.
— Shaw, v. pi. 180.

This singular animal was described and figured by Dr Shaw from specimens in
the possession of the late Sir Joseph Banks. The leaf-like appendages are placed
on strong, rough, square spines ; and, were it not for perfect regularity of their pro-
portions, might be mistaken for the leaves of some species of fucus adhering to the
spines.

Gen. 3. SOLENOSTOMUS, Lacep.

Jaws narrow, elongated, and tubular ; opening of the mouth at
the extremity of the snout ; large ventral fins behind the
pectoral ones, united together with the body into a kind of

Xon ; first dorsal fin elevated, near the nape ; the second at
origin of the tail ; caudal fin large, pointed ; branchial
openings near the throat.

S. paradoxus, Lacep. (Fistularia paradoxa, Pall.) Body covered
with slightly elevated scales ; five rays on the first dorsal fin,
eighteen on the second ; tail lanceolate. 18 inches long. Inha-
bits Indian seas — Pall. Spic. ZooL viii. pi. 4, fig. 6.

Gen. 4. PEGASUS, 'Lin.

Snout much elongated, depressed, with the mouth under its base;
body broad, depressed, covered with plates ; branchial open-
ings on the side ; two distinct ventral fins behind the pecto-
ral ones, which are very large ; dorsal and anal fins opposite.

P. Draco, Lin. Dragon Pegasus. Thorax subquadrangular, with
several radiated shields or bony plates above and below ; a length-.

400 FISHES. ABDOMINALES.

ened cirrus on each side of the abdomen ; tail long and narrow,
in a case of eight or nine scaly rings ; pectoral fins very large,
round, with a scalloped margin. 3 or 4 inches long. Inhabits
Indian seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 182.

P. nalans, Bloch. Swimming Pegasus. Snout slender, slightly di-
lated and rounded at the tip, and marked above and below by
a central furrow ; pectoral fins rounded, and of moderate size ;
dorsal fin on the middle of the back ; ventral cirri slender and
flexible ; abdominal segments eleven or twelve in number ; tail
small, slightly rounded. 3 or 4 inches long. Inhabits Indian
seas — Shaw, v. pi. 182.

P. volans, Lin. Flying Pegasus. Snout much elongated, flatten-
ed, slightly dilated at the tip, with a longitudinal furrow, and
crenated on the edges ; a rhomboidal depression on the head, and
two deep subpentagonal cavities behind it. 3 inches long. In-
habits Indian seas. — Shatv, v. 462.

ORDER VI.— MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES.

Skeleton osseous ; jaws complete ; branchiae pectinated ; all
the rays of the fins soft, except sometimes the first ray of the
dorsal or pectoral fins ; ventral fins behind the abdomen.

This order, which includes the greater portion of fresh water fishes, is divided by
Cuvier into five natural families.

FAMILY I. — SALMONIDES.

Body scaly, with two dorsal fins, the second adipose, and without
rays.

This family comprehends in the system of Linnaeus one great genus, characterized
by the first dorsal fin with soft rays, followed by a second smaller one, formed of an
adipose extension of the skin, not supported by rays. They are provided with nu-
merous ccecums and a swimming-bladder.

Gen. 1. SALMO, Cuv.

The greater part of the upper jaw formed by the maxillary bones ;
mouth large, and furnished with teeth ; ventral fins opposite
the middle of the first dorsal, and the adipose fin opposite the
anal ; branchial membrane with more than eight rays.
S. Salar, Lin. The Salmon. Upper jaw longest ; lower jaw turned
up in the male ; back bluish black, silvery gray on the sides, and
white below, more or less marked above the lateral line with ir-
regular brown spots ; teeth on the vomer ; flesh red. 2 to 5 feet
long. Inhabits European seas. B. — Shaw, v. pi. 102.
The Salmon Fisheries in many parts of this country have long been an object of
national importance, and numerous Parliamentary regulations have been issued re-
garding the proper time and modes of fishing. Salmon annually ascend the rivers
great numbers in summer for the purpose of spawning ; and when this is accomplished

OSMERUS. FISHES. 401

they return again to the sea. The fry when of sufficient size likewise leave the
fresh waters for the sea ; and it is for the protection of the fish when on their in-
stinctive journeyings, and the preservation of the samlets, that legislative enactments
have become necessary.

S. trutta, Lin. The Salmon Trout. Body marked with brown
spots, of which those on the upper part are surrounded by a bright-
er circle ; beneath silvery ; flesh red. 18 inches long. Inhabits
European Seas. B. — Block, pi. 21.

This species ascends rivers like the salmon.

S.fario, Lin. The Common Trout. Body with brown spots up-
on the back, red upon the sides, each surrounded by a paler cir-
cle ; a large spot on the operculi ; the adipose fin yellow, with a
brown border ; under jaw rather longer than the upper ; flesh
white. 12 to 17 inches long. Inhabits Rivers and Lakes in
Europe. E.—Pe?m. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 70.

S. Hucho, Lin. Body sub-elongated, silvery gray, with numerous
round brown spots ; back dusky ; fins, except the ventral, which
is yellowish, pale purple, thickly spotted with brown ; tail forked.
2 to 5 feet long. Inhabits fresh waters of Europe — Block, pi. 100.

S. alpinus, Lin. Alpine Trout. Body marked with numerous
spots and points, black, red, and silvery, mixed with yellow, and
without a circle ; back tinged with olive-green ; the belly white ;
all the fins, except those of the back, are reddish, and the adipose
one is red on its edge. About a foot long. Inhabits Alpine
Lakes and Rivers. B. — Shaw, v. pi. 103.

S. Umbla, Lin. Body silvery, without spots; back tinged with
olive-brown ; fins pale olive ; tail forked ; scales very small.
About a pound or a pound and half in weight. Inhabits the Lake
of Geneva.— Block, pi. 101.

Gen. 2. OSMERUS, Artedi. — Salmo, Lin.

Mouth at the extremity of the snout ; head compressed ; scales
scarcely visible ; two dorsal fins, the second adipose, and
without rays ; the first more distant from the head than the
ventral fins ; two rows of scattered teeth on each palatine
bone ; branchial membrane with eight rays.

O. eperlanus, Cuv. The Smelt or Sparling. Head semitranspa-
rent ; back whitish, with a shade of green ; sides variegated with
blue ; abdomen silvery. 3 to 6 inches long. Inhabits European
Seas. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 72.
This species is found on the British coasts through the whole year, and rarely goes

to any distance from the shores, except when it ascends rivers about the spawning

season. It has a peculiar odour, which has been compared to that of a cucumber

or violet.

Gen. 3. COREGONUS, Artedi. — Salmo, Lin.

Mouth at the extremity of the snout, very little cleft ; head
compressed ; scales large ; two dorsal fins, of which the se-
VOL. i. c c

402 FISHES. ABDOMINALES.

cond is adipose and without rays ; branchial membrane with
seven or eight rays; teeth small, scarcely perceptible, and
often wanting on the palate, tongue, and lower jaw.

C. thymallus, Cuv. The Grayling. Body elongated, gray, with longi-
tudinal dusky blue lines crossing each row of scales ; central late-
ral row of scales with black points ; back rounded, greenish-
black ; belly white j first dorsal fin long and high, violet-colour-
ed, barred with brown ; pectoral fins white, ventral and caudal
ones reddish. 18 inches long. Inhabits mountainous Rivers in
Europe. B. — Shaw, v. pi. 105.

C. marcenula, Cuv. (S. albula, Bloch.) Body sub-elongated, silvery
white, with a tinge of blue on the back ; head somewhat taper ;
under jaw longer than the upper ; scales large ; fins pale-yellow ;
tail forked and bluish towards the tip. 6 inches long. Inhabits
European Lakes — Block, pi. 28, fig. 3.

C. lavaretus, Cuv. The Gwiniad. Head small and very taper in
front ; upper lip produced very considerably beyond the lower in
the form of a blackish soft snout ; mouth small, without teeth ;
scales broad ; back bluish-gray ; sides bluish ; belly silvery. 10
to 12 inches long. Inhabits Alpine Lakes of Europe. B. — Penn.
Brit. Zool iii. pi. 73.

C. rostratus. (S. rostratus, Shaw.) Broad Gwiniad. Body dusky
bluish, with longitudinal dusky lines on the sides ; scales round-
ed ; mouth large ; snout as in the preceding. Inhabits Rivers
of Germany and Sweden, &c. — Block, pi. 26.

Gen. 4. ARGENTINA, Lin.

Mouth small, depressed horizontally ; tongue armed with hook-
ed teeth, and a transverse row of small ones on the vomer ;
six rays in the branchial membrane.

A. sphyrcena, Lin. Inhabits the Mediterranean sea. — Cuv. Mem. du
Mus.lyl. 11.

The swimming-bladder of this species abounds in the silvery substance so remark-
able in fishes, and employed to form imitation pearls. Its stomach is singular from
its black colour.

Gen. 5. CURIMATA, Cuv. — Salmo, Lin. — Characinus, Artedi.

Mouth at the extremity of the snout, small ; head depressed ;
scales distinct ; first dorsal fin above the ventral fins ; the
second adipose and without rays ; teeth various ; four rays
in the branchial membrane.

C. edetitula, Cuv. Toothless Salmon. Body silvery, with a slight
greenish tinge ; back olive-brown ; head yellowish, sinking in
above the eyes ; snout obtuse ; mouth small and toothless. 1 2
inches long. Inhabits Surinam. — Bloch, pi. 380.

C. unimaculata, Cuv. Body brownish above ; back and belly al-
most round ; belly silvery ; fins gray ; a black round spot on the

ANASTOMUS. FISHES. 4,03

lateral line ; the upper row of teeth small and denticulated ; tail
deeply forked. 18 inches long. Inhabits Lakes of South America.
—Block, pi. 381, fig. 3.

C.fasciata, Cuv. Body pale-yellow, deepening on the back into
dull brownish orange, with transverse brown bands ; a row of
teeth in each jaw, directed obliquely forwards, the anterior ones
largest ; dorsal fin and tail crossed by an obscure black band. 1
foot long. Inhabits Surinam. — Block, pi. 379.

Gen. 6. ANASTOMUS, Cuv. — Salmo, Lin.

Mouth terminal, small ; head compressed ; one row of small
teeth above and below ; the lower jaw turned up before the
upper one ; branchial membrane with four rays.

A. Gronovii. (S. anastomus, Lin.) Inhabits Indian Seas. — Gronov.
Mus. pi. 7, fig- 2.

Gen. 7. SERRASALMUS, Lacep. — Salmo, Lin.
Body compressed, high vertically ; belly carinated and serrat-
ed ; teeth triangular, edged, dentated, and disposed in one
row on the intermaxillaries and lower jaw ; branchial mem-
brane with four rays.

S. rhombeus, Cuv. Body dusky red above, marked with a few scat-
tered dusky spots ; sides and abdomen silvery ; abdomen strong-
ly carinated and serrated ; tail lunated and terminated with a
black border ; a trifid spine before the dorsal fin. Inhabits
Rivers of Surinam — Block, pi. 383.
This species grows to a considerable size, pursues ducks, and even tears with its

sharp teeth the skin of those who attempt to bathe.

Gen. 8. PIABUCUS, Cuv. — Salmo, Bloch.

Body elongated, compressed ; head small, and mouth little
cleft ; teeth pointed and dentated as in the preceding ; belly
carinated ; anal fin very long ; first dorsal fin opposite the
anal one ; branchial membrane with four rays.

P. argentinus3 Cuv. Body greenish above, silvery below, with a
bright silvery longitudinal line running from head to tail, at some
distance above the lateral line ; fins pale or white ; tail forked.
6 to 8 inches long. S. American Rivers. — Block, pi. 382, fig. 1.

Gen. 9. TETRAGONOPTERUS, Artedi.

Body compressed, high vertically ; two rows of triangular and
dentated teeth in the upper jaw ; mouth small ; belly not
carinated ; anal fin long.

T. argenteus, Artedi. Rivers of South America. — Seba, iii. pi. 34.
Gen. 10. MYLETES, Cuv. — Cyprinus, Lin.

Teeth triangular, short, rounded on the edges, the upper sur-

404 FISHES. ABDOMINALES.

face hollowed ; mouth small, with two rows of teeth in the
intermaxillaries, one row in the lower jaw, and two isolated
teeth behind ; tongue and palate smooth.

M. dentex, Cuv. (Cyprinus dentex, Lin — S. Niloticus, Forsk.)
Body elongated, silvery, lineated above with brown and whitish ;
fins white, and lower half of the tail red ; first dorsal fin above the

interval between the ventral and anal fins. Inhabits the Nile

Shaw, v. 71.

Gen. 11. HYDROCYNUS, Cuv.— Salmo, Lin.
Body compressed ; point of the snout formed by the intermax-
illary bones ; maxillaries commencing near or before the eyes ;
tongue and vomer smooth ; teeth conical in both jaws.

* With one row of small teeth in the jaws and palate.
H.falcatus, Cuv. Body silvery, with a bluish tinge on the sides,
brownish on the back ; scales thin and easily detached ; two
black spots, one near the head, the other near the base of the
tail, on both sides ; anal fin falcated, the first dorsal fin over the
space between the anal and ventral ones ; tail forked. 12 or 14
inches long. Inhabits Surinam. — Block, pi. 385.

H. odoe, Cuv. Head compressed, broad above, narrow and without
scales before ; back and fins blackish-brown ; tail forked ; the
first dorsal fin opposite the space between the anal and ventral
ones. 2 to 3 feet long. Inhabits African Seas. — Block, pi. 386.

** With a double row of teeth on the intermaxillary bones.

H. Braziliensis, Cuv. Body striped longitudinally with blackish ;

a double row of teeth on the intermaxillaries and under jaw, a

single row on the maxillary bones, and the palate smooth ; first

dorsal fin above the ventral fins. — Cuv. Reg. An. pi. 10.

Cuvier further divides this genus into, 1. those which have a single row of teeth

on the maxillaries and lower jaw, the teeth alternately very short and long, as the

H. scomberoides. 2. Those which have the snout projecting, the maxillaries short,

and furnished, as well as the lower jaw, with a single row of crowded teeth, and the

body covered with strong scales ; H. lucius, Cuv. 3. Those with teeth only in the

intermaxillaries and lower jaw ; the Roschal of Forskal.

Gen. 12. CITHARINUS, Cuv.

Mouth depressed, cleft across the point of the snout ; upper
margin formed by the intermaxillary bones ; maxillaries small
and without teeth ; tongue and palate smooth ; adipose fin
covered with scales, as well as the greater portion of the cau-
dal fin.

C. Niloticus. Body compressed, high vertically ; teeth in the up-
per jaw only ; belly smooth, not carinated. Inhabits the Nile.
—Geoff. Poiss. d'Eg. pi. 5, fig. 2, 3.

C. JEgyptius. (S. JEgyptius, Gmel. — S. Niloticus, Hasselq.) The
Nefasch of the Egyptians. Body elongated, greenish on the

SAURUS. FISHES. 405

back ; slender forked teeth in both jaws in many rows. Inha-
bits the Nile — Geoff. Poiss. d'Eg. pi. 5, fig. 1.

Gen. 13. SAURUS, Cuv. — Salmo, Bloch.

Snout short ; jaws cleft to behind the eyes ; margin of the up-
per jaw formed entirely of the intermaxillaries ; many point-
ed teeth along both jaws, the palate, and the tongue, but
none on the vomer ; eight or nine, and often twelve or fifteen
rays in the branchial membrane ; the first dorsal fin a little
behind the ventral ones ; scales large.

S. vulgaris. (S. saurus, Bloch.) The Sea Lizard. Body oblong ;
back blackish-green ; belly white, variegated with blue, brown,
and greenish spots. 12 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean,
American, and Red Seas. — Block, pi. 384, fig. 1.

S. fastens, Cnv. Head compressed, truncated, and half covered
with scales ; back blackish ; flanks and belly silvery ; fins reddish-
brown. 1 foot long. American Seas. — Block, pi. 384, fig. 2.

S. Tvmbil, Cuv. Head and body covered with large scales ; teeth
of the first row large, the others small ; sides of the body yellow-
ish j belly silvery, with semidecurrent transverse red bands ;
fins yellow towards their base, arid blue towards the margin. 12
inches long. Inhabits Indian Seas — Block, pi. 400.

Gen. 14. SCOPE LUS, Cuv. — Serpes, Risso.

Mouth and branchial openings widely cleft ; jaws furnished

with very small teeth .; margin of the upper jaw formed by

the intermaxillaries ', tongue and palate smooth ; nine or ten

rays in the branchial membrane ; second dorsal fin very small.

S. Humboldtii, Risso. With brilliant silvery points disposed along
the belly and tail — Risso, pi. 10, fig. 38.

Gen. 15. AULOPUS, Cuv. — Salmo, Bloch.
Jaws much cleft ; intermaxillaries forming the upper margin,
and furnished, as well as the palate and lower jaw, with a band
of crowded teeth ; maxillaries without teeth ; ventral fins un-
der the pectoral ones, and their external rays thick and forked ;
twelve rays in the branchial membrane ; scales ciliated.

A. Jilamentosus, Cuv. Inhabits Mediterranean Sea.— Cuv. Reg.
An.ii. 170.

Gen. 16. GASTEROPELECUS, Bloch. — Serpes, Lacep.

Belly compressed and projecting ; ventral fins small and much
behind ; first dorsal fin over the anal, which is long ; mouth
directed upwards, with conical teeth in the upper jaw, and
edged and dentated ones in the lower.

G. sternicla, Bloch. Head and body compressed laterally, silvery,,

406 FISHES. ABPOMINALES.

with a steel blue shade ; from the throat to the anus extends a
bone as thin as paper, covered with scales ; three rays on the
branchial membrane. American Seas — Block, pi. 97, fig- 3.

Gen. 17. STERNOPTIX, Herm.

Body compressed, very high vertically, without scales ; abdo-
men carinated and bent up before, so that the mouth is di-
rected upwards ; no ventral fins, but a festooned membrane
on each side of the abdominal ridge under the pectoral fins ;
dorsal fins small and in the middle of the back, with a strong
spine in front.

S. diaphana, Herm. Body silvery, semitransparent in the lower
part, without lateral line ; pectoral fins yellow ; tail forked. 2
inches long. Inhabits South America — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 171.

FAMILY II. — CLUPE^E.

This family is distinguished by their having no adipose fin ; the upper jaw form-
ed in the middle by intermaxillaries without pedicles, and on the sides by the maxil-
laries. Their body is scaly ; all have a swimming-bladder ; and the greater part
ccecums. The genus Clupea of Linnaeus, which forms the type of this family, are
distinguished by their narrow and short intermaxillary bones. The maxillaries, in
three pieces, form the sides of the upper jaw in such a manner that these sides are
alone protractile. The branchial arches are furnished on the side next the mouth
with long pectinated teeth ; and the scales on the lower part of the body, which is
compressed vertically, form a serrated ridge.

Gen. 18. CLUPEA, Cuv.

Intermaxillary bones narrow, arched before, and divided lon-
gitudinally into many pieces ; mouth not entirely furnished
with teeth, and often edentate ; belly compressed, carinated,
the scales forming a serrature on the ridge ; one dorsal fin,
above the ventral ones.

C. Harengus, Lin. The Common Herring. Body silvery, with dusky
back, and deciduous scales ; lower jaw longer than the upper ; a
few small teeth in the front of both jaws; 16 to 17 rays on the
anal fin. 10 to 12 inches long. Inhabits Northern Seas. B. —
Shan, v. pi. 119.

The Herring, which forms an object so important in the fisheries and commerce
of Europe, was long supposed, from its appearing and disappearing on the coasts at
certain seasons, to have migrated on these occasions, in countless numbers, from the
Polar Seas, and, after carrying wealth along the northern shores, retiring again to
the arctic deeps. Pennant describes in glowing language the march of these fin-
ny columns of fishes, five or six miles in length, and three or four in breadth ; but
the assumption of their returning to or coming from the Polar Seas is entirely hypo-
thetical. Jt is more in consonance with the habits of other fishes which approach
the shore to spawn, to suppose that the herring approaches our coasts for the same
purpose, and that they retire when this is effected to the deep sea.

C. Pilchardus, Bloch. The Pilchard. Body silvery, with dusky
back, and large adherent scales ; teeth imperceptible ; dorsal fin
a little farther forward on the body than in the preceding species,
and anal fin with one or two more rays. 8 inches long. Inha-
bits western coasts of England. — Shaw, v. pi. 119.

MECALOPS. FISHES. 407

C. Sprattus, Lin. The Sprat. Body narrow, silvery; back bluish ;

scales easily detached ; under jaw longer than the upper ; anal

fin with nineteen rays ; tail forked. 5 inches long. Inhabits

European Seas. B — Block, pi. 29, fig. 2.

This is probably, notwithstanding the statements to the contrary, the young of the
common Herring or Pilchard.

C. Alosa, Lin. The Shad. Upper jaw cleft at its extremity ; body
bright silvery, shading to dusky on the back ; a black spot near
the gills, accompanied when young by four or five others. 18 to
20 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean and Northern Seas, and
ascends the rivers at particular seasons. B — Shaw, v. pi. 120.

C. Africana, Cuv. Head small, compressed, without scales ; lower
jaw longer than the upper ; back and belly carinated, the back
steel-coloured, the belly silvery ; fins grayish, that of the tail very
long and forked. Inhabits Coasts of Africa. — Block, pi. 407-

C. Chinensis, Cuv. Body slender, head tapering ; lower jaw long-
er than the upper ; no teeth in either ; body silvery ; fins yel-
lowish, those of the back and tail with a deeper border. 10 in-
ches long. Inhabits Indian Seas — Block, pi. 405.

Gen. 19. MEGALOPS, Lacepede. — Clupea, Bloch.

Eyes very large ; twenty-four rays or more on the branchial
membrane ; last ray of the dorsal fin terminating in a long
filament.

M.Jilamentosus, Lacep. (C. cyprinoides, Bloch.) Body compres-
sed, and covered with large scales ; head, sides, and belly silvery ;
back and fins bluish; last ray of the dorsal fin long, extending back-
wards in the form of a long filament. 10 to 12 feet long. In-
habits Indian and American Seas — Bloch, pi. 403.

M. Thrissa, Cuv. Head small, compressed, and without scales ; the
lower jaw bent upwards, and terminating in a point which fills
the notch in the upper ; body bluish silvery, dusky on the back ;
pectoral fins bluish ; last ray of the dorsal fin much elongated.
10 or 12 inches long. American Seas — Bloch, pi. 404.

M. nasus, Cuv. Back blue ; belly and flanks silvery ; snout long,
projecting beyond the jaws ; dorsal fin with the last ray long and
slender. 7 or 8 inches long. Indian Seas. — Bloch, pi. 429.

Gen. 20. ENGRAULIS, Cuv. — Clupea, Lin.
Ethmoid and nasal bones forming a projecting point, below
which the very small intermaxillaries are fixed ; maxillary
bones straight and very long ; jaws much cleft, and both fur-
nished with teeth ; branchial openings large.

E. encrasicolus, Cuv. The Anchovy. Upper jaw longer than the
under ; back brown ; sides and belly silvery ; fins short ; dorsal
fin opposite the ventrals, transparent, that of the tail forked.
3 inches long. Inhabits European Seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 120.

408 FISHES. ABDOMIXALES.

E. atherinoides, Cuv. Body brownish, with a broad silvery longi-
tudinal band on each side. 10 inches long. Inhabits Indian
Seas — Block, pi. 408, fig. 1.

E. Malabaricus, Cuv. Lower jaw bent upwards, and anal fin very
long ; body silvery. 12 inches long. Inhabits Indian Seas. —
Block, pi. 432.

Gen. 21. THUISSA, Cuv. — Mystus, Lacep. — Clupea, Lin.
Maxillary bones with teeth, and prolonged into free points be-
yond the lower jaw ; anal fin long and united to that of the
tail.

T. Mystus, Cuv. Body compressed, whitish, like the blade of a
sword ; belly carinated. Indian Seas. — Lin. Amcen. Ac. iv. pi. 3.

T. setirostris, Cuv. Body lanceolate, silvery, tinged with blue
above ; upper jaw terminating in a setaceous process. Inhabits
Indian Seas. — Brouss. i. pi. 10.

Gen. 22. GNATHOBOLUS, Schn. — Odontognathus, Lacep.
Maxillary bones prolonged and moveable, with the points for-
ward; dorsal fin very small, and much behind ; no ventral fins.

G. spinosus, Cuv. Body much compressed, carinated and armed
with twenty-eight spines, disposed in two rows below ; anal fin
very long ; tail forked. Indian Seas. — Lacep. ii. pi. 7> fig- 2.

Gen. 23. PBISTIGASTEH, Cuv.

Body much compressed, without ventral fins ; belly projecting,
strongly dentated ; jaws as in the herring.

P. triangularis. Body nearly triangular, silvery ; eyes very large :
anal fin extending to nearly opposite the dorsal fin ; tail forked ;
belly and space before the dorsal fin dentated. Inhabits Ame-
rican Seas — Cuv. Reg. An. pi. 10, fig. 3.

Gen. 24. NOTOPTERUS, Lacepede. — Gymnotus, Pall.
Operculi and cheeks scaly ; two ridges on the lower jaw ; belly
carinated and dentated ; both jaws and palate with fine teeth ;
tongue with hooked teeth ; ventrals very small ; anal very
long, uniting with the caudal fin ; a soft dorsal fin opposite
the middle of the anal one.

N. Kapirat, Lacep. (Gymnotus notopterus, Pall.) Dorsal fin very
short ; snout short and rounded; a small opening above the eyes;
scales variegated with gold and silver colour. About a foot long.
Inhabits Amboyna. — Pall. Spic. vi. pi. 6, fig. 2.

Gen. 25. ELOPS, Lin.

Thirty or more rays in the branchial membrane ; belly neither
edged nor dentated ; caudal fin with a flat spine above and
below ; edge of the jaws and palate with crowded small teeth,

CHIROCENTRUS. FISHES. 409

E. saurus, Bloch. Head compressed, without scales, long, and a
little flattened above ; the under jaw longer than the upper ; tail
forked, with a spinous ray on each side. 14 inches long. Inha-
bits American Seas. — Block, pi. 393.

Gen. 26. CHIROCENTRUS, Cuv.

Jaws with a row of strong conical teeth, those in the middle
above, and all those below very long ; tongue and branchial
arches rough with small teeth ; a long pointed scale above
each pectoral fin, and the pectoral rays very hard.

C. Dorab, (Clupea Dorab, Gmel.) Body elongated, compressed,
silvery, dusky blue on the back, carinated below ; ventral fins ex-
tremely small, and the dorsal shorter than the anal fin, opposite
to which it is placed. Indian Seas — Lacep. v. pi. 8, fig. 1.

Gen. 27. ERYTHRINUS, Gronov.

A row of conical teeth in each jaw, with some larger in front
than the others ; five rays in the branchial membrane ; head
round, furnished with osseous plates, and without scales;
body covered with large scales ; dorsal fin above the ventral
ones.

E. Malabaricus, Cuv. (Esox, Bloch.) Head flat, compressed on
the sides ; colour yellowish, dusky on the back ; fins grayish,
with brown transverse bands ; tail forked. 12 inches long. In-
habits rivers of Malabar — Bloch, pi. 392.

Gen. 28. AMIA, Lin.

Head covered with osseous plates ; scales large ; twelve flat rays
in the branchial membrane ; two cirri near the nostrils ; teeth
conical before, with flat ones behind.

A. calva, Lin. Body slender; an osseous shield on the throat; dor-
sal fin long and sloping ; tail rounded, with a black spot at the
upper part of the base. Rivers of Carolina. — Shaw, v. 9.

Gen. 29. Sums, Cuv.

Head with osseous plates and without scales ; five rays in the
branchial membrane ; teeth conical ; dorsal and anal fins op-
posite.

S. giganteus, Cuv. Body elongated, covered with large osseous
scales ; snout oblong, and head singularly rude; tail very short.
Inhabits rivers of Brazil. — Cuv. Reg. An. pi. 10, fig. 4.

Gen. 30. LEPISOSTEUS, Lacep.

Body covered with osseous scales ; file-like teeth interiorly in
both jaws, and a row of long pointed ones on their margin ;
branchiae united under the throat by a common membrane,
with three rays on each side.

410 FISHES. ABDOMINALES.

L. osseus, Cuv. Head flat ; snout long, without scales ; nine rays
in the dorsal and anal fin ; the first ray of each fin, and the last
of the caudal strong, furnished with scales, and appearing as if
dentated ; scales very large, square, osseous, disposed in oblique
rows along the sides ; colour greenish above ; abdomen rose-co-
loured. 5 to 6 feet long. Inhabits rivers and lakes of Ameri-
ca.— Block, pi. 390.

Gen. 31. POLYPTERUS, Geoff.

Margin of the upper jaw immoveable ; a row of conical teeth
in both jaws, and behind these rasp-like smaller ones ; body
elongated, and covered with strong scales ; a large plate on
the cheeks ; one rlat ray on the branchial membrane ; a num-
ber of small dorsal fins, each supported by a strong spine ;
caudal fin surrounding the tail.

P. Bichir, Geoff. Body sea green, with some black spots ; belly
whitish. Inhabits the Nile — Shaw, v. pi. 112.

FAMILY III. — ESOCES.

This family want the adipose fin, and the upper jaw is formed by the intermaxil-
lary bone, or, when it is not, the maxillary is without teeth, and concealed in the
thickness of the lips. Their intestinal canal is short, without coecums, and all have
a swimming-vessel. They are very voracious fishes, and many ascend rivers.

Gen. 32. Esox, Cuv.

Snout long, obtuse, broad and depressed ; long pointed teeth
on the sides of lower jaw ; the intermaxillaries, vomer, pa-
late, and tongue furnished with small and crowded teeth ; one
dorsal fin opposite the anal one.

E. Lucius, Lin. The Common Pike. Body pale olive gray, deep-
est on the back, and marked on the sides by several yellowish
spots or patches ; abdomen white, slightly spotted with black.
4 to 8 feet long. Lakes and rivers in Europe. — Shaw, v. pi. 108.

The Pike is one of the most voracious of fresh water fishes. Mr Pennant men-
tions an instance of one choked by attempting to swallow another of its own species
that proved too large. It is common in most of the lakes of Europe, feeds on fish,
frogs, &c., and will even devour the water-rat or young ducks. It is, according to
Bloch, of all fishes that which increases most rapidly in size. The first year it grows
to the length of 8 or 10 inches ; in the second to 12 or 14 ; and the third to 18 or
20. It sometimes grows to the length of six feet. The pike appears to survive to
an advanced age. Rzaczynski mentions one that was ninety years old ; and Ges-
ner relates that in 1497 a pike was taken near Hailbrun in Suabia, with a brazen
ring attached to it, bearing that it had been put into the lake in October 1230. This
ring is preserved at Manheim. Pikes spawn in March or April, according to the
weather. Their flesh is much esteemed.

Gen. 33. GALAXIAS, Cuv.

Body without apparent scales ; teeth pointed, and medium sized
on the palate and both jaws ; upper jaw formed almost en-
tirely by the intermaxillary bone ; some strong hooked teeth
on the tongue ; pores on the sides of the head.

MICKOSTOMA. FISHES. 411

G. truttaceus, Cuv. A new species — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 184.

Gen. 34. MICIIOSTOMA, Cuv.

Snout very short; lower jaw projecting, furnished, as well as the
intermaxillaries, with very fine teeth ; three broad and flat
rays in the branchial membrane; lateral line formed by a
row of strong scales.

This genus was instituted by Cuvier. The type of it is the Serjpe microstome of

Gen. 35. STOMIAS, Cuv. — Esox, Risso.

Snout extremely short ; mouth much cleft ; teeth long and
hooked ; those on the tongue smaller ; operculi thin and mem-
branous ; body elongated ; dorsal opposite to the anal fin.

S. boa} Cuv. Body black, with many rows of silvery spots along
the belly. Inhabits the Mediterranean sea — Risso, pi. 10, fig. 34.

Gen. 36. CHAULIODUS, Schn.

Two teeth in each jaw, crossing over the opposite jaw when the
mouth is shut ; dorsal fin opposite the interval between the
pectoral and ventral fins ; first ray of the dorsal fin elongated
and filamentous.

C. Sloani, Schn. (Esox stomias, Shaw.) Body obscure greenish
brown. 15 to 18 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. —
Shaw, vi. pi. 111.

Gen. 37. SALANX, Cuv.

Head depressed ; operculi folding downwards ; four flat rays on
the branchial membrane ; jaws pointed, furnished with a row
of crooked teeth ; palate smooth.

This genus is founded by Cuvier on a species not yet described.

Gen. 38. BELONE, Cuv.

Snout long, formed by the intermaxillaries and lower jaw ; jaws
furnished with small teeth ; body elongated, with a row of
large carinated scales on each side of the body.

B. vulgaris, (Esox belone, Lin.) The Gar-Fish. Body blue green
above, silvery below ; jaws long and taper. 2 feet long. Inha-
bits European seas. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 74.
This fish is in esteem as food, notwithstanding the prejudice inspired by the

green colour which the bones assume when dressed.

Gen. 39. SCOMBERESOX, Lacep.

Body and tail much elongated ; jaws very long, slender, and
narrow ; dorsal opposite the anal fin ; last rays of the dorsal
and anal fins detached, forming spurious fins.

S. saurus, (Esox saurus, Schn.) The Saury Pike. Body eel-
shaped, dusky above, silvery beneath ; pectoral and anal fins very

412 FISHES. ABDOMINALES.

small; tail much forked. 11 to 18 inches long. Inhabits Bri-
tish seas. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 75.
The Saury Pike is gregarious, and is frequently found in autumn in the shallows

of the Frith of Forth, upon the recess of the tide, with its long nose imbedded in the

mud.

Gen. 40. HEMIRAMPHUS, Cuv. — Esox, Bloch.
Both jaws furnished with small teeth ; symphysis of the lower
jaw prolonged into a long point without teeth.

H. Braziliensis, Cuv. Body long, subcylindrical, pale green,, with
five or six broad semidecurrent brown bands across the back;
abdomen silvery; tail sharply forked. 12 to 15 inches long.
Inhabits Indian and American seas. — Bloch, pi. 391.

Gen. 41. EXOCETUS, Lin.

Head covered with scales ; ten rays in the branchial membrane ;
eyes large ; jaws furnished with small pointed teeth, and
the pharyngeal bones with flat ones ; pectoral fins as long as
the body.

This genus is remarkable for the extreme length and size of their pectoral fins, by
which they are enabled to support a kind of flight in the air for two or three hundred
feet. The general height to which they rise above the water is three feet. In thus
endeavouring to escape from their aquatic enemies, however, they often form the
prey of sea-birds.

E. exiliens, Bloch. Mediterranean Flying- Fish. Head compressed,
broad above, narrow below, and covered with large scales ; body
silvery, with brownish back ; ventral fins long, and behind the
middle of the abdomen. 12 to 15 inches long. Inhabits Medi-
terranean sea. — Shaw, v. pi. 116. .

E. evolans, Bloch. Common Flying-Fish. Body silvery, with brown-
ish back ; ventral fins small, of a slightly lunated form, near the
pectoral ones. American and Indian seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 117-

E. mesogaster, Bloch. Body bright silvery, with a dusky tinge on
the back ; fins bluish ; ventral fins in the middle of the abdomen.
Inhabits Atlantic Ocean — Shaw, v. pi. 116.

Gen. 42. MORMYRUS, Lin.

Body compressed, oblong, scaly ; head covered by a naked and
thick skin, covering the operculi and branchial rays ; mouth
small ; teeth slender and notched in the intermaxillaries and
lower jaw, and a long band of crowded teeth on the tongue
and vomer.

M. Hasselquistii, Geoff. Snout cylindrical; dorsal fin long; tail
forked. Inhabits the Nile— Geoff. Pois. du Nil, pi. 6, fig. 2.

M. angmlloides, Geoff. Snout cylindrical ; dorsal fin short. Inha-
bits the Nile Geoff, pi. 7, fig. 2.

M. labiatns, Geoff. Snout short, rounded ; dorsal fin short. Inha-
bits the Nile. — Geoff, pi. 7, fig. 1.

CYPRINUS. FISHES. 413

M. cyprinoides, Lin. Forehead with a gibbous projection ; snout
obtuse; tail forked. Inhabits the Nile. — Geoff', pi. 8, fig. 2.

FAMILY IV. — CYPRINID^.

This family is characterized by the want of an adipose fin ; by their small mouth
and weak jaws, generally without teeth. The pharyngeal bones, however, are strong-
ly dentated. The margin of the upper jaw is formed by the intermaxillaries ; the
branchial rays are few in number ; the body is scaly ; the intestinal canal short, and
without coecums ; and they are the least rapacious of fishes. They are found in fresh
waters, and their swimming-bladder is generally divided into two parts by a strangu-
lation.

Gen. 43. CYPRINUS, Cuv. Lin.

Three flat rays in the branchial membrane ; tongue and palate
smooth ; dorsal fin long ; second ray of the dorsal and anal
fin spinous and dentated.

* Cirri at the angles of the upper jaw.

C. carpio, Lin. The Common Carp. Body greenish olive, deeper
on the back ; scales large ; fins violet ; lateral line with black
spots. 12 to 16 inches long. Inhabits lakes and rivers in South-
ern Europe. B. — Shaw, v. pi. 121.

This species is said to have been introduced into England previous to the year 1496
from Germany. They are very long lived, and grow to a great size. They are
also extremely tenacious of life. Pennant relates an experiment of placing a carp
in a net, well wrapped up in wet moss, the mouth only remaining out, and being
fed in this manner in a cellar for a fortnight with bread and milk. Though so
cunning in general as to be styled the River Fox, yet at spawning time they suffer
themselves to be tickled and caught without attempting to escape. The carp is fed
in ponds in some parts of the Continent.

* * Without cirri at the upper jaw.

C. auratus, Lin. The Golden Carp. Body of a splendid metallic
golden hue, with a shade of scarlet on the upper parts ; silvery
below j fins carmine red; tail frequently trifid, and anal fin
double, 4 to 6 inches long. Inhabits lakes in Southern China.
—Shaw, v. pi. 126, 127.

This beautiful fish is a native of China, but now domesticated all over Europe
in rivers and ponds. It is said to have been introduced into England in 1691. It
is extremely subject to variations in the domesticated state, not only in colour but
even in the number of the fins, the tail frequently assuming a trifid form, and the
anal fins becoming double.

Gen. 44. BARBUS, Cuv. — Cyprinus, Lin.
Dorsal and anal fins short ; a strong spine for the second or
third ray of the dorsal fin ; four cirri, of which two are at
the point and two at the angles of the upper jaw.

B. vulgaris, (C. barbus, Lin.) The Barbel. Head oblong ; snout
reddish ; body elongated, silvery gray, with a darker shade on
the upper parts ; scales rounded ; second ray of the dorsal fin
strong and serrated ; ventral fins pale brown, tipped with yellow ;
tail dull purple and forked. 3 to 10 feet long. Inhabits rivers
in Southern Europe. — Shaw, v. pi. 132.

414 FISHES. A13DOMINALES.

The Barbel frequents the still and deep parts of rivers, rooting like swine with its
nose in the soft banks. They are so tame as to suffer themselves to be taken by
the hand. Their flesh is coarse, and the roe is considered noxious.

B. Capoeta, Cuv. (C. capoeta, Gmel.) Body silvery, with a dusky
shade above ; white below ; scales with brown points ; fins brown
with dusky specks ; pectoral fins acuminated ; third ray of the
dorsal fin very long, serrated downwards. 12 inches long. Cas-
pian Sea — Guldenst. Nov. Com. Petrop. xvii. pi. 18. fig. 1, 2.

B. Mursa, Cuv. Body golden olive, dusky above ; skin mucous ;
anal and ventral fins white, spotted with brown on the upper
part, the other fins brown ; third ray of the dorsal fin very long
and thick, and serrated beyond the middle; tail forked. 12
inches long. Inhabits Caspian Sea. — Shaw, v. 235.

Gen. 45 GOBIO. Cuv. — Cyprinus, Lin.

Dorsal and anal fins short, without spines ; two cirri at the up-
per jaw, which is longer than the under one.

G.Jluviaiilis, Rondel. (C. gobio, Lin.) The Gudgeon. Body elon-
gated, subcylindrical, pale olive brown above, spotted with black ;
belly white ; scales middle sized ; dorsal fin short, spotted with
black spots ; tail forked. 4 to 6 inches long. Inhabits lakes and
rivers in Europe. B. — Block, pi. 8. fig. 2.
This fish is generally found in gentle streams, and is of small size. It is a very

prolific species, and is extremely plentiful in the lakes of some parts of Germany.

Gen. 46. TINCA, Cuv. — Cyprinus, Lin.
Dorsal and anal fins short, without spines ; minute cirri on the
jaws ; scales very small.

T. vulgaris. (C. tinea, Lin.) The Tench. Body thick and short,
brownish yellow ; abdomen paler ; skin slimy ; tail nearly even.
12 to 14 inches long. Inhabits lakes and marshes. B. — Block,
pi. 14.

The Tench is like the carp, remarkably tenacious of life, and is sometimes found
of unusual size and weight. In the clearing out of an old pond in Yorkshire in 1801,
where rubbish had been thrown for years, and where no fish were expected, two
hundred of Tench and as many Perch were found ; and in a hole among roots was
found a large fish, 2 feet 9 inches long, and 2 feet 3 inches in circumference, which
appeared to have been stationary for years, and which in growth had accommodated
its body to the form of the hole.

Gen. 47. CHIRHINUS, Cuv. — Cyprinus, Bloch.
Dorsal fin large ; cirri on the middle of the upper lip.

C. Malabaricus, (C. cirrhosus, Bloch.) Body compressed, silvery,
with a violet brown shade on the upper parts ; fins of a pale or
whitish colour. 18 inches long. Inhabits rivers and lakes in
India — Bloch, pi. 411.

Gen. 48. ABRAMIS, Cuv. — Cyprinus, Lin.
Dorsal fin short, placed behind the ventral fins ; anal fin very
long ; destitute of spines and cirri.

LABEO. FISHES. 415

A. vulgar is, Cuv. (C. brama, Lin.) The Bream. Head truncated ;
upper jaw a little projecting; forehead bluish black; cheeks
yellowish ; body olive, paler below ; fins obscure ; an oblong co-
nical process at the base of the ventral fins, 29 rays in the anal
fin. 2 to 2J feet long. Inhabits lakes and rivers of Europe. B.
—Shaw, v. pi. 124.

A. Blicca, Cuv. Body silvery olive, with brownish back ; pectoral
and ventral fins reddish ; 24 rays on the anal fin. 10 inches long.
Inhabits lakes and still rivers of Europe. — Block, pi. 10.

A. Ballerus, Cuv. Body slender, sides silvery white ; belly red-
dish ; lateral line with brown points ; back blackish ; 41 rays in
the anal fin. 10 to 15 inches long. Inhabits lakes and rivers in
Germany. — Block, pi. 9.

A. Fimba, Cuv. (C. Serta, Shaw.) Body bluish olive above,
silvery or whitish below ; head small and cuneiform ; upper jaw
projecting ; twenty-four rays in the anal fin. 12 to 18 inches
long. Inhabits rivers in Northern Europe — Block, pi. 4.

Gen 49- LABEO, Cuv.

Dorsal fin long ; lips fleshy and very thick ; destitute of spines
and cirri.

L. Niloticus, Cuv. (C. Niloticus, Geolf.) With seven rays in the

anal fin, and eighteen in the dorsal fin. Inhabits the Nile

—Geoff. Pois. du Nil, pi. 9. fig. 2.

L. fimbriatus, Cuv. (Cyprinus, Bloch.) Body above violet brown,
with numerous red spots ; below silvery or white ; lips broad,
thick, and fringed ; fins violet ; anal fin with nine rays. 12 in-
ches long. Inhabits fresh waters in India — Bloch, pi. 409.

Gen. 50. LEUCISCUS, Klein. — Cyprinus, Lin.
Dorsal and anal fins short, and destitute of spines and cirri.
L. Dobula, Cuv. Head broad ; snout round ; body silvery, dusky

blue above, pectoral and ventral fins red. 10 or 12 inches long.

Inhabits lakes and rivers in Germany. — Bloch, pi. 5.

L. rutilus, Cuv. The Roach. Body compressed, silvery ; scales
large ; all the fins red ; dorsal fin opposite the ventral ones ; tail
slightly forked. Weighs a pound or a pound and a half. In-
habits rivers of Europe. B. — Block, pi. 2.

L. vulgaris, Cuv. The Dace. Body narrow, silvery, with yellow-
ish olive back ; fins pale ; snout slightly prominent ; eleven rays
in the anal and ten in the dorsal fin. 10 inches long. Inhabits
rivers of Europe. B — Block, pi. 97« fig. 1.

L. alburnus, Cuv. The Bleak. Body narrow, compressed, bright
silvery, with the back olive green ; fins pale ; the lower jaw a
little longer than the upper ; 21 rays in the anal fin. 5 or 6
inches long. Inhabits rivers of Europe. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii.
pi. 84.

416 FISHES. ABDOMINALES.

The scales of this species along with those of the Dace are used in the manufacture
of artificial pearls. They are beat into a fine powder, prepared with isinglass, and
introduced into a thin glass globule, which is afterwards filled with wax.

L. phoxinvs, Cuv. The Minow. Body blackish green, with blue
and yellow variegations ; abdomen silvery ; scales small ; ten
rays in the ventral., anal, and dorsal fins ; tail forked and mark-
ed near the base with a dusky spot. 3 inches long. Inhabits
rivulets in Europe. B. — Shaw, v. pi. 132.

This beautiful and well-known species is frequent in clear gravelly streams and
rivulets in many parts of Europe. In Britain it is observed to appear in March,
and is seldom seen after October. The Minow is gregarious ; spawns in June, and
is indeed found in roe during the greater part of the summer. The Minow is easily
tamed, and in captivity may be taught to pick flies or filaments of beef from the hand.
We have kept individuals in domestication for two years and a half.

L. erythropthalmus, Cuv. The Rud. Body broad and short, pale
golden olive, deeper on the back ; abdomen reddish ; tins vermi-
lion red ; fourteen rays in the anal fin. 8 to 10 inches long.
Lakes and rivers of Europe. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 83.

L. nasus, Cuv. The Nase. Body bluish silvery, with small head
and prominent snout ; scales large ; pectoral, ventral, and anal
fins red ; dorsal and caudal blackish ; fifteen rays in the anal fin.
12 to 15 inches long. Inhabits lakes and rivers of Northern Eu-
rope.— Block, pi. 3.
This species is remarkable for the black colour of the peritonaeum or investing

membrane of the intestines, which has occasioned a prejudice against its being used

as food.

L. cephalus, Penn. (C. Jeses, Donov.) The Chub. Body robust,
silvery, with a bluish olive tinge above ; head thick, and snout
rounded ; scales large, angular ; fins ferruginous, the anal one
with fourteen rays ; tail dull bluish. 14 to 18 inches long. Clear
and rapid rivers of Europe. 13. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 84.

L. Idus, Cuv. Body thick, silvery, with a dusky tinge on the up-
per parts ; head truncated ; pectoral fins yellowish ; ventral red
in the middle and white at the sides ; anal with the base white,
the rest red, and with thirteen rays. 18 to 24 inches long. In-
habits lakes and rivers in Northern Europe — Block, pi. 36.

L. Pomeranicus, (C. Buggenhagii, Bloch.) Body silvery, with a
bluish or dusky tinge on the upper parts and fins ; nineteen rays
in the anal fin; tail forked. 12 to 15 inches long. Inhabits
lakes and rivers of Germany — Block, pi. 95.

L. aspius, Cuv. Body silvery gray ; back brownish ; sixteen rays
on the anal fin ; lower jaw incurved larger than the upper. In-
habits rivers of Germany. — Bloch, pi. 7-

L. bipunctatus, Cuv. Body yellowish olive ; scales spotted with
black ; and a double row of black points on the lateral line, which
is red ; sixteen rays in the anal tin. 3 or 4 inches long. In-
habits rivers and brooks of Germany. — Block, pi. 8. fig. 1.

L. amarus, Cuv. Body broad, yellowish olive, with a shade of
silvery; seven rays in the pectoral and ventral fins, and eleven

GONORHYNCHUS. FISHES. 417

rays in the anal one. 2 inches long. Inhabits lakes and rivers
of Germany. — Block, pi. 8, fig. 3.

L. Aphya, Cuv. Body pale brown above,, and whitish or reddish be-
neath ; nine rays in the dorsal and anal fin. 2 or 3 inches long.
Inhabits coasts of the Baltic. — Block, pi. 97^ fig. 2.

L. Chalcoides, Cuv. Nineteen rays in the anal and eight in the
dorsal fin. 10 to 12 inches long. Inhabits the Caspian sea. —
Guldenstaedt, Nov. Com. Pelrop. 1772, pi. 16.

L. cultratus, Cuv. Body bluish silvery, compressed ; abdomen cari-
nated ; anal fin with thirty rays, and opposite the dorsal. 18 to
24 inches long. Rivers of Northern Europe. — Block, pi. 37.

L. Americanus, Cuv. Lateral line much bent towards the abdomen ;
13 rays in the anal fin. American seas. — Lacep. v. pi. 15, fig. 3.

Ij.falcatus, Cuv. Head small, without scales, and compressed ; up-
per jaw longest j body silvery, shading to brown above ; dorsal
and anal fin sickle-shaped, the last with eight rays. 12 inches
long. Inhabits fresh waters in India. — Block, pi. 412.

Gen. 51. GONORHYNCHUS, Gronov. — Cyprinus, Gmel.

Snout projecting ; mouth small, without teeth or cirri ; three
rays in the branchial membrane ; body covered with small
scales.

G. Capensis, (C. gonorhynchus, Gmel.) Body cylindrical ; ventral
fins opposite the small dorsal one. 9 inches long. Inhabits sea
at the Cape of Good Hope. — Gronov. Zooph. pi. 10, fig. 2.

Gen. 52. COBITIS, Lin.

Body elongated, covered with small scales and slimy ; head
small ; mouth terminal, bearded, without teeth, but with lips
fitted to act as a sucker; three rays in the branchial membrane ;
air-vessel in a bony sheath.

C. barbatula, Lin. The Common or Bearded Loche. Body shaded
and dotted with brown upon a yellowish ground ; mouth with six
cirri. 3 to 5 inches long. Inhabits rivulets in Europe. B. — Penn.
Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 69.

G.fossilis, Lin. The Great Loche. Body blackish, with longitu-
dinal brown and yellow stripes ; six cirri on the upper lip and
four on the lower, 10 to 12 inches long. Inhabits lakes and
marshes in Germany. — Shaw, v. pi. 93.

This species is very tenacious of life. When its native marshes are dried up or
covered with ice, it buries itself in the mud, on which account it was supposed by
the older authors to originate in the ground and to be carried to rivers by inunda-
tions,— and hence its specific name. It has also been remarked, that before stor-
my weather this fish comes to the surface and seems restless and uneasy ; and Bloch
suggests, that in a vessel with water and mud at the bottom it might serve the pur-
pose of a barometer.

C. tcenia, Lin. The Spiny Loche. Body compressed, orange colour-
ed, marked with a series of black spots ; a forked and moveable
VOL, i. D d

418 FISHES. ABDOMINALES.

spine beneath each eye ; mouth with six short cirri. 3 inches
long. Rivers of Europe, under stones. B. — Shaw, v. pi. 93.

Gen. 53. ANABLEPS, Bloch. — Cobitis, Lin.

Body cylindrical ; covered with strong scales ; snout truncated ;
mouth with small teeth in both jaws ; eyes projecting and iris
divided into two portions by transverse bands ; ovoviviparous.

A. tetrophthalmus, Bloch. Body yellowish gray, with longitudinal
black lines on each side ; pectoral fins rounded, scaly ; dorsal fin
small, near the tail. 8 to 10 inches long. Inhabits rivers in Guiana.
—Shaw, v. pi. 94.

Gen. 54. PCECILIA, Schn.

Jaws flattened horizontally, not much cleft, and furnished with
a row of very small teeth ; head flat ; operculi large ; three
rays in the branchial membrane.

P. heteroclita, (Cobitis heteroclita, Lin.) Body brown, yellowish be-
neath, with large scales ; dorsal and anal fins opposite ; tail round-
ed, spotted with white and banded with black. 4 inches long.
Inhabits Carolina — Shaw, v. 5.

Gen. 55. LEBIAS, Cuv.

Jaws flattened horizontally, with a row of dentated teeth ; bran-
chial membrane with five rays.

This genus is formed by Cuvier for the reception of two species, of which the
country is unknown — Reg. An. ii. 199.

Gen. 56. CYPRINODON, Lacep.

Teeth crowded, and in both jaws, the anterior row hooked ; four
rays in the branchial membrane.

This genus was instituted for the reception of a new species from the Bay of Charles-
ton, described and figured by M. Bosc, the C. variegatus, Lacep. v. pi. 15, fig. 1.

FAMILY. V. — SILURID/E.

This family is distinguished from all the preceding by the want of scales, the body
being covered with a naked slimy skin or large osseous plates. The intermaxillary
bones suspended under the ethmoid form the margin of the upper jaw, and the max-
illaries are rudimentary, cr elongated into cirri. The intestinal canal is ample, but
without coecums ; the swimming-bladder large, and attached to a particular bony ap.
paratus; the dorsal and pectoral fins have almost always a strong spine for the first
ray ; and in some species they have an adipose dorsal fin like the salmon. These
fishes abound in the rivers of warm countries.

Gen. 57. SILURUS, Artedi, Gronov.

Head depressed ; mouth terminal ; teeth crowded, in both jaws;
fleshy cirri at the jaws ; skin covered with a mucous secretion ;
one very short dorsal fin without perceptible spine ; anal fin
long.

S. glanis, Lin. Back round, greenish black ; belly whitish yellow ;
the body covered with blackish spots, and slimy ; fins margined
with violet j six cirri at the mouth, of which the two on the upper

SCHILBE. FISHES. 419

lip are very long and filamentous. 3 to 4 feet long, but sometimes
reaching to the length of 15 feet. Inhabits large rivers in Eu-
rope, Stc.—Skaw, v. pi. 95.

This is the largest fresh water fish of Europe. It is a sluggish animal, being rarely
observed in motion, and often found watching its prey beneath hollow banks, or
half imbedded in the soft mud under the projecting roots of trees. Its long tentacula
moving about gently in the mud, are conceived to be an attraction to the smaller fishes.

S.fossilis, Bloch. Body blackish brown above, gray beneath ; head
covered with bony plates ; cirri eight, in four pairs ; anal fin very
long ; tail small, rounded. 8 inches long. Inhabits lakes in India,
—Bloch, pi. 370, fig. 2.

S. bimaculatus, Bloch. Body compressed ; olivaceous above, sil-
very beneath ; head small ; upper lip with a long cirrus on each
side ; lower jaw projecting ; dorsal fin very small ; anal long ;
tail deeply lunated, with black tips. 12 inches long. Inhabits
Indian rivers. — Block, pi. 364.

Gen. 58. SCHILBE, Cuv.

Body compressed vertically ; head small, depressed ; eyes placed
very low ; a strong and dentated spine on the dorsal fin ; cirri
eight.

S. Niloticus, (Silurus mystus, Lin.) Dorsal fin with eight rays ; tail
forked. Inhabits the Nile — Geoff. Poiss. d'Egyp. pi. 2, fig. 3 and 4.
The only other species of this genus is the S. auritus, also from the Nile.

Gen. 59. SYNODONTIS, Cuv.

Snout narrow ; lower jaw with flattened teeth, laterally hooked
and on a flexible pedicle ; bone of the head forming a rough
helmet prolonged to the first dorsal fin ; spines of the dorsal
and pectoral fins very strong ; cirri pinnated.

S. scheilan, Cuv. (Sil. clarias, Hasselquist.) According to Hassel-
quist, the wounds made by the spines of the pectoral fins are dan-
gerous.— Hasselq. Voyages, 225.

Gen. 60. PIMELODUS, Cuv. — Silurus, Bloch.
Head depressed ; crowded teeth in both jaws ; upper jaw with
one intermaxillary band ; two dorsal fins, the second adipose.

P. clarias, Cuv. With six cirri, of which two are on the upper
lip and four on the chin, those above longer than the body ; first
ray of the pectoral fins strong and serrated. 12 to 15 inches long.
Inhabits rivers of S. America — Bloch, pi. 35, fig. 1 and 2.

P. nodosus, Cuv. Head flat, rounded ; six cirri, the two upper ones
longest ; first ray of the dorsal fin longer than the others, serrated
on its inner margin, with the base knotty. 1 foot long. Inha-
bits rivers of India. — Bloch, pi. 368, fig. 1.

P. Herzbergii, Cuv. Body rounded ; back brownish ; fins yellow ;
sides and belly silvery ; first ray of the dorsal fin longest, serrated
on its exterior margin ; thirteen rays in the anal fin. 12 to 18
inches long. Inhabits rivers of S. America. — Block, pi. 367-

420 FISHES. ABDOMINALES.

P. quadrimaculatus, Cuv. Body brown, shading to violet ; thorax
with four black spots on each side ; belly silvery ; fins yellow ;
cirri six, the two upper very long ; nine rays in the anal fin. 6
inches long. Inhabits rivers of S. America. — Block, pi. 368.

P. galeatus, Cuv. Head short, broad, enveloped in a plate with
angular figures ; back bluish ; sides and belly gray ; fins brown-
ish ; twenty-four rays in the anal fin. 8 or 10 inches long. In-
habits S. American rivers. — Block, pi. 369.

Gen. 61. BAGBUS, Cuv.

Teeth of the upper jaw disposed in two transverse and parallel
bands, one intermaxillary, the other on the vomer ; cranium
smooth ; nuchal plate small ; two dorsal fins, the second adi-
pose.

B. Docmac, Cuv. (Silurus, Lin.) Body gray above, whitish be-
neath ; mouth with eight cirri, the exterior ones of the upper lip
half the length of the body ; first ray of dorsal and anal fins long
and serrated ; ten rays in the anal fin. 3 feet long. Inhabits the
Nile.— Shaw, v. 26.

B. Bajad, Cuv. (Silurus, Lin.) Head obtuse, depressed, with a
depression on each side before the eyes ; cirri eight, the exterior
ones on the upper lip very long ; twelve rays in the anal fin. 1
foot long. Inhabits the Nile. — Shaw, v. 27-

B. vulgaris, (Silurus Bagre, Lin.) Head flat, rounded before, with
an oblong hollow above ; body compressed, greenish, with silvery
abdomen; four cirri, those of the upper lip flat and long, the lower
short and white; first ray of the dorsal and pectoral fins long and
filamentous. 12 to 18 inches long. Inhabits Indian rivers. —
Block, pL 365.

* Snout long and flattened.

B.Jasciatus, Cuv. (Silurus, Bloch.) Head very long, broad, and
rounded at the extremity ; body banded with numerous trans-
verse dusky stripes ; cirri six, two on the upper lip, four below,
all longer than the head. 12 to 15 inches long. Inhabits S. Ame-
rican rivers. — Bloch, pi. 366.

Gen. 62. AGENEIORUS, Lacepede. — Silurus, Bloch.
Head depressed, covered with large hard plates or a viscid
skin ; mouth terminal and without cirri ; two dorsal fins, the
second adipose.

A. militaris, Cuv. Body olive-coloured ; head large, flat, with two
serrated bony spines near the nostrils ; eyes large, the iris red ;
first ray of the dorsal fin very large, strong, and sharply serrated ;
lateral line flexuous ; tail slightly bilobate. 12 to 18 inches long.
Inhabits Indian rivers. — Block, pi. 362.

A. inermis, Cuv. Head smooth and without horns ; body greenish,
with brownish spots ; dorsal, pectoral, and ventral fins brown, the

DOBAS. FISHES.

others grayish. 1 foot long. Inhabits rivers of S. America. —
Block, pi. 363.

Gen. 63. DORAS, Lacepede. — Silurus, Lin.

Plead depressed, and covered with large and hard plates, or a
viscid skin ; cirri at the jaws ; two dorsal fins, the second
adipose; dorsal and pectoral spines strongly dentated; sides
covered with carinated or spinous plates.

D. costalus, Cuv. (Cataphractus, Bloch.) Body yellowish brown,
deeper on the head and back ; mailed on the sides with broad
bony plates with a curved spine in the centre ; plate of the head
extending to half the dorsal fin ; cirri six, the two above long-
est ; first ray of the dorsal and pectoral fins serrated ; tail sharply
forked. Inhabits S. American seas — Shaw, v. pi. 100.

D. carinatus, Cuv. Body compressed ; cirri six, slightly pinnated
below ; lateral plates carinated and spinous ; first ray of the dor-
sal and pectoral fins strong and serrated. Inhabits S. America.
—Shaw, v. 26.

Gen. 64. M AC ROPTERONOTus,Lacep.-— -//efcro6ra?2cAws, Geoff.
Head broad, depressed, and covered with large and hard plates ;

mouth terminal ; jaws with eight cirri ; skin slimy ; only one

extended dorsal fin.

M. anguillaris, Lacep. (Silurus, Lin.) The Sharmuth or Black
Fish. With ten rays in the branchial membrane, and seventy rays
in the dorsal fin. Inhabits the Nile. — Shaw, v. 23.

M. batrachus, Cuv. (Silurus, Lin.) Head mailed by bony pieces,
ending in a point behind ; dorsal fin extending from the neck to
near the tail ; anal fin very long ; cirri eight ; branchial membrane
with seven rays. 8 to 10 inches long. Inhabits rivers of Asia
and Africa — Bloch, pi. 370, fig. 1.

Gen. 65. PLOTOSUS, Lacepede.

Head depressed, and covered with large hard plates ; lips fleshy
and pendant ; cirri on the jaws ; two dorsal fins, of which the
second or adipose one, and the anal, are united to the caudal
fin ; tail pointed ; branchial membrane with nine or ten rays.

P. anguillaris, Cuv. (Platystacus, Bloch.) Body eel-shaped, brown,
with longitudinal white stripes ; cirri eight ; teeth conical, those
on the palate globular ; spines of the dorsal and pectoral fins
dentated. 12 to 15 inches long. Indian seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 99.

Gen. 66. CALLICHTYS, Lin.— Cataphractus, Lacep.
Body maifed on the sides by four rows of scaly plates ; head

covered with plates ; snout and under part of the body naked ;

two dorsal fins, the second with one ray ; cirri four ; teeth

almost imperceptible.
C. mdgaris, (Loricaria Callichthys, Shaw.) Body dusky brown,

422 FISHES. ABDOMINALES.

with a tinge of reddish on the fins ; head short, flat, rounded,
with a blunt spine on each side ; tail small, rounded, with several
black spots. 10 to 12 inches long. Inhabits S. American rivers,
—tf/oc/^ pi. 377, fig- 1.

This fish, it is said, is capable of crawling like an eel upon land.

Gen. 67. MALAPTERURUS, Lacep. — Silurus, Lin.
Head depressed and covered with smooth skin ; mouth termi-
nal ; six cirri at the jaws ; skin slimy ; one adipose dorsal
fin, near the tail.

M. electricus, Cuv. Body cinereous, spotted with black ; two cirri
on the upper jaw, four below ; teeth small and arranged in a
crescent form. 20 inches long. Inhabits African rivers. — Geoff.
Poiss. d'Egyp. pi. 12, fig. 1.
This animal possesses the faculty of giving electrical shocks like the Torpedo and

Gymnotus. The seat of this faculty is in a particular tissue between the skin and

muscles, which presents the appearance of fat cellular tissue abundantly provided

with nerves.

Gen. 68. PLATYSTACUS, Bloch. — Jspredo, Lin.
Head flattened ; cirri six or eight ; bones of the operculum im-
moveable, and fixed to the chest ; first ray of the pectoral fins
large and strongly serrated ; one dorsal fin, with the first ray
weak ; anal fin very long, running under the whole tail ; tail
long and compressed.

P. cotylephorus, Bloch. With six cirri, and numerous small aceta-
bular processes or suckers on the under surface of the body ; anal
fin very long, with fifty-six rays ; dorsal fin with the first ray
simple, the four others dichotomous. 1 foot long. Inhabits In-
dian seas and rivers. — Shaw, v. pi. 98.

P. Icevis, Bloch. With eight cirri, the four of the lower jaw in pairs,
the one behind the other; under surface of the body smooth.
Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, v. 29.

P. verrucosus, Bloch. Body brown, marked above by longitudinal
warted lines ; anal fin short ; tail short and rounded. Inhabits
South American seas. — Bloch, pi. 373, fig. 3.

Gen. 69- HYPOSTOMUS, Lacepede. — Loricaria, Lin.
Body and tail covered with bony plates ; mouth below ; lips exten-
sible, with a small cirrus on each side ; two dorsal fins, the
second small, with a single ray ; no plates under the belly ;
branchial membrane with four rays.

H. flavus. (L. flava, Shaw.) Body orange-yellow, spotted with
brown ; tail much forked, barred with several stripes of the same
colour ; head large, rough, with minute points ; first dorsal fin
large, with eight rays, the second with one. 10 inches long. In-
habits Indian seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 101.

Gen. 70. LORICARIA, Lacepede.
Body and tail covered entirely with hard angular plates ; mouth

LORJCAKIA. FISHES. 423

below, with many small cirri, and sometimes rough with vil-
losities ; lips extensible ; one dorsal fin ; first ray of the dor-
sal and pectoral fins with spines ; branchial membrane with
four rays.

L. cataphracia, Lin. Body yellowish-brown ; snout pointed, with
numerous small filaments, and mouth furnished with teeth. In-
habits Indian seas.— Block, pi. 375, fig. 3, 4.

L. maculata, Bloch. Body yellowish-brown, with a few distinct
bands of deeper brown spots ; surface roughened with small
points ; head large, rounded before ; mouth without teeth. 12
to 15 inches long. Indian seas. — Block, pi. 375, fig. 1, 2.

ORDER VII. MALACOPTERYGII SUBRACHIATI.

Jaws complete ; branchiae pectinated ; ventral fins placed either
before the pectorals, between them, or a little behind.

FAMILY I. — GADITES. — Gadus, Lin.

The ventral fins in this family are attached under the throat and pointed ; the body
is elongated and covered with soft scales ; the head without scales ; and all the fins
are soft. The jaws and the fore part of the vomer are armed with pointed unequal
teeth, in many rows, similar to those of a card or rasp ; the branchial openings large,
with seven rays. Almost all have two or three dorsal fins, one or two behind the
anus, and a distinct caudal fin. The stomach in this family is large, their coecums
numerous, and their air-vessel large and often dentated on the sides. The greater
part of the group form important objects in the national fisheries.

Gen. 1. MORRHUA, Cuv.—Gadus, Lin.
Head compressed ; eyes distant, on the sides of the head ; body
elongated, slightly compressed ; three dorsal fins ; two anal ;
ventral fins pointed ; and a cirrus at the point of the lower
jaw.

M. vulgarls. (G. morrkua, Lin.) The Cod. Head, back, and
sides grayish, with yellowish spots ; belly whitish ; scales some-
what larger than the other species of the genus. 2 to 3 feet
long, but sometimes upwards of five feet. Inhabits Northern
ocean. B. — Shaw, iv. pi. 22.

The cod-fishery has for ages formed an important object of national industry.
Before the great cod-fisheries of Newfoundland attracted mercantile enterprize, the
chief fisheries of this valuable animal were on the coasts of Iceland and the northern
coasts of Great Britain.

M. Mglefinus, Lin. The Haddock. Body above dusky or brown,
beneath silvery ; lateral line black ; head cuneiform, the upper
jaw longest ; a large black spot on each side near the pectoral
fins ; tail forked. 18 to 24 inches long. Inhabits Northern
seas. B.~ Block, pi. 62.

M. callarias, Lin. The Dorse. Body gray, with brown spots in
summer, and black in winter ; lateral line broad and spotted ;
jaw much longer than the under. Inhabits Northern seas.
lock, pi. 63.

upper
— Blo

FISHES. SUBEACHIATI.

M. barbatus, Bloch. Whiting-pout. Body very deep, whitish,
darker on the back, which is arched and carinuted ; six or seven
small openings on each side of the lower jaw. 12 inches long.
Inhabits Northern seas. B. — Bloch, pi. 166.

M. minutus, Bloch. Body brownish above, silvery below, with
dusky spots on the sides ; lateral line straight ; upper jaw long-
est ; vent in the middle of the body. 6 or 7 inches long. Inha-
bits Northern seas. B. — Bloch, pi. 67, fig. 1.

Gen. 2. MERL ANGUS, Cuv. — Gadus, Lin.
With three dorsal and two anal fins ; no cirrus at the lower jaw.

M. vulgaris, Cuv. The Whiting. Head and back pale brown,
silvery beneath, upper jaw longest ; lateral line white, slightly
bent ; a black spot at the base of the pectoral fins. 10 to 12
inches long. Inhabits Northern seas. B. — Block, pi. 65.

The Whiting is esteemed one of the most delicate fishes of this family, and great
quantities are caught in the spring and summer months.

M. carbonarius, Cuv. The Coal-fish. Head, dorsal fins, tail, and
upper part of the body black, shading into silvery below ; un-
der jaw longest ; lateral line straight and white. 6 to 30 inches
long. Inhabits Northern seas. B. — Shaw, iv. pi. 22.

The Coal-fish is known under various names on different parts of the coast, ac-
cording to its age. In Scotland it is named Podley, Sillock, Cuddy, Cooth, Pitlock,
Sethe, Sey, and Gray Lord. It varies also much in colour ; but the lateral line is
always white.

M. pollachius, Cuv. The Pollack. Body dusky above ; sides with
yellowish streaks ; belly white ; under jaw longest ; lateral line
curved upwards towards the middle. 18 inches long. Inhabits
Northern seas. B. — Bloch, pi. 68.

M. virens, Cuv. Body greenish or olive above, shading to silvery
below ; jaws of equal length ; lateral line straight ; tail forked.
Inhabits Northern seas. B. — Shaw, iv. 149.

Gen. 3. MERLUCCIUS, Cuv.
Two dorsal fins and one anal fin ; no cirri.

M. vulgaris, Cuv. The Common Hake. Head long, broad above,
and compressed on the sides ; mouth wide ; body pale ash-co-
loured above, whitish below ; first dorsal fin small, pointed ; tail
nearly even. 1 to 2 feet long. Inhabits Northern seas. B —
Bloch, pi. 164.

Great quantities of this species are annually taken and cured in the Mediterra-
nean and northern seas. When salted and dried, it is named Stock-Jish ; but this
name is employed indifferently for others of the family cured in the same manner.

Gen. 4. LOTA, Cuv. — Gadus, Lin
Two dorsal fins, one anal fin, and cirri more or less numerous ;

second dorsal and anal fins long.
L. Molva, Cuv. The Ling. Body elongated, olive- coloured above.

silvery below ; the two dorsal fins of equal height ; under jaw a

MUSTELA. FISHES. 425

little shorter than the upper, with a single cirrus ; tail rounded,
with a black band. 3 to 4 feet long. Inhabits Northern seas.
B— Shaw, iv. pi. 23.

This fish, as abundant as the cod, is fished extensively on many coasts, and cured
in great quantities for exportation.

L. fluviatilis. (G. Lota, Lin.) The Burbot. Body almost cylin-
drical, yellowish, marbled with brown ; head depressed ; a single
cirrus on the chin ; jaws equal ; tail ovate. 1 to 3 feet long. In-
habits rivers in Europe. B. — Shaw, iv. pi. 23.

Gen. 5. MUSTELA, Cuv. — Gadus, Lin.

With the first dorsal fin little elevated, and scarcely percep-
tible.

M. tricirratus. (G. mustela, Lin.) Body and head reddish-yel-
low, marked above the lateral line with black spots ; two cirri
on the upper jaw, one on the under. 19 inches long. Inhabits
Northern seas. B. — Block, pi. 165.
The M. argenteolus, Mont. (Wern. Mem. ii. 449.) with body bluish-green above;

sides and belly silvery; two cirri on the upper jaw, and one on the lower, and two

inches long, is probably the young of this species.

M. qninquecirralus, Penn. Body deep olive-brown above, whitish
below j cirri on the upper jaw four, two at the end of the nose,
two a little above them, and a single one at the point of the lower
jaw. 19 inches long. British seas — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. 268.

Gen. 6. BROSMUS, Cuv.

With one long dorsal fin extending nearly to the tail ; a fur-
row on the nape, extending to the fin ; ventral fins thick,
fleshy, terminating in four soft rays or cirri.

B. vulgaris. (Gadus Brosme, Gmel.) The Torsk. Head small,
dusky, with a cirrus on the chin ; back and sides yellowish, shad-
ing to white below ; dorsal and anal fins extending almost to the
tail ; tail rounded ; edges of dorsal, anal, and caudal fins white.
2 to 3 feet long. Inhabits Northern seas. B. — Penn. Bril.
Zool. iii. pi. 37.

Gen. 7. PHYCIS, Artedi, Cuv. — Blennius, Lin.
Ventral fins of one ray, often forked ; two dorsal fins, of which
the second is longest ; head thick, and a cirrus on the chin.

P. Mediterraneus, Laroche. (B. phycis, Lin.) First dorsal fin
round and more elevated than the second ; ventral fins nearly
the length of the head, with one setaceous ray. 1 8 to 20 inches
long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Ann. Mus. xiii. 333.

P.furcat^ls. (B. gadoides, Risso.) The Forked Hake, Penn.
Body cinereous brown ; first dorsal tin elevated ; the first ray long
and slender; ventral fins twice as long as the head. 11 to 18
inches long. — Shaw, iv. 172.

Gen. 8. RANICEPS, Cuv.
Head depressed and very broad ; first dorsal fin very small,

426 FISHES. SUBHACHIATI.,

and almost lost in the thickness of the skin ; two first rays
of the ventral fins elongated,

R. trifurcaius, Cuv. (Blennius trifurcaius, Shaw.) Body brown,
compressed ; lips white ; second dorsal fin reaching almost to
the tail ; ventral fins slender and trifurcate ; lateral line tuber-
culated above the pectoral fins. 8 to 12 inches long. Inhabits
British seas. — Pen?i. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 38.

R. blennioides. (Batrachoides blennioides, Lacep.) Head depres-
sed and broader than the body ; mouth turned up, and white
within ; second dorsal and anal fins equal j two first rays of the
ventral fins long and filiform. — Shaw, iv. 183.

Gen. 9. LEPIDOLEPRUS, Risso.

Body and head covered with rough carinated scales ; two dor-
sal fins, the first short and elevated, the second very long,
and uniting, as well as the anal fin, into a point at the tail ;
teeth short, very small.

L. trachyrhynchus, Risso. Body elongated and compressed behind
like the blade of a sword, and covered with rough osseous scales,
forming crests at many points ; snout prolonged and triangular
at the point ; first dorsal fin blackish, with eleven rays ; the se-
cond gray, and not far from the first ; dorsal and anal fins arising
from a furrow, with a row of spines on each side. Inhabits Me-
diterranean sea — Risso, pi. 7j fig- 21.

L. ccelorhynchus, Risso. Snout depressed, advancing above the
mouth. Body grayish, shaded with violet red. 5 inches long.
Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Risso, pi. 7- fig- 22.

Gen. 10 MACROURUS, Bloch.

Scales carinated and rough ; teeth small and in many rows ;
two dorsal fins, the first strong and elevated, the second long,
and forming a point with the anal fin at the tail ; a cirrus on
the lower jaw.

M. rupestris, Bloch. Head large and thick, the upper jaw projec-
ting above and obtuse ; body silvery gray, deepest on the upper
parts, and gradually tapering into a long, slender, and pointed
tail. 3 feet long. Inhabits Northern seas, — Shaw, iv. pi. 33.

FAMILY II. — PLEURONECTES.

This family is characterized by the singular circumstance of the eyes being both
on the same side, which also remains uppermost when the animal swims. The
side on which the eyes are placed is also always coloured, while the opposite side
is whitish. The other parts of their body partake somewhat of this want of
symmetry. The two sides of the mouth are not equal, and it is rare that the pec-
toral fins are so. The body is compressed vertically ; the dorsal fin runs along the
whole back ; the anal fin occupies the under part, and the ventrak have almost the
appearance of continuity before, from their being often united together. There
are five rays in the branchial membrane. The abdominal cavity is small, but is
prolonged in a sinus in the thickness of the sides of the tail. They have no swim-
ming vessel, as they rarely quit the bottom. The cranium has a particular arrange-
ment from the two orbits being placed on the same side. The bones, however, are

PLATESSA. FISHES. 427

nearly the same as in other fishes, but of unequal proportions. Sometimes indivi-
duals are found which have the eyes reversed or on the opposite side, and others are
met with which have both sides of the body equally coloured. The Pleuronectes
are found on almost every coast, and furnish an agreeable and wholesome food.
This large family was included by Linnaeus in one genus, which Cuvier has subdi-
vided into many sub-genera.

Gen. 11. PLATESSA, Cuv. — Pleuronectes^ Lin.
Body rhomboidal ; a row of obtuse cutting teeth in each jaw,
and crowded teeth on the pharyngeal bones ; dorsal fin ad-
vanced to above the upper eye ; an interval between the anal
fin and the tail ; eyes on the right side.

P. vulgaris, Cuv. The Plaise. Body smooth, palish brown above,
marked, as well as the fins, with numerous rather distant orange-
coloured spots ; white below ; six or seven tubercles forming a
line on the right side of the head, between the eyes ; a spine at
the commencement of the anal fin ; tail rounded. About a foot
long. Inhabits Northern seas. B. — Shaw, iv. pi. 43.

P. Flesus, Cuv. The Flounder. Body smooth, brown above, with
paler spots, with rough lateral line, and a series of spines at the
base of the fins ; white below ; tail slightly rounded ; a spine at
the commencement of the anal fin. About 10 inches long. In-
habits Northern seas. B. — Block, pi. 44. This species is some-
times found with the eyes on the left side.

P. Limanda, Cuv. The Dab. Body yellowish brown above, with
obscure spots, white beneath ; eyes large ; scales rough, with ci-
liated margins ; lateral line curved over the pectoral fins. 6 to
8 inches long. Inhabits Northern seas. B. — Block, pi. 46.

Gen. 12. HIPPOGLOSSUS, Cuv. — Pleuronectes^ Lin.
Body oblong, compressed ; the jaws and pharynx armed with
slender pointed teeth, an interval between the dorsal and
anal fins and tail.

H. vulgaris. Common Holibut. Body elongated, smooth, deep brown
above, white beneath ; eyes on the right side ; lateral line form-
ing an arch at the breast ; a spine at the commencement of the
anal fin ; tail cuneated. 3 to 6 feet long. Inhabits Northern
seas. B — Block, pi. 47-
This is the largest species of the family, being sometimes taken of the weight of

from two to three hundred pounds.

H. macrolepidotus, Cuv. Body elongated, brownish yellow above,
white beneath ; scales large, each marked at the base by a dusky
spot; eyes on the left side; tail rounded. 2 feet long. Inha-
bits South American seas. — Block, pi. 190.

H. Boscii, Cuv. Body grayish ; eyes large ; under jaw longest ;
dorsal and anal fins with large black spots. 10 inches long. In-
habits Mediterranean &ea.—r-Risso, pi. *J, fig- 33.

H. limanoides, Cuv. Body elongated, rough ; brownish yellow above,
white beneath ; lateral line broad, straight ; tail rounded. In-
habits Northern seas. — Block, pi. 186.

428 FISHES. SUBRACHIATI.

Gen. 13. RHOMBUS, Cuv. — Pleuroncctes, Lin.
Jaws and pharynx with numerous slender pointed teeth ; dorsal
fin rising from the margin of the upper jaw, and running, as
well as the anal, almost to the tail ; eyes in the greater num-
ber sinistral.

R. maximus, Cuv. The Turhot. Body rhomboidal, almost as broad
as long, dark brown above, marbled with blackish spots, white
beneath ; skin wrinkled, with numerous pointed tubercles or
abrupt spines ; lateral line arched over the pectoral fins ; eyes
approaching. 2 feet and upwards long. Inhabits Northern and
Mediterranean seas. B — Shaw, iv. pi. 45.

R. lazvis, Rond. (P. nudus, Risso.) The Brill ; in Scotland the
Bonnet Fluke. Body broad, glabrous, without tubercles ; pale
brown, spotted with rufous and yellow, white beneath ; under jaw
longest ; eyes approaching ; lateral line arched over the pectoral
fins. Smaller than the turbot. Inhabits Northern and Medi-
terranean seas. B — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. 321.

R. megastoma, (P. megastoma, Donov.) Body oblong, brown above,
clouded with dusky shades, below reddish white ; mouth large ;
the under jaw longest ; lateral line tuberculated, arched near its
origin ; dorsal and anal fins broadest in the middle. 18 inches
long. Inhabits British seas. — Donov. Brit. Fishes, pi. 51.

R. punctatus, Cuv. Body broad, black above, with black spots and
smaller interspersed red ones ; scales small, rough, denticulated ;
dorsal and anal fins broadest posteriorly ; jaws nearly equal. 5
inches long. British seas. — Fleming, Phil. Zool. pi. 3, fig. 2.

R. podas, Cuv. (P. podas, Laroche.) Body oval, brown above,
white below, without spines, marked by whitish ocellated spots ;
pectoral fins short, equal. 8 inches long, Inhabits Mediterra-
nean sea.— An. Mus. xiii. pi. 24, fig. 14.

R. Argus, Cuv. Body yellowish white above, with numerous ocel-
lated spots, yellow in the centre, and margined with blue; eyes
distant ; tail rounded. S. American seas. — Catesby, Car. pi. 27-

Gen. 14. SOLEA, Cuv. — Pleuronectes, Lin.
Mouth twisted to the side opposite to the eyes ; jaws destitute
of teeth on the eye side ; body oblong ; dorsal fin commencing
at the mouth and running, as well as the anal fin, to the tail ;
lateral line straight.

.S. vulgaris, Cuv. The Sole. Body brown above, white beneath
with rough scales, and upper jaw longest ; pectoral fins tipped
with black. 1 to 2 feet long. European seas. B. — Block, pi. 45.

S. lingula, Hanmer. Body oblong, light brown, tinged with red
above ; scales ciliated, rough ; dorsal, anal, and caudal fins marked
with brown or blackish spots ; lateral fine straight. 6^ inches
long. Common near Plymouth. — Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 48.

S. ocellata, (P. Rondeletii, Shaw.) Body brownish above, with large

MONOCHIRUS. FISHES. 429

distant blackish spots, pale in the centre. Size of the common
Sole. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. 307-

S. zebra, Cuv. Zebra Sole. Body elongated, pale brownish above,
and marked from head to tail by numerous double deep brown
transverse bands passing across the fins ; scales rough and den-
tated. Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 44.

S. plagiusa, Cuv. Body grayish brown, with the dorsal, caudal, and
anal fins united ; scales rough. American seas — Shaw, iv. 306.

Gen. 15. MONOOHIRUS,CUV. — Pleurojiectes, Lin.
One very small pectoral fin on the eye side, that on the opposite
side imperceptible.

M. microcJdrus, Cuv. (P. microchirus, Laroche.) Body oblong, pale
brown ; mouth wide ; tongue round and long. Inhabits Mediter-
ranean sea. — An. Mus. xiii. 356.

Gen. 16. ACHIRUS, Lacepede. — Pleuronectes, Lin.
Head, body, and tail much compressed ; eyes on the same side
of the head ; no pectoral fins.

A. marmoratus, Cuv. Body brown, variegated or marbled with milk
white spots and marks ; fins marbled with gray and blue, with
black points ; a row of pores along the base of the dorsal and anal
fins. Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 310.

A. bilineatus, Cuv. Body thin and elongated, pale brown above,
rufous white beneath ; scales small, round, and denticulated ; dor-
sal and anal fins united to the caudal j two lateral lines on each
side, one along the middle, the other near the back. Inhabits
Chinese seas. — Block, pi, 188.

FAMILY. III. — DISCOBOLI, Cuv.

This family are so named on account of their ventral fins being united at the base
by a membrane into a disk-like form.

Gen. 17. LEPADOGASTER, Gouan. — Cyctopterus, Shaw,
Pectoral fins double, and the under united in the form of a disc
under the throat by a transverse membrane ; head broad and
depressed ; snout projecting and extensible ; body smooth a»nd
without scales ; one soft dorsal fin.

The species of this and the following genus are generally small. Their pectoral fins
are large and united under the throat by a transverse membrane directed forwards ;
another transverse membrane directed backwards, fixed to the pelvis, and prolonged
on the sides, supplies the place of ventral fins. Their body is smooth and without
scales ; their head broad and depressed ; they have but one soft dorsal fin opposite
the anal ; and they are destitute of a swimming-bladder.

L. Cornubiensis, The Cornish Sucker. Body taper, reddish, with
dusky spots ; snout depressed, elongated, and rounded ; two ocel-
lated purple marks behind the eyes, with a blue point in the cen-
tre ; dorsal fin with eleven rays. 4 inches long. Inhabits British
seas. — Shaw, v. 397-

L. bimaculatus. Head flat and tumid ; snout conical ; body slender,

FISHES. SUBEACHIATI.

pink-coloured, with white spots, and a purple spot on each side
behind the pectoral fin,, surrounded with a white ring. 1^ inch
long. Inhabits British seas — Shaw, v. 398.

Gen. 18. GOBIESOX, Lacep.

Two pectoral fins not united ; one very short dorsal fin placed
above the extremity of the tail ; anal fins short ; head thick,
broader than the body.

G. dentex, (Lepadogaster, Schn.) Body rounded, red ; head large,
broader than the body ; mouth as wide as the head ; tail rounded.
Inhabits American seas. — Shaw, v. 392.

G. bimaculatus, Cuv. (Cyclopterus, Penn.) Head flat and tumid,
body taper, pink-coloured, with minute white spots, a black spot
on each side of the abdomen. 2 inches long. Inhabits European
seas. B Pen. Brit. Zool, iii. pi. 25.

Gen. 19- CYCLOPTERUS, Lin.

Mouth large, with very small pointed teeth in both jaws ; pec-
toral fins large ; ventral fins united in the form of an oval and
concave disc ; branchial membrane with six rays ; skin vis-
cid and without scales.

The most marked character in this genus is the structure of the ventral fins, the
rays of which surrounding the pelvis, and connected by a membrane, form an oval
and concave sucker, by which the fishes are enabled to adhere to rocks. Their skin
is viscid and without scales.

C. lumpus, Lin. Lump- sucker. Skin rough, with small tubercles ;

back elevated, ridged, dusky ; belly flat, red ; three rows of large

conical tubercles on each side. 19 inches long. Inhabits Northern

seas. B Shaw, v. pi. 166.

This fish by means of its sucker is able to adhere with great force to objects.
Pennant says, that, on throwing an individual of this species into a pail of water, it
adhered so firmly to the bottom, that on taking the fish by the tail the whole pail
was lifted, though it held some gallons.

C. minutus, Pall. Small Sucker. Body compressed, whitish, with
two white unequal bony tubercles on each side ; snout marked
above the mouth by three tubercles. Inhabits Atlantic Ocean.
—Shaw, v. 396.

C. ventricosus, Pall. Head thick, blunt, flattish on the top ; dorsal
fin whitish yellow, with black rays ; tail suddenly attenuated be-
yond the vent; sucker oval, yellow. 1 foot long. Inhabits American
seas. — Shaw, v. 394.

Gen. 20. LIPARIS, Artedi.

Body elongated, compressed, smooth ; dorsal and anal fins long.

L. barbatus. Unctuous sucker. Body pale brown with darker stripes,
semitransparent ; pectoral fins extending to the throat and re-
sembling a beard ; sucker circular. 5 inches long. Inhabits North-
ern seas — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 24.

L. Montagui, Cuv. Body rounded to the vent, purplish brown ;

3

ECHKNBIS. FISHES. 431

under parts paler ; sucker ovate j dorsal, anal, and caudal fins
separate. 2 inches long. Inhabits British coasts. — Wern. Trans.i.
pi. 5. fig. 1.

L. gelatinosus, Cuv. Body slender, oblong, compressed, with a rosy
tinge ; skin smooth, flesh very smooth, trembling like jelly when
touched ; dorsal and anal fins dark violet. 18 inches long. In-
habits coasts of Kamtschatka — Shaw, v. 393.

Gen. 21. ECHENEIS, Lin.

Head flattened or truncated before, the flattened disc on the
top composed of transverse plates obliquely directed back-
wards, and dentated or spinous on their posterior border ;
body elongated, covered with small scales ; one soft dorsal fin.

E. Remora, Lin. The Remora. Body brown ; head flat above,
with eighteen plates on the disc ; under jaw rather longer than
the upper ; tail crescent-shaped. 18 inches long. Inhabits Me-
diterranean sea — Shaw, iv. pi. 31.

This fish was believed among the ancients to possess the power of stopping a ship
in the middle of its course, by attaching itself to the rudder ; and the fate of the
battle of Actium is said to have been decided in favour of Augustus, from the cir-
cumstance of a Remora having stopped Anthony's ship. The Remora is of an elon-
gated form, and its body is covered with a viscid fluid. The flattened disc on the
top of the head is composed of a number of transverse plates obliquely directed back-
wards, dentated or spinous at their posterior extremity, and moveable in such a
manner that the fish is able, by producing a vacuum, to adhere by this process to rocks,
fishes, or other bodies. The smallness of the fins of the Remora prevents it from
swimming rapidly ; but this is compensated by the faculty which it possesses of ad-
hering to other fishes, such as the shark ; and instances are related of sharks being
taken with the Remora attached, which it required considerable force to remove.

E. naucrates, Lin. Indian Remora. Body olive green, elongated,
whitish beneath ; fins deep yellow, with a violet border ; twenty-
two to twenty-four plates on the disc ; tail ovate. 2 to 3 feet
long. Inhabits Indian and American seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 31.

E. lineata, Schn. Body long ; subulate, smooth, dark brown, dot-
ted all over with minute darker spots, and two longitudinal white
lines on each side ; ten plates on the disc ; tail cuneated. 5 in-
ches long. Inhabits Pacific Ocean.— Shaw, iv. 211.

Gen. 22. OPHICEPHALUS, Bloch.

Body and head covered with large scales, those of the vertex
irregular ; some larger hooked ones on the sides ; head de-
pressed, obtuse, and short before ; one dorsal fin ; teeth in
a rasp-like form, with five rays in the branchial membrane.

O. punctatus, Bloch. Body dusky, paler beneath, with numerous
black points ; dorsal fin long. 1 0 inches long. Inhabits rivers
and lakes in India. — Shaw, iv. pi. 75.

O. striatus, Bloch. Body elongated, dusky ; abdomen whitish ; part
of the body obliquely striped with yellow and brown bands. 12
inches long. Inhabits lakes of India. — Bloch, pi. 359.

432 FISHES. APODES.

ORDER VIII.— MALACOPTERYGII APODES.

Body elongated, with thick skin, and destitute of ventral fins.

This order may be considered as forming a natural family, distinguished at once
by their anguilliform body, their thick skin, and almost imperceptible scales. They
are destitute of coscums, but almost all have swimming-bladders, and often of singu-
lar forms.

Gen. 1 . ANGUILLA, Cuv. — Murcsna, Lin.
Body rounded, elongated, smooth ; branchial openings lateral,
placed under the pectoral fins ; pectoral fins large ; dorsal and
anal fins united, and forming a pointed caudal fin.

A. vulgaris, Cuv. (M. anguilla, Lin.) The Common Eel. Body
olive-brown, silvery beneath ; the under jaw longer than the up-
per. 2 to 3 feet long. Waters of Europe. B — Shaw, iv. pi. 1.
This species varies frequently in its colours, according, it is believed, to the nature
of the water it inhabits. The vertebra, to the amount of about 116, are compressed
and small ; the ribs very short and but slightly attached ; and this structure gives the
body a wonderful flexibility. The eel, from being enabled to close the branchial
apertures, often leaves the water during the night to search for worms and insects
in the neighbouring meadows ; and it has been ascertained that it can live for six or
eight days in a humid and not too warm a situation. During the day it generally
lies hid in the mud ; and is able in summer droughts to support existence in places
where the water is almost completely evaporated. The eel is viviparous.

Gen. 2. CONGER, Cuv. — Murccna, Lin.
Dorsal fin commencing near the pectoral fins or over them ; up-
per jaw longer than the under.

C. vulgaris, Cuv. (M. conger, Lin.) The Conger Eel. Body dusky
above, silvery below ; dorsal and anal fins edged with black ; late-
ral line dotted with white. 5 or 6 feet long. Inhabits Northern
Seas. B — Shaw, iv. pi. 1.
The Conger grows to a large size, and some have been taken weighing 1 00 Ibs.

It is extremely voracious.

C. Myrus, Cuv. Body similar to the preceding, with some spots
on the snout, a band across the occiput, and two rows of points
on the nape of a whitish colour. Smaller than the preceding.
Inhabits the Mediterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. 24.

C. Balearica, Cuv. (Murcena, Laroche.) Body brilliant yellow-
ish green, with the margins of the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins
black j dorsal fin commencing above the branchial openings ; up-
per jaw longer than the under. 16 inches long. Inhabits Medi-
terranean sea — An. Mus. xiii. pi. 20, fig. 3

Gen. 3. OPHISURUS, Lacepede. — Murcena, Lin.

Body and tail cylindrical, and much elongated ; no caudal fin ;
head small; nostrils tubular ; anal and dorsal fins long.

O. serpens, Cuv. Snake Eel. Body brown above, silvery below ;
snout slender and pointed ; twenty rays in the branchial mem-
brane. 5 to 6 feet long. Mediterranean sea — Shaw, iv. 23.

O. ophis, Lacep. Body silvery, long, and slimy ; both jaws equal;

MUR^NA. FISHES. 433

back with, brown spots of an indeterminate form; lateral line com-
posed of white points and round brown spots. 3 feet long. In-
habits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 2.

O. colubrinus, Cuv. Body long and slender, pale or yellowish white,
with alternate yellow and black bands ; pectoral fins very small.
2 feet long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 33.

Gen. 4. MURJJNA, Thunb. — Gymno&orax, Bloch. Murceno-

phis, Lacep.

Pectoral fins wanting ; nostrils tubular ; branchiae opening by
small lateral holes ; branchial rays scarcely perceptible.

M. Helena, Lin. Body elongated, dusky greenish brown, with
dull yellow irregular marks or patches ; mouth large, with sharp
teeth ; dorsal and anal fins shallow, and united at the tail. Up-
wards of 3 feet long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea.— Shaw, iv. pi. 2.
These fishes were held in high estimation by the ancient Romans ; and ponds were
formed on the coast for the purpose of feeding them. In these receptacles they be-
came so tame as to come at the call of their masters ; and history records, that a
noble Roman went into mourning for the death of a favourite Muraena. Vedius
Pollio made the slaves who offended him be thrown into the ponds as food for his
Muraense.

M. reticulata, Shaw. Body whitish, with a tinge of yellow, and
marked throughout by transverse brown bands ; sides reticulated
with brown, and dorsal fin as long as the body. Inhabits Indian
seas. — Block, pi. 416.

M. Africana, Shaw. (G.qfer, Bloch.) Body brown, compressed,
marbled with whitish variegations; dorsal fin as long as the body;
mouth wide and armed with sharp teeth bent backwards, those
before largest. Inhabits African seas. — Bloch, pi. 417-

M. Meleagris, Shaw. Body deep brown, very thickly marked with
small round white spots, confluent on the head j teeth sharp. 2
feet long. Inhabits Southern ocean. — Shaw, iv. 32.

M. catenala, Shaw. Body brown, crossed by chain-like white bands,
and marked by numerous brown spots and freckles ; teeth obtuse.
Size of a small eel. Inhabits Surinam — Shaw, iv. pi. 3.

M. unicolor, Cuv. Body deep reddish brown ; back elevated ; fins
bordered with yellow ; teeth obtuse. 24 to 30 inches long. In-
habits Mediterranean sea. — An, Mus. xiii. pi. 25, fig. 15.

M. zebra, Shaw. Body blackish brown, with transverse linear dis-
tant white bands, meeting irregularly beneath ; no perceptible
dorsal or anal fins. 2 to 3 feet long. Inhabits American Seas.
— Shaw, Nat. Mis. pi. 322.

M. Lacepede names Gymnomurena the species with obtuse teeth, and without
perceptible fins ; and one of them which exudes much mucous matter he places in a
genus termed Murcenoblenna.

Gen. 5. SPHAGEBRANCHUS, Bloch.

Head terminating in a point ; branchial openings approaching,
and under the throat.
VOL. i. E e

FISHES. APODES.

S. rostratus, Bloch. Body cylindrical, slender, pale brown ; no pec-
toral fins, and the vertical ones appearing only towards the tail.
9 inches long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 5.

S. imberbis, Laroche. Body slender, elongated, almost cylindrical,
violet gray, with brownish specks; belly white; head small, snout
pointed and without cirri ; pectoral tins very small. 12 inches
long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — An. Mus. xiii. pi. 25, tig. 18.

Gen. 6. APTERICHTHUS, Dumeril. — Sphagebranchus, Bloch.

Body extremely elongated, very slender, almost cylindrical,
slightly flattened below; destitute of fins and scales; head with
rounded pores ; eyes not perceptible ; snout pointed and flat-
tened ; mouth small ; teeth subulate, pointed, bent back ; an-
terior teeth of the upper jaw largest ; branchial openings on
the neck below.

A. ccecus, Dum. Body uniform brown colour, with some blackish
spots on the head ; lateral line scarcely visible. 18 inches long.
Inhabits Mediterranean sea.— An. Mus. xiii. pi. 21, fig. 6.

Gen. 7. SYNBRA^CHUS, Bloch.

Branchiae with a single opening under the throat ; no pectoral
fins, and the vertical ones almost entirely adipose ; head large ;
snout rounded ; teeth obtuse ; six branchial rays.

S. marmoratus, Bloch. Back deep olive, with dusky spots ; belly
and sides yellowish, with spots of a violet tinge; dorsal fin extreme-
ly remote from the head. 2^ feet long. Inhabits fresh waters
in Surinam. — Sharv, iv. pi. 4.

S. immaculatus, Bloch. Similar to the preceding in form, but smaller,
of a brown colour, and without spots. Inhabits Surinam. — Block,
pi. 419.

Gen. 8. ALABES, Cuv.

A common opening in the throat for the branchiae ; a small
concave disc between the pectoral fins ; branchial operculum
with three rays ; teeth pointed.

Only one species known, from the Indian seas.

Gen. 9- GYMNOTUS, Lin.

Branchial openings in part closed by a membrane opening be-
fore the pectoral fins ; anus placed much forwards, the anal
fin running along the greater part of the body ; no dorsal fin ;
skin without perceptible scales.

G. electricus, Lin. The Electrical Gymnotus. Body long, nearly
of similar thickness throughout, brownish black ; head and tail
obtuse. 3 to 6 feet long. Inhabits rivers in South America —
Shaw, iv. pi. 6.
This singular animal was first made known to the philosophers of Europe about

the year 1671 by M. Richer, and its qualities more fully detailed afterwards by

Condamine, Dr Bancroft, Mr Williamson, Dr Garden, and still later by John

CARAPUS. FISHES. 435

Hunter and Humboldt. It is able to give shocks so violent as to stun men and
even horses, and seems to have the power of directing these shocks at will. The or-
gan which produces such singular effects runs along the under part of the tail, of
which it occupies nearly half the thickness ; is divided into four longitudinal bundles,
two larger above and two smaller below. Each bundle is composed of a great num-
ber of membranous parallel laminae nearly horizontal, united to one another by an
infinite number of vertical laminae directed transversely. The small cells or pris-
matic transverse canals intercepted by these laminae are filled with a gelatinous
matter, and the whole apparatus is abundantly provided with nerves. The electrical
shock given by the Gymnotus is readily communicated through a circle formed by
eight or ten persons ; and its use to the animal seems to be to procure its prey, by
stunning the fishes, which it is said to do through the medium of the water at some
distance.

Gen. 10. CARAPUS, Cuv. — Gymnotus, Bloch.
Body compressed, scaly, the tail tapering suddenly behind.

C. brachiurus, Cuv. Head small and compressed ; under jaw longer
than the upper, and both furnished with small teeth ; body yel-
lowish, with brown undulations ; tail short, pointed. Inhabits
rivers of Brazil — Bloch, pi. 157j, fig- 1.

C. macrourus, Cuv. Head compressed, upper jaw projecting be-
yond the lower ; body brown, with a few irregular spots of a
deeper colour ; tail long, slender. 2 to 3 feet long. Inhabits
rivers of Brazil.— Block, pi. 157, ng. 2.

C. rostratus, Cuv. Snout elongated, the opening at the point ; anal
fin extending to the extremity of the tail. Inhabits S. American
rivers — Shaw, iv. 63.

Gen. 11. STERNARCHCS, Schn. — Gymnotus, Gmel.
Anal fin terminating before arriving at the point of the tail ;
caudal fin distinct ; head oblong, depressed, naked ; a soft
fleshy filament on the middle of the back retained in a fur-
row ; body scaly.

S. albifrons, Cuv. Snout obtuse; head naked, with numerous aper-
tures from which a viscid fluid exudes; body white above, black-
ish on the sides and belly ; tail compressed. 1 foot long. Inha-
bits fresh waters in Surinam — Shaw, iv. 64.

The curious structure on the back of this fish, Cuvier conjectures, maybe an acci-
dental separation of some of the muscles of the tail, from the weakness of the skin
on this part.

Gen. 12. LEPTOCEPHALUS, Penn.

Head small ; body laterally compressed like a riband ; dorsal,
caudal, and anal fins united ; branchial aperture small, trans-
verse.

L. Morrisii, Gmel. Body semipellucid, pale ; margin of the back
and belly with minute black spots ; lateral line nearly in the
middle, and straight ; pectoral fins extremely small. 6 inches
long. Inhabits coasts of England — Wern. Mem. ii. pi. 22, fig. 1.

Gen. 13. OPHIDIUM, Lin.
Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins united ; tail pointed ; body elon-

436 FISHES. ACANTHOFTERYGII.

gated compressed, and covered with small irregular scales ;
branchiae with a large operculum and a membrane with short
rays ; two small bifid cirri under the throat.

O. barbatum, Bloch. Bearded Ophidium. Head small and naked;
body silvery ; dusky above and reddish beneath,, spotted all over
with small oblong dusky spots ; vertical fins margined with black.
8 to 10 inches long. Inhabits European seas. B — Shaw, iv. pi. 7.

Gen. 14. FIERASFER, Cuv. — Ophidium, Lin.
Body oblong and slender ; head short, flattened ; no cirri ; dor-
sal fin so small as to resemble a fold of the skin.

F. imberbe, Lin. Body purplish brown, gradually decreasing in
thickness to the tail ; head thick and rounded at the snout ; no
cirri, and dorsal fin very small. 3 inches long. Inhabits European
seas. — Wern. Mem. i. pi. 4, fig. 2.

Gen. 15. AMMODYTES, Lin.

Body slender and elongated ; dorsal, anal, and caudal fins sepa-
rate; snout pointed, the upper jaw susceptible of extension, and
the lower in repose longer than the other ; no swimming- vessel.

A. Tobianus, Lin. The Sand-Launce. Body above bluish green ;
sides and belly silvery ; lateral line dusky, with another line near
the back and a third near the belly. 3 to 8 inches long. Inha-
bits sandy shores of Northern seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 9.
The Sand-launce is found on most of our sandy shores during the summer months,

and is dug or drawn out by means of blunt hooks at the recess of tide.

ORDER IX.— ACANTHOPTERYGIL

First rays of the dorsal, ventral, and anal fins supported by
simple spinous rays.

This order includes the greatest portion of the ordinary fishes. They are distin-
guished by the spines which form the first rays of the dorsal fin, or which support
or alone form the first dorsal fin where there are two. The first rays of the anal
fin are also spinous, and there are generally one spine at each ventral fin. The dif-
ferences of character, however, are otherwise so various, that Cuvier divides them into
eight natural families.

FAMILY I. — T^NIOIDES.

Body extremely long and flattened, with a dorsal fin the length
of the body.

This family is divided into two tribes by Cuvier, according to the form of the jaws.
The first of these has the snout short and the maxillaries distinct ; the second is
characterized by a pointed snout, and the gape wide.

1 . Snout short.

Gen. 1. CEPOLA, Lin.

Body elongated and compressed ; dorsal, anal, and caudal fins

LOPHOTES. FISHES. 437

distinct ; upper jaw short, and the lower turned up ; teeth
strong and sharp.

C. rubescens, Lin. Red Band-Fish. Body smooth, pale red-co-
loured, tapering from the head to the tail, with waved silvery
bands on the sides ; jaws with one row of distant subulate teeth.
10 to 15 inches long. Inhabits the Mediterranean sea. B. — Lin.
Trans, vii. pi. 17.

C. Tcenia, Lin. Band Fish. Body bright silvery, with a dusky
tinge above, and marked along the sides by a few obscure distant
reddish spots; a single row of teeth in the upper jaw, and a double
one in the lower; tongue broad and rough. 3 to 4 feet long. In-
habits the Mediterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. pi. 26.

Gen. 2. LOPHOTES, Giorna.

Head short, surmounted by an elevated osseous crest, on the
top of which is articulated a long and strong spinous ray,
bordered behind by a membrane ; a low fin with almost simple
rays runs along the back ; caudal fin distinct, and anal very
short ; a spinous ray before each of the pectoral fins; ventral
fins very small; six rays in the branchial membrane.

L. Cepedianus, Giorna. Body elongated, and pointed behind; mouth
directed upwards ; eyes very large ; abdominal cavity occupying
almost the whole length of the body. 4 feet long. Inhabits the
Mediterranean sea — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 243.

Gen. 3. REGALECUS, Ascanius.

Pectoral fins small ; first dorsal fin small, with simple rays, the
second running nearly along the whole body ; no anal or
caudal fins ; and the ventral thoracic ones reduced to very
long filaments.

R. Glesne, Ascan. (Gymnetrus remipes, Schn.) Body much elon-
gated, silvery, with a bluish tinge on the back ; first dorsal fin
slightly elevated ; and the long ventral filaments terminated by
a membranous disc. 10 to 18 feet long. Inhabits Northern seas.
— Shaw, iv. pi. 27.
This fish is said to be generally seen either preceding or accompanying the shoals

of herrings in the northern seas, from which it has acquired the popular name of King

of the Herrings.

R. Russeliiy Shaw. Body extremely elongated, bright silvery ; fins
pale brown ; first dorsal fin much elevated and terminating in a
very long filament ; ventral processes of great length, terminating
in simple filaments ; tail lanceolate, with a terminating filament.
3 feet long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 28.

Gen. 4. GYMNETHUS, Bloch.

No anal fin, one dorsal fin, and a distinct caudal one ; pectoral

fins small ; upper jaw very extensible, and teeth very small.

G. Cepedianus, Risso. Body silvery, with some black and round

438 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII,

spots ; dorsal fin purple red ; pectorals rose-coloured, and the cau-
dal fin carmine. 3 to 4 feet long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea.
— Risso, pi. v. fig. 17.
According to M. Risso, this is one of the most beautiful fishes of the Mediterranean.

Gen. 5. TRACHYPTERUS, Gouan.

Dorsal fin very long, supported by round rays, the anterior ones
dentated ; no anal fin ; lateral line armed with spines ; tail
strongly serrated below.

T. tcenia, Schn. (Cepola trachyptera, Gmel.) Body elongated, sil-
very. 2 feet long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Shaw, iv. 191.

Gen. 6. GYMNOGASTER, Brunnich. — Bogmarm, Schn.
One long dorsal fin ; pectoral fins small ; destitute of anal and
ventral fins ; teeth sharp and pointed.

G. arcticus, Brun. (B. Islandicus, Schn.) Body elongated, sil-
very ; lateral line armed with small spines. 4 feet long. Inha-
bits Northern seas. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 246.

£. Snout pointed.
Gen. 7. TRICHIURUS, Lin.

Body elongated, flattened, ensiform ; jaws pointed, with long
and curved teeth; dorsal fin extending along the whole body;
no ventral or anal fins; tail terminated by a slender filament.

T. lepturus, Bloch. Body bright silvery, extremely compressed and
elongated ; the lower jaw longer than the upper. 3 feet long.
Inhabits South American rivers and lakes — Shaw, iv. pi. 12.

T. Indicus, (A. Indica, Will.) Body pale brown, with shades of
deeper colour ; jaws of equal length.— Shaw, iv. 92.

Gen. 8. LEPIDOPUS, Gouan.

Body elongated and flattened ; dorsal fin long ; jaws pointed^
with sharp teeth ; caudal and anal fins distinct ; two point-
ed moveable scales in place of ventral fins.

L. tetradens, (Ziphotheca, Mont. — Vandellius Lusitanicus, Shaw.)
Body silvery, without scales, carinated on the back and belly ;
pectoral fins pointed ; under jaw longest ; four larger teeth in the
upper jaw ; tail lunated. 5 feet long. Inhabits European seas*
B. — Wern. Mem. i. pi. 2, 3.

Gen. 9. STYLEPHORUS, Shaw.

Body very long, compressed ; eyes pedunculated; snout length-
ened, directed upwards, retractile towards the head by means
of a membrane ; pectoral fins small ; no ventral or anal fins ;
tail terminating in a filament longer than the body.

S. chordatus, Shaw. Body silvery, marbled with brown ; caudal
process very long, 2 feet long without the filament. Inhabits
Gulf of Mexico. — Shaw, iv. pi. 11.

BLENNIUS. FISHES. 439

FAMILY U.-^-

This family is distinguished by their slender and flexible dorsal spines. All
have the viscera of nearly the same form ; a large equal intestinal canal without
ccecums ; and no swimming-bladder.

Gen. 10. BLENNIUS, Lin.

Head obtuse ; snout short ; teeth long, equal, crowded, and in
one row in each jaw ; body elongated, compressed, with one
dorsal fin of simple and flexible rays ; ventral fins placed be-
fore the pectorals, and composed of two rays ; head with fim-
briated appendages.

The Blennies possess a marked character in their ventral fins being placed before
the pectorals, and composed of only two rays. Their body is elongated, compressed,
with but one dorsal fin of simple and flexible rays. They associate together among
the rocks near the shores. The skin is covered with a mucous secretion, from
which circumstance they derive their generic name. Many are viviparous ; and
all have near the anus a tubercle conceived to be concerned in the act of generation.

B. ocellaris, Bloch. Ocellated Blenny. Body bluish green, deep-
er on the back, and marked with a few large distant clouds or
bands ; first ray of the dorsal fin longest ; a round blackish spot
surrounded by white on the dorsal fin. 6 or 8 inches long. In-
habits European seas. B — Shaw, iv. pi. 24.

B. gattorugine, Lin. Body rufous; first ray of the dorsal fin short;
crest fimbriated on both sides. 7 inches long. Inhabits Euro-
pean seas. B. — Mont. Wern. Mem. ii. 447-

B. galerita, Lin. Crested Blenny. Body long, compressed, smooth,
and slimy, yellowish brown, with darker coloured spots ; coronal
appendages oblique, with an intervening conical wart. 5 inches
long. Inhabits European seas, B. — Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 39.
This species is found, though not frequently, on our rocky shores. Its crest is

capable of erection and depression.

B. Montagui, Fleming. Body above olive green, with blue spots ;
belly white; crest transverse, fleshy, fimbriated; lateral line
curved near the head ; first rays of the dorsal fin on the neck, de-
tached. 12 inches long. British seas — British Animals, 207-
Montagu considered this species as a variety of the crested Blenny ; but Dr Flem-

ing regards it as a separate species.

Gen. 11. PHOLIS, Artedi. — Blennius, Lin.
Body elongated ; head obtuse, and destitute of crest or appen-
dages ; lips thick ; nostrils round and terminating in cylin-
ders; dorsal fin long, waved, and appearing as if divided
into two parts ; ventral fin with two rays.

P. Icems, (B. Pholis, Bloch.) The Smooth Blenny. Body oliva-
ceous, marbled with black and white ; lateral line bent behind
the pectoral fins. 6 to 8 inches long. Inhabits European seas.
B.— Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 40.

This species is found lurking among stones and sea-weeds ; is able, with the as-
sistance of its ventral fins, to creep up the slopes of stones ; and, according to Ray,
is so tenacious of life that it will live for twenty-four hours out of the water.

440 FISHES. ACANTHOPTEKYGII.

Gen, 12. SAL ARIAS, Cuv. — Blennius, Lin.
Head compressed above, and broad transversely below ; lips
fleshy and tumid ; body elongated ; teeth in enormous num-
ber, crowded, in one row, but very slender, compressed late-
rally, and hooked at their extremity.

S. simus, Cuv. With a small appendage over the eyes ; dorsal unit-
ed to the caudal fin; lateral line bent. 3J inches long

Sham, iv. 172.

Gen. 13. CLINUS, Cuv. — Blennius, Lin.
Body elongated, compressed ; head less obtuse than the pre-
ceding ; dorsal fin long ; teeth short and pointed, disposed
in many rows, of which the first is the longest.

C. super ciliosus, Cuv. Body golden yellow, with numerous reddish
spots ; first rays of the dorsal fin separated from the rest of the
fin by a notch ; a palmated appendage above each eye ; lateral
line bent. 12 inches long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Block, pi. 168.
This species is viviparous.

C. mustelaris, Cuv. Three rays in the first part of the dorsal fin.
— Shaw, iv. 182.

Gen. 14. GUNNELLUS, Cuv. — Mur&noides, Lacep. — Blen-
nius, Lin.

Body elongated, compressed ; dorsal fin long, equal, with all
the rays spinous ; ventral fins very small, and often with on-
ly a single ray ; teeth short, pointed, and in many rows.

G. vulgaris, (B. Gunnellus, Lin.) Body yellowish brown, clouded
with deeper spots ; a row of ten or twelve black ocellated spots
at the base of the dorsal fin. 6 to 10 inches long. Inhabits
European seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 24.

G. vimparus, (B. vimparus, Lin.) Body subcylindrical anteriorly;
yellowish brown above, marbled with darker spots and streaks,
yellow beneath ; margin of the dorsal fin suddenly waved near
the tail. 12 to 13 inches long. Inhabits European seas. —
Shaw, iv. pi, 24.

G. lumpenus, Cuv. Body subcylindric, palish brown above, mark-
ed with brown spots, whitish beneath. Inhabits Mediterranean,
sea. — Shaw, iv. 183.

Gen. 15. OPISTOGNATHUS, Cuv.

Body elongated, compressed; snout short; maxillary bones
very large, and prolonged behind ; three rays in the ventral
fins, which are placed immediately under the pectorals.
O. Sonneratii, Cuv. Inhabits Indian seas. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 252.

Gen. 16. ANARCHICAS, Lin.
Body long, smooth ; head thick and obtuse ; anterior teeth long

GOBIUS. FISHES. 441

and conical ; the others bony tubercles with small enamel-
led teeth on their summits ; six rays in the branchial mem-
brane.

A. lupus, Lin. The Wolf- Fish. Body and sides grayish, beneath
yellowish ; dorsal fin extending along the whole back ; tail small
and rounded. 2 to 6 feet long. Inhabits Northern seas. B. —
Shaw, iv. pi. 13.
This species feeds on univalve molluscous and crustaceous animals ; and the teeth

are so strong as, according to Schonfelde, to leave their marks on an anchor. From

its forbidding appearance it is not much used as food, though said to be excellent.

The Greenlanders, however, eat it both fresh and dried.

Gen. 17. GOBIUS, Lacepede, Lin.

Body elongated ; head of medium size, rounded ; cheeks tumid ;
two dorsal fins, the posterior long ; ventral fins thoracic, unit-
ed towards their base into a hollow disk ; four rays in the
branchial membrane.

The fishes of this genus are middle sized or small, and are found among the rocks
where the water is shallow. Their ventral fins, united into a hollow disk, is their
chief distinguishing character. They are able to live for some time out of the wa-
ter. The males have an appendage behind the anus ; and the greater part are pro-
vided with a swimming-bladder.

G. niger, Lin. Common Goby. Body brownish black above, white
beneath ; dorsal and anal fins pale blue, the rays marked with
minute black spots ; tail rounded. 6 inches long. Inhabits Eu-
ropean seas — Shaw, iv. pi. 34.

G. minutus, Lin. The Spotted Goby. Body whitish, obscurely
spotted with ferruginous ; streaks of dots of the same colour across
the fins ; tail even. 2^ inches long. Inhabits European seas.
—Don. Brit. Fishes, pi. 38.

G. Plumerii, Bloch. Body yellowish brown above, paler on the
sides, and whitish below ; upper jaw projecting ; tail rounded.
3 to 4 inches long. American seas — Block, pi. 175, fig. 3.

G. lanceolatus, Bloch. Body elongated, yellowish brown ; the scales
increasing in size towards the tail, which is broad, elongated, and
sharp pointed ; sides compressed, of *a pale yellow ; belly gray ;
a black spot on each side where the dorsal fins meet. Inhabits
rivers in West India Islands. — Shaw, iv. pi. 34.

G. lagocephalus, Pall. Body round, compressed towards the tail,
gray or dark brown ; head short, thick, without scales ; lips cleft
in the middle, the upper one very thick ; tail oval, rounded. 3
inches long.— Shaw, iv. 239.

G. Boddaerti, Pall. Body bluish brown above, with longitudinal
spots, reddish white beneath ; head varied with brown and white ;
vent surrounded by a black ring, and terminated by a fleshy pro-
tuberance ; first dorsal fin blackish blue, spotted with white, and
furnished with long projecting filaments. 5 or 6 inches long.
Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 238.

442 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Gen. 18. GOBIOIDES, Lacepede — Gobius, Lin.

Body elongated ; head small ; ventral fins thoracic and united ;
one dorsal fin.

G. Broussonetii, Cuv. Body very long, much compressed, with
transparent skin; pectoral fins small; rays of the dorsal and anal
fins projecting ; tail lanceolate. Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 236.

Gen. 19. T^NIOIDES, Lacep. — Gobius, Lin.

Body much elongated and compressed ; upper lip with cirri ;
pectoral fins in the form of a disc, and composed of many
rays ; eyes scarcely perceptible ; no caudal fin.

T. Hermanii, Lacep. (Cepola c&cula, Schn.) Dorsal fin commen-
cing near the head, and running to the extremity of the tail ; three
or four cirri at the mouth — Shaw, iv. pi. 26.

Gen. 20. PERIOPHTHALMUS, Schn. — Gobius, Pall.
Head covered with scales ; eyes approximated, with an eyelid
at their inferior margin ; pectoral fins covered with scales
more than half their length ; ventral fins more or less united ;
branchial openings narrow.

The species of this genus are able to live for some time out of the water, and are
often seen crawling on the mud to avoid their enemies or to procure food.

P. Schlosseri, Cuv. Body dusky above, covered with coriaceous
rounded scales ; head longish, much broader than the body ; eyes
protuberant ; ventral fins forming a concave disk. 6 to 8 inches
long. Inhabits fresh waters in India. — Shaw, iv. 246.

P. Kolreuteri, Cuv. Body grayish white, with the ventral fins at-
tached to a kind of fleshy arm or process, and separated almost
to their base ; lateral line as if compressed ; upper jaw with a
tooth on each side larger than the rest. About a span long. —
Shaw, iv. 251.

Gen. 21. ELEOTRIS, Cuv. — Gobius, Gmel.
First dorsal fin with flexible rays ; an appendage behind the
anus ; thoracic ventrals perfectly distinct ; head obtuse,
slightly depressed ; eyes separated ; branchial membrane
with six rays.

E. Pisonis, Cuv. Under jaw longer than the upper ; ventral fins
separate ; tail rounded. Waters of Brazil — Shaw, iv. 252.

E. strigatus, Cuv. Body compressed, elongated, of a greenish blue
on the back, white beneath, with brown and reddish lines and
spots ; fins greenish, varied with red and yellow ; scales square ;
upper jaw longest ; tail rounded. Inhabits Southern ocean. —
Shaw, iv. 249.

Gen. 22. SILLAGO, Cuv.

Shout slightly elongated, with a protractile mouth, and fleshy
lips; teeth small, crowded, with a larger row exteriorly;

CALLIONYMUS. FISHES. 443

head scaly ; two dorsal fins, the first short, but elevated,
with flexible rays ; the second long and low ; operculi armed
with a small spine.

S. acula, Cuv. Body fawn-coloured. About a foot long. Inha-
bits Indian seas — Reg. An. ii. 258.

S. domina, Cuv. First ray of the dorsal fin as long as the body.
Inhabits Indian seas. — Reg. An. ii. 258.

These two species are accounted delicate eating.

Gen. 23. CALLIONYMUS, Lin.

Head oblong, depressed, thicker than the body ; eyes approxi-
mated, vertical ; branchial openings on each side of the neck ;
ventral fins under the throat, and larger than the pectorals ;
first dorsal fin supported by setaceous rays ; body naked.
C. Lyra, Lin. The Gemmeous Dragonet. First dorsal fin lyre-
shaped, the first ray reaching to the tail ; last rays of the second
dorsal and anal fins longest ; body rounded, smooth, splendidly
coloured with blue, yellow, and white. 12 inches long. Inha-
bits European seas. B — Shaw, iv. pi. 19.

The C. dracunculus, or Sordid Dragonet of Pennant, which differs from the pre-
ceding, chiefly in the colours being less brilliant, the first lay of the dorsal fin shor-
ter, and the body in general smaller, Mr Neill conjectures to be the female. He
found all the specimens of the Lyra from the Frith of Forth which he examined
to be males.

C. ocellatus, Pall. Body variegated above with cinereous and brown,
with white spots, white beneath ; first dorsal fin minute, black,
with four dusky spots and setaceous rays ; pectoral fins hyaline,
spotted with white at their base, the two middle rays longest ;
tail rounded. 3 inches long. Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 120.

C. pusillus, Laroche. Head large, flattened ; snout pointed ; bo-
dy tapering, grayish brown, with scattered white spots above ;
gray below, and the sides marked with transverse bands of the
same colour ; second dorsal fin with six rays, and thrice higher
than the first. 3 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. —
An. Mus. xiii. pi. 25, fig. 16.

C. sagitta, Pall. Head triangular ; body brownish, variegated
with gray, whitish beneath ; operculi with a long subulate spine
serrated within ; tail rounded. 3 inches long. Inhabits Indian
seas — Shaw, iv. 122.

Gen. 24. COMEPHORUS, Lacep. — Callionymus, Lin.
Body elongated and compressed; head and opening of the
mouth large ; snout broad and depressed ; branchial mem-
brane with seven rays ; very long pectoral fins ; two dorsal
and no ventral fins.

C. Baikalensis, Cuv. Body soft and oily, slender, slightly com-
pressed ; head large, somewhat quadrangular at the base ; pec-
toral fins lax and long -, tail bilobate. 8 inches long. Inhabits
Lake Baikal in Tartary. — Shaw3 iv. 119.

444 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

FAMILY III. — LABROIDES.

The fishes of this family have an oblong body covered with scales ; a single dor-
sal fin supported before by strong spines, and generally furnished with a membra-
nous appendage ; jaws covered by fleshy lips ; the pharyngeal bones all armed with
flat or pointed teeth.

The genus Labrus of Linnaeus, forming a numerous group of fishes resembling
one another in their oblong form and double fleshy lips, in their branchial mem-
brane with five rays, their conical maxillary teeth and their cylindrical and blunt
pharyngeal ones, is the type of this family.

Gen. 25. LABRUS, Cuv.

Body oblong ; lips double, fleshy ; maxillary teeth conical, pha-
ryngeal ones blunt; cheeks and operculi covered with scales, but
destitute of spines and dentations ; lateral line nearly straight.

L. Vetula, Bloch. Anile Labrus. Head reddish ; body yellowish,
with lead-coloured spots ; ventral, anal, and caudal fins margined
with black. 10 to 12 inches long. Inhabits Northern seas. —
Block, pi. 293.

* Without pores on the head.

L. guttatus, Bloch. Head bluish, with oblong silvery spots ; back
brown ; sides blue ', belly whitish ; spots on the sides and anal fin
silvery, those on the dorsal fin yellow. — Bloch, pi. 287, fig- 2.

L. carneus, Bloch. Head narrow ; body red, brightest on the sides;
with three black spots, two on the posterior part of the back, and
the third near the caudal fin. Northern seas. — Bloch, pi. 289.

L. fasciatus, Bloch. Head compressed ; body covered with large
scales, and surrounded by four broad brown bands ; lateral line
nearer the back than the belly ; eight spines in the dorsal fin.
Inhabits sea of Japan. — Bloch, pi. 290.

L. punctatus, Bloch. Body thin, broad, and covered with large round
scales ; back brown ; belly and sides paler ; sides marked with nine
longitudinal yellow lines, and dotted with brown points ; soft rays
of all the fins long and forked ; four spines in the anal fin ; head,
sides, and end of the tail marked with a round black spot ; tail
rounded. Inhabits rivers of Surinam. — Bloch, pi. 295.

L. Icevis, Cuv. Body covered with very small scales, and with five
large spots or transverse bands ; fifteen spinous rays in the dorsal
fin ; lower jaw longer than the upper ; teeth large ; tail crescent-
shaped. Inhabits Indian seas. — Lacep, iii. pi. 23, fig. 2.

** With pores on the head.

L. tesselatus, Bloch. Head compressed, sloping ; mouth small ; back
violet; sides silvery; ventral fin black; pectoral and caudal fins blue,
the anal yellowish ; four to six pores below the nostrils ; operculi
and breast marked with small brown spots, with larger ones of
the same colour on the body; anal fin with three spines and the
ventral one. Inhabits Northern seas. — Bloch, pi. 291.

L. maculatus, Bloch. Head obtuse ; lips thick ; jaws of equal length ;

4

JULIS. FISHES. 445

pores at the anterior operculi ; body yellowish, deeper on the back ;
all the fins yellowish, with brown spots ; twenty spines in the
dorsal fin. 12 to 15 inches long. Northern seas. — Block, pi. 294.

L. Bodianus, (Bodianus, Bloch.) Head small, obtuse ; jaws equal ;
body golden coloured, the scales margined with red ; part of the
back purple, and the scales with a blue border ; pectoral and ven-
tral fins purple ; anal yellowish ; twelve spines in the dorsal fin.
8 inches long. Inhabits S. American seas. — Bloch, pi. 223.

Gen. 26. JULIS, Cuv.— Labrus, Lin.

Body oblong ; lips thick, fleshy ; maxillary front teeth conical,
the pharyngeal blunt; head entirely smooth and without scales;
lateral line strongly bent towards the end of the dorsal fin.

J. vulgaris. (L. Julis, Lin.) Body bluish or violet above, with an
undulating orange stripe on each side towards the back ; abdomen
whitish ; pectoral, ventral, and caudal fins pale ; dorsal fin ful^
vous or orange-coloured at its origin, with a brown or purplish
stripe along the base. 8 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean
sea. B — Don. Brit. Fishes, pi. 94.

* Without pores on the head.

J. Braziliensis, Cuv. Head smooth, with vermicular lines ; body
golden yellow, with oblong blue spots near the back ; dorsal and
anal fins yellow, with three blue lines on each, the other fins blue,
and all pointed. 12 inches long. Inhabits Brazil. — Bloch, pi. 280.

J. lunaris, Cuv. Head small, compressed, with a number of pores ;
body violet, and the dorsal fin with eight spines, and bordered with
white above and below; taillunated. Indian seas. — Bloch } ,pl. 281.

J. viridis, Cuv. Head small, compressed, with green stripes ; body
narrow, compressed, fine green, covered with large smooth scales,
bordered with yellow and green; eight spines in the dorsal'fin ;
dorsal and anal fins yellow, with a green border at the base and
extremity ; the others yellow in the middle and green on the edges.
12 inches long. Inhabits Japan — Bloch, pi. 282.

J. cyanocephalus, Cuv. Head and back deep blue; sides silvery ; dor-
sal fin with nine spines ; lateral line interrupted — Bloch, pi. 286.

J. chloropterus, Cuv. Body greenish ; the back deep green, shading
to lighter below ; fins green ; projecting front teeth in each jaw;
two spines on the anal and nine on the dorsal fin. Inhabits Ja-
pan— Bloch, pi. 288.

J. malapterus, Cuv. Body narrow and compressed, whitish, shad-
ing to blue on the back ; five black spots on the sides ; all the
rays of the fins, except a spine on the ventrals, soft. Inhabits
Japan. — Bloch, pi. 286.

J. Hebraicus, Cuv. (Labre Hebra'ique, Lacep.) With twenty-one
articulated rays in the dorsal fin ; thirteen in the anal ; stripes
on the head and operculi resembling Hebrew characters. Inha-
bits Indian seas — Lacep. iii. pi. 29, fig. 3.

446 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

J. hortulamts, Cuv. (Labre parterre, Lacep.) Body and tail mark-
ed by decussated stripes, with a spot in each division ; five spinous
rays in the dorsal fin. Indian seas. — Lacep. iii. pi. 29, fig. 2.
** With marked pores on the head.

J. bifasciatus, Cuv. Head violet ; body gray, with two broad brown
bands on the fore part ; caudal fin brown at the edges and base,
bluish in the middle ; ventral and pectorals yellow, dorsal and
anal reddish, bordered with blue ; head with small openings ex-
uding a viscid matter. 10 inches long. Inhabits Indian seas.
Block, pi. 283.

J. bivittatus, Cuv. Back and belly red ; sides yellowish, the yel-
low of the fins shaded by violet ; two brown longitudinal stripes
along the body ; tail rounded, violet, with yellow spots. — Block,
pi. 284, fig. 1.

J. microlepidolus, Cuv. Head and back yellowish brown ; sides and
belly silvery ; scales very small, and covering the operculi ; fins
brownish.— Block, pi. 284, fig. 2.

J. annulatus, Cuv. (Labre annele, Lacep.) With minute scales,
subtrilobate tail, and body surrounded by nineteen dusky bands.
Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 70.

Gen. 27. CRENILABRUS, Cuv.

Body oblong ; lips thick and fleshy ; front teeth conical, the pha-
ryngeal blunt ; margins of the pre-operculi dentated ; cheeks
and operculi furnished with scales.

C. rupeslris, Cuv. (Lutianus, Bloch.) Head without scales before,
but with blue lines on each side, and truncated ; back yellowish
green, belly white j body with transverse brown bands, and lon-
gitudinal reddish lines ; top of the caudal, commencement of the
dorsal fin, and sides of the head marked with a black spot. 4 to
5 inches long. Inhabits Northern seas. — Bloch, pi. 250.

C. bidens, Cuv. Body rose-coloured, darker on the back ; abdo-
men silvery ; chin and fins greenish ; a black spot at the base
of the pectoral fin, and each row of scales with a line of pale
yellow ; two teeth in the upper jaw. 6 inches long. Inhabits
Northern seas. — Bloch, pi. 251, fig. 1.

C. Norvegicus, Cuv. Nape and back violet ; sides and belly yellow,
spotted with violet ; pectoral and ventral fins blue ; extremities
of the anal and caudal fins pale violet, the other parts yellowish ;
sixteen spines in the dorsal fin. Norwegian seas. — Bloch, pi. 256.

C. Tinea, (Labrus Tinea, Lin.) The Wrasse. Body reddish, often
varied with blue, red, and yellow ; pectoral fins large and round-
ed ; dorsal fin with sixteen spinous rays. About a foot long.
Inhabits European seas. B. — Donov. Brit. Fishes, pi. 72.

C. gibbus. (Sparus gibbus, Shaw.) The Gibbous Wrasse. Back
arched, carinated, sloping to the mouth ; sides spotted with blue
and orange, and above each eye a dusky semilunar spot ; sixteen

CORICUS, FISHES. 447

spinous rays in the dorsal fin. 8 inches long. Inhabits British
seas. — Penn. Brit. Zool, iii, pi. 56.

C. chrysops, Cuv. (Lw/zawH,s, Bloch.) The Golden-eye. Head wedge-
shaped ; sides, belly,, and head silvery, shading to violet at the
lateral line, and deep violet on the back ; dorsal fin with eleven
spinous rays, the anal with three ; fins pale yellow, violet on the
margin ; iris golden. Inhabits American seas — Block, pi. 248.

C. erythropterus, Cuv. (Lutianus, Bloch.) Head compressed ; back
brown j the sides and head silvery, and the fins red ; the pecto-
ral fins pointed, the caudal slightly notched, the others round-
ed ; eleven spinous rays in the dorsal fin. 8 inches long. In-
habits seas of Japan. — Bloch, pi. 249.

C. notatus, Cuv. (Lutianus, Bloch.) Body yellowish, spotted with
brown, a black spot on each of the base of the tail ; dorsal fin
with fourteen spinous rays. 5 inches long. Inhabits Indian seas.
— Bloch, pi. 251, fig. 2.

C. Linkii, Cuv. (Lutianus, Bloch.) Head narrow before, grayish;
body pale violet coloured ; fifteen spinous rays in the dorsal fin.
]2 inches long Bloch, pi. 252.

C. virescens, Cuv. (Lutianus, Bloch.) Head elongated and obtuse ;
body yellowish, with longitudinal brown lines and greenish fins ;
twelve spinous rays in the dorsal fin. 8 inches long.— Bloch, pi. 254.

C. lapina, Cuv. (Labrus, Gmel.) Body ovate, oblong, brown above,
white beneath ; sides marked by a triple red spotted line ; pec-
toral fins yellow, ventrals blue, the others violet. Inhabits Me-
diterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. 459.

C. merula, Cuv. (Ldbrus, Gmel.) Body blackish blue, with large
scales. 12 inches long. Inhabits European seas. — Shaw, iv. 507.

C. viridis, Cuv. (Labrus, Gmel.) Body green, yellowish beneath,
with a longitudinal blue stripe on each side. Inhabits Mediter-
ranean sea. — Shaw, iv. 501.

Gen. 28. CORICUS, Cuv. — Lutianus^ Risso.
Body oblong ; lips thick and fleshy ; mouth protractile ; front
teeth conical and pharyngeal, teeth blunt ; margins of the pre-
operculi dentated; cheeks and operculi furnished with scales.

C. virescens, Cuv. Body deep green on the back, passing into gol-
den yellow on the belly ; head and throat traversed by violet
lines ; snout prolonged into a bent tube ; lateral line bent. 3£
inches long. Mediterranean sea. — Risso, Ich. de Nice, 280.

C. Lamarckii, Cuv. Body flattened, bluish on the back ; sides sil-
very pink with black points ; belly silvery with red points ; snout
elongated, tubular, and of a copper red. 4 inches long. Inha-
bits Mediterranean sea. — Risso, pi. 9, fig. 29.

Gen. 29. CHEILINUS, Lacepede.
Head scaly ; front teeth conical, the pharyngeal blunt ; upper

448 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

lip extensible; branchial operculi without spines or dentations ;
lateral line interrupted opposite the dorsal fin ; terminating
scales of the tail advancing upon the base of the rays,

C. trilobatus, Cuv. Body bluish brown, spotted with white, yellow
and reddish ; two lateral lines, and the caudal fin trilobed. About
a foot long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Lacep. iii. pi. 31. fig. 3.

C.fasciatuSjCuv. (SparusJasciatus,Bl.) Body broad, compressed,
yellowish, with six brown bands ; lateral line interrupted ; dor-
sal fin with nine spinous rays. Seas of Japan — Block, pi. 257-

Gen. 30. EPIBULUS, Cuv. — Spams, Pall.
Body and head covered with large scales ; the last row advan-
cing on the anal and caudal fin ; mouth extremely extensible ;
two longer conical teeth before in each jaw, and smaller pha-
ryngeal ones ; lateral line interrupted.

E. insidiator, Cuv. Snout elongated in form of a tube ; back red,
and the sides yellowish ; nine spinous rays in the dorsal fin ; tail
crescent-shaped. 12 inches long. Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 445.

Gen. 31. GOMPHOSUS, Lacep.

Body oblong ; head entirely smooth ; jaws prolonged into a
tubular snout ; teeth in front large, conical, those on the
pharynx blunt.

G. cceruleus, Lacep. Body entirely blue ; lateral line bent, marked
with small streaks. 12 inches long. South seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 67-

G. variegatus, Lacep. Body variegated with red, yellow, and blue.
Smaller than the preceding. South seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 67.

Gen. 32. NOVACULA, Cuv. — Coryphcena, Lin.

Forehead almost vertical ; body covered with large scales ; la-
teral line interrupted ; jaws armed with a row of conical teeth,
of which the middle ones are longest, and the palate paved
with hemispherical ones.

N. Rondeletii. (C. novacula, Lin.) Body carinated, reddish yel-
low ; head, jaws, and branchial membrane with numerous blue
lines ; anal and caudal fins variegated with green and yellowish
lines ; dorsal fin red, with scattered blue spots. 8 inches long.
Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. 217-

N. cosrulea, Cuv. Body deep, compressed vertically, of a uniform
blue colour ; tail crescent-shaped. 18 inches long. Inhabits Ame-
rican seas. — Catesby, ii. pi. 18.

N. pentadactyla, Cuv. Head much truncated; body brownish above,
silvery below ; dorsal fin bluish, bordered with yellow orange,
the nine first rays hard ; caudal, pectoral, and ventral fins orange,
with a violet border ; anal bluish j tail even. 1 2 inches long. In-
habits Indian seas — Block, pi. 173.

N. psittacus, Cuv. Head and body variegated with green, yellow,

CHROMIS. FISHES. 449

and blue ; on the middle of the body towards the back a rhomboid
purple spot; dorsal and anal fins linear; tail even. Inhabits Ame-
rican seas. — Sham, iv. 221.

N. lineata, Cuv. Head, dorsal and anal fins marked by coloured
streaks ; tail round. Inhabits American seas. — Shaw, iv. 224.

Gen. 33. CHIIOMIS, Cuv.

Body oblong ; lips thick and fleshy ; mouth protractile ; teeth
numerous, crowded, equal in both jaws and larynx,* vertical
fins filamentous, those of the ventral fin often prolonged into
filaments ; lateral line interrupted.

C. castaneus, (Sparus Ckromis, Lin.) Body chestnut brown, with
longitudinal streaks of a lighter colour ; a black spot at the base
of the ventral fins. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. 446.

C. Niloticus, Cuv. (Lttbrus, Gmel.) Body whitish, with the dorsal,
anal, and caudal fins clouded. Inhabits the Nile. — Shaw, iv. 506.

C. saxatilis, Cuv. (Sparus, Lin. Perca, Bloch.) Head broad behind,
and narrow before ; body elongated, brown above, paler on the
sides, and whitish below ; two black spots with white borders at
the pectoral and caudal fins. S. American seas.— Block, pi. 309.

C. punctatus, Cuv. Head small and sloping ; body broad, thin, and
covered with round scales, brown above, paler below ; the sides
marked with nine longitudinal yellow lines and spotted with
brown points ; dorsal, anal, and caudal fins with black lines ; anal
fin with four spines. Rivers of Surinam — Bloch, pi. 295, fig. 1.

C. Surinamensis, Cuv. Body yellowish, with transverse red spots;

three large black spots on each side; fifteen spinous rays in the

dorsal and three in the anal fin ; tail crescent-shaped. Inhabits

seas of South America.— 'Block, pi. 277* fig- 2.

The species with the head compressed and eyes approximated, and with very long
ventral fins, form the genus Pleslops of Cuvier.

Gen. 34. SCARUS, Lin.

Body oblong, with large scales ; jaws convex, rounded, furnish-
ed with teeth disposed like scales on their margin and ante-
rior surface ; two pharyngeal plates above and one below,
furnished with laminar teeth ; lips fleshy ; lateral line inter-
rupted ; one dorsal fin.

Cuvier, in his Regne Animal, doubted the existence of the fish in the Mediterra-
nean Sea, known to the ancient Romans by the name of Scarus ; but later investiga-
tion has ascertained not only its existence, but that it is known by the name otScaros
among the modern Greeks. The fish, which M. Cuvier has procured from the coast
of Greece, possesses all the characters attributed to it by the ancient naturalists ; the
same colour, the same form, and the same delicate flesh which made it to be so much
prized among the epicures of Rome. This fish, it is said, was transported in the
reign of Claudius from the coasts of Greece to those of Tuscany by Elipertius Op-
tatus.

S. rivulatus, Lin. Body bluish, spotted with black, with longitu-
dinal yellow undulations ; thirteen spinous rays in the dorsal fin.
Inhabits the Red Sea — Shaw, iv. 395.

VOL. I. F f

450 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII

S, croicensis, Bloch. The Red Scarus. Body red, shaded with
silvery ; belly white ; dorsal fin with nine spinous rays ; tail
rounded ; base of the upper jaw with projecting points. 10 inches
long. Inhabits Indian seas — Shaw, iv. pi. 57-

S. Cretensis, Bloch. The Cretan Scarus. Back and head green-
ish-brown -, sides greenish-yellow ; belly yellowish ; fins yellow
and green at the end ; dorsal fin without spinous rays. 12 inch-
es long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Block, pi. 220.

S. viridis, Bloch. The Green Scarus. Body yellowish-green ;
scales large, bordered with deeper green ; caudal fin straight,
with thirteen green rays. 10 or 12 inches long. Inhabits Ja-
panese seas — Shaw, iv. pi. 56.

S. sordidus, Lacep. Sordid Scarus. Body slender, brown ; dorsal
fin of a deeper colour ; pectoral fins and tail yellowish ; tail even.
Inhabits Arabian seas. — Shaw, iv. 400.

S. trilobatus, Lacep. Trilobate Scarus. Two spinous rays and six-
teen soft ones in the dorsal fin ; tail distinctly trilobate. Inha-
bits American seas. — Shaw, iv. 400.

S. purpureus, Forsk. Purple Scarus. Body abruptly lanceolate,
with three longitudinal purple stripes on each side ; pectoral fins
green, marked at the tip by a large lunated, marginal, purple spot ;
abdomen and ventral fins blue. Arabian seas. — Sharv, iv. 397'

Gen. 35. LABRAX, Pallas.

Head small ; lips fleshy ; teeth small, conical, unequal ; body
furnished with ciliated scales, and rows of lateral pores ; dor-
sal fin composed of slender spines, prolonged on the back.

This genus was instituted by Pallas for some species found in the sea of Kamt-
schatka.

FAMILY IV. — PERCOIDES.

The Perches, as the Lalroides, have the dorsal and anal fin slightly scaly, and sup-
ported before by strong and sharp spines, the spines of the dorsal fin being sometimes
capable of being folded back and concealed among the scales of the base. The body
of these fishes is scaly, and the scales generally large ; their intestines are large and pro-
vided with ccecums ; and they have almost always the swimming-vessel without com-
munication with the stomach. This family Cuvier divides into two sections or series.
so parallel in their structure, that most of the same characters are repeated in both.
The first, which he terms Sparoides, has but one dorsal fin running along the great-
er part of the back ; the second, which he terms Persequcs, have two dorsal fins ;
or at least the spinous and soft portions are divided to their base. Both series may
be divided further, according to the structure of their jaws and teeth.

SECTION I. — Dorsal fin continuous.

1. Jaws protractile.

Gen 36. SMARIS, Cuv. — Sparus, Lin.

Body narrow ; jaws extensible into a kind of tube, with one row

of fine pointed teeth, behind which are rows of smaller ones.
S. mcena, Cuv. Body silvery-gray, banded longitudinally with blu-
ish ; a black spot on each side. 10 inches long. Inhabits Me-
diterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. 418.

3

BOOPS. FISHES. 451

S. vulgaris, Cuv. (Sp. Smarts, Lin.) Body grayish-red above, sil-
very below,, with a black spot on each side. 10 inches long. In-
habits Mediterranean sea — Shaw, iv. 418.

S. ery thrums, Cuv. (Spams, Bloch.) Back blue, head and sides
silvery ; fins red. 15 inches long. Seas of Japan — Bloch, pi. 26.

S. bilobatus, Risso. Body flattened, silvery, traversed with light
bluish and golden bands ; snout pointed ; nape and sides diapha-
nous ; lateral line bent ; branchial membrane with six rays. 8
inches long. Mediterranean sea — Risso, Ich. de Nice, 252.

2. Teeth edged and in one row.
Gen. 37. BOOPS, Cuv. — Sparus, Lin.

Body oblong, compressed, with pretty large scales ; teeth in
one row, edged, sometimes notched ; jaws slightly extensible.

B. salpa, Cuv. Body silvery, and banded longitudinally with yel-
low ; teeth in the upper jaw bifid, in the lower pointed. 6 to 10
inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Bloch, pi. 265.

B. ckrysurus, Cuv. (Sparus, Bloch.) Gold-tailed Sparus. Body
long and slender, bright rose-red, deepest on the back ; a golden
yellow longitudinal stripe on each side, from the gills to the tail ;
a second on each side of the base of the abdomen ; pectoral and
ventral fins dusky violet ; tail sharply forked, golden yellow. 12
inches long. Inhabits South American seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 60.

B. mdanurus, Cuv. Body silvery gray, banded longitudinally with
brown, and marked with a black spot on each side of the tail ;
teeth in the middle notched, the lateral ones fine and pointed.
6 inches long. Inhabits American seas. — Shaw, iv. 429.

B. vulgaris, Cuv. (Sp. Boops, Lin.) Body elongated, silvery-
gray, banded longitudinally with golden brown streaks ; lateral
line yellow ; upper incisive teeth dentated, the under ones point-
ed. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Sharu, iv. 417-

3. Molar teeth rounded and flattened.
Gen. 38. SARGUS, Cuv. — Sparus, Lin. Bloch.
Jaws slightly extensible, furnished on the sides with round or
flat teeth, similar to molars ; incisive teeth large, like those
of man.

S. argenteus, Laroche. (Sp. Sargus, Lin.) Body silvery, streak-
ed longitudinally with yellow, and with black transverse bands.
15 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Bloch, pi. 264.

S. annularis, Laroche. Body oval, compressed ; molar teeth round-
ed; incisors broad, truncated; body and ventral fins golden yel-
low, the other fins gray; a black ring round the tail, which is
forked. 6 to 8 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — An.
Mus. xiii. pi. 24, fig. 13.

S. acutirostris, Laroche. Body extremely compressed, oval, gray-
ish, with eight or nine transverse black lines, and a broader band

452 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII

surrounding the tail ; snout pointed ; incisive teeth truncated ;
molars hemispherical ; ventral fins black, and the others margined
with the same colour. 6 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean
sea. — An. Mus. xiii. pi. 24, fig. 12.

Gen. 39- DAURADA, Cuv. — Sparus, Lin.
Head compressed; jaws slightly extensible, with four or six
qonical teeth in one row ; the others flat,

D. auratus, Cuv. The Gilt-head. Back bluish ; head and trunk

silvery ; a golden-coloured spot on the eye brows, and a purple

spot on each side of the head ; teeth in age sometimes very large.

15 inches long. Mediterranean sea. B. — Block, pi. 266.

This fish was well known to the Greeks and Romans, and was highly prized by

the latter when fed on oysters. By the Greeks it was consecrated to Venus. It is

not now in much estimation.

D. spinifer, Cuv. Body ovate, reddish-silvery, with the back and
lines on the body dusky ; five middle spines of the dorsal fin
elongated. 18 inches long. Inhabits Red Sea. — Shaw, iv. 416.

D. Mylio. (Sparus, Lacep.) Body yellowish, with interrupted
longitudinal brown bands, and the fore part marked by a double
transverse black band. 12 to 16 inches long. Inhabits Indian
seas — Lacep. iii. pi. 26, fig. 2.

D. myloslomus, Cuv. (Sparus, Lacep.) Body deep yellow, paler
on the pectoral fins, and mixed with green on the dorsal fin and
tail ; a black spot on each side of the tail ; scales slightly crenat-
ed on the edges. Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 427-

D. psittacus, Cuv. ( Sparus, Lacep.) Snout resembling the bill
of a parrot ; occiput and back arched and elevated ; body longi-
tudinally striated. Inhabits Indian seas — Shaw, iv. 436.

D. bilobalus, Cuv. (Sparus, Lacep.) With eleven spinous rays
in the dorsal fin, and four in the anal ; caudal fin divided into two
rounded lobes. Inhabits Indian seas — Shaw, iv. pi. 61.

Gen. 40. PAGRUS, Cuv. — Sparus, Lin.

Head compressed ; teeth small, numerous, in bundles or brush-
es, those of the first row being largest.

P. argenteus, Cuv. Body shaded with rose-colour, and silvery ;
nostrils tubular, and a black spot on the dorsal fin. Inhabits
American seas. — Shaw, iv. 438.

P. erythrinus, Cuv. Back carinated, and the belly round ; sides
rose-coloured, shaded with silvery scales ; abdomen silvery ; dor-
sal fin paler than the body, but edged with deep rose-red. 6
inches long. Mediterranean and Indian seas. — Bloch, pi. 274.

P. mormyrus, Cuv. Body silvery, with numerous transverse black
bands ; tail bordered with black at the tip. 5 or 6 inches long.
Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. 422.

P. roseus. (Sp. pagrus, Bloch.) Back carinated; belly round;
body rose-coloured, with numerous longitudinal reddish lines;

DENTEX. FISHES. 453

abdomen silvery, with yellowish longitudinal streaks; a black spot
on each side at the base of the pectoral fins. 12 inches long.
Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Block, pi. 267-

4. Jaws with hooked irregular teeth, and crowded ones be-
hind ; branchial membrane with seven rays.

This group is composed of those genera with wider mouth and jaws, armed with
hooked irregular teeth, having others behind them very small and crowded. The bent
teeth in the upper jaw are generally longest. The branchial membrane has seven
rays. The characters derived from the operculi, as armed with spines or dentated,
has afforded to M. Cuvier indications for the subdivision of this numerous group.

Gen. 41. DENTEX, Cuv. — Sparus, Lin.

Jaws armed in front with long hooked teeth ; and on the sides
with one row of conical ones ; behind the hooked teeth are
small and crowded ones.

D. vulgaris, Cuv. (S. dentex, Lin.) Head compressed ; eight long
curved teeth before ; body silvery, shaded with yellow ; back
reddish brown ; vertical and anal fins deep yellow ; pectorals red-
dish ; dorsal and caudal yellowish, terminating in a bluish tinge ;
tail slightly forked. 12 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea.
— Block, pi. 268.

D. anchorago, Cuv. Head and fins reddish ; body yellowish, with
transverse brown bands ; teeth of the lower jaw bent outwards
and curved inwards. 12 inches long. 13 spinous rays in the
dorsal fin.— Block, pi. 276.

D. cynodon, Cuv. Head and sides yellow ; belly silvery, inclining
to yellow ; pectoral, ventral, and caudal fins red ; dorsal fin yel-
low before, and reddish behind, with eleven spinous rays. 12
inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Block, pi. 278.

D. macrophtkalmus, Cuv. Body yellowish, shaded by white and
ciliated scales, with longitudinal streaks of a deep red towards
the back, and yellowish towards the belly ; eyes very large, and
four large teeth in the upper jaw. 6 inches long — Block, pi. 272.

Gen. 42. LUTIANUS, Cuv. Bloch, Lacep.
Preoperculum dentated, and no spines on the operculum.

L. Lutianus, Bloch. Back round; belly carinated, and the sides
compressed; body silvery gray ; back yellowish brown, with trans-
verse blue streaks above the lateral line, and below this line yel-
low ones ; nine spinous rays in the dorsal fin. Inhabits Japa-
nese seas — Block, pi. 245.

Gen. 43. DIACOPE, Cuv. — Holocentrus, Bloch.
Preoperculum with a large notch for the articulation of the in-
teroperculum.

D. Bengalensis, Cuv. Head and body compressed, with four lon-
gitudinal bluish bands, margined with black ; scales small and ci-
liated ; back, and top of the head reddish ; belly and sides white ;
tail slightly lunated. 6 inches long. Indian seas.— Bloch, pi. 246.

454 FISHES. ACANTHOPTEEYGII.

D. quinquelineatiis, Cuv. Body yellowish ; head and fins violet,,
shading to red, with five longitudinal blue lines on each side ;
tail lunated. 12 inches long. Japanese seas — Block, pi. 259.

Gen. 44. CIRRHITES, Lacepede.

Seven rays in the branchial membrane, the last widely separat-
ed from the others ; preoperculum finely dentated ; inferior
rays of the pectoral fins thicker and longer than the others,
and free at their extremity.

C. marmoratus, (Labrus marmoratus, Shaw.) Body almost entire-
ly covered with small dark spots, accompanied by larger whitish
ones, so as to appear marbled ; ten spinous rays in the dorsal fin.
Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 509.

C. pantherinus, Cuv. (Sparus pantherinus, Lacep.) Body gray,
with the head and abdomen speckled with unequal round black
spots. Inhabits Indian seas — Shaw, iv. 456.

Gen. 45. BODIANUS, Cuv. Bloch, Lacep.
Preoperculum without perceptible dentations ; operculum with
spines.

* With one spine on the operculum.

B. aya, Bloch. Body bright red above, shading to white on the
belly ; dorsal fin rounded at the tip ; tail lunated. 2 to 3 feet
long. Inhabits lakes in South America. — Bloch, pi. 227-

B. apua, Bloch. Body blood-red, silvery towards the abdomen,
strewed with black spots, of which those on the back are largest ;
fins rounded ; seven spinous rays in the dorsal fin. 12 to 14 in-
ches long. Inhabits South American seas. — Bloch, pi. 229.

* * With two spines on the operculum.

B. argenteus, Bloch. Head long and narrow ; body silvery ; fins
tinged with yellow, pointed j 14 rays in the anal fin. 6 inches
long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Bloch, pi. 231, fig. 1.

*** With three spines on the operculum.

B. guttatus, Bloch. Body fleshy, brownish yellow; dorsal, ventral,
and anal fins with a violet border ; the whole fish sprinkled with
brown round spots, with a paler central point. 1 foot long. In-
habits Indian and American seas. — Bloch, pi. 224.

B. Bcenac, Bloch. Body circular, brownish, paler on the sides and
belly, with seven longitudinal brown bands ; head narrow and
pointed ; tail rounded. Japanese seas. — Bloch, pi. 226.

B. maculatus, Cuv. {Perca, Bloch.) Body elongated, whitish, with
red spots, and covered with silvery scales ; fourteen spinous rays
in the dorsal fin ; fins rounded. American seas. — Bloch, pi. 313.

Gen. 46. SERRANUS, Cuv. — Epinephelus, Holocentrus, Bloch.

Head scaly ; operculum with spines, and the preoperculum
with dentations ; jaws armed with small teeth, those in the

SEHKANUS. FISHES. 455

upper jaw largest ; body elongated, with a long and partly
spinous dorsal fin.

* With one spine on the operculum.

S. cceruleo-punctatus, Cuv. (Holocentrus, Bloch.) Body bluish,, with
pale yellow ypots ; fins brown, with numerous round blue spots ;
operculi with one spine, and eleven spinous rays in the dorsal fin.
3 inches long.— Block, pi. 242, fig. 2.

S. striatus, Cuv. {Holocentrus, Bloch.) Body compressed, dirty
white, with five transverse brown bands ; ten spinous rays in the
dorsal fin. 6 inches long. — Bloch, pi. 235, fig. 1.

S. punctatus, Cuv. Body compressed, yellowish, thickly spotted with
black and red spots and points ; eleven spinous rays in the dor-
sal fin. Inhabits South American seas. — Bloch, pi. 241.

S. afer, Cuv. Body ovate, brown, deeper on the bak ; pectoral fins
sulphur yellow, ventrals orange. 12 inches long. Inhabits Af-
rican seas. — Bloch, pi. 327.

* With two spines on the operculum.

S. lanceolatus, Cuv. Body compressed and broad, silvery, banded
and spotted with brown ; fins pointed ; eleven spinous rays in the
dorsal fin. 6 inches long. Indian seas. — Block, pi. 242, fig. 1.

S. maculatus, Cuv. Body grayish, with white spots ; pectoral, cau-
dal, and dorsal fins rounded ; eleven rays in the dorsal fin. In-
habits Indian seas — Bloch, pi. 242, fig. 3.

S. ruber, Cuv. Head narrow, and with the back and sides deep
red ; belly pale red, and the base of the fins yellow ; eleven
spines in the dorsal fin. Japanese seas — Bloch, pi. 331.

S. siagonotus, Cuv. {Holocentrus, Laroche.) Body oblong, com-
pressed, whitish gray or silvery, deeper on the back ; lower jaw
dotted below, with small transverse furrows ; caudal fin notched ;
a round black spot on the dorsal fin. 5 inches long. Inhabits
Mediterranean sea. — An. Mus. xiii. pi. 22, fig. 8.

*** With three spines on the operculum.

S. otigus, Cuv. Head long ; body brown, greenish towards the bel-
ly, and marked transversely by elongated spots ; dorsal, caudal,
and anal fins spotted with yellow ; tail rounded. Inhabits Ja-
panese seas. — Block, pi. 234.

S. tigrinus, Cuv. Brownish on the back, bluish on the sides, and
the belly silvery, marked by numerous black spots and bands,
those on the fins being rounded. 12 inches long. Inhabits In-
dian seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 81.

S. argentinus, Cuv. Ground colour of the body yellowish, top of
the head violet, and the sides silvery ; fins pale blue ; tail trun-
cated. 5 inches long. — Bloch, pi. 335, fig. 2.

S. marginalis, Cuv. Head large, covered with small scales ; four
large teeth and small ones on the sides ; preoperculi finely den-
tated, and the operculum with three spines ; body bluish, with
brownish back, and red fins. 6 inches long.— Bloch, pi. 328, fig. 1.

456 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

S. gigas, Cuv. Body ovate, compressed, grayish, with brownish
clouds ; teeth sharp, and in several rows ; dorsal fin with eleven
spinous rays. 3 feet long. Mediterranean sea — Shaw, iv. 560.

S. anthias, Cuv. Head short, compressed j teeth very small ; body
fine red ; third ray of the dorsal fin long ; ventral fins very long ;
tail much forked. Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Block, pi. 315.
Rondeletius conceives this fish to be the Anthias of the ancients.

S. brunneus, Cuv. Body elongated, deep yellow, with brown spots
and bands ; fins yellow at the base, with black margins ; ten spi-
nous rays in the dorsal fin. Norwegian seas — Block, pi. 328, fig. 2.

S. merra, Cuv. Body elongated ; back brownish ; belly white, spot-
ted on all parts with brown subhexagonal spots ; fins transparent,
and spotted in the same manner. 12 inches long. Inhabits Ja-
panese seas. — Skaw, iv. pi. 82.

Gen. 47. PLECTROPOMUS, Cuv. — Holocentrus, Bodianus, Bl.
Base of the operculi with large teeth or spines, directed forwards.

P. calcarifer, Cuv. Head flattened above, compressed on the sides ;
back brownish, shading to violet ; body compressed and covered
with silvery scales, with yellow borders, each row being marked
by a longitudinal line ; anal and caudal fins rounded with brown
streaks. 12 inches long. Japanese seas. — Block, pi. 244.

P. maculatus, Cuv. Head thick and short ; body yellowish, with
blue oblong spots of unequal size ; seven spinous rays in the dor-
sal fin ; tail slightly lunated. 12 inches long. Inhabits Japa-
nese seas. — Block, pi. 228.

P. cyclostomus, Cuv. (Bodianus, Lacep.) Body with four or five
irregular transverse bands ; eight spinous rays in the dorsal fin ;
tail lunated — Lacep. iii. pi. 20, fig. 3.

5. Teeth small and crowded.
Gen. 48. CANTHARUS, Cuv.

Numerous rows of small close-set teeth ; body oval ; mouth
narrow, snout slightly protractile ; destitute of spines or den-
tations on the operculi.

C. vulgaris, Cuv. (Sparus Cantharus, Lin.) Body silvery gray,
striped longitudinally with yellowish ; teeth in the first row larg-
est ; those in the last blunt and rounded — Block, pi. 270.

C. brama, Cuv. (S. brama, Bloch.) Body broad and thin ; back
carinated, and belly round ; scales rough ; sides whitish golden ;
belly white ; back gray ; lateral line broad, with a row of black
points on each side. 12 inches long. Inhabits European seas.
—Block, pi. 269.

C. macropterus, Cuv. (Labrus, Lacep.) Rays of the dorsal and
anal fins long, and furnished with filaments ; tail lunated ; a black
spot at the posterior angle of the operculi. Inhabits Indian seas.
—Lacep. iii. pi. 24, fig. 1.

CICHLA. FISHES. 457

C. sparoides, Cuv. (Labrus, Lacep.) Body as deep as long, co-
vered with irregular lunated spots on each side ; a concavity above
the eyes ; tail rounded. Indian seas. — Lacep. iii. pi. 24, fig. 2.

C. centrodontus, Cuv. (Sparus, Laroche.) Body elevated, gray,
with an irregular black spot at the commencement of the lateral
line ; teeth subulate ; tail forked. 18 inches long. Inhabits
Mediterranean sea. — An. Mus. xiii. pi. 23, fig. 11.

Gen. 49. CICHLA, Schn. — Labrus, Lacepede.

Body ovate ; mouth wide, protractile ; teeth numerous, small

and crowded ; operculi destitute of spines and dentations.

C.furcata, Cuv. With nine spinous and ten articulated rays in
the dorsal fin ; last ray of the dorsal and anal fins very long j two
pointed and prolonged lobes in the caudal fin. Inhabits Indian
seas. — Lacep. iii. pi. 21, fig. 1.

C. hololepidota, Cuv. With eleven spinous and twenty-seven ar-
ticulated rays in the dorsal fin ; two spinous and ten articulat-
ed rays in the anal fin j tail rounded. Inhabits Indian seas. —
Lacep. iii. pi. 21, fig. 2.

Gen 50. PRISTOPOMUS, Cuv. — Lutianus, Bloch.

Body compressed, deep ; mouth small ; teeth numerous, small,
crowded ; margin of the preoperculum dentated ; scales large.

P. hasta, Cuv. Head yellowish brown ; sides compressed, yellow-
ish above the lateral line, grayish silvery below it, with nume-
rous cinereous spots, forming irregular lines ; pectoral, ventral,
and caudal fins red, the others bluish, inclining to yellow; twelve
spinous rays in the dorsal fin ; tail truncated. Inhabits Japanese
seas Bloch, pi. 246, fig. 1.

P. luteus, Cuv. Body broad and thin, silvery, with longitudinal
lines of golden colour ; fins yellow ; tail forked. Inhabits Ame-
rican seas — Blochj pi. 247.

P. Surinamensis, Cuv. Body broad before, tapering posteriorly,
reddish, with stripes and spots of a deep gray ; fins blue, round-
ed, the tail fin red above. South American seas — Bloch, pi. 253.

P. Virginians, Cuv. Body marked by numerous blue parallel lon-
gitudinal streaks, with two black transverse bands ; tail bilobate
and obtuse. Inhabits American seas — Shaw, iv. 436.

Gen. 51. SCOLOPSIS, Cuv.

Body compressed and deep ; mouth small ; teeth numerous,
small, crowded ; margin of the preoperculum dentated ; scales
large ; the suborbitary bone dentated and spinous behind.

This genus was instituted by Cuvier for the reception of the species Kurite and
Sotche of Russell. — Coroman. ii. pi. 105, 106.

Gen. 52. DIAGRAMMA, Cuv. — Anthias, Bloch.
Body oblong ; head rounded ; mouth slightly cleft; teeth small,

458 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERVGH.

numerous, crowded; preoperculum slightly dentated; six large
pores under the lower jaw.

D. vulgaris. (A. diagramma, Bloch.) Body compressed, whitish, with
brown longitudinal bands and spots ; pectoral, ventral, and anal
fins brown, those of the back and tail black and white. 1 foot
long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Bloch, pi. 320.

D. Orientalis, Cuv. Body fulvous ; dorsal, anal, and caudal fins va-
riegated with blackish brown ; twelve spinous rays in the dorsal
fin. 4 inches long. Inhabits Japanese seas — Block, pi. 326, fig. 3.

Gen. 53. CHEILODACTYLUS, Lacep.

Body and tail compressed ; upper lip double and extensible ;
last rays of the pectoralfins prolonged beyond the uniting mem-
brane ; one dorsal fin ; preoperculum without dentations, and
teeth small and crowded.

C. fasciatus, Lacep. With seven brown bands on the body and five
on the caudal fin. Inhabits Indian seas. — Lacep. v. pi. 1. fig. 1.

Gen. 54. MICROPTERUS, Lacep.

Mouth cleft ; teeth crowded ; a flat spine at the operculum ; last
soft rays of the dorsal fin detached, and forming a small se-
parate fin.

M. Dolomieui, Lacep. Ten spinous rays and seven jointed ones in
the first part of the dorsal fin, four in the second ; caudal fin lu-
nated. — Lacep, iv. pi. 3.

Gen. 55. GRAMMISTES, Cuv.

Mouth cleft; teeth crowded; scales scarcely perceptible, with two
or three spines at the preoperculi and as many at the operculi ;
no spine at the anal fin.

G. Orienlalis, Schn — Scba, iii. pi. 27, fig. 5.

Gen. 56. PRIACANTHUS, Cuv. — Anthias, Bloch.

Body covered with rough scales to the point of the snout ; lower
jaw projecting; mouth obliquely directed upwards; teeth crowd-
ed ; preoperculum dentated, and terminated towards the base
by a dentated spine.

P. macrophthalmus, Cuv. Eyes very large ; back deep yellow, lighter
on the sides, and shading to white on the belly ; pectoral and ven-
tral fins red ; base of the dorsal and anal fins bluish, with the ex-
tremities yellow ; tail yellow, bordered with blue. Inhabits Ja-
panese seas. — Block, pi. 319.

Gen. 57. POLYPRION, Cuv.

Body and head covered with hard ciliated scales; numerous
dentations on the head, and a strong scale on the shoulder
bone ; a dentated ridge under the operculum ; spine of the
ventral fins serrated; teeth crowded, very small, in both
jaws, the vomer, the palate, and base of the tongue,

HOLOCENTRUS. FISHES. 459

P. Americanus, Cuv. (Amphiprion Americanus, Sclin.) The only
species of the genus. American seas. — Reg. An. ii. 282.

Gen. 58. HOLOCENTRUS, Artedi.

Snout short, slightly extensible ; teeth small ; scales thick, hard,
and dentated ; a strong spine at the base of the preoperculum,
and the operculum with one or two at its upper margin ; soft
part of the dorsal fin elevated above the spinous part ; oc-
ciput without scales, osseous, and striated.

H. sogo, Bloch. Body compressed and rectangular, silvery red, with
longitudinal yellow lines on each side ; fins long, bright red ; eyes
large ; tail very much forked. 1 foot long. Inhabits seas of both
hemispheres. — Shaw, iv. pi. 80.

H. angularis, Cuv. (Labrus angularis, Lacep.) Twelve spinous
and nine articulated rays in the dorsal fin, the articulated rays
longest ; five or six rows of small points on each side ; second piece
of the operculum notched and angular. Inhabits Indian seas. —
Lacep. iii. pi. 22. fig. 3.

H. diadema, Cuv. Body black, with a longitudinal white band ;
eleven spinous rays and ten articulated ones in the dorsal fin. In-
habits South sea. — Lacep. iii. pi. 23, fig. 3.

Gen. 59- ACERINA, Cuv. — Perca, Bloch.
Mouth slightly cleft ; teeth small, crowded ; head without scales
and furrowed; margin of the preoperculum armed with eight or
ten small spines or hooks ; a pointed spine at the operculum,
and another at the shoulder bone ; margin of the scales den-
tated.

A. cernua, Cuv. The Ruffe. Head thick and flattened ; body long
and slimy, subolivaceous, with numerous dusky spots ; first fifteen
rays of the dorsal fin hard and pointed ; tail forked. 8 inches long.
Inhabits rivers of Europe. B — Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. 350.

A. Schraitzer, Cuv. Body somewhat elongated, brownish, with four
longitudinal black lines on each side ; abdomen silvery. 10 in-
ches long. Inhabits the Danube and its tributary streams. — Block,
pi. 332, fig. 1.

Gen. 60. STELLIFERUS, Cuv.

Head naked and cavernous ; suborbitaries, preoperculi, and oper-
culi furnished with spines; snout tumid; teeth small and crowd-
ed ; four rays in the branchial membrane.

S. Capensis. (Bodianus stellifer, Bloch.) Head short and truncated ;
iris white, surrounded with a stellated silvery ring, body com-
pressed and silvery ; back and fins yellowish brown ; tail ovate.
5 inches long. Seas near the Cape of Good Hope. — Block, pi. 231.

Gen. 61. SCORP^NA, Schn.
Head rough with spines, chiefly above the orbits, on the occi-

FISHES. ACANTHOPTEKYGII.

put, and cheeks; preoperculum with three or four spines,
and the operculum with two, prolonged in ridges.

The genus Scorpaena of Linnaeus, including fishes with tuberculated or spinous
naked heads with cirri, of a singular and often frightful appearance, has been subdi-
vided by Cuvier and others into more distinctly characterized groups. The genus
Scorpaena of Linnaeus may therefore be considered as the type of a family in
which these characters are variously combined. Their jaws are much cleft; teeth
small and crowded ; and the pectoral fins very large, embracing a part of the throat.

S. porous, Lin. Head of large size, with cirri under the eyes and
along the lateral line ; body dusky,, variegated with black above,,
pale beneath, with a reddish tinge ; dorsal fin with very strong
spinous rays ; scales small, rough. 12 to 15 inches long. Inha-
bits European seas. — Shaw, iv. 267-

This species was well known to the ancients, and various accounts of its supposed
use in medicine are given by Hippocrates and later writers. It has now, however,
lost its reputation ; and itsflesh, which is coriaceous, is only eaten by the poorer people.
When taken it erects its dorsal spines, and the wounds inflicted by these were for-
merly considered very dangerous.

S. scrofa, Lin. Body rufous, with brown variegations ; cirri under
the eyes and along the lateral line ; soft dentated processes at-
tached to the cheeks, to the angles of the jaws, and to the sides ;
scales larger than in the preceding. 2 to 4 feet long. Inhabits
European seas.— -Shaw, iv. pi. 38.

S. dactyloptera, Laroche. Spines of the head simple, and without
cirri or soft dentated appendages. Inhabits European seas. —
An. du Mus. xiii. pi. 22, fig. 9.

S. gibbosa, Cuv. Head large, with the spines cleft at their extre-
mity into many points; pectoral fins broad ; mouth turned up. In-
habits European and American seas. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 285.

S. Plumieri, Cuv. Body blackish brown," with feathered cirri on
the head and lateral line. American seas — Shaw, iv. pi. 40.

Gen. 62. SYMANCEIA, Schn. — Scorpcena, Lin.

Head covered with unequal tubercles, more or less projecting ;
mouth and eyes directed upwards ; no swimming-bladder.

S. horrida, Cuv. Head large, abrupt in front, and marked by nu-
merous tubercles, depressions, and spines ; a semilunar cavity on
the top ; body ferruginous brown, deepest above, without scales,
and marked by callous tubercles. 12 to 15 inches long. Inha-
bits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 39.

This singular fish is of a very forbidding appearance, and realizes to the eye all
that a vivid imagination could consider as monstrous. The head is very large,
abrupt in front, and marked by numerous tubercles, depressions, and spines. On
the top is a semilunar cavity ; the mouth opens upwards and resembles a horse shoe ;
and the head, body, pectoral, and dorsal fins are strewed with numerous tubercles.
All the fins are thick and fleshy, and furnished with strong rays.

S. didactyla, Cuv. Head depressed and furnished with several ab-
rupt depressed cirri ; eyes large, on two protuberances ; body
dusky brown, with transverse yellow streaks above, and round-
ish spots below ; fins with the rays very long ; two digitated pro-

PTEBOIS. FISHES. 461

cesses at the pectoral fins. 12 inches long. Inhabits Indian
seas — Shaw, iv. 279.

Gen. 63. PTEROIS, Cuv.

Head covered with unequal tubercles and fleshy appendages ;
rays of the dorsal and pectoral fins very long, surpassing the
membranes ; a swimming-vessel.

P. volitans, Cuv. Head truncated, broad before and compressed on
the sides, furnished with spines and broad dentated cirri ; body
brownish yellow, with deep brown transverse bands ; pectoral fins
extremely large, deep violet, spotted with white. 12 inches long.
Inhabits rivers of Japan — Block, pi. 184.

P. antennata. Head rough, spinous ; two cylindric tentacula over
the eyes, surrounded by fibrous brown bars ; body variegated
with brown and yellow transverse stripes, and a brown band
across the eyes ; rays of the pectoral fins white, simple, and very
long. 12 inches long. Rivers of Amboyna. — Shaw, iv. pi. 39.

Gen. 64. T^NIANOTUS, Lacep.

One or more spines and no dentations on the operculi; body much
compressed vertically ; dorsal fin long, the spinous part not
distinguished from the soft, but forming an extended vertical
riband along the back, commencing between the eyes.

T. triacanthus, Lacep. With cirri on the eyebrows. — Lacep. iv. 306.

T. latovitfatns, Lacep. General colour blue, with a longitudinal
black and very broad band on each side ; dorsal and anal fins
spotted with brown. 2 feet long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Lacep. iv.
pi. 3, fig. 2.

SECTION II. — Dorsal fin deeply divided, or two distinct
dorsaljins.

This section have the dorsal fin divided, or two distinct fins. Their teeth are ge-
nerally very small, crowded and hooked. Cuvier divides this section into tribes.

1. Head without spines.
Gen. 65. ATHERINA, Lin.

Body oblong; intermaxillaries extensible, with very small teeth ;
lower jaw and tongue smooth ; five rays in the branchial
membrane ; cheeks and operculi scaly ; two small dorsal fins ;
a silvery band on the sides.

A. hepselus, Lin. Body brownish above, silvery below, and gray
on the sides, diaphanous ; with a broad longitudinal silver band
on each side ; fins and tail white. 6 or 7 inches long. Inhabits
Mediterranean sea. — Bloch, pi. 393, fig. 3.

A. Sihama, Cuv. Body bluish green, lanceolate, subpellucid ; sil-
very band obscure. 9 inches long. Red Sea. — Shaw, v. 132.

Gen. 66. SPHYR^NA, Lacepede.
Body elongated ; snout pointed ; jaws much cleft ; under jaw

462 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERVGII

longest, with a row of conical teeth, of which the two anterior
are largest ; intermaxillaries with two strong teeth before,
followed by a row of smaller ones, and a row of strong ones
on each palate bone ; cheeks and operculi scaly.

S. argenteus, (Esox spkyrcena, Lin.) Head narrow, oblong, broad
above, and covered with thin scales ; body greenish above, silvery
on the sides and belly ; pectoral, ventral, and anal fins reddish ;
dorsal and caudal bluish. 3 feet long. Inhabits Mediterranean
sea Block, pi. 389.

Gen. 67. PARALEPIS, Cuv.

Lower jaw surpassing the upper, forming a cone, and armed
with a row of conical teeth, of which the two anterior are the
strongest ; the ventral fins and first dorsal much behind ;
and the second dorsal scarcely visible.

The two species which form this genus are the Coregonns paralepis and the Os~
mcrus sphyrenoldes of Risso.

Gen. 68. MULLUS, Lin.

Head sloping ; two long cirri under the chin ; large scales on the
head and body, which fall easily ; body oblong ; eyes contigu-
ous ; three rays in the branchial membrane ; two dorsal fins.

M. barbatus, Bloch. The Red Surmullet. Back fine red, brilliant
silvery on the belly j head broad, truncated. 8 to 9 inches long.
Inhabits European seas. — Block, pi. 348, fig. 2.

This is considered a very delicate fish for the table. It was in high repute among
the ancient Romans ; and one of the refinements of luxury in ancient Rome was to
have this fish in artificial rivulets under the tables of the great, that they might en-
joy the pleasure of seeing its colours fade as it expired.

M. surmuletus, Bloch. The Surmullet. Body reddish silvery, with
golden yellow longitudinal bands. 12 to 14 inches long. In-
habits Northern seas — Shaw, iv. pi. 88.

M. auriflamma, Lacep. Back bronze-coloured ; a broad longitu-
dinal and red band on each side of the body ; a black spot to-
wards the extremity of the lateral line ; cirri white ; tail yellow.
Inhabits Indian seas — Lacep. iii. pi. 13.

M. mttatus, Forsk. Body whitish, with two longitudinal brown and
three yellow bands on each side ; fins whitish. Inhabits Arabian
seas. — Shaw, iv. pi, 89.

M. trifasciatus, Lacep. Whitish, with three transverse brown bands
on each side. Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 89.

M. bifasciatus, Lacep. Whitish, with two transverse brown bands
on each side. Inhabits Indian seas. — Lacep. iii. pi. 14.

Gen. 69. POMATOMUS, Lacep. Cuv.

Body elongated ; two dorsal fins ; scales large, deciduous ; snout
short ; teeth crowded ; eyes very large ; preoperculi more or
less notched ; seven rays in the branchial membrane.

MUGIL. FISHES, 463

P. telescopus, Risso. Body black, variegated with blue, red, and
violet. Inhabits the Mediterranean — Risso, pi. ix. fig. 31.

Gen. 70. MUGIL, Lin.

Head depressed, broad and scaly ; ventral fins under the ab-
domen, and two short distant dorsal fins, of which the first or
spinous is further back than the ventrals, and the second
answers to the anal ; mouth with fleshy and crenulated lips ;
lower jaw with a carination in the middle, entering into a
corresponding groove in the upper ; no teeth ; branchial mem-
brane with three rays.

M. Cephalus, Lin. The Common Mullet. Body grayish, banded
longitudinally with brownish parallel lines ; belly silvery ; fins
bluish ; first dorsal fin with four spinous rays. Inhabits the Eu-
ropean, Indian, and Atlantic seas — Shaw, v. pi 114.
This fish, the Mugil or Mugilus of the ancient Romans, and highly esteemed as

food, is very abundant in the Mediterranean on the coasts of Spain. It is much

used in the southern countries of Europe. Of the roes a kind of caviar, named pon-

targue or bontarge is made, much esteemed for the table.

M. auratus, Risso. (M. tang, Bloch.) Head narrow and sloping ;
mouth small ; back brown ; sides white, banded with yellow, and
the fins brownish yellow ; first dorsal fin with four and the se-
cond with nine rays. 12 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean
sea. — Bloch, pi. 395.

2. With spines or dentations on the head.

This group comprehends those genera which have dentations or spines on the oper-
culum or pre-operculum, or any other part of the head, but where the cheek is not
covered by the suborbitary bones. Their two dorsal fins are generally contiguous.

Gen. 71. PERCA, Cuv.

Snout without scales, not advancing beyond the lips ; second
dorsal fin not sensibly longer than the first ; ventral fins on
the thorax ; pre-operculi dentated ; operculi spinous.

P. fluviatilis. The Common Perch. Body brownish olive, of a

golden tinge, with broad transverse bands of a deeper colour ;

first dorsal fin a little longer than the second, and marked behind

by a black spot ; the other fins and tail red. 8 to 15 inches long.

Rivers and lakes in Europe. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 59.

The Perch is found in all the lakes of Europe and Northern Asia. It spawns in

spring and is very prolific ; for in one taken in the lake of Geneva there were 992,000

ova ; but the numberless enemies to which the young are exposed make it probable

that not a hundredth part reach maturity. They swim with much rapidity, keep

near the surface, and feed on small fishes, reptiles, insects, &c. In attempting to

swallow the stickleback^however, this animal erects its dorsal spines in such a manner

that, fixed in its mouth, the perch is unable to shut it, and dies of hunger. The spines

on the dorsal fin of the perch in like manner protect it from the voracity of the pike.

The perch was well known to the Greeks and Romans, and is thus mentioned by

Ausonius :

Nee te delicias mensarum, perca, silebo
Amnigenos inter pisces dignande, marinis
Solus puniceis facUis, contendere mullis.

The Laplanders make a kind of glue with the skins of perches, not inferior to the
isinglass which is produced from the sturgeon.

464 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

P. labrax, Lin. (Scicena diacantha, Bloch.) The Basse Perch.
Body silvery ; with the fins reddish, first dorsal fin the same length
as the second ; two spines at the operculum ; tail slightly lunat-
ed. 12 inches long. Inhabits the Mediterranean sea. B — Penn.
Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 60.

P. punctata, Cuv. (Sciana, Bloch.) Back bluish ; belly and sides
silvery ; ventral and pectoral fins brown red, those of the anus
and tail reddish at the base and blue at the margin, body mark-
ed with black spots or points from the back to the lateral line.
12 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Block., pi. 305.

P. lineata, Cuv. (Scicena"Bloch.) Back violet ; sides and belly sil-
very, with longitudinal yellow lines along the body ; first dor-
sal fin with eight spinous rays. 12 inches long. Inhabits Me-
diterranean sea — Bloch, pi. 304.

Gen. 72. CENTROPOMUS, Lacepede.

Snout without scales ; teeth crowded ; pre-operculi dentated ;
operculi without spines, or with the points flattened ; the
suborbitary bone generally dentated.

C. Niloticus, Cuv. (Perca Nilotica, Gmel.) Body brown, with
eight spinous rays in the first dorsal fin j one spinous and eight
articulated ones in the second. Inhabits the Nile and Caspian
sea.— Geojf. Pois. du Nil. pi. 9, fig. 1.
This fish is conceived by Geoffrey to be the Lotus of the ancients, the name by

which it is still known in tipper Egypt.

C. undecimalis, Cuv. (Scicena, Bloch.) Body red, with silvery
abdomen ; fins of the tail and back yellow at their base, and blue
towards the extremity ; eight spinous rays in the first dorsal fin,
and one spinous and ten articulated ones in the second. 12 in-
ches long. Inhabits American seas — Bloch, pi. 303.

Gen. 73. ENOPLOSUS, Lacep.

Teeth flexible and small; body and tail much compressed;
dorsal fins high vertically and prolonged ; suborbitaries den-
tated ; pre-operculi dentated and spinous towards the base.

E. armatus, Cuv. (Chcetodon armaius, Shaw.) Body silvery white,
darker, and with a bluish tinge on the back, with seven trans-
verse black bands j tail slightly lunated. 4 inches long. Inha-
bits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 373.

Gen. 74. PROCHILUS, Cuv. — Sciasna, Bloch.
Body oblong ; scales pretty large ; head short ; teeth crowded ;
no dentations on the preoperculi ; snout without scales.

P. macrolepidotus, Cuv. Body yellow, with transverse brownish
violet bands ; scales large ; dorsal, anal, and caudal fins spotted
with brown ; pectoral fins yellow ; ventrals brick-red. 12 inch-
es long. From India — Block, pi. 398.

P. maculatus, Cuv. Body deep yellow, spotted with brown ; fins
bluish at the base, the other parts yellowish, marked with black

SANDRUS. FISHES. 465

points, except those of the breast and belly. 5| inches long —
Block, pi. 299, fig. 2.

Gen. 75. SANDRUS, Cuv.

Head entirely destitute of scales; jaws armed with pointed and dis-
tant teeth ; preoperculi dentated, but operculi without spines.

S. lucioperca. (Perca, Bloch.) Back round, with ten to twelve
brown transverse bands ; sides silvery, and belly white ; pectoral
fins yellowish, the others whitish ; dorsal fins of equal length. 1
to 3 feet long. Rivers and Lakes of Europe. — Bloch, pi. 51.

S. coro, Cuv. (Scicena, Bloch.) Body bluish-silvery, with brown-
ish back, and body marked on each side with eight transverse
brown bands ; tail slightly forked. 6 to 12 inches long. Inha-
bits South American seas. — Block, pi. 307, fig- !•

Gen. 76. TERAPON, Cuv.

Body and head oblong ; snout obtuse ; scales small ; mouth
small, with a row of equal close-set teeth in each jaw, be-
hind which are others smaller and crowded ; preoperculi den-
tated, and the operculi spinous ; strong dentations at the
shoulder bone ; branchial membrane with six rays.

T. servus, Cuv. (Holocentrus, Bloch.) Body silvery, with brown-
ish back, and four longitudinal black lines on each side ; caudal
fin brownish, forked, the two points black, and three bands of
the same colour in the middle. 5 inches long. From Japan.—
Bloch, pi. 238, fig. 1 and 2.

Gen. 77. APOGON, Lacep.

Summit of the head elevated, two dorsal fins ; no cirri under
the lower jaw ; scales large and easily detached ; preoperculi
dentated ; teeth crowded.

A. ruber, Lacep. (Mullus imberbis, Gmel.) Body of a fine red
colour ; mouth wide. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Cuv. Reg.
An. ii. 296.

A. radiatus, Cuv. (Ckeilodipterus, Lacep.) Nine spinous rays in the
dorsal fin ; tail lunated ; a large transverse band near the caudal
fin, and eight longitudinal bands on eath side.. — Lacep. iii. pi. 34.

Gen. 78. CINGLA, Cuv.

Snout scaly, projecting ; scales rough ; teeth crowded; operculi
spinous ; preoperculi dentated ; two nearly equal dorsal fins.

C. zingel, Cuv. (Perca, Bloch.) Body yellowish, with transverse
brown bands and spots ; belly white ; lateral line near the back,
straight. 14 to 16 inches long. The Danube Bloch, pi. 106.

C. asper, Cuv. (Perca, Bloch.) Head large ; body elongated, and
covered with large hard scales ; colour yellowish, with three or
four transverse bands ; belly white. Inhabits Rivers of Europe.
—Bloch, pi. 107.
VOL. I. G g

4)66 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Gen. 79- UMBKINA, Cuv.

Snout less projecting than the preceding genus ; second dorsal
fin longer than the first ; preoperculi dentated ; teeth small,
crowded ; pores under the lower jaw.

U. cirrhosa, Cuv. (Scicena, Lin.) Body pale-yellow, brownish on
the back, subargenteous beneath, with oblique yellow and blue
longitudinal lines, and a short cirrus on the lower jaw. 1 to 2
feet long. Inhabits the Mediterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. pi. 77-

Gen. 80. LONCHURUS, Bloch.
Head scaly ; ventral fins separate ; tail lanceolate.

This genus differs from the preceding only in having the tail lanceolate.
L. barbatus, Bloch. Body ferruginous brown ; ventral fins sharp,
and placed at some distance from each other ; two cirri at the
lower jaw, and the first ray of the ventral fin elongated into a
bristle. 12 inches long. From Surinam — Bloch, pi. 359.

Gen 81. SCI.ENA, Lacepede.

Snout scaly, blunt, and more or less prominent ; dentations of
the preoperculi almost insensible ; spines of the operculi well-
marked ; teeth elongating with age, and forming a row of
unequal hooks.

S. nigra, Bloch. Black Scisena. Body blackish-brown, silvery to-
wards the belly, with black fins ; tail rounded. 10 to 12 inches
long. Inhabits Mediterranean seas. — Bloch, pi. 297-

S. aquila, Cuv. Body silvery gray, remarkable for its large branch-
ed swimming- vessel. Upwards of three feet long. Inhabits Me-
diterranean sea. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 298.

S« carutta, Cuv. (Johnivs, Bloch.) Back and sides steel blue ;
belly and lateral line yellow ; dorsal and caudal fins bluish, the
others reddish-brown. 18 inches long. Inhabits Indian seas —
Block, pi. 356.

S. aneus, Cuv. (Johnius, Bloch.) Head compressed, scaly ; body
elongated ; back black ; sides white ; pectoral and ventral fins
reddish-brown ; anterior part of the dorsal fin blackish ; tail
bluish at the point. Indian seas. — Block, pi. 357-

Gen. 82. POGONIAS, Lacep.

Snout obtuse ; bones of the head cavernous ; operculi scaly, but
without dentations ; teeth crowded ; pores under the lower
jaw ; spinous part of the dorsal fin separated from the other
to the base ; numerous small cirri at the lower jaw.

P.Jasciata, Lacep. (Labrus grunniens, Mitchell.) Head thick ;
eyes large ; under jaw with about twenty short filaments ; dorsal
fin slightly notched. 12 inches long. Inhabits American seas.
— Lacep. iii. pi. 138.

Gen. 83. OTOLITHES, Cuv.
Dorsal fin in two parts ; dentations of the preoperculi scarcely

ANCYLODON. FISHES. 467

sensible ; external row of teeth largest, and two long ones in
the upper jaw ; snout not tumid.

The Johnius ruler and regalls of Schneider are the types of this genus.

Gen. 84. ANCYLODON, Cuv.

Head naked, compressed, armed with dentations and spines ;
mouth cleft ; the teeth, particularly those below, in the form
of long projecting hooks ; second dorsal fin long, and tail
pointed.

The Lonchium ancylodon of Schneider is the type of this genus.

Gen. 85. PERCIS, Schn. — Scicena, Bloch.
Body elongated ; head depressed ; teeth hooked ; first dorsal fin
with a few rays, the second running along almost the whole
back ; anal fin without spines ; preoperculi slightly dentated,
and the operculi spinous.

P. cylindrica, Cuv. Body cylindrical, yellowish-brown above, sil-
very below, marked with eleven brown transverse bands, and two
pale brown longitudinal lines ; five spinous rays in the first dorsal
fin. 6 inches long Block, pi. 249, fig. 1.

Gen. 86. TRACHINUS, Lin.

Body and tail elongated, compressed ; head compressed lateral-
ly ; eyes approaching vertically ; a strong spine on the oper-
culi, and two small ones before each eye ; shoulder-bones
dentated ; second dorsal fin very long ; no swimming-bladder ;
ventral and anal fins very much forward.

T. draco, Lin. The Dragon Weever. Body brownish-yellow ; first
dorsal fin black, and five-rayed. 10 to 12 inches long. Inhabits
Northern seas. B — Shaw, iv. pi. 21.

The spines of the first dorsal fin of this fish are conceived by the fishermen to be
poisonous. It is, however, esteemed as an article of food on the Continent. It is very
tenacious of life, and can exist many hours out of the water. The skin is remarka-
bly tough.

3. Head Mailed.

This tribe comprehends those genera which have the head mailed by the exten-
sion, solidity, and hardness of the suborbitaries. Their dorsal fins are sometimes
contiguous, sometimes separated. Some have the ventral tins jugular.

Gen. 87. URANOSCOPUS, Lin.

Head depressed, almost cubical, thicker than the body, with the
eyes above, and directed upwards; lower jaw longer than the
upper, and the mouth cleft vertically ; preoperculi crenated
below ; a strong spine on each shoulder ; first dorsal fin
small, with striated rays ; the second as well as the anal long
and soft ; no swimming- vessel.

U. soaber, Bloch. Brown on the back, gray on the sides, white on
the belly ; a membranous jprocess with a long filament at the
interior tip of the lower jaw ; lips with smaller cirri. 12 inches
long. Inhabits Northern seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 20.
This fish generally conceals itself in the mud or fuci, with the tip of the head

468 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

up, and feeds on small fishes and insects, the movement of the cirri in this situation
probably attracting them.

Gen. 88. TRIGLA, Lin.

Head cubical, covered with a bony plate, formed by the enormous
suborbitaries ; operculi, preoperculi, occiput, and shoulder
generally terminating behind in a spine ; teeth pointed, crowd-
ed like the pile of velvet ; scales small ; lower rays of the
pectoral fins detached from the others ; swimming-vessel bi-
lobate.

T. cuculus, Lin. The Cuckovv Gurnard. Body slender, red above,
more or less marked by whitish transverse bands ; belly silvery ;
lateral line of broad silvery scales ; fins of the breast and tail,
which is forked, reddish ; ventral, anal, and dorsal fins white,
the last spotted with yellow ; a black spot on the first dorsal fin.
12 inches long. Inhabits European seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 90.

T. gurnardus, Bloch. The Gray Gurnard. Body above deep gray,
with blackish and red spots, beneath silvery j lateral line compos-
ed of rounded whitish scales, with a dusky central spot. 1 to 2
feet long. Inhabits European seas. B.— Sharv, iv. pi. 90.

T. lineata, Bloch. Lineated Gurnard. Head black, and sides deep
red, with numerous transverse lines and deeper spots ; on each
side of the dorsal fins a row of broad serrated processes of a yellow
colour ; lateral line similar ; pectoral and first dorsal fins with
black spots ; anal and second dorsal fins bluish ; tail slightly lu-
nated. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. B. — Block, pi. 354.

T. hirundo, Lin. Body brown, rounded ; snout slightly notched ;
pectoral fins equal in length to the third of the body, and spotted
with bluish. 1 to 2 feet long. Inhabits European seas. B —
Bloch, pi. 60.

T. lyra, Lin. Body rose-red, silvery beneath ; snout strongly di-
vided into two dentated lobes. 1 to 2 feet long. Inhabits Eu-
ropean seas. B. — Bloch, pi. 350.

T. pini, Bloch. Body reddish, except the belly, which is yellow-
ish ; ventral fins red, the others bluish j lateral line with thin
transverse processes like the leaves of the pine. — Block, pi. 355.

T. punctata, Bloch. Body dotted with numerous red points ; pec-
toral fins very large, blue ; the others yellow. Inhabits Ameri-
can seas. — Block, pi. 353.

Gen. 89. PERISTEDION, Lacep. — Trigla, Lin.
Body completely mailed with osseous plates ; suborbitary pro-
longations forming a forked snout ; jaws without teeth, and
branched cirri under the lower ; two dorsal fins, united at
their base, the anterior with longest rays.

P. cataphractum, Cuv. Body pale-red, octagonal, completely mail-
ed with bony plates j ventral fins gray, the pectorals blackish ;
rays of the first dorsal fin terminating in filaments. 12 inches
long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Block, pi. 349.

DACTYLOPTERUS. FISHES. 469

Gen. 90. DACTYLOPTERUS, Lacep. — Trigla, Lin.
Detached rays below the pectoral fin numerous, and united by
a membrane, so as to form distinct pectorals ; rays of the su-
pernumerary pectorals as long as the body, forming a species
of wings ; snout short ; occiput and preoperculi prolonged
behind into long spines ; jaws with small rounded teeth ;
scales carinated.

D. volitans, Cuv. Body crimson-red above, whitish beneath, cover-
ed with strong carinated and sharp-pointed scales ; first dorsal fin
pale-violet, crossed by deeper lines, the two first rays separate
and longest j supernumerary pectoral fins very large, transparent,
olive-green, with numerous bright blue spots ; tail pale violet.
12 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean, Indian, and Atlantic
seas — Shaw, iv. pi. 91.
This species is capable of supporting itself out of the water in the manner of the

common flying-fish for some seconds, by means of its large pectoral fins.

Gen. 91. CEPHALACANTHUS, Lacep. — Gasterosteus, Lin.
Head furnished on each side with two dentated and very long
spines ; ho isolated rays before the first dorsal fin ; fins of or-
dinary proportions.

C. Spinarella, Lacep. The only species known. Inhabits the In-
dian seas. — Shaw, iv. 608.

Gen. 92. MONOCENTRIS, Schn.

Body short and thick, entirely mailed with enormous angular,
sharp, and carinated scales ; first dorsal fin composed of four
or five free spines, and the ventral fins of one, in the angle of
which are some soft rays ; head short, thick, mailed.

M. carinata, Schn. Forehead projecting ; mouth large ; teeth
small, crowded ; eight rays in the branchial membrane. 5 inches
long. Inhabits Japanese seas — Shaw, iv. 610.

Gen. 93. COTTUS, Lin.

Head thicker than the body, spinous, and flattened horizontal-
ly ; first dorsal fin spinous, distinct from the second soft one ;
pectoral fins large ; ventral fins thoracic.

The fishes of this genus are found on rocky shores, can live for some time out of
the water, and, when irritated, inflate their head by filling their gills with air. The
fresh water species have the head almost smooth, and only one spine at the preoper-
culi.

C. gobio, Lin. River Bullhead. Body yellowish-olive, deepest on
the head and back, variegated with black ; a hooked spine on
each side of the head. 3^ inches long. Inhabits clear rivers of
Europe. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 43.

C. quadricornis, Bloch. Four-Horned Bullhead. Head thick,
flattened below ; body olivaceous, marbled with brown above,
whitish beneath, with four bony tubercles on the head ; ventral

470 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

fins and first rays of the pectorals red. 6 inches long. Inhabits
Mediterranean sea. B. — Shaw, iv. pi. 36.

C. Scorpius, Lin. The Father-Lasher. Head large, with a small
spine before each eye ; two strong ones at the operculi, and two on
the shoulder ; body brown, marbled with gray and white ; fins and
tail transparent, clouded with brown, and the rays banded regu-
larly with deep brown. 8 to 10 inches long. Inhabits European
seas. B — Petm. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 44.

Gen 94. ASPIDOPHORUS, Lacep. — Agonus, Schn. — Phalan-

gites. Pall. — Coitus, Lin.

Body octagonal, completely covered with scaly plates ; two dor-
sal fins ; head thicker than the body, with points and depres-
sions above, flattened below.

A. cataphractus , Cuv. Armed Bullhead. Head large, bony, and
very rugged ; nose armed with four upright short spines, and on
the throat a number of cirri ; body octagonal ; first dorsal fin of
six spinous rays ; colour brown above, with three or four trans-
verse blackish bands, whitish beneath. 5 inches long. Inhabits
European seas. B. — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 43.

A. Japonicus, Lacep. Body yellowish-brown ; plates disposed in-
to eight prominent lines ; no cirri on the throat. 12 inches long.
Inhabits sea about the Kurile Islands. — Shaw, iv. 264.

A. monopterygius, Cuv. (Aspidopkoroides, Lacep.) Body narrow,
elongated, octagonal, brown on the back, gray on the sides, with
brown spots and bands j belly spotted with white ; only one dor-
sal fin. Inhabits Indian seas. — Block, pi. 178, fig. 1, 2.

Gen. 95. PLATYCEPHALUS, Bloch. — Cottus, Lin.

Head flattened; suborbitaries spinous, large and broad; body flat-
tened, and ventral fins situate behind the pectorals and much
separated.

P. spatula, Bloch. Body depressed, grayish, with dusky clouds and
spots ; head marked above by sharp lines, and on each side by two
spines. 12 inches long. Arabian seas. — Block, pi. 424.

P. scaber, Bloch. Back bluish ; sides and belly silvery, with six red-
dish brown transverse bands ; head with four rows of small spines ;
lateral line spinous. 12 inches long. Indian seas — Bloch, pi. 180.

Gen. 96. BATTIACHUS, Scbn.

Head flattened horizontally, broader than the body; mouth
large ; operculi spinous ; first dorsal fin short, with three spi-
nous rays ; the second soft and long, as well as the anal ; lips
often furnished with cirri.

This group conceal themselves in the sand to watch their prey, and make dange-
rous wounds by their spines.

* With cirri.

B, tan, Cuv. (Gadus iau, Lin.) Body yellowish brown, paler be-

LWHIUS. FISHES. 471

neath, the whole, as well as the fins, variegated with numerous
irregular blackish spots ; tail with two or three transverse bands ;
lower lip fringed with cirri. 1 foot long. Inhabits American
and Indian seas. — Block, pi. 6, fig. 2, 3.

B. grunniens, Cuv. (Cottus, Lin.) Body brown, smooth, with white
variegations, and exuding a mucous fluid ; fins pale, spotted with
brown ; sides of the head and lower jaw furnished with cirri. 6
to 8 inches long. Indian and American seas. — Block, pi. 179.

** Without cirri
B. Surinamensis, Cuv. S. American seas — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 308.

4. Skin without scales, and pectorals supported by arms.

Gen. 97. LOPHIUS, Cuv.

Head extremely broad and depressed, spinous in many parts ;
mouth wide, with pointed teeth ; lower jaw with numerous
cirri ; two distinct dorsal fins, and some free and moveable
rays on the head ; branchial membrane with six elongated
rays, and the opening behind the pectorals ; ventral fins
placed before the pectorals ; skin without scales ; no swim-
ming-vessel.

The fishes of this genus are said to conceal themselves in the sand, moving the
rays upon their head, which being taken for worms by the smaller fishes, are thus
brought within their reach.

L. piscatorius, Lin. The Angler or Frog-Fish. Head extremely
large, rounded ; pectorals supported as by two arms ; mouth ex-
cessively wide ; body brown, with deeper and paler variegations ;
ventral fins short, stiff; two or three long tentacula on the top
of the head, and sides fringed with similar processes. 2 to 4 or
6 feet long. Inhabits European seas — Shaw, v. pi. 161.
This species grows to a large size, some having been taken measuring six or seven
feet in length. In shape it bears some resemblance to a tadpole. The head is ex-
tremely large, rounded in front, and the mouth very wide. The Frog-Fish frequents
shallows, lying in ambush half covered by sea weeds for its prey.

Gen. 98. ANTENNARIUS, Commers. — Lophius, Bloch.
Body and head compressed ; mouth opened vertically ; bran-
chial membrane with four rays ; free rays on the head, the
first slender, often terminated by a tuft, the two following
augmented by a membrane, sometimes tumid, sometimes unit-
ed like a fin ; dorsal fin long ; and often fleshy appendages
over all the body.

This genus are able to inflate their large stomach in the manner of the tetrodons,
like a balloon. On land their fins assist them to crawl almost like a quadruped,
their pectoral fins on account of their position acting as hind feet ; and they are able
to live out of the water for two or three days. They are found in tropical seas.

A. histrio, Cuv. Body thick, much compressed, rough and unequal,
yellowish brown, irregularly marked or marbled with deep brown
or blackish variegations; pectoral and ventral fins resembling
short arms ; upper lip and head with cartilaginous appendages^

472 FISHES. ACANTHOPTEHYGII.

terminated by fleshy and elongated processes. 10 or 12 inches
long. Inhabits Indian and American seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 164.

A. Commersonii, Cuv. Body entirely black, with a milk white round
spot on each side ; a long and slender filament with an elevated
tip above the eyes. A few inches long. Inhabits Indian seas. —
Shaw, v. 387-

A. Chironectes, Cuv. (L. variegaius, Shaw.) Body reddish, with
some black spots ; a long filament above the upper lip, terminated
by a very small fleshy mass. — Lacep. i. pi. 16, fig. 2.

A. marmoratus, Cuv. Body oval, slightly compressed, blackish above,
with bluish clouds or spots, whitish beneath and marbled ; dorsal
fin simple. 5 inches long. Pacific Ocean. — Shaw, v. pi. 165.

A. striatus, Cuv. Body compressed, yellowish brown, marked all
over, chiefly in a transverse direction, by very numerous and close-
ly placed narrow black streaks ; pectoral and ventral fins resem-
bling short arms ; a long filament dilated into an oval-shaped tip
on the top of the mouth, and beyond this two strong and thick
processes. 5 inches long. Inhabits Southern seas. — Shaw, Nat.
Mis. v. pi. 175.

A. hirsutus, Cuv. (JLophius, Lacep.) Body compressed laterally,
with scattered very small blackish spines ; upper lip extensible ;
a filament terminated by a small fleshy mass above the snout ;
two rays in the first dorsal fin, nineteen in the second. Inha-
bits seas of New Holland. — An. Mus. iv. pi. 55. fig. 3.

A. Icevis, Cuv. (Lopkius, Lacep.) Body compressed laterally,
smooth ; filament above the snout terminating in a slender point ;
two rays in the first dorsal fin, seventeen in the second. Inha-
bits seas of New Holland. — An. Mus. pi. 55, fig. 4.

Gen. 99. MALTHE, Cuv. — Lophius, Lin.
Head extraordinarily broad and depressed ; eyes much before ;
mouth under the elongated and pointed snout, protractile ;
branchiae supported by six or seven rays, and opening on the
dorsal surface above the pectoral fins ; one soft dorsal fin ;
body rough with osseous tubercles ; cirri along the sides.

M. vespertilio, Cuv. Ventral fins resembling feet and the pectorals
hands ; body reddish, tuberculated, the tubercles yellow ; above
the nostrils a cartilaginous filament with a dilated tip. 10 to 18
inches long. Inhabits S. American seas — Shaw, v. pi. 163.

FAMILY V. — SCOMBEROIDES.

This family are distinguished by their small scales, often imperceptible, except to-
wards the end of the lateral line, where they form sometimes a projecting ridge. In
others this carina is formed by the skin itself, independently of the size of the
scales, supported by the transverse processes of one or two vertebra?. The soft part
of the dorsal and anal fins is sometimes a little thickened before by the scales, but
never completely connected by them ; on the contrary, the membrane which unites
the rays behind is often very slender, and even wanting entirely in some genera,
when these rays, being then isolated, take the name of spurious fins. Cuvier divides

SCOMBER. FISHES. 473

the family into four sections or tribes, characterized from the structure of their dor-
sal fins.

1. With two dorsal fins, the spinous one not divided.

Gen. 100. SCOMBER, Lin.

A projecting ridge on each side of the tail, and a row of point-
ed teeth in each jaw ; anal and dorsal fins with the posterior
part divided into spurious fins ; the second dorsal distant from
the first.

S. scomber, Lin. The Mackerel. Back blue, marked with small
round black lines j five spurious fins above and below. 12 to 16
inches long. European seas. B. — Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 62.

The Mackerel visits the British shores annually in vast shoals, and is highly
esteemed as an article of food. The colours of this fish when taken are very bril-
liant, and it is one of the most beautiful of the British fishes. It was greatly esteem-
ed by the Romans, who used it in the preparation of their garum, a sort of pickle
for their sauces. The preparation of the anchovy for a similar purpose has long
superseded this ancient condiment.

S. Colias, Gmel. Body bluish green ; no swimming-bladder. Smal-
ler than the preceding. Mediterranean sea — Shaw, iv. 580.

Gen. 10L THYNXUS, Cuv. — Scomber, Lin.
A projecting ridge on each side of the tail ; and a row of point-
ed teeth in each jaw ; anal and second dorsal fins subdivided;
first dorsal fin prolonged almost to the second, and sometimes
touching it.

T. vulgaris, Cuv. The Tunny. Back steel-coloured ; sides and
belly silvery, with eight or nine spurious fins. 2 to 8 or 10 feet
long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. B. — Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 63.

The Tunny was well known to the ancients ; and formerly, as at present, the
Tunny fisheries in the Mediterranean were an object of great commercial importance.
It is a gregarious fish, and often appears in large shoals; and Pliny relates that the
fleet of Alexander the Great was impeded by a shoal of Tunnies so closely impacted
that the ships had to make their way through them in order of battle. They are
occasionally taken on the British shores, and have been frequently seen in the arms
of the sea on the west coast of Scotland in pursuit of the shoals of herrings.

T. Sarda, Bloch. Back bluish, banded obliquely with black ; six
or seven spurious rays. 2 feet long. Inhabits Mediterranean
sea — Block, pi. 334.

T. Pelamis, Cuv. Back blue ; belly silvery,, marked by bands pro-
longed longitudinally on the sides ; eight or nine spurious fins.
— Shaw, iv. 588.

T. Mediterraneus, Rondelet. Back blue, marked by broad trans-
verse blackish bands ; six or seven spurious fins ; teeth strong
and pointed. Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Rondelet. 248.

T. Commersonii, Lacep. Body elongated, with brownish back, and
sides marked with irregular brown spots j lateral line undulated ;
ten spurious fins above and below. Inhabits Pacific Ocean —
Shaw, iv. pi. 85.

474 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Gen. 102. ORCYNUS, Cuv.-^—Scomber, Lacep.
A row of pointed teeth in each jaw ; anal and second dorsal fins
subdivided ; first dorsal fin prolonged to near the second ;
pectoral fins very long, extending beyond the anus.

O. Germon, Cuv. Blackish blue on the back ; silvery blue on the
abdomen ; eight or nine spurious fins above and below. 3 or 4
feet long. Inhabits Mediterranean sea — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 314.

O. Alatunga, Cuv. With seven spurious fins above and below; twelve
rays in each dorsal fin ; pectoral fins long. Inhabits Mediter-
ranean sea. — Shaw, iv. 590.

Gen. 103. CABANX, Lacep. — Scomber, Bloch.
Carina of the lateral line formed by a row of imbricated ridged
scales ; a small fin before the anal supported by two spines ;
pectorals long and pointed ; teeth generally crowded, but in
a very narrow band, sometimes scarcely perceptible.

* With spurious jins.

C. Rotleri, Cuv. Sides, head, and back blue; ventral and pec-
toral fins red, the others violet and yellowish ; ten spurious fins
above and below ; lateral line marked by broad acuminated scales.
14 inches long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Bloch, pi. 346.

** Fins not divided.

C. trachurus, Lin. The Sand Mackerel. Body elongated, compres-
sed laterally ; back fine blue ; sides and belly silvery ; lateral line
bent, marked by a row of thick strong scales. 18 inches long.
Inhabits European seas — Pen. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 62.

C. Chloris, Cuv. Body pale yellowish green, with a brownish tinge
on the back ; lateral line with rounded scales ; pectoral fins lan-
ceolate, reddish at the base ; tail forked. 12 inches long. In-
habits African seas — Bloch, pi. 339.

C. ruber, Shaw. Body beautiful rose red, silvery on the sides and
abdomen ; lateral line with large scales as it approaches the tail;
tail deeply forked. 12 or 14 inches long. Inhabits Indian and
American seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 86.

Gen. 104. CITULA, Cuv.

Carina of the lateral line formed by a row of imbricated scales ;
a small fin before the anal, with two spines ; first rays of the
dorsal and anal fins elongated ; pectoral fins elongated.

This genus was instituted by Cuvier for a new species.

Gen. 105. SERIOLA, Cuv. — Caranx, Risso.
Lateral line with small imbricated scales scarcely forming aridge ;
a fin with two spines before the anal; pectorals long and pointed.

S. Dumerili, Cuv. Body silvery, with the back violet, and fins bluish.
Grows to a large size. Mediterranean sea. — Risso, pi. 6, fig. 20.

NOMEUS. FISHES. 475

S.fasciatus, Cuv. Body silvery, with brownish back, and banded
transversely by narrow brown lines j ventral fins yellow at the
base, and the rest violet ; the other fins blue and spotted with
brown. 12 inches long — Block, pi. 341.

Gen. 106. NOMEUS, Cuv.

Body broad, with small scales ; the small fin before the anal
with two spines ; ventral fins extremely large and broad, at-
tached to the belly by their internal margin.

N. Gronovii, Cuv. Head with large scales ; body silvery, dusky
on the back ; sides spotted with black ; tail forked. Inhabits South
American seas. — Shaw, iv. 251.

Gen. 107- SELENE, Lacep.

Body much compressed, of a tetragonal or pentagonal form, as
broad as deep; line of the forehead almost vertical, and edged ;
scales almost imperceptible ; jaws edged with minute teeth ;
two dorsal fins, with one or more spines between them ; first
rays of the second dorsal fin falcate, extending beyond the
extremity of the tail.

S. argenteus, Cuv. Body pentagonal, silvery ; first dorsal fin small,
with four spinous rays j pectoral fins large ; tail cylindrical, forked.
Inhabits S. American seas — Lacep. iv. pi. 9, fig. 2.

Gen. 108. GALLUS, Lacep.

Body and head compressed ; teeth in both jaws ; two dorsal fins,
with spines along each side, and many of the rays with long
filaments ; a transverse vertical membrane below the upper
lip ; ventral fins long.

G. vulgaris. (Zeus gallus, Lin.) Body rhomboidal, thin, silvery ;
greenish on the back ; scales very small ; tenth ray of the dorsal
and second of the anal fin extending beyond the membrane. 6 to
8 inches long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Block, pi. 192, fig. 1.

Gen. 109. ARGYREIOSUS, Lacep. — Zeus, Lin.
Body much compressed ; ventral fins elongated ; one dorsal fin
in two divisions, the second falcate ; spines of the first part
of the dorsal and anal fins with long filaments.

A. vomer, Cuv. Body thin, silvery, tinged with bluish above ; second
ray of the dorsal and anal fins very long ; tail forked. 6 or 8 in-
ches long. S. American and northern seas 8haw, iv. pi. 41.

Gen. 110. VOMEB, Cuv.

Body much depressed, and without scales, except on the lateral
line ; front edged, and teeth very small ; belly also edged ; all
the fins short, the first dorsal and anal scarcely distinguishable.

V. Brotvnii, Cuv. (Rkomboida alepidota, Brown.) Browns Ja-
maica, 455.

476 FISHES.

Gen. 1 11. TETRAGONURUS, Risso.

Body elongated ; lower jaw elevated vertically, with a row of
pointed cutting teeth locking between those of the upper jaw ;
a small row of pointed teeth on each palatine and two on the
vomer ; two dorsal fins, and two projecting crests on each side
of the tail.

T. Cttvieri, Risso. Blackish brown, and all the scales deeply striated
and dentated. 2 feet long. Mediterranean sea. — Risso, pi. x. fig. 37.

2. With distinct spines in place of the first dorsal fin. —
Rhynchobdella, Schn.

Gen. 112. MACROGNATHUS, Lacep.

Body elongated, destitute of ventral fins ; dorsal spines nume-
rous, and two before the anal fins ; snout prolonged into a
flattened cartilaginous point, longer than the lower jaw ; se-
cond dorsal and anal opposite, distinct from the caudal fin.

M. ocellatuSj Hamilton. (Ophidium aculeatum, Gmel.) Rufous
brown above, below silvery ; fourteen spines before the dorsal
fin, and at its base from three to seven ocellated spots with a yel-
low ring. 6 inches long. Fresh waters in India. — Shaw, iv. 73.

Gen. 113. MASTACEMBEUTS, Gronov.
Body elongated, destitute of ventral fins ; jaws nearly equal ;

dorsal and anal fins almost united to the caudal.
M. halepensis, Cuv. (Rhynchobdella, Schn.) — Gronov. Zooph. pi. 8.

Gen. 114. GASTEROSTEUS, Lacep. Lin.
One dorsal fin, with free spines before ; ventral fins with one
strong spine, and destitute of other rays ; bones of the pel-
vis forming a shield pointed behind.

G. aculeatus, Lin. Banstickle or Stickleback. Three spines on
the back ; lateral scales occupying almost all the breadth of the
sides ; colour of the back and sides olive green j belly white ; in
some the lower jaw and belly bright crimson. 2 inches long.
Inhabits streams in Europe. B — Penn. Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 61.

Tlie Stickleback is extremely common in the waters of Britain, but nowhere in
greater quantities than in the fens of Lincolnshire, and the rivers connected with
them. " At Spalding," says Pennant, " there are once in seven or eight years amaz-
ing shoals that appear in the Welland, and come up the river in the form of a vast
column. They are supposed to be the multitudes that have been washed out of the
fens by the floods of several years, and collected in some deep hole, till, overcharged
with numbers, they are periodically obliged to attempt a change of place. The quan-
tity ;<! so great that they are used to manure the land. A notion may be had of this
vast shoal by saying, that a man employed by the farmer to take them has got for a
considerable time four shillings a day by selling them at a halfpenny the bushel."
The G. pungitius is conjectured to be the young of this species.

Gen. 115. SPTNACHIA, Cuv. — Gasterosteus, Lin.
Body elongated ; lateral line broad, composed of bony plates,

CENTRONOTUS. FISHES. 477

forming a ridge ; ventrals placed behind the pectorals, com-
posed of two spines and a small membrane ; dorsal spines
numerous.

S. marina, (G. Spinachia, Lin.) Body deep brown above; belly
white ; head produced and tubular ; fifteen dorsal spines. 6 in-
ches long. European seas. B — Penn, Brit. Zool. iii. pi. 61.

Gen. 116. CENTRONOTUS, Lacep. — Gasterosteus, Lin.
One dorsal fin, with spines before ; ventral fins supported, as in
general, by some rays, the most of which are short ; sides of
the tail carinated ; anal shorter than the dorsal fin, with
sometimes free spines.

C. ductor, Lacep. The Pilot- Fish. Body bluish, with broad trans-
verse bands of deeper blue ; four dorsal spines ; tail forked. 18
inches long. American and Indian seas — Block, pi. 338.

This is the fish so well known to mariners, and to which they ascribe the custom
of swimming before the shark to indicate its prey. Two of this species some years
ago accompanied a ship from the Mediterranean into Falmouth, and were taken in
a net Other species of the family have the same habit.

C. niger, Cuv. (Scomber, Bloch.) Head short, rounded ; eight
strong spines before the dorsal fin ; ventral fins white, with black
edges ; tail forked. Inhabits African and American seas. 2 to
6 feet long — Bloch, pi. 377-

Gen. 117. LICHIA, Cuv. — Scomber, Bloch.
Body deep and compressed ; lateral line not carinated ; ventral
fins with some rays ; one or two free spines before the anal
fin ; first dorsal spine often bent forwards and immoveable.

* With spurious dorsal and anal fins.

L. saliens, Cuv. Body smooth, compressed, darkish blue on the
back ; silvery on the sides and abdomen ; four strong spines be-
fore the dorsal fin ; eight spurious fins above and below. 18 in-
ches long. Inhabits American seas — Bloch, pi. 335.

L. acideata, Cuv. Head small, compressed ; back brownish ; sides
and belly silvery ; eight spines before the dorsal fin ; eleven spu-
rious fins above and below. 7 or 8 inches long. Inhabits Euro-
pean and American seas — Bloch, pi. 336, fig. 1.

** Without spurious Jins.

L. calcar, Cuv. Body silvery, with brownish back, and four di-
verging spines before the dorsal fin ; two strong spines before the
anal fin, connected by a membrane. 10 or 12 inches long. In-
habits African seas. — Bloch, pi. 336.

*** Points of the dorsal and anal Jins prolonged. — TRACHINOTUS,

Lacepede.

~L.falcatus, Cuv. Second dorsal and anal fins falcate ; body broad,
brownish on the back, silvery on the sides ; glaucous and yeUow
on the caudal fin ; lateral line undulated. 12 inches long. In-
habits Red sea. — Forsh. 57«

478 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII

L. rhomboides, Cuv. (Chcetodon, Bloch.) Body rhomboidal, gray
or greenish blue above, yellowish beneath, with two or three deep-
er blue bands on the sides ; live spines before the dorsal, and two
before the anal fin. Inhabits American seas. — Block, pi. 209.

Gen. 118. BLEPHARIS, Cuv. — Zeus, Bloch.
Body deep, rhomboidal ; dorsal spines very short ; first soft rays
of the dorsal and anal fins soft, and elongated into filaments
exceeding the body in length ; free spines before the anus.

B. ciliariy, Cuv. Body rhomboidal, thin, without scales, bright sil-
very, with a bluish or greenish tinge on the back ; soft rays of
the dorsal and anal fins extended into long filaments. 6 inches
long. Inhabits Indian seas. — 'Block, pi. 191.

3. With one dorsal Jin ; teeth crowded.

Gen. 119. ZEUS, Lin.

Body oval, compressed ; jaws strongly protractile ; teeth crowd-
ed ; spinous portions of the dorsal and anal fins separated
from the other by a deep notch ; scales projecting, or spinous
scales at the base of the vertical fins, and between the ven-
tral and anal fins.

Z.faber, Lin. Common Dory. Head and mouth large ; body yel-
low, marked with a black spot on each side; forked spines along
the dorsal and anal fins, and long membranous filaments behind
each dorsal spine. 15 inches long. Inhabits European seas. B. —
Shaw, iv. pi. 41.

The black spot on each side of the Dory has been attributed to a similar cause
with that which is said to have occasioned the haddock bearing analogous marks. The
latter, according to the legend, was the fish out of whose mouth St Peter took the
tribute money, and the marks of his finger and thumb on its sides perpetuate the
iniracle. St Christopher, in wading through an arm of the sea, having caught a
stray Dory in his passage, left indubitable evidence of the fact on its sides by the
two opposite marks of a ringer and thumb. The Dory, notwithstanding its appear-
ance not being very prepossessing, is said to be an excellent fish for the table. It
was chiefly brought into reputation in England by Mr Quin the actor, who. to talents
of a high order in his profession, joined a most consummate taste in the luxuries of
the table.

Gen. 120. CAPROS, Lacep. — Zeus, Lin.

Body and tail much compressed vertically ; no teeth ; two dor-
sal fins ; scales small and rough ; no spines before the dorsal
or anal fins.

C. aper, Lin. Snout narrow, produced ; body reddish, covered with
rough ciliated scales. 3 inches long. Inhabits Mediterranean
sea — Shaw, iv. 292.

Gen. 121. EQUULA, Cuv. — Zeus, Lin.

Body compressed, covered with small scales, except towards the
end of the lateral line, where they are carinated ; snout pro-
tractile, and mouth with small crowded teeth ; one continuous
dorsal fin, the spinous part projecting ; a row of spines on

MEKE. FISHES. 470

each side of the anal and caudal fins ; two spines above each
eye, and base of the operculi dentated ; a rounded plate be-
fore the ventrals.

E. insidiaior, Cuv. (Centrogaster equula, Gmel.) Body bright
silvery, bluish green above, spotted with black. Of small size.
Inhabits rivers of India. — Shaw, iv. pi. 41.
From the structure of the mouth of this animal it is enabled to contract it into a

kind of syringe, to propel the water on the insects resting on aquatic plants within

its reach, and by this means to secure its prey,

Gen. 122. MENE, Lacep.

Body compressed, with one dorsal fin ; belly carinated and se-
micircular ; back and shoulder raised ; ventral fins narrow
and elongated.

M. maculatus, Schn. (M. Anne Caroline, Lacep.) Body silvery.— .
Lacep. v. pi. 14.

Gen. 123. ATROPUS, Cuv. — Brama, Schn.
Body compressed ; forehead sloping ; snout very short ; lower
jaw projecting ; one dorsal fin with two or three spines, and
a part of the soft rays prolonged into filaments ; lateral line ca-
rinated towards the end ; two free spines before the dorsal fin.

A. Brama. (B. atropus, Sch.) Body blue above ; sides silvery ; belly
black, with yellow spots. Inhabits Indian seas. — Schn. pi. 23.

Gen. J24. TRACHICHTHYS, Shaw.

Head rounded in front ; mouth wide ; teeth crowded ; one ele-
vated and pointed dorsal fin ; sides, upper and under part
of the tail with large strongly carinated scales ; and similar
scales forming a dentation between the ventral and anal fins ;
branchial membrane with four rough rays.

T. Australis, Shaw. (Amphiprio?i carinatus, Schn.) Body bright
pink, ferruginous or reddish brown, the middle of the fins deep-
er, and the margins paJer ; tail strongly furcated. 6 inches long.
Inhabits seas of New Holland. — Shaw, v. pi. 92.

Gen. 125. CHRYSOTOSUS, Lacep. — Zeus, Gmel.

Body and tail compressed, oval, without perceptible scales;
forehead gibbous, rounded ; snout short; mouth without teeth ;
six rays in the branchial membrane ; anterior part of the dor-
sal fin elevated and pointed, the middle part very small ; sides
of the tail carinated ; ventrals more behind than the pectorals.

C. luna, Lacep. The Opah or Moon-fish. Back bluish, spotted
with silvery ; fins and tail bright scarlet. Inhabits European
seas. 5 feet long. — Shaw, iv. pi. 42.

This splendid fish, of which the colour varies from silvery green to bright golden,
with azure reflections, has always the body variegated on the sides with oval white
spots. Specimens are occasionally met with on the British coasts.

480 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Gen. 126. XIPHIAS, Lin.

Snout prolonged, resembling the blade of a sword ; strong aspe-
rities in the jaws in place of teeth ; body elongated, round-
ed, with scarcely perceptible scales ; a projecting carina on
each side of the tail ; pectoral fins long and pointed ; two
or three anterior rays of the dorsal fin spinous ; no ventral fin.

X. gladius, Lin. The Sword- Fish. Snout very long, flattened, and
edged ; first dorsal fin commencing near the nape, high and point-
ed anteriorly, sinking along the back, and terminated by a smaller
point ; anal fin with two points, short ; tail lunated ; body brown-
ish, shaded with steel blue above, silvery white below. 12 to 20

feet long. Snout 2 to 3 feet. Inhabits European seas. B

Shaw, iv. pi. 14.
The snout of this fish has been supposed hard enough to penetrate the planks of

ships ; and Mr Scoresby relates an instance of a ship from the coast of Africa, the

bow of which had been penetrated by a bone, which he considered as the snout of

the Sword-fish. This fish is used as food in Sicily.

X. Makaira, Shaw. Snout not so long as the preceding ; lower jaw
about half the length of the upper ; first dorsal fin large ; tail
large, lunated, marked by numerous black spots, with two bony
prominences on each side the base. Size of the preceding. In-
habits European seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 16.

Gen. 127. ISTIOPHORUS, Lacepede. — Scomber, Bloch.
Upper jaw prolonged like the blade of a sword ; ventral fins
with two slender and very long rays ; first dorsal fin large
and elevated, forming a kind of vertical sail, with which they
catch the wind when swimming at the surface.

I. platypterus. (Xiphias platypterus, Shaw.) Body bluish silvery ;

the back, head, fins, and tail deeper, fading to brown when dried.

20 feet long. Inhabits tropical seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 15.

As an instance of the amazing strength which this fish is able to exert, it may be
mentioned that a plank of an East Indiaman, in which the sword was driven near-
ly to its base, is preserved in the British Museum.

Gen. 128. CENTROLOPHUS, Lacep. — Coryphcena, Lin.
Body elongated, with small scales ; head oblong, obtuse ; teeth
fine and in one row ; head edged above, and a row of very
short spinous prominences before the dorsal fin ; anal short-
er than the dorsal fin.

C. niger, Lacep. (C. pompilus, Lin.) Body dusky, with transverse
yellowish stripes over the curved lateral line. Inhabits Medi-
terranean and Atlantic seas. — Shaw, iv. 220.

Gen. 1^9- OLIGOPODUS, Risso.

Body elongated ; covered with small scales ; head edged above ;
dorsal prominences sensible only to the finger ; dorsal and
anal fins united to the caudal, which terminates in a point ;
one ray in the ventral fins.

CORYPH.ENA. FISHES. 481

O. niger, Risso. Body tinted with ebony black on a reddish violet
ground ; lateral line double ; fins deep black. 5 inches long. In-
habits the Mediterranean sea — Risso, pi. 12, fig. 41.

Gen. 130. CORYPILENA, Cuv.

Body elongated, covered with small scales ; head compressed,
edged above, and the forehead vertical ; teeth very small,
crowded ; dorsal fin extending from the nape.

C. Hippuris, Lin. Body of a fine blue silvery colour,, spotted with
yellow ; almost all the fins yellow ; tail forked. 3 to 4 feet long.
Inhabits Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Indian seas.— Shaw, iv.
pi. 32.

The beautiful and varying colours in this species are very evanescent. When taken
out of the water, the colour fades as the fish expires, till at last it becomes of a dull
grayish or cinereous appearance.

Gen. 131. PTERACLIS, Gronov. — Ogliopodus, Lacep.
Body elongated, much compressed ; teeth in one row above and
two below ; scales large, and notched at the margin to receive
the small spine of the following scale ; dorsal fin very elevated,
commencing above the head and extending to the caudal fin ;
anal fin of equal size ; ventrals before the pectorals.

P. velifer, Cuv. (Corypkcena, Pall.) Body much elongated, much
compressed, and almost surrounded by two immense dorsal and
anal fins ; fins brown, with white spots. — Cuv. Reg. An. ii. 329.

4. With one dorsal Jin ; teeth edged and in a single row.

Gen. 132. AMPHACANTHUS, Schn. — Scarus, Gmel.
Jaws convex, with a single row of small flat and dentated teeth
along their edge ; a curved spine before the dorsal fin, a spine
at each side of the ventrals, and the internal margin attached
to the abdomen ; scales small.

A. rivulatus, Forsk. Body bluish, spotted with black, and marked
by longitudinal yellowish undulations ; tail forked. Inhabits Red
Sea Shaw, iv. 395.

Gen. 133. ACANTHURUS, Lacep. — Theutis, Lin.
Body compressed, broader than long*; front vertical ; teeth in
one row, and their edges crenulated ; a strong spine on each
side the base of the tail ; scales small.

A. nigricans, (Chcetodon, Bloch.) Body black above, brown on the
sides, and whitish towards the belly ; pectoral fins gray, those of
the belly black ; a curved spine on each side of the tail. Inha-
bits South American seas. — Bloch, pi. 203.

A. chirurgus, Lacep. Body ovate, orange-yellow, crossed in the
hind part by transverse brown stripes ; a strong curved spine ca-
pable of erection on each side of the tail. 9 or 10 inches long.
Inhabits American seas — Shaw, iv. pi. 52.

VOL. I. H h

482 FISHES. ACANTIIOPTERYGII.

Gen. 134. ASPISURUS, Lacep. — Cficetodon, Lin.
Body compressed, higher than broad; snout projecting ; mouth
small ; teeth crenated ; dorsal fin covered with small scales ;
a hard plate on each side of the tail.

A. Sohal, Cuv. Body ovate, dusky, with longitudinal violet streaks ;
abdomen whitish ; fins violet-coloured ; pectoral fins with a yel-
low spot ; tail lunated, with a carinated plate on each side. 15
inches long. Inhabits Red Sea — Shaw. iv. 382.

Gen. 135. PRIONURUS, Lacep.

Body compressed ; teeth crenated, with many spines on each side
of the tail.

P. microlepidotus, Lacep. Opening of the mouth small ; body sil-
very, with nine transverse waved irregular bands of a bluish black
colour ; fins transparent, and bluish white. Inhabits seas of New
Holland An. Mus. iv. 205.

Gen. 136. NASEUS, Lacep. — Monoceros, Will.
Body and tail covered with a rough shagreened skin; teeth
crowded and in a single row ; a protuberance in the form of
a horn on the nose ; two plates or shields on each side of the
extremity of the tail.

N. unicornis, Lacep. Body gray brown, deep, compressed, with a
strong conical horn-shaped process extending from the forehead ;
two plates on each side the tail. 3 feet long. Inhabits Indian
seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 50.

This species is found in large shoals in the Arabian seas ; and Forskal relates that
he saw an eagle dart among a crowd of these fishes, and, happening to seize two at
once in his claws, was, in consequence of their sudden and violent separation, torn
asunder and destroyed.

FAMILY VI. — SQUAMIPENNES.

Scales encrusting the soft part of the dorsal and anal fins, and
often a portion of the spinous part.

1. Teeth crowded, like hairs or bristles.

Gen. 137. CH^TODON, Cuv.

Body much compressed, oval, high vertically ; dorsal and anal
fins covered with scales ; teeth crowded, bristly ; dorsal spines
nearly equal ; no dentations or spines on the operculi.

C. siriatus, Bloch. Body ovate, yellowish on the back and whitish
towards the belly, with four distant brown bands, and narrow lon-
gitudinal dusky streaks ; tail rounded ; thirteen spines in the dor-
sal fin. Inhabits Indian and American seas — Bloch, pi. 205, fig. 1.

C. unimaculatus, Bloch. Head small, with a black band passing
over the eye; back gray; sides white, with transverse yellow lines;
fins yellowish ; a round black spot on the lateral line ; thirteen
spines in the dorsal fin. Indian seas — Bloch, pi. 201, fig- 1.

CHRLMON. FISHES. 483

C. setifer, Block. Body ovate, pale yellow, with a tinge of crimson
on the back, and marked with numerous oblique crimson stripes ;
a broad black band across the head passing over the eyes ; and on
the hinder part of the dorsal fin a large round black spot bordered
with white, over which a long setiform ray. 6 inches long. In-
habits Indian seas — Block, pi. 426, fig, 1.

Gen. 138. CHELMON, Cuv.

Body much compressed, high vertically ; dorsal and anal fins
covered with scales ; teeth crowded, bristly ; snout prolonged,
forming a narrow cylindrical beak.

C. rostratus, Cuv. Body broad, whitish, with longitudinal brown
lines and four transverse black bands, bordered with white ; a
black spot on the back bordered with white. 6 to 8 inches long.
Inhabits fresh waters in India. — Block, pi. 202.
This species possesses the power of syringing water from its tubular mouth to a

distance for the purpose of stunning the insects upon which it feeds.

C. longirostris, Cuv. Body oblong, rhomboidal ; head brown ; snout
elongated ; body yellowish or citron-coloured ; dorsal and anal fins
citron-colour, with a black streak behind, margined with white ;
a black spot towards the tip of the anal tin. Inhabits Pacific
Ocean. — Shaw, iv. 368.

Gen. 139. PLATAX, Cuv.—Chcetodon, Bloch.
Body much deeper than long ; snout obtuse ; teeth small, crowd-
ed; dorsal and anal fins excessively long and pointed; spines of
the dorsal fin concealed in the rising edge of the fin, and the
first rays much elongated.

P. Teira, Cuv. Body silvery whitish, with three black bands ; dor-
sal and anal fins extremely elongated ; ventral fins black. 4 in-
ches long. Inhabits Indian and Arabian seas Shaw, iv. pi. 48.

P. pentacanthus, Cuv. Body orbicular ; lower jaw projecting, with
five spinous rays in the dorsal fin ; vertical fins less elevated than
the preceding. Inhabits South seas — Lacep. iv. pi. 1 1, fig. 2.

Gen. 140. HENIOCHUS, Cuv. — Chcetodon, Bloch.
Body compressed ; teeth small ; scales large ; first dorsal spines
prolonged into a long whip, behind these shorter spines, and
then the ordinary soft rays.

H. macrolepidotus, Cuv. Body silvery, with two broad brown bands;
fourth ray of the dorsal fin very long, filamentous. Inhabits wa-
ters in India. — Bloch, pi. 200, fig. 1.

Gen. 141. EPHIPPUS, Cuv.

Body compressed ; teeth small ; dorsal fin with a notch between
the spinous and soft portion.

E. Argus, Cuv. Back violet, shading to white towards the belly,
marked with round brown spots ; fins short and yellow, the dorsal
one with eleven spines. Inhabits waters in India. — Bloch, pi. 204.

484 PISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Gen. 142. CHETODIPTERUS, Lacep.

Teeth small, flexible ; body and tail compressed, as deep as long;
snout projecting ; separation of the dorsal fin so deep as to
make two dorsal fins.

C. Plumieri, Lacep. Body greenish, mixed with yellow, with six
transverse narrow bands of a deeper green ; tail lunated. Inha-
bits fresh waters of India — Block, pi. 211, fig. 1.

Gen. 143. HOLOCANTHUS, Lacep — Chcetodon, Bloch, Lin.
Body compressed, oval ; teeth minute ; preoperculum den-
tated or smooth, with a strong spine towards the base ; ver-
tical fins not much elevated at their commencement ; soft
rays of the dorsal and anal fins elongated and falciform.
* Dorsal and anal Jins falciform.

H. aureus, Cuv. Body bright golden yellow, shaded with orange
on the upper parts ; dorsal and anal fins falciform ; extremities of
thefins green. 12incheslong. Americanseas — Bloch,-p\.193,fig.l.

H. paru, Cuv. Body black, silvery on the sides ; scales with a
yellow border ; pectoral and caudal fins short and rounded ; dorsal
and anal fins extended, falciform ;12 spines in the dorsal fin.
12 inches long. Inhabits S. American seas. — Bloch, pi. 197-

H. ciliaris, Cuv. Body gray, deeper on the back ; belly white ; fins
gray, with a yellow border ; scales ciliated ; dorsal and anal fins
extending in a semilunar form. 12 inches long. Inhabits In-
dian seas — Bloch, pi. 214.

** Dorsal and anal Jins rounded or angular.

H. imperator, Cuv. Body golden yellow, with longitudinal bright
blue parallel rays ; anal and dorsal fins thick, stiff and rounded ;
fourteen spines in the dorsal fin. 12 inches long. Inhabits Ja-
panese seas. — Bloch, pi. 194.

H. bicolor, Cuv. Body oblong; head, half of the body, and tail white,
the rest reddish brown. Inhabits Indian and American seas. —
Bloch, pi. 206, fig. 1.

Gen, 144. ACANTHOPODUS, Lacep.

Body much compressed, as deep as long ; opening of the mouth
small ; teeth short and crowded; dorsal fin covered with small
scales ; two short spines in place of the ventral fins.

Cuvier includes in this group the genus Monodactylus of Lacepede.
A. falciformis, Cuv. Body much compressed, silvery, with brown-
ish back ; two short spines in place of ventral fins ; dorsal and an-
al fins falciform, extending to near the tail, which is lunated. 12
inches long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Shaw, iv. 392.

Gen. 145. OSPHRONEMUS, Commers.

Head and branchial membrane scaly, as well as the bases of the
vertical fins ; mouth small, and teeth crowded, but very short;

3

TRICHOPODUS. FISHES. 485

preoperculi and suborbitars dentated on their margin ; one
of the rays of the ventrals forming an articulated bristle as
long as the body ; one spine at each anal fin.

O. olfax, Commers. Body much compressed and deep, covered with
large scales ; belly and posterior part carinated ; brown, with
reddish tints on Jthe fins and back j tail rounded. 6 feet long.
Inhabits rivers in Java, &c. — Lacep. iii. pi. 8, fig. 2.
This fish, the flesh of which is much esteemed, has been transported to the rivers
of the Isle of France from Java, and now forms at the latter place an important ar-
ticle of food.

Gen. 146. TRICHOPODUS, Lacep. — Trichogaster^ Schn.
Head and bases of the vertical fins scaly; teeth short and crowd-
ed ; preoperculi and suborbitars dentated on their margin ;
one of the rays of the ventrals extended into a filament ; no
spines at the anal fin.

T. trichopterus, Lacep. Head small ; mouth narrow ; lips exten-
sible ; body variegated with brown, and two large round black
spots ; dorsal fin small and anal very long. 6 inches long. In-
habits Indian seas. — Block, pi. 295, fig. 2.

T. satyrus, (Trichopus satyrus, Shaw.) Body deep, much com-
pressed ; dorsal and anal fins nearly equal ; ventral fins consist-
ing of a single filament ; chin much produced. Inhabits Indian
seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 55.

Gen. 147. TOXOTES, Cuv. — Labrus, Shaw.
Body compressed, with large scales ; snout obtuse, flattened ho-
rizontally ; teeth like a fine file ; inferior margin of the pre-
operculi and suborbitars finely dentated ; dorsal fin short,
commencing opposite the beginning of the anal fin.

T.jaculator, Cuv. Body yellowish, with five brown spots on the
back ; lower jaw longer than the upper ; first spines of the dor-
sal, anal, and ventral fins very strong. 6 to 8 inches long. In-
habits Indian seas. — Sharv, iv. pi. 68.

This species has the singular faculty of darting drops of water at insects within
its reach.

Gen. 148. KURTUS, Bloch.

Head and body much compressed ; back elevated ; dorsal fin
much shorter than the anal fin, and placed more forwards ;
teeth crowded.

K. Indicus, Bloch. Body broad, short, and covered with small sil-
very plates ; back and belly carinated ; back tinged with gold
colour, and three or four black spots on its ridge. 10 inches
long. Inhabits Indian seas — Shaw3 iv. pi. 25.

Gen. 149. AN ABAS, Cuv. — Anthias, Bloch.
Snout blunt and short; head and body covered with large scales;
both jaws with rasp-like teeth, but strong and conical on

486 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII.

the pharynx ; an apparatus of complicated laminae at the base
of the branchiae.

A. scandens, Cuv. (A. testudineus, Bloch, Perca scandens, Daldorf.)
Head short and covered with scales ; body brown, the fins of a
deeper colour ; ten spines in the anal fin. Inhabits Indian seas.
—Block, pi. 322.

Gen. 150. C<ESIO, Commerson.

Body oblong ; upper jaw slightly protractile ; a row of small
pointed teeth in each jaw, and behind these minute and scarce-
ly perceptible teeth ; dorsal and anal fins scaly ; two long
scales at the side of the ventrals and one between them ;
seven branchial rays.

C. azuror, Lacep. Back blue, and a longitudinal yellow band on the
sides ; belly silvery ; a spot of pure black at the base of each dor-
sal fin. 12 inches long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Nouv. Diet. iv. 549-

Gen. 151. BRAMA, Schn.

Snout truncated, the mouth when shut directed upwards ; head
covered with scales ; teeth hooked, the external row largest,
dorsal and anal fins very scaly, rising in front and sloping to
the tail.

B. Rail, Cuv. (Sparus Raii, Bloch.) Body silvery bluish, with
dusky back ; head sloping abruptly downwards. 15 inches long.
Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Block, pi. 273.

2. Teeth in one regular row ; not like hairs or bristles.
Gen. 152. STROMATEUS, Lin.

Body oval, flattened ; teeth very fine, edged, pointed, and in
one row ; no ventral fins.

S. paru, Bloch. Body bright golden colour above, shading to sil-
very below ; fins long, white in the middle, and blue on the
margins. Inhabits S. American seas. — Bloch, pi. 160.

S. niger, Bloch. Body entirely of a blackish colour ; jaws equal.
Inhabits Indian seas — Block, pi. 422.

Gen. 153. FIATOLA, Cuv. — Stromateus, Lin.
Body oval, compressed ; teeth very small, pointed, in one row ;

scales very minute ; dorsal and anal spines concealed in the

anterior margin of the fins.
F. subfasciata. Body silvery, with many longitudinal or waved spots

of a golden yellow colour ; double lateral line ; lips red ; tail

forked. Inhabits Mediterranean sea. — Shaw, iv. pi. 17-

Gen. 154. SESERINUS, Cuv.

Body ovate, compressed ; teeth very small, pointed, in one row ;
scales minute ; first dorsal and anal spine bent forwards, and
two spines in place of ventral fins ; double lateral line.

PlMELEPTERDS. % FISHES. 487

S. alepidotus, (Chcetodon alepidotus, Gmel.) Body bluish above,
whitish beneath ; tail bifid. American seas. — Shaw, iv. 370.

Gen. 155. PIMELEPTERUS, Lacep.

Body oval, compressed ; teeth equal, edged obtuse, and crowded;
soft part of the vertical fins thickly covered with scales ; bran-
chial membrane scaly, with four rays.

P. Boscii, Lacep. Head small ; lips extensible ; scales broad, round,
and silvery. 6 inches long. American seas. — Lacep, iv. pi. 9, fig. 1 •

Gen. 156. KYPHOSUS, Lacep.

Back elevated ; a prominence on the neck before the dorsal fin,
and another between the eyes ; operculi scaly ; pectoral fins
elongated and pointed ; tail forked.

. This genus is founded upon a species from the South Sea, observed and figured by
Commerson.

Gen. 157. PLECTORHYNCHUS, Lacep.

Body ovate, compressed ; preoperculi dentated ; a row of mi-
nute teeth scarcely piercing the jaws ; ventral fins broad, with
numerous rays.

P. chcetodonoides, Lacep. Indian seas. — Block, pi. 198, fig. 1.

Gen. 158. GLYPHISODON, Lacep. — Chcetodon^ Bloch.
Body and tail much compressed ; head scaly ; teeth edged, and
in a single row, often notched ; lateral line terminating oppo-
site the dorsal fin.

G. maculalus, Cuv. Body yellow, with a longitudinal row of five
or six large round brown spots, and crossed with bands of paler
brown ; fins yellow. Inhabits fresh waters in India and S. Ame-
rica.— Block, pi. 427.

Gen. 159. POMACENTRUS, Lacep.
Preoperculi dentated ; otherwise the same as the preceding.

P. pavo, Lacep. Body dull orange, with numerous brown lines and
undulations ; head spotted and streaked with blue ; tail forked.
Inhabits Indian seas. — Bloch, pi. 198, fig. 1.

P. aruanus, Cuv. (Chcetodon, Bloch.) Body ovate, whitish, shading
to brown above, with three transverse black bands ; suborbitars
dentated. Inhabits Indian seas. — Bloch, pi. 198, fig. 2.

Gen. 160. AMPHIPRIO^, Cuv.

Body oval, compressed ; teeth edged, and in a single row ; late-
ral line terminating at the dorsal fin ; suborbitars and the
four pieces of the operculi dentated.

A. epkippiwn, Cuv. (Lutianus, Bloch.) Head short, much sloped
and compressed ; mouth small and oblique ; body compressed,
reddish, the back black, extending on the sides into a large black
spot. Inhabits Indian seas.«— Bloch, pi. 250.

488 FISHES. ACANTHOPTERX-GII.

Gen. 161. PREMNAS, Cuv.

Head very obtuse ; teeth fine, short, in a single row ; strong
spines under the suborbitars ; preoperculi and suboperculi den-
tated ; lateral line terminating before reaching the tail.

P. biacnleatus, Bloch. Body elongated ; the back blue j belly silvery,
with three distant, narrow, ferruginous bands ; two spines under
the eye. Inhabits Indian seas. — Block, pi. 219, fig. 2.

3. Two dorsal Jins, without the scaly thickening.

Gen. 162. TEMNODON, Cuv.

Body oblong and scaly, without spines or dentations on the head;
a row of compressed and pointed teeth in each jaw, behind
them a row of smaller ones, and five crowded teeth on the
vomer and palate ; second dorsal and anal fins scaly ; bran-
chial membrane with seven rays.

T. heptacanthus. Seven spinous rays in the first dorsal fin ; tail
forked. Inhabits South seas. — Lacep. iii. pi. 21, fig. 3.

Gen. 163. EQUES, Bloch.

Body elongated ; tail terminating in a point ; head blunt, and
the rays of the dorsal fin prolonged ; teeth small, crowded ;
swimming bladder large and strong.

E. Americanus, Bloch. Head rounded and scaly ; back brown ;
sides and belly yellow, with three oblique black bands, the first
passing over the eyes, the second over the operculi and breast, and
the third commencing at the dorsal fin and running to the point
of the tail; first dorsal fin elevated, with prolonged separate rays.
12 inches long. Inhabits American seas. — Shaw, iv. pi. 54.

Gen. 164. POLYNEMUS, Lin.

Snout gibbous ; head scaly ; preoperculi dentated ; teeth crowd-
ed ; vertical fins more or less scaly ; five rays under the pec-
toral fins, exceeding the length of the body in some species.

P. paradiseus, Lin. Mango Fish. Body yellowish ; seven free rays
or long filaments on each side of the throat ; tail forked. 12 to
15 inches long. Indian and American seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 118.

P. quinquarius, Cuv. Body silvery, with five long thoracic filaments,
the three superior ones exceeding the length of the fish. Inha-
bits American seas. — Shaw, v. 149.

FAMILY VII. — FISTULARID^E.

This family is characterized by a long tube formed by the prolongation of the eth-
moid bone, the vomer, the preoperculi, the pterygoid and tympanal bones, at the
end of which the mouth is placed. Their intestinal canal has no great inequalities.
The body in some is cylindrical, and in others of an ovate and compressed form.

Gen. 165. FISTULARIA, Lacep.

Head much elongated ; jaws Very narrow, much produced and
tubular ; mouth terminal ; teeth small ; body much elongated

AULOSTOMUS. FISHES. 489

and slender ; fins small, one dorsal fin placed opposite the
anal, and between the lobes of the tail a filament sometimes
as long as the body ; seven rays in the branchial membrane.

F. tabacaria, Lin. Slender Fistularia. Body smooth., scales imper-
ceptible, of a liver colour, marked above and on the sides by a row
of blue spots and greenish ones intermixed ; tail bifid, with a long
bristle in the centre tapering to a point. 3 to 4 feet long. In-
habits S. American seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 107-

Gen. 166. AULOSTOMUS, Lacep. — Fistularia, Lin.
Jaws narrow, much elongated and tubular ; body much elon-
gated, scaly ; a row of free spines in front of the dorsal fin ;
tail terminated by an ordinary fin.

The tube of the snout is shorter in this than the preceding genus, and the body
less slender.

A. Chinensis, Cuv. Body pale reddish brown, with several deep or
blackish spots, and three or four pale longitudinal stripes on each
side ; fins pale yellow. 3 to 4 feet long. Inhabits Indian seas —
Block, pi. 388.

Gen. 167. CENTRISCUS, Lin.

Body oval or oblong, compressed on the sides and carinated be-
low ; mouth extremely small and cleft obliquely ; first dorsal
fin spinous, the first spine long, and supported by an appa-
ratus with larger scales ; ventral fins small, behind the pec-
torals.

C. scolopax, Lin. Snout greatly elongated ; body covered with nu-
merous small scales ; colour rufous brown above, paler beneath,
silvery on the sides; first dorsal fin subtriangular, the first spine
strong and serrated. 4 to 8 inches long. Inhabits Mediterra-
nean and Indian seas. — Shaw, v. pi. 181.

Gen. 168. AMPHISILE, Klein. — Centriscus, Lin.
Back mailed with long scaly plates, of which the anterior spine
of the first dorsal fin has the appearance of being a continua-
tion.

A. scutatum, Cuv. Upper part of the body formed into a kind of
mail, divided into broad segments to the number of twelve on each
side, and terminating in a projecting point at the end of the back ;
head oblong, terminating in a lengthened tubular snout. 6 or 8
inches long. Inhabits Indian seas. — Sharv, v. pi. 181.

A. velitare, Cuv. Body silvery yellowish gray on the back, which
is mailed by a rhombic shield for half its length, marked by four
oblique lines ; a strong recumbent serrated spine in the middle ;
tail slightly rounded. 2 inches long. Indian seas.— -Shaw, v. 460.

490 FISHES.

FOSSIL FISHES.

FOSSIL remains of Fishes, in the form of bones, casts, or im-
pressions, are met with in various strata, from those of the transi-
tion rocks to the latest alluvial formations. The greater part
of these remains, however, like the other remains of vertebral
animals found in a fossil state, cannot be identified with the
existing species ; and though many resemble in their generic
characters the groups of the present races, so as to be conve-
niently referred to these, yet there appear to be some which
present typical forms possessing no identity with the more re-
cent individuals. These animal remains have been termed Ich-
thyolites.

Among the more ancient marine formations, the fossil remains
of fishes near the town of Claris in Switzerland have long at-
tracted attention. The place where they are found is in the
bottom of a small valley named Sernft, about 1000 metres above
the village of Lengi, and surrounded by the mountains call-
ed Plattenberg. The rock which includes the Ichthyolites is a
kind of transition or schistose rock, containing mica slate and
limestone in parallel beds ; and the skeletons of the fishes
occur in relief on the slaty laminae. The specimens are rare,
and never accompanied by fragments of shells. The valley of
Sernft opens into another valley hollowed out of mountain lime-
stone. Species of the genus Anenchelum, (A. Glarisianum,
Blainv. — the eel of Glaris,) of Palceorhyncum, Clupea, and
Zeus, have been met with in this locality.

In the canton of Lucerne, near the top of Mont Pilat, and
in the slaty schistus of which it is composed, are also found re-
mains of fishes. The hard parts of the skeletons, however
have disappeared, and the impressions of the animals only remain.
Large quantities of the teeth of fishes occur in this locality.

In the metalliferous rocks of Germany, as at Mansfeld, Thu-
ringia, near Madgeburgh, and in the Palatinate, fossil remains
of fishes are numerous, and in very complete preservation.
The soft parts of the animals, as the skin, appear to be here
preserved, the body being found on splitting up the stones in re-
lief on one side, with a corresponding hollow on the other. The

PISHES. 491

skeletons are never met with in this locality. They occur in all
attitudes. The substance in which these remains are found is
a coppery and marly schistus, bituminous, strewed with argen-
tiferous pyrites, and sometimes mercury in the state of cinnabar.
This strata occurs under limestone containing Belemnites, En-
trochi, and Ammonites. The remains are numerous, but not
of any great variety of species, of the genera Palceoniscum,
Palceothrissum, Clupea, Esox, and Stromateus of Blainville.

Ichthyolites or fossil fishes occur in the compact limestone
of France and Italy. In the former country at Granmont,
four leagues from Beaune in Burgundy, two species have been
found, which M. Blainville names Elops macropterus, and
Esoat incognitus ; and others in Italy at Pietra Roya. In
the chalk formations, Ichthyolites have been met with at Brussels,
Maestricht, and Paris. The remains at Brussels belong, be-
sides teeth, to the genera Pleuronectes and Squalus. In the
calcareous formations below the gypsum in the quarries near
Paris, a species of Labrus has been found ; and in the marine
limestone above the gypsum, isolated vertebrae, teeth, operculi,
and spines. In the well known locality of Pappenheim, in the
quarries near Aichstedt, many remains of fish have been observ-
ed in the calcareous fissile strata of that district. These quar-
ries have been worked for slates ; and the remains appear
in relief, or impressed on the surface of the plates. Species of
the genus Clupea, Esox, Stromateus, and Poecilia^ have been
found in these quarries, along with remains of Crustacea.

The most celebrated locality for remains of fossil fishes, and
which has furnished the greatest quantity to collections, is the
basin of the Mediterranean, and particularly at Monte Bolca,
or Vestena Nuova, on the confines of the Veronese territory,
and the Vicentine. The mountain of Vestena Nuova is volca-
nic, and rises 1000 feet above the limestone. It is composed
of two species of stones ; the first, named in the country il Zen-
gio, is a very hard marl, forming thick beds, but which contains
no organic remains ; the second, called il Lastra, is a fissile fe-
tid marl, which splits easily into laminae, in which the fossil re-
mains are discovered in a bed of two feet in thickness. This
stone is almost entirely calcareous, with a little clay, and mixed
with a bituminous substance. The Ichthyolites consist of ske-
letons, sometimes in very perfect preservation, fragments of bones,

492 FISHES.

and impressions or casts ; and some remains of crustaceous ani-
mals have been found in the same place. Shells are extremely
rare. Many genera and species of fishes which occur in this
stratum have been described by Dr Volta, brother of the ce-
lebrated physician of the same name, in a work published at Ve-
rona in 1796, and by Blainville in the twenty-seventh volume
of the New Dictionary of Natural History. Fossil remains of
fishes have also been found in the Vicentine, at Frioul, in Dal-
matia, Cerigo, Malta, Sicily, and Barbary, in strata of a similar
kind.

In what have been called the fresh water formations, fossil
remains of fishes have been met with in various parts of the con-
tinent of Europe. In the gypseous formations at Aix, and in the
neighbourhood of Paris, are species of the genera Mugil, Perca,
CyprinuS) Sparus, Poecilia, Salmo, and other fresh water fishes.
At the village of CEningen, on the right bank of the Rhine, as
it leaves the lake of Constance, in a quarry 500 feet above the
level of the lake, and on the southern slope of a mountain, cal-
led Schienerberg, many species of fishes have been discovered.
The substance in which they are inclosed is a kind of fetid slate
or schistus, coloured white or gray, containing a great quantity
of clay and fragments of vegetables. The specimens found
here, often very complete and even with the scales, are of the
genera Petromyxon, Murcena, Cobitis, Salmo, Esoar, Cypri-
nus, Clupea, Pleuronectes, Scomber, and Trigla.

Other remains of fishes occur in various parts of the world,
and in very different formations. These, consisting of detach-
ed vertebras and teeth, are found in transition rocks, compact
limestone, chalk, gypsum, and alluvial strata. Fossil teeth or
ichthyodontes occur in great quantity in Malta and Sicily.
They are common in Calabria, Tuscany, the teritory of Sienna,
the Plaisantine, and probably in all the subapennine hills ; in
the neighbourhood of Brussels, in the hill of St Peter near Maes-
tricht, the environs of Montpellier, in the neighbourhood of Paris,
London, &c. These teeth are often of their natural colour, or
tinged with yellow; but sometimes they are coloured bluish black,
or ochreous red, according, it is thought, to the nature of the strata
in which they are imbedded ; and even some have undergone a
change in their chemical composition, as those which have been
converted into the gem named the turquoise. Those of a flat-

FISHES. 495

tened form, named glossopetrce, are the teeth of a species ofSqua-
lus ; and those more or less rounded, which have been termed
bufonites, batrachites, &c. are, according to Blainville, to be con-
sidered as having belonged to the Spari or some congenerous fa-
mily. The glossopetrce, or petrified tongues, as they have been
termed, found in quantities at Malta, were supposed by the igno-
rant to be the tongues of the serpents which St Paul was said
to have destroyed when in that island. These are teeth of
Squall, and often occur so large, (four inches in height and
five on the sides) 'that M. Lacepede conjectures the individuals
to which they belonged must have been at least seventy-one feet
long. The teeth and spines of rays are also frequently met
with in a fossil state.

JSufoniteSy batrachites, or toad-stones, so named, because it
was formerly believed they were engendered in the head of the
toad, are found in numbers in various places, on the continent,
and in England. Though generally confounded under the same
name, there are evidently many different species. Lluid divides
them after their forms, as orbicular, flattened, or hemispherical ;
and figures of many are given in his work entitled Lithophylacii
Britannici Ichnographia, and in the second volume of Knorr's
large work on petrifactions.

PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION

OF

OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY.

THE use of Museums or Collections of objects in Natural His-
tory to the successful prosecution of the study is very apparent ;
and it has long been an object of scientific men to collect the
animal, vegetable, and mineral productions of the different parts
of the world, for comparison and examination. Besides the
knowledge of the family characters and structure of the indivi-
duals which such collections afford, and the facility of compar-
ing that structure with what is related of the habits of the
animals themselves, and their uses, even as a matter of general
interest, a Museum of Natural History affords to the most ca-
sual observer much of what he desires to know. It is not every
one who has an opportunity of examining the productions of
nature in the respective countries to which they are indigenous ;
few can have seen very many of them in their native haunts ;
and still fewer in visits to distant places, either on business or
pleasure, are possessed of time and talents equal to the inves-
tigation of the thousands of animal, vegetable, and mineral
bodies that claim the attention of the naturalist. It is only
when these are brought together in museums, prepared with
a simulation of life, and displayed in families of congenerous
structure, that one is aware of the number, importance, and the
vast variety of organic and inorganized bodies. Even the vul-
gar and uninformed never fail to express pleasure and wonder
at being in contact with forms so various and from parts of the
world so distant, and seeing in their proper shapes many animals,
details of whose habits have embellished the tale of the traveller,
or formed an episode in the page of the historian. To the man
of science and of liberal education Museums afford an inte-
rest of a higher kind ; for there are accumulated specimens of
all those articles in their natural state, an exchange of which
between distant nations constitutes the chain that connects

4

496 PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION

them together, and forms the commerce of the world. The
effects of soil, climate, or food on these, are exhibited in the pro-
ductions of the torrid, the temperate, and the frigid zones, in
animals or plants common to all ; and the geographical range of
organized bodies in general is brought within the reach of ob-
servation and comparison. In examining productions of diffe-
rent countries, there is something besides which excites general
curiosity in no ordinary degree. The terror of the forests, —
the lion, the tiger, the rattlesnake, — the gigantic and the mi-
nute in animal forms — all that is dreaded for ferocity or mag-
nified for the danger of their approach when living and in their
native haunts, are here innocuous ; and, however much the
effect may be lost by contemplating such animals without the
power to hurt, yet curiosity is gratified in beholding the iden-
tical beings, relations connected with which have so powerfully
increased the interest of the traveller's narrative.

Unfortunately for the perpetuity of such collections, however,
the resources of man have proved but a feeble barrier against the
universal law of decay, which reduces all organized bodies to their
original elements ; and though care may for a while arrest
the progress of decomposition, yet it is found that even in the
best regulated Museums many portions become useless or ulti-
mately disappear. The elements of air, heat, and moisture, though
no other causes operated, gradually but infallibly destroy the
finest specimens ; and when to these are conjoined the ravages
of thousands of minute animals which find their food in these pre-
parations, human care proves but of limited avail in counteract-
ing the effect of these natural causes. Hence a museum, un-
less constantly kept up by the addition of new specimens, is gra-
dually falling away, in so far at least as regards most of the or-
ganized bodies of which its parts are composed; and hence the
disappearance of collections once celebrated for their riches in
animal remains.

By proper and incessant care, however, even the most perish-
able objects of a Museum may be preserved for a considerable
length of time ; and as the causes of destruction are investigat-
ed counteracting agents may be discovered, in so far at least as
to preserve for a long period the acquisitions of science in animal
structures.

Next to Museums good Figures of the objects are important

OF OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 497

to the successful study of Natural History. But the number
and consequent expence of these make their acquisition with-
in the reach of but very few. Many splendid works of this
kind have been published ; but where the artist is not him-
self a naturalist, or has not worked under the immediate su-
perintendence of one intimately acquainted with the objects
represented, the chance of error in the delineation of minute
or characteristic parts is much increased. Hence the small
comparative value of those collections of engraved figures
which generally accompany popular compilations on Natural
History ; and the value of original works where the objects
have been figured from Nature, by a person qualified to copy
the minute particulars of the original. But after all, in the
study of Natural History, nothing can compensate for the want
of a museum, where the structure of the individuals themselves
can be studied, and frequent observation of the native species.
One animal, or plant, or mineral, observed in its native habitat
is worth a thousand figures ; and gives a more accurate idea
of the structure and manners of congenerous objects than
volumes of description, unaccompanied by reference to the
great field of practical study.

Since the study of Nature has become of general interest,
Museums of objects in Natural History have been established
in all the capitals of Europe. In Britain, however, notwith-
standing the possession of extensive colonies and commercial
establishments in every quarter of the globe, little advan-
tage has hitherto been taken of the means in the power of
government for procuring exotic specimens ; and while in a
neighbouring country expeditions have been set on foot, under
the superintendence of qualified men, to investigate the natural
and other products of distant countries, objects of a similar kind
have occupied but a small portion of attention in Britain. The
Royal Museum at Paris is an example of what can be achieved
when the pursuit of science is patronized by the State ; and
from the Professors of that Institution, the greater portion of
the accurate information in Natural History has been deriv-
ed. In Britain, the largest public collection is the British
Museum ; and a Society has been lately established in the
Metropolis, for supporting a menagerie for the study of liv-
ing animals. In Edinburgh, the College Museum, under

VOL. i. i i

498 PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION

the superintendence of the able Professor of Natural History,
has within a few years become an extensive and valuable col-
lection. There existed, indeed, in that seminary, a very conside-
rable museum for the time, formed by Sir Andrew Balfour and
Sir Robert Sibbald, about a century ago ; but long before the
present Professor was called to the chair, it had disappeared, and
Professor Jameson has the sole merit of establishing this Mu-
seum by his personal exertions, and of extending a taste for the
Science of Nature, which has rendered the University of Edin-
burgh in this particular the first in the kingdom.

Preparatory to giving a short account of the manner in which
the different objects described in this and the following volume
may be prepared or kept, it may be necessary, for the use of
those visiting distant countries, to state at what a trifling ex-
pence of time and labour many interesting objects may be put
up, so as to insure their transmission home without injury.
For this purpose, we avail ourselves of a paper of directions
which the eminent Professor above alluded to drew up some
years ago for the use of his pupils, as conveying in a few senten-
ces, most of what is in this respect desirable to be known.

" Quadrupeds and Birds. — Quadrupeds and birds to be preserv-
ed by taking off their skins, which may be easily done, by making
an incision in a straight line, from the vent to the throat, and re-
moving the skin by means of a blunt knife. The skull and bones
of the legs and feet are to be left. The brain, eyes, and tongue,
ought also to be extracted. The skin, in order that it may be pre-
served from decay, should be also rubbed on the inside with some
one of the following compositions : 1st, tanners' bark well dried
and pounded, one part ; burnt alum, one part ; and in a hot cli-
mate one part of sulphur ; to he well mixed together. — 2d, tanners'
bark well dried and pounded, one part ; tobacco, perfectly dried,
one part ; burnt alum, one part : add to every ounce of these in-
gredients one ounce of camphor, and half an ounce of sulphur.
(N. B. No sublimate or arsenic ought to be put on the skins, as
both substances destroy their texture.) These compositions to be
kept for use in well corked bottles or jars.

" Skins, when thus prepared, and perfectly dry, must be packed
carefully in boxes, the lids of which ought to be pasted up, and in
the paste used in fixing the paper, a little corrosive sublimate must
be put, which prevents insects from eating through the paper.

3

OF OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 499

" Reptiles and Fishes. — Reptiles and fishes are best preserved
in spirit of wine, rum, or whisky, some of which must be injected
into the stomach, through the mouth, and into the other intestines
through the anus. Before putting them into bottles, jars, or bar-
rels, they ought to be washed clean of slimy matter. If long kept
in spirits before they are sent, the spirits should be changed two or
three times. The jars or bottles ought to be closed by means of
sheet-lead and bladders. The larger reptiles, as crocodiles, and
the larger fishes, may be preserved in the same manner as quadru-
peds and birds.

fc Animal Concretions. — Concretions of various kinds are occa-
sionally found in the brain, lungs, heart, liver, kidneys, gall-blad-
der, intestines, and urinary bladder. The stomachs of many ani-
mals afford concretions of different kinds, particularly those known
under the name of Bezoar Stones ; and travellers inform us, that
stones are met with in the eggs of the ostrich. All of these bodies
are interesting and valuable to the natural historian.

" Skeletons. — Collectors ought not to neglect to preserve the
skeletons of the different species of animals. Of man, the skull is
the most interesting part, as it varies in the different races of the
human species, and is also frequently singularly altered by the prac-
tices of savage tribes. The best way of cleaning bones, is to expose
them to the air, and allow the insects to eat off the flesh. This
being done, they ought to be washed with sea water, and afterwards
freely exposed to the sun. The best skulls are obtained by putting
the whole head in rum or whisky, or a strong solution of alum ;
and both male and female heads ought if possible to be preserved.

" Molluscous Animals, — Vermes and Zoophytes.* — Molluscous ani-
mals, such as cuttle-fish, the inhabitants of shells, &c. Vermes or
worms, and Zoophytes, or animals of the coral and other allied kinds,
ought all to be preserved in spirits ; and in the two former classes,
viz. the Mollusca and Vermes, the spirit of wine should be injected
into the intestines, by means of a syringe, to prevent the putrefac-
tion of the internal parts, and the consequent destruction of the or-
gans of digestion, respiration, and of the nervous system. Many
Zoophytes or Corals, or rather their houses, may be preserved dry ;
but fragments of every species ought to be put into spirits, that the
real structure of the animal may be discovered.

" Shells.— Shells, or the coverings of Molluscous animals, are
anxiously sought after by the naturalist, not only on account of
their great beauty, but also from their intimate connection with the
various fossil species met with in rocks of different kinds. The best
live shells are collected by means of a trawling-net, such as is used

500 PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION

by fishermen, if the depths are not too great ; they are also brought
up by the cable in weighing anchor, the log-line, and in sounding.

" After a storm, good shells may be picked up on sea beaches or
shores, as the violent agitation of the ocean in a tempest separates
them from their native beds, and often casts them on the shore.
Shells that have been much tossed about by the waves, are of less
value than fresh ones ; but these, when other specimens are not to
be got, ought to be carefully collected. Many interesting shells
are found in rivers and lakes ; and numerous species occur on the
surface of the land.

' " Fresh shells, or those in which the animal is still alive, ought
to be thrown into hot water, the temperature of which may be gra-
dually brought to the boiling point, by the repeated additions of
hotter portions, by which means the animal will be killed. The
shells are allowed to cool for two or three minutes, and then the
animal is picked out.

" Insects. — Beetles of every kind are speedily deprived of life
by putting into boiling water, which does not injure those having
black, brown, or any dark colour ; but those which are covered with
fine down, or have brilliant colours and lustre, should not be expos-
ed to moisture, but are easily killed, if put into a phial, and placed
in a vessel of boiling water for some time. When the insects are
quite motionless, such as have been in the water should be exposed
to the air and sun for a day or two, until perfectly dry. In this
state, they are to be placed in boxes with cotton-wool, along with
camphor. Beetles may also be preserved in spirit of wine.

" Butterflies, moths, and many other tribes of insects, with deli-
cate and tender wings, may be easily killed, by pressing the thorax
or breast betwixt the finger and thumb -, and it is preferable to
have the wings closed, because they thus occupy less space, their
colour and lustre are better preserved, and they can be expanded
afterwards by the steam of hot water. Care should be taken that
the antennae or feelers and legs are not injured. A pin should be
stuck through them, by means of which they are fastened to the
bottom of a box lined with cork, or to one of deal, or other soft wood.
Camphor ought to be put into the box.

" The Arachnides or Spiders are best preserved in spirits.

fc In collecting insects, we use either the forceps or a net. The
forceps are about ten or twelve inches in length, provided with fans
of a circular or other form, and are covered with fine gauze. They
are held and moved as a pair of scissors. The net is very easily
made. It is of gauze, or any very fine open muslin, made upon a
piece of cane of four feet long, split down the middle about the half

4

OF OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 501

of the length : the split part is tied together, so as to form a hoop,
upon which the gauze is sewed in the form of a bag j the lower part
serves as a handle, and with this, all flying insects may be very
easily caught. When the insect is once within the rim of the net,
by turning it on either side, its escape is completely prevented by
the pressure of the gauze or muslin against the edge of the hoop.

" Crabs. — Crabs, Lobsters, &c. may be suffocated in spirits of
wine or turpentine, and then dried in an oven.

tf Crustaceous Animals. — Sea Stars, after washing in fresh water,
may be extended on boards by means of pins, and when dry, laid
between folds of paper, and packed in a box with a little camphor.

" In Echini or Sea Eggs, the soft internal parts are to be ex-
tracted by the anus : they are then to be stuffed with cotton, and
carefully packed with tow or cotton. Particular attention should
be paid to the preserving of the spines.

11 Seeds. — In collecting seeds, it is desirable that they should be
well ripened, and dried in the sun. Large quantities should never
be put together, but only a few, and these well selected. They re-
tain their vegetative powers much better if tied up in linen or cot-
ton cloth, than in any other substances ; and if then packed up in
small boxes, and placed in an airy part of the ship, there is every
probability of their arriving in a sound state. The same remark
applies to bulbous roots. Bulbs should never be put in the same
box with seeds. The boxes with seeds, and with bulbs, ought ne-
ver to be put into the ship's hold.

" Dried Plants. — The greater part of plants dry easily between
leaves of books, or other paper. If there be plenty of paper, they
often dry best without shifting ; but if the specimens are crowded,
they must be taken out frequently, and the paper dried before they
are replaced. Those plants which are very tenacious of life, ought
to be killed by the application of a hot iron, such as is used for linen,
after which they are easily dried. The collections to be carefully
packed in boxes with camphor, and closed in the same manner, as
directed for quadrupeds and birds.

ff Minerals. — 1. Every mineral, from the most common clay or
sand, to the gem, ought to be collected.

" 2. Specimens of rocks, such as granite, porphyry, limestone,
&c. should, if possible, be broken from fixed rocks, and not from
loose masses, which are generally decayed. In selecting the speci-
mens, one set ought to represent the different varieties of appear-
ance presented by the rock in the fresh state, another, the rock in
its different states of decomposition.

" 3. When the specimens of simple minerals, or rocks, contain

502 PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION

crystals, they ought to be wrapped in gauze-paper, then in cotton,
and afterwards in several folds of strong wrapping-paper.

" 4. The specimens of rocks ought, if possible, never to be less
than four inches square, and one inch in thickness, and of a square
form. As soon as they have been prepared, they should be labelled,
and wrapped in several folds of strong ^wrapping-paper. When
paper cannot be procured, moss, or other soft vegetable substance,
may be substituted for it.

" 5. The sands of deserts, steppes, and rivers, ought to be care-
.fully collected. The sands of rivers often contain precious stones
and metals, and hence become very interesting objects to the natu-
ralist. The sands of deserts and steppes throw much light on the
nature of the surrounding country, and are much prized by the
geologist.

" 6. Numerous mineralized animal and vegetable remains occur
imbedded in strata of different kinds ; all these ought to be very
carefully collected, and preserved. Abundance of shells in a fossil
or petrified state, are met with in limestone ; of vegetables in
slate-clay, sandstone, &c. ; and numerous bones, and even whole
skeletons of quadrupeds, birds, amphibious animals, fishes, and even
of insects, occur in rocks of various descriptions.

" 7« The mineralogist ought to provide himself with hammers of
various sizes. One for common use of two pounds weight ; others,
three, four, and six pounds weight. He ought also to provide him-
self with chisels of various sizes and forms, and with a set of small
boring-irons. A miner's compass, small magnifying glass, gonio-
meter, and blowpipe, ought also to form part of his equipment.
The two first are indispensably necessary for the travelling mine-
ralogist. Nor should he neglect to provide himself with a strong
bag j the form that of a fowling-bag, lined with strong leather, co-
vered with wax-cloth, and the outside of some durable cloth."

The art of preparing and mounting the skins of animals for
preservation in a Museum has been denominated Taxidermy.
Many methods to attain the desired end in the best manner
have been proposed. Reaumur published a Memoir on the
subject of preserving the skins of birds sent from distant coun-
tries, and formed a beautiful collection in his own house, which
after his death became the basis of that in the Museum at Pa-
ris. According to the instructions he had given, he received
birds from all quarters in spirit of wine. On taking them from
the liquid, he simply introduced two ends of an iron wire into

OF OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 503

the body behind the thighs, fastened the wire to the claws, the
ends serving to fix the specimen to a board, and put in glass
beads for the eyes. The larger animals, such as the shark and
crocodile, were stuffed with straw.

The plan of skinning and stuffing with soft materials was
afterwards attempted. Schceffer, after skinning a bird, cut
the- skin longitudinally in two, and filled one-half with plas-
ter moulded to the shape of the bird ; fixed the skin thus pre-
pared to a board in a frame, represented the beak or claws
by painting, and covered the whole with glass.

The early modes of preserving animals, however, having been
found very imperfect, the attention of the French naturalists
was for many years directed to the subject, and many trea-
tises on Taxidermy, as it is now called, were written. In
1786, the Abbe Manesse published a Treatise on the man-
ner of stuffing and preserving animals and skins, which con-
tained some very useful directions ; but as the Abbe exclud-
ed the use of poisons, and trusted chiefly to alkaline prepara-
tions, the affinity of these for moisture soon destroyed the
lustre of the preparations, particularly of birds. In the Me-
moir of Mauduyt for preparing birds for collections, his atten-
tion seems chiefly to have been directed to the destruction of
the parasital insects which feed on such preparations. Fumiga-
tion of sulphur he found very efficacious for this purpose ; but
the use of this mineral, while it had the desired effect in this
respect, totally destroyed the skins themselves. Daubenton,
adopting the use of sulphur in the Museum of Natural History
at Paris, found that the sulphurous vapour changed the red
into a dirty yellow, blackened the blue colours, soiled the cases,
and even burnt the upper parts of the more delicate specimens.
In 1 802, M. Nicholas, a chemist, and M. Henon, published works
on Taxidermy, the first, after detailing the previous modes, re-
commending a soapy composition and a tanning liquor to be used
in mounting the specimens. The oil of turpentine is the chief
article trusted to by the latter. But the first method, excluding
poisonous ingredients, was not found to answer completely ; and
turpentine has been found to injure the colours. M. Dufresne,
whose great experience in the Museum at Paris makes his ob-
servations of consequence, finds the arsenical soap invented by
M. Becceur, an apothecary of Metz, indispensable.

504? PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION

The articles necessary for mounting animals are, according to
Dufresne, an assortment of iron wire of different sizes ; flax, or
cotton ; scalpels, scissors, and forceps of various sizes ; a ham-
mer, files, and brushes, and an assortment of eyes in enamel.
The arsenical poap is composed of the following ingredients : —

Camphor, 5 ounces.

Arsenic in powder, - 2 Ibs.

White soap, - 2 Ibs.

Salt of tartar, - 12 ounces.

Chalk in powder, - 4 ounces.

The soap is cut in thin slices, and melted over a gentle fire
in a small quantity of water, care being taken to stir it often.
When all is dissolved, the salt of tartar and powdered chalk is
added. It is then taken from the fire, the arsenic is added, and
the whole gently triturated. Lastly, the camphor reduced to
powder in a mortar with a little spirit of wine is mixed with the
previous ingredients ; and the whole is then put aside in con-
venient pots for use. When wanted, the necessary quantity is
put into another vessel, and diluted to a proper consistency
with cold water. Gum Paste, made of gum-arabic, in the pro-
portion of one pound to two ounces of white sugar-candy, and
a spoonful of starch or hair powder, is also of use in the mount-
ing of animals. M. Dufresne also uses a paper paste, formed
of the pulp of unsized paper pounded in a mortar and dried,
with the addition of melted gum-arabic.

Skeletons of animals are prepared when under the size of a
fox, by macerating the body after the skin, muscles, intes-
tines, &c. are removed, in water, to which a little quicklime has
been added. After two or three days maceration, it is extended
on a table, and the fragments of flesh scraped off with a scal-
pel, taking particular care to preserve all the ligaments which
attach the bones together. 'These ligaments when dried are in
general sufficient to keep the skeleton upright ; but when this
is not the case, an iron wire passed through or under the verte-
bral column fixes the head to the cervical vertebras at the ante-
rior end ; and two forks of similar wire support the extremi-
ties. In larger animals, the bones are separated at the joints
before maceration, whitened in the sun after being properly
cleaned, and afterwards fixed in thdr natural order by wires

OF OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 505

passed through holes drilled at their junction. When all
the bones are attached in this manner, two perpendicular iron
rods are fixed to the board upon which it is placed for the
support of the skeleton. In very large animals the connection
at the articulations is formed with nuts and screws.

In mounting a quadruped, the general plan is to lay the ani-
mal on its back, after having filled its mouth and any wounds
in the skin with cotton or chopped flax, to prevent the soiling
of the hairs. An incision is then made in the middle of the
abdomen, turning back the hairs to right and left, and taking
care not to cut the muscles of the belly. The incision is car-
ried longitudinally from the arch of the pubis to the stomach, or
further if necessary, and the skin separated to the right and
left, placing pads of tow or cotton between it and the body as
the skinning proceeds. The anus is separated at the rec-
tum, and each thigh at its junction with the bones of the pelvis.
For quadrupeds of middling size it is sufficient to take the skin
in one hand, and the body in the other, and, by pulling in con-
trary directions, remove the skin as far as the shoulders. When
this is done, the fore legs are cut at the shoulder joint. The
neck is skinned by passing the skin over the head, and detach-
-ing it from the cranium by means of a scalpel. The ears are
cut as near as possible to the bone, and the eyelids preserved.
The head is skinned as far as the nose, the cellular matter re-
moved from the cranium, and the bone anointed with the arse-
nical mixture. The occipital hole being now enlarged, the
brain is scooped out by means of a spatula ; and the bones of
the head being cleaned are replaced under the skin. The fore-
legs are skinned in the same manner, by turning over the skin
downwards, and dissecting away all the soft parts except the
ligaments. The other legs are done in the same manner to the
claws and replaced. The tail is then skinned, only being
more difficult, it is found necessary sometimes after clearing
two or three joints, to fix a cord to these, attached to a hook
in the wall, and by means of a cleft stick free the skin from
its attachments. The body being completely removed, the
skin is spread upon a table, and all the fleshy portions scrap-
ed off.

An iron wire is now procured of such thickness that four
pieces introduced into the legs will support the animal. A

506 PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION

piece of smaller wire, the length of the tail, with an oval bend-
ing at the anterior end, is now to be rolled round with flax, in-
creasing the quantity of flax as the tail thickens, towards the
oval. When of the proper size, moistened with a little flour
paste to make it retain the form, and dried, it is inserted
into the skin of the tail, both being previously rubbed with
the preservative mixture by means of a brush. The oval
bending of the tail wire serves to fix that which replaces the
vertebral column.

A long wire now fixed in the cranium, and extending to the
loop of the tail wire, is made to support the body longitu-
dinally. Loops bent on this wire at the shoulder serve for
fixing the wires which support the legs. After the inner side
of the skin has been anointed with the mixture, the body is
then either formed of chopped flax, or if the animal be large,
straw or hay, and the head and legs stuffed by means of
forceps to the requisite thickness. The wires of the limbs
are pointed and inserted behind the bone. When the body
is formed as nearly as possible of the natural size, the skin
is brought together and sewed neatly, taking care not to
include the hairs in the stitches. The enamel eyes are put
in while the eyelids are still fresh, and any want of stuff-
ing to imitate the muscles of the head is inserted by the
eyes, ears, and nose, by means of a small probe. The lips
are then placed properly, and fastened with pins till dry.
The opening of the nostrils is prevented from shrinking by in-
serting a peg into them covered with cotton ; and the ears are
supported in their proper state of erection by slips of card and
pins. The ends of the wires inserted at the feet are left long
for fastening the preparation to a board by corresponding holes
made in the wood ; and the bendings of the legs and attitude
are given before putting the specimen aside to dry. When the
internal anointing with the preservative mixture or powder is
not judged sufficient, such parts as the nose, lips, and* feet,
are anointed by means of a brush with spirit of turpentine, and
afterwards wiped with cotton.

A large elephant mounted in Paris for the Museum, had a
wooden model of accurate dimensions formed for the internal
frame. The skin of this animal when taken from the body
weighed 576 French Ibs.

OF OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 507

BIRDS. — Birds are skinned nearly in the same manner as
quadrupeds ; that is, an incision is made from the breast bone to
beyond the middle of the belly, after separating the feathers
of the belly to right and left. The skin is then freed from
the muscles by means of a scalpel, putting chopped cotton on
the skin and body to prevent the soiling of the feathers ; the
wings detached at the junction of the humerus with the body ;
and the skin turned over the head and legs after dividing the
joints. The brain is now removed by an enlargement of the
occipital hole, the tongue taken out, and the bill tied close ;
and after scraping off with a scalpel all the muscular and cel-
lular substance, and anointing the inside of the skin and bones
of the head and legs, the skin is returned to its natural
position. A body formed of straw, flax, or cotton, is in-
serted, and the skin drawn over it. A piece of wire of a forked
form supports the tail ; a second fixed in the cranium, and ex-
tending to this, gives strength to the body ; and two wires, run
up the back of the legs from the sole of the foot, are attached to
the ring on the tail wire inside the body. When finished, and
the incision sewed up, the proper attitude is to be given, the
wires projecting from the soles serving to fix the specimen on a
board or perch. In large-headed birds, such as ducks, as the
skin of the neck will not pass over the head, an incision is often
necessary in the nape of the neck.

As many skins of birds are sent home from foreign countries
dried and temporarily preserved, the stuffing ought to be care-
fully taken out, and the skin made pliant by wet linen or cot-
ton inserted, and in a short time it will be ready for mounting
as in the fresh-killed bird. In specimens, however, which are
much decayed, there is a mode of mounting feather by feather,
when the rarity of the bird is such as to make its preservation
an object. The mode adopted by the French naturalists to
effect this is to form a body as like the original as possible on
a piece of soft wire, with flax and paste ; the head and legs are
then fitted ; and the feathers placed in their order, begin-
ning with those nearest the tail, and working forwards. The
feathers are fastened singly by gum ; the wings attached by
pins ; the tail inserted in a hole made for the purpose, and fix-
ed by gum.

508 PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION

REPTILES. — Lizards are mounted in the same manner as qua-
drupeds; but much precaution is necessary in taking off the skin of
the tail, which easily breaks. The smaller species, which lose their
colours in preparation, are generally preserved in spirits. — Frogs
are mounted by cutting the first cervical vertebra through the
opening of the mouth ; separating the attachments of the mouth,
taking out the viscera by this opening, folding back the skin,
and pushing the body out. After being wholly detached, the
skin is filled by means of a funnel with very fine sand. When
the body and feet are perfectly full, the frog is placed on a board,
in the proper attitude, its mouth shut, and put to dry. When
completely dried, it is coated with varnish, and the sand remov-
ed by boring small holes under the belly. The small species are
preserved in spirits. — Serpents are prepared by an opening
made in the side, so as not to divide the ventral plates, and
mounted by passing a long wire twisted round with flax of the
proper thickness into the skin, and afterwards varnished ; but
the smaller species are best preserved in spirits.

FISHES. — The larger fishes are skinned by a longitudinal
opening made in the belly, and stuffed as quadrupeds, but var-
nished when dry. The smaller ones are sometimes mounted
by forming a cork body the size of the fish, but flattened on one
side ; and the skin being carefully dissected off the specimen,
is applied over the cork body, preserving the dorsal and ventral
fins. The preparation is then varnished and fixed to a board.
The very small species are preserved in spirits. — Lampreys and
Eels are skinned by the mouth as frogs, and the skin filled
with sand.

MOLLUSC A. — Molluscous animals without shells can only be
preserved in spirits. The shells of the others require merely
brushing with soap and water after the animal is removed by boil-
ing water, to fit them for the cabinet. The soft parts of the Crus-
tacea require to be carefully removed. This is effected in the
claws by making a small opening and picking out the flesh.
The smaller species may be preserved as Insects, by passing a
pin through them, and affixing them to cork.

The Arachnides generally lose their colour and shrivel up in
drying, and are therefore best preserved in spirits.

OF OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 509

INSECTS, — Insects are found everywhere, and as the mode
of procuring specimens in their various localities is different,
it may be necessary to mention the several modes in which
they are procured. The apparatus necessary is, 1. a paste-
board or slight box about ten inches long, four wide, three deep,
and of an oval form, for carrying home the specimens, the larger
being affixed with pins to the bottom, the smaller to the lid, both
of which are lined with cork. 2. A net to catch butterflies
and other winged insects. This has the head, about ten inches
in diameter, formed of wire of an oval form, and fixed in a socket
affixed to a stick four feet long. Round the wire is attached a
bag of gauze from fifteen to eighteen inches long. This net is
used for catching butterflies, &c. in flight, on the ground, or on
flowers. When the insect is in the net it is turned, the butterfly
forced to the bottom, and the thorax passed between the fingers
without touching the wings. It will then easily drop out, and
is transfixed with a pin through the thorax and stuck into the
box. Another net of stronger consistence is used for fishing
aquatic insects in rivulets, ditches, and ponds. The net is
dipped into the water, to the bottom even in many cases, and
.into the mud, the month then turned to a side, and the bag pass-
ed quickly through the water several times to wash away the
mud. By use of this net, many species of aquatic Coleop-
tera are procured. Coleopterous insects are conveniently car-
ried home in a small bottle partly filled with spirits.

To prepare butterflies a groove is made in a piece of soft
wood or cork the size of the body, and so deep, that the body
is received into the groove to the insertion of the wings. Being
pinned in this situation, the wings are then placed horizontally
by means of slips of card or paper fastened by pins ; and when
the specimen is dried it preserves the position thus given.
When insects have been dried in an improper position, they
are easily softened so as to make their members flexible, by
placing them on a piece of cork floated in water for a few
hours.

The caterpillars of insects are sometimes preserved by press-
ing the skin after making an opening at the anus for the pas-
sage of the intestines. When empty, a pipe of straw is intro-
duced, and the specimen being held over a chafing dish till

510 PREPARATION OF OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY.

partially dried, the body is blown up to its common size, and
the straw cut off.

The finest specimens of Phalenoe are procured by rearing
the caterpillars. These are gathered along with the leaves of
the plant upon which they feed, and are kept in a box covered
with gauze, taking care that the leaves are kept fresh by being
placed in a small vessel of water. When done feeding, they
form their cocoon, and remain in their pupa state till the period
of their complete developement.

Messrs Kirby and Spence recommend the drawers for keep-
ing insects to be about eighteen inches square, the bottom co-
vered with cork, the top with glass, and about an inch and
a half in depth from the glass to the corked bottom. These
can be arranged at pleasure in a double row in a cabinet with
folding doors.

POLYPI, &c. — The greater portion of the calcareous Polypi,
as the corals, lose their animal matter upon being taken out of
the water, and the stony axis or body requires no further pre-
paration. The flexible or horny species, as the Sertulariae, &c.
are, after being freed of salt by dipping in fresh water, dried
and preserved in the manner of plants. To preserve the polypi
in a recent state spirits are necessary.

LIST OF BOOKS.

Claud, de vi et natura Animalium.
Albin, E. A Natural History of Birds, 3 vols. 4to. Lond. 1738.

• History of Esculent Fish. 4to. Lond. 1794.

— — Icones Piscium. 4to. Lond. 1735.

Aldrovandus, Ulysses, de Piscibus. Folio. Bonon. 1638.

.1 de Quadrupedibus. Folio. Bonon. 1637, &c.

Annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, 20 vols. 4to. Paris, 1802-1813.

This work is continued under the title of Memoires du Museum.
— — des Sciences Naturelles, publiees par M M. Audouin, Al. Brongniart et Du.

mas. 8vo, Paris, 1824, &c.

Aristotelis Historia Animalium. Folio. Venet. 1513.
Artedi, Pet. Ichthyologia, cura Linnaei, 8vo. Lugd. Bat. 1738 — cura Walbaum.

Gryp. 1788 — cura Schneider. 4to. Leips. 1789-

Audebert, Histoire Naturelle des Singes et des Makis. Folio. Paris, 1800.
et L. P. Vieillot, Histoire Naturelle des Colibris, Oiseaux Mouches, Ja«

camars et Promerops, aussi des Grimpereaux et des Oiseaux des Paradis, 2 vols.

folio. Paris, 1822.
Azzara, Don Felix, Essai sur 1'Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupedes du Paraguay,

2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1801. And Voyages dans 1'Amerique Meridionale, 4 vols.

8vo. Paris, 1809.

Bellonius de Aquatilibus. Folio. Paris, 1553.
Bewick, T. History of British Birds, with figures on wood. 8vo. Newcastle, 1797.

- History of Quadrupeds. 8vo. Newcastle, 1820.
Bloch, Marc. El. Ichthyologie, ou Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. Folio. Berlin,

1785-97 — A small copy published at Paris, in 10 vols. 18mo.
Blumenbach, J. F. Manual of Comparative Anatomy, translated by Lawrence. 8vo.

Lond. 1828.
Brissoni, Regnum Animale. 4to. Paris, 1756.

Ornithologia, 6 vols. 4to. Paris, 1?60.

Brongniart, A. Essai d'une Classification Naturelle des Reptiles. 4to. Paris, 1805.

Brown, Patrick, Illustrations of Zoology. 4to. Lond. 1760.

Brunichii, M. T. Ornithologia Borealis. 8vo. Hafn. 1764.

Buffon, Histoire Naturelle, par Sonnini, 127 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1798 1807.— -A

complete edition of Buffon, in 40 vols. 8vo, by Lamouroux and Desmarest, is near-

ly completed.
Catesby, M. Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, 2 vols.

folio. Lond. 1731.

Church's Quadrupeds, 2 vols. folio. Lond. 1805.
Cuvier, G. Le9ons d'Anatomie Comparee, 5 vols. 8vo. Paris, &c. An 7-14.

' Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles des Quadrupedes, 7 vols. 4to.

Paris, 1822-24;

— — Le Regne Animal, 4 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1817.

— Discours sur les Revolutions de la surface du globe, et sur les Change-

ments qu'elles ont produits dans le Regne Animal. 8vo. Paris, 1825.

• — F. Des Dents des Mammiferes considerees conime caracteres zoologiques.
8vo. Paris, 1825.

i Fr. et Geoffroy St Hilaire, Histoire Naturelle des Mammiferes. Paris,

1819, &c.

Daudin, F. M. Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupedes Ovipares. 4to.
— — Traite Elementaire et Complet d'Ornithologie. 2 vols. 4to. Paris.

1800.

512 LIST OF BOOKS.

Desmarest, Mammalogie, ou Description des especes de Mammiferes. 4 to. Paris,

— — Histoire Naturelle des Tangaras, des Manakins et des Todiers. Folio.

Paris, 1805.
Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire Naturelle, par MM. Audouin, Brongniart, &c. 8vo.

.. des Sciences Naturelles par les Professeurs du Jardin du Roi. 8vo. V. Y.

(Nouveau) d'Histoire Naturelle appliques aux Arts, &c., 36 vols. 8vo.

Paris, 1816-19.
Donovan, E. History of British Birds, 10 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1794-1818.

The Natural History of British Fishes, 5 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1808.

Dumeril, Elemens des Sciences Naturelles, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1825.

. Zoologie Analytique. 8vo. Paris, 1806.

Edwards, George, A Natural History of Birds. 4 vols. 4to. Lond. 1743, &c.

Gleanings of Natural History. 4to. Lond. 1758, &c.

Encyclopedic Methodique. 4to. Paris, V. Y.

Erxleben, C. P. Systema Regni Animalis, Classis I. Mammalia. 8vo. Lips. 1777-

Fabricius, O. Fauna Groenlandica. 8vo. Hafn. 1779.

Fleming's Philosophy of Zoology, 2 vols. 8vo. Edin. 1822.

British Animals. 8vo. Edin. 1828.

Forskal, P. Descriptiones Animalium quae in itinere Orientali observavit. 4to.

Hafn. 1775.

Forster, J. R. A Catalogue of the Animals of North America. 8vo. Lond. 177l«
Gesner, Conr. Historia Animalium, 4 vols. folio. Tigur. 1551.
Gouan, Ant. Historia Piscium. 4to. Strasb. 1770.
Griffith's Animal Kingdom, translated from Cuvier. 8vo. Lond. 1825.

, General and Particular Descriptions of Vertebrated animals. 4to. Lond. 1821.

Gronovii, Laur. Theod. Museum Icthyologium, 2 vols. folio. Lud. Bat. 1745.
_ Zoophylacium, exhibens Quadrupeda, Amphibium, et Pisces. Folio. Lugd.

Bat. 1763, &c.

Harlan, Dr Richard, Fauna Americana. 8vo. Philad. 1825.
Huet, Collection de Mammiferes du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, desinees d'apres

Nature. 4to. Paris, 1808.

Illiger, J. C. W. Prodromus Systematis Mammalium et Avium. 8vo. Berlin, 1811.
Klein, J. T. Historiae Avium Prodromus. 4to. Lubec. 1750.

Historia Piscium. 4to. Gedan, 1742.

Stemmata Avium. 4to. Lips. 1759.

Kramer, Elenchus Animalium, &c. 8vo. Vien. 1756.

Lacepede, Comte de, Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupedes Ovipares et des Serpens, 2

vols. 4to. Paris, 1788.

Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, 5 vols. 4to. Paris, 1798.

Latham, J. General Synopsis of -Birds, 7 vols. 4to. Lond. 1789 — New edition,

Lond. 1821, &c.

_ Index Ornithologicus, 2 vols. 4to. Lond. 1790.

Latreille, P. A., Families Naturelles du Regne Animal. 8vo. Paris 1825.
Laurenti, Jos. Nic. Specimen exhibens Synopsin Reptilium emendatum. 8vo. Vin-

dob. 1786.

Leach, Dr W. E., Zoological Miscellany. 8vo. Lond. 1814, &c.
Leske, N. G., Ichthyologia Lipsiensis. 8vo. Lips. 1794.
Lewin, W. Birds of Great Britain with their eggs, 3 vols. 4to. Lond. 1789.

Birds of New South Wales. 4to.

Linnaai, Car. Fauna Suecica. 8vo. Stockh. 1761.

Systema Naturae, 12th edit. 2 vols. 8vo, in 4 parts. Holmize, 1766.

Lord's History of British Birds. Folio. Lond. 1791.

Merrem, Bias. Vermischte Abhandlungen aus der Thiergeschichte. 4to. Goett.

1781.

— Avium Rariorum et minus cognitarum Icones et descnptiones.
4to. Leips. 1786, &c.

Ten tarn en Systematis Amphibiorum. 8vo. Marburg, 1820.

Monro, Dr A., Structure and Physiology of Fishes, compared with those of Man

and other animals. Folio. Edin. 1785.
Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1802.— Supplement to

ditto. Exeter, 1813.

LIST OF BOOKS. 513

Muller, O. F., Zoologica Danica. Folio. Hafn. 1777.

Nauraann, J. F., and Dr C. A. Buhle, Die Eier der Vogel Deutschlands. 4to.

Halle, 1818.

Oken, Lor. Lehrbuch der Natur-Geschichte, 3ter Th. 8vo. Leipz. 1816.
Pallas, P. S., Spicilegia Zoologica, 2 vols. 4to. Berlin, 1761.

- Novae Species Quadrupedum e Glirium Ordine. 4to. Erlang. 1778.
Pennant, Thomas, British Zoology. 4to and 8vo, 4 vols. Lond. 1768.

- Synopsis of Quadrupeds. 8vo. Lond. 177 !•

. General History of Quadrupeds, 2 vols. 4to. Lond. 1792.

. Indian Zoology. Folio. Lond. 1779-

„ Arctic Zoology, 2 vols. 4to. Lond. 1792.

Petiver, J. Gazophylacii Naturae et Artis. Folio. Lond. 1702.
Plinii Historia Naturalis, 3 vols. Folio. Paris, 1 723.

Pulteney, Richard, Catalogue of the Birds, Shells, &c. of Dorsetshire. Folio. Lond.

1799.
Raii, J. Synopsis Anirnaliurn Quadrupedum et Serpendni generis. 8vo. Lond.

1693.

- . .- Synopsis Methodica Piscium. 8vo. Lond. 1713.
Avium. 8vo. Lond. 1713.

Reaumur, Art de faire eclorer et d'elever en toute saisou des Oiseaux Domestiques

de toutes especes, 2 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1751.

Ridinger, J. E., Betrachtung der Wilden Thiere. Folio. Augsb. 1736, &c.
Risso, A. Ichthyologie de Nice. 8vo. Paris, 1810.

Hist. Nat. des principales productions de 1'Europe Meridionale, 5 vols.

8vo. Paris, 1826.

Roesel, Aug. Jo. Historia Naturalis Ranarum Nostratium. Folio. Numb. 1758.
Rondeletius, G. Libri de Piscibus Marinis in quibus verse Piscium effigies expressa?

sunt. Folio. Lugd. 1554.
Russel's Account of Indian Serpents collected on the coast of Coromandel, together

with experiments and remarks on their several poisons. Folio. London, 1796.
Salerne, Ornithologie, ou Traite des Oiseaux de Terre, de Mer, et de Riviere. 4to.

Paris, 1767.

Schjeffer, Elementa Ornithologica Iconibus vivis coloribus expressis illustrata. 4to.
'Ratisb. 1764.

• . Museum Ornithologicum, exhibens Enumerationem et Descriptionem

Avium. 4to. Ratisb. 1789.
Schneider, J. G. Algemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkroten nebst einen systema-

tisches Verzeichnisse der einzelnen arten. Leip. 1783.

. — Historian Arnphibiorum Naturalis et Literarise. 8vo. Jen. 1799, &c.

Schceffer, J. C. Piscium Bavarico Ratisbonensium pentas. 4to. Ratisb. 1761.
SchoepfF, J. D. Historia Testudinum iconibus illustrata. 4to. Erlang. 1792.
Schreber, C. D. Die Saugthiere in Abbildungen, nach der natur, met Beschreibun-

geu, 4to. Erlang. 1775, &c.

Seba, Alb. Rerum Naturalium Thesaurus, 4 vols. folio. Amst. 1734-1765.
Selby, P. J. Illustrations of British Ornithology. Folio. Lond. 1821, &c.
Sepp, C. Nederlandsche Vogelen. Folio. Amst. 1770.
Shaw, Dr George, General Zoology, 14 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1800, &c.
Smith, J. E. Zoology of New Holland. 4to. Lond. 1798.
Sonnini et Latreille, Histoire Naturelle des Reptiles, avec figures dessinees d'apres

Nature, 4 vols. 18mo. Paris, 1802.

Storr, G. C. Prodromus Methodi Mammalium, 4to. Tubing. 1780.
Sturm, J. Deutschland's Fauna, 2 vols. 8vo. Nurn. 1 807.

Tenominck, C. J. Histoire Naturelle Generale des Pigeons et des Gallinaces, accom-
pagne avec planches anatomiques, 3 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1813.

Hist. Nat. des Pigeons, Folio. Paris, 1808.

Manuel d'Ornithologie, 2d edit. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1820.

Turton, Dr W. British Fauna. 12mo. Swans. 1807.

• Translation of Gmelin's Edition of the Systema Naturae of Linnseus,

7 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1805.
Vaillant, Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux d'Afrique. folio, 4to, and 8vo. Paris 1798.

Histoire Naturelle des Peroquets, 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1784.

Vieillot, Galerie des Oiseaux du Cabinet d'Hist. Nat. du Jardindu Roi. 8vo. Paris,
V.Y.

VOL. I. K k

514 LIST OF BOOKS.

Vieillot, Ornithologie Franchise. 4to. Paris, 1823, &c.

Virey, Histoire Naturelle du genre Humain, 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1825.

Walbaum, D. Chelonographia, oder Beschreibung einiger Schildkroten nach natur-

lichen Urbilden. 4to. Leips. 1782.

Walcott, J. Synopsis of British Birds, 2 vols. 4to. Lond. 1792.
Werner, Atlas des Oiseaux d'Europe, pour servir de complement a 1'ouvrage de M.

Temminck. 8vo. Paris, 1826, &c.
Willughby, F. Ornithology by John Ray. Folio. Lond. 1678.

De Historia Piscium. Folio. Oxf. 1686.

Wilson's American Ornithology, 9 vols. 4to. Philad. 1808, &c.
Wulff, Jo. Christ. Ichthyologia Regni Borussici. 8vo. Regiom. 1765,
Zoological Journal. 8vo. London, 1825, &c.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

The Figures in the Plates have been selected to exhibit the general characters and
forms of the different classes ; and in most cases from objects of frequent occurrence,
that the details of structure may be more easily verified.

PLATE I.— MAMMALIA.

Fig. 1. Human Scull.

2. Incisive and canine teeth of Man.

3. Molar tooth of Man.

4. Scull of the Orang Outang.

5. Scull of the Hedgehog, Erinaceus Europceus, showing the

structure of jaws and teeth in an insectivorous quadruped.

6. Molar teeth of the Hedgehog.

7« Scull of the Beaver, Castor jiber, showing the structure of
the jaws and teeth of a gnawing quadruped.

8. Scull of the Cat, Felis calus, showing the teeth and jaws

of a carnivorous quadruped.

9. Incisors and canines of the Lion, Felis Leo.

10. Scull of a Dog.

11. Molar tooth of a Dog.

12. Scull of a Sheep, Ovis aries, to show the structure of the

teeth and jaws in a ruminating quadruped.

13. Molar tooth of the Sheep.

14. Scull of the Horse, Equus caballus.

15. Wing and feet of a Bat, to show the disposition of the

fingers connected by membranes.

16. Feet of the Elephant, Elephas Indicus.

17. Hands of the Orang Outang, as exemplifying the struc-

ture of Quadrumanous animals.

18. Feet of the Hog, Sus scrofa.

19. Feet of the Bear, Ursus Arclos, as exemplifying the mode

of walking in a plantigrade quadruped.

20. Feet of the Lion, showing the mode of walking in a digi-

tigrade quadruped.

516 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

PLATE II.— BIRDS.

Fig. 1. Bill and Cere of Golden Eagle, Falco fulvus.

2. Bill of Peregrine Falcon, F. peregrinus.

3. Bill and Head of the Great Horned Owl, Strix bubo.

4. Bill of the Carrion Crow, Corvus corone.

5. Head of the Nightingale, Sylvia luscinia.

6. Head of the Bulfinch, Pyrrhula vulgaris.
7- Head of the Crossbill, Loxia curvirostra.

8. Head of the Green Parrot, Psittacus cyanotis.

9. Head of the Nuthatch, Sitta Europea.

10. Head of Turtle-Dove, Columba turtur.

11. Head of Wild Goose, Anas Anser.

12. Head of the Great Auk or Penguin, Alca impennis.

13. Foot of the Golden Eagle, exemplifying the talons of a

bird of prey.

14. Foot of the Great Horned Owl.

15. Foot of the Starling, Sturnus vulgaris.

16. Foot of the Nuthatch, showing the structure of the feet in

an Anisodactylous bird.

17. Foot of the Green Finch, Fringilla Chloris.

18. Foot of the Green Woodpecker, to show the structure of a

Zygodactylous foot.

19. Foot of the Lark.

20. Foot of the Pheasant, Phasianus Colchicus, showing the

general structure of the foot in gallinaceous birds.

21. Foot of the Plover, Charadrius pluvialis, to show the struc-

ture of the foot among the Grallatores.

22. Foot of the Little Bustard, Otis tetrax, to exemplify the

structure of the foot in the Cursores.

23. Foot of the Ostrich, Slruthio Camelus.

24. Foot of the Red Phalarope, Phalaropus hyperboreus, to

show the structure of the foot in the Pinnatipedes.

25. Foot of the Common Gull, Lams canus, to show the foot

of a Palmipede.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 517

PLATE III.— REPTILES.

Fig. 1. Testudo Graeca.

2. Head of the Rattlesnake.

3. Ventral and transverse plates of a Boa.

4. Poison Fang of the Rattlesnake.

5. Head of the Caecilia, or Naked Serpent.

6. Head of a Coluber, exhibiting the arrangement of the plates.

7. Head of a Serpent with the head covered with scales.

8. Head of the Siren, exhibiting the external branchiae.

9. Foot of the Iguana vulgaris.

10. Foot of a Lizard.

11. Foot of a Gecko.

12. Foot of a Frog.

13. Under part of the tail of a Boa, showing the arrangement

of the plates.

14. Under part of the tail of a Coluber.

15. Anolius principals, exhibiting the gular pouch. — P. 349,

line 10. Instead of five rays read fifteen.

16. Anguis fragilis, or Blind Worm.

17. Vipera Berus, or Common Viper.

18. Rana esculenta, or the Green Frog.

19. Spawn of the Green Frog.

20. Bufo calamita, or the Mephitic Toad.

PLATE IV.— FISHES.

Fig. 1. Gymnotus electricus, or the Electric Gymnotus.

2. Head of the Carcharias vulgaris, or White Shark.

3. Diodon atinga.

4. Syngnathus typhle.

5. Salmo salar. The Salmon.

6. Morrhua vulgaris. The Cod-fish.

7. Platessa vulgaris. The Plaise.

8. Conger vulgaris. The Conger Eel.

9. Mullus surmuletus. The Surmullet.

10. Aspidophorus cataphractus. The Armed Bullhead.

11. Scomber scomber. The Mackerel.

12. Zeus faber. The Dory.

13. Chetodon setifer.

14. Centriscus scolopax.

15. Xiphias gladius. The Sword-fish.

INDEX.

The names of the Classes and Orders are printed in Capital Letters, the Families

in Small Capitals, and the Genera in the ordinary type.

Abramis 415

Anguilla 432

Barbus 413

Acanthophis 361

ANGUINES 354

Barita 203

Acanthopodus 484

Anguis 354

Basiliscus 347

ACANTHOPTE-

ANISODACTYLI

Bathyergus 123

RYGII 436

258

BATRACHIA 365

Acanthurus 481

Anoplotherium 139

Batrachus 470

Accentor 231

Anolius 348

Belone 411

Accipenser 391

Anostomus 403

Bimana 33

Acerina 459

Antennarius 471

Bipes 353

Achirus 429

Anthus 233

Blennius 439

Acontias 355

Antilocapra 156

Blepharis 478

Acrochordus 359

Antilope 150

Boa 356

Aello 75

Aotus 56

Bodianus 454

Agama 346

Apogon 465

Bombycivora 204

Ageneiorus 420

Aptenodytes 329

Boops 451

Alabes 434

Apterichthus 434

Bos 158

Alauda 234

Apteryx 329

Boselaphus 1 54

Alca 328

Aramus 290

Bradypus 132

Alcedo 265

Arctomys 124

Brama 486

Alcelaphus 154

Ardea 291

Brosraus 425

ALCYONES 264

Argentina 402

Bucco 252

ALECTORIDES

Argus 274

Buceros 19?

281

Argyreiosus 475

Bufo 366

Alligator 342

Artibeus 76

Buphaga 204

Aluteres 395

Arvicola 114

Ameiva 344

Aspalax 123

Caecilia 364

Amia 409

Aspidophorus 470

Calidris 286

Ammoccetus 383

Aspisurus 482

Callichtys 421

Ammodytes 436

Atalapha 81

Callionymus 443

Ampelis 220

Ateles 50

Callithrix 55

Amphacanthus 481

Atherina 461

Callorhynchus 391

Amphiprion 487

Atropus 479

Calotes 346

AMPHIBIA 105

Auchenia 145

CAMELID^E 144

Amphisbaena 355
Amphisile 489

Aulopus 405
Aulostomus 489

Camelopardalis 149
Camelus 144

Anabas 485

AVES 166

Cancroma 294

Anabates 259

Canis 93

Anableps 418

Bagrus 420

Cantharus 456

Anarchicas 440

Balaena 164

Capito 252

Anas 315

Balcena 165

Capra 156

Anastomus 293

Balcenoptera 165

CAPRID^E 150

Ancylodon 467

Balistes 394

Caprimulgus 268

520

INDEX.

Capros 478

Chelys 339

Curimata 402

Caracarce 1 93

Chersydrus 360

CURSORES 283

Carapus 435

Chetodipterus 484

Cursorius 285

Cars'.nx 474

CHIM^R^ 390

Cucultis 248

Carbo 323

Chimsera 391

Cyclopterus 430

Carcharias 384

Cliionis 308

CYCLOSTOMI 382

CARNIVORA 86

Chirocentrus 409

Cymindi 193

CARTILAGINOUS

Chironectes 109

Cynocepbalus 49

FISHES 382

Chirotes 353

CYPRINJIMG 413

Casmarhynchos 220

Chlamyphorus 134

Cyprinodon 418

Castor 113

Chromis 449

Cyprinus 413

Casuarius 284

Chrysochloris 84

Cypselus 268

Cathartes 182

Chrysotosus 479

Catodon 164

Cichla 457

Dacelo 266

Cavia 130

Cingla 465

Dactylopterus 469

Ceblepyris 219

Ciconia 292

Dasypus 132

Cebus 53

Cinclus 213

Dasyprocta 130

Celseno 75

Cirrhinus 415

Dasyurus 109

Centenes 85

Cirrhites 454

Daurada 452

Centrina 387

Cistuda 338

Delphinus 162

Centriseus 489

Citharinus 404

Dclphinus 162

Centrolophus 480
Centronotus 477

Citula 474
Climacteris 262

Delph inopterus 163
Delphinorhyncus 162

Centropomus 464

Clinus 440

Dendrocola"ptes 259

Centropus 249

Clupea 406

Dentex 453

Cephalacanthus 469

CLUPE-S 406

Diacope 453

Cephaloptera 390

Cobitis 417

Diagramma 457

Cephalotes 67

Cobra 363

Dicholophus 281

Cephalus 393

Coccyzus 249

Dicotyles 139

Cepola 436

Coelogenus 131

Didelphis 108

Cercocebus 47

Ccerebra 260

Didus 330

Cercopithecus 45

Coesio 486

DlGITIGRADA 389

Cercopithecus 46

Colaris 205

Diodon 392

Cereopsis 308

Colius 246

Diomedea 315

Certhia 260

Colobus 44

Diphylla 76

Cervicapra 151

Coluber 358

Dipsas 358

CERVID^E 145

Columba 269

Dipus 122

Cervus 146

COLUMB^E 269

DISCOBOLI 429

Cestracion 386

Colymbus 325

Doras 421

CETACEA 160

Comephorus 443

Draco 347

CETACE^E 162

Condylura 85

Draccena 343

Chaetodon 482

Conger 432

Drepanis 264

Chalcides 353

Coracias 204

Dromiceus 284

Charaaeleon 351

Coracina 219

Dysopes 76

CHAMjELEONID-ffi 351

Cordylus 345

Charadrius 287

Coregonus 401

Echidna 135

Chauliodus 411

Coricus 447

Echeneis 431

Chauna 282

Corvus 199

Echimys 117

Cheilinus 417

Coryphaena 481

EDENTATA 131

Cheiromeles 69

Cottus 469

Edolius 218

CHEIROPTERA 63

Crax 275

EFFODIENTIA 132

CHELIDONES 266

Crenilabrus 446

Egocerus 155

Cheilodactylus 458

.Cricetus 121

Elaps 363

Cheiromys 63

CROCODILID^S 340

Elephas 136

Chelmon 483

Crocodilus 341

Eleotris 442

CHELONIA 336

Crotalus 360

Elops 408

Chelonia 338

Crotophaga 251

Emberiza 237

Chelonura 333

Cryptonyx 279

Emys 337

3

INDEX, 521

Engraulis 407

Gobioides 442

Istiophorus 480

Enicurus 233

Grobius 441

Enoplosus 464

Gomphosus 448

Jacchus 57

Ephippus 483

Gonorhynchus 417

Julis 445

Ephibulus 448

Gracula 203

Epiraachus 263

GRALLATORES

Kangurus 1 12

Eques 488

285

Kurtus 485

Equula 478

Grammistes 458

Kyphosus 487

Equus 142

GRANIVORJE 234

Erinaceus 82

Grus 290

Labeo 415

Erix 357

Gulo 88

Labrax 450

Erpeton 357

Gunnellus 440

LABROIDES 444

Erythrinus 409

Gymnetrus 437

Labrus 444

ESOCES 410

GVMNODONTES 392

Lacerta 344

Esox 410

Gymnogaster 438

LACERTINIDJE 342

Eurypyga 301

Gymnotus 434

Lagomys 130

Exocetus 412

Gypaetus 183

Lagothrix 51

Gy pogeran us 184

Lamna 385

Falcinellus 286

Lamprotornis 209

Falco 181

HaBmatopus 287

Langaha 362

Felis 100

Haladroma 314

Lanius 216

FER^E 81

Halicore 161

Larus 310

Fiatola 486
Fiber 114

Hemidactyli 350
Hemipoclius 280

Lasiopyga 46
Lebias 418

Fierasfer 436

Hemiramphus 412

Lemmus 116

FISHES 371

Heniochus 483

Lemur 60

Fistularia 488

Herpestes 98

LEMURES 59

FlSTUT.ARID^E 488

Heterodon 163

Lepadogaster 429

Fringilla 243

Himantopus 287

Lepidoleprus 426

Fulica 305

Hippocampus 399

Lepidopus 438

Hippoglossus 427

Lepisosteus 409

GADITES 423

Hippopotamus 137

Leptocephalus 435

Galago 62

Hirundo 266

Leptosomus 250

Galbula 257

Holocanthus 484

Lepus 129

GALEOPITHECI 64

Holocentrus 459

Lestris 312

Galeopithecus 64

Homo 33

Leuciscus 415

Galeus 385

Hurria 357

Lichia 477

GALLING 271

Hyaena 99

Limosa 299

Gallinula 302

HydrochaBrus 130

Liparis 430

Gallus 475

Hydromys 118

Lonchurus 466

Gallus 272

Hydrocynus 404

Lophius 471

Gasteropelecus 405

Hydrophis 359

LOPHOBRANCHII

Gasterosteus 476

Hypostomus 422

398

Gastrobranchus 383

Hyrax 141

Lophophorus 273

Gaviala 340

Hyreus 246

Lophotes 437

Gazella 151

Hystrix 128

Lophyrus 347

Gecko 349

Hyla 366

Loricaria 422

GECKOTID^E 349

Loris 61

Gerbillus 122

Ibis 295

Lota 424

Glareola 281

Icterus 206

Loxia 241

Glaucopis 203

Iguana 348

Lutianus 453

GLIRES 113

IGUANIDJE 345

Lutra 92

Glossophaga 71

Indicator 248

Glyphisodon 487

Indris 59

Macacus 48

Gnathobolus 408

INERTES 329

Macacus 48

Gobiesox 430

INSECTIVORA 81

Macrognathus 476

Gobio 414

INSECTIVOR^E

Macropteronotus 421

GOBIOIDES 439

210

Macrourus 426

522

INDEX.

MAMMALIA 22

Mustelus 386

Ovibos 158

MALACOPTER.

Mycetes 52

Ovis 157

ABDOMINA-

Mygale 83

Oxyrhynchus 258

LES 400

Myiothera 214

MALACOPTER.

Myletes 403

PACHYDERMA

APODES 432

Myliobatis 390

135

MALACOPTER.

Myopteris 75

PACHYDERMA 137

SUBRACHIATI

Myoxus 117

Pachyptila 314

423

Myrmecophaga 134

Pagrus 452

Malapterurus 422

Palaeotherium 1 41

Malthe 472

NAKED SERPENTS

Palamedea 282

Malurus 224

364

PALMIPEDES 307

Manatus 160

Naia 363

Paradisea 208

Manis 134

Nasalis 46

Paradoxurus 98

MARSUPIALIA

Naseus 482

Paralepis 462

107

Nasua 87

Pardalotus 222

Maries 90

Nectarinia 262

Parus 236

Mastacembelus 476

Noctilio 69

Parra 303

Mastigura 346

Nomeus 473

Pastor 207

Mastodon 137

Notidanus 386

Pauxi 275

Medateus 72

Notopterus 408

Pavo 271

Megaderma 72

Novacula 448

Pedetes 123

Megalops 407

Nucifraga 202

Pegasus 399

Megatherium 132

Numenius 296

Pelamis 360

Meleagris 274

Numida 275

Pelecanus 322

Meliphaga 264

Nycteris 74

Penelope 276

Mene 479

Nycticebus 61

Perameles 110

Menura 213

Nyctinomus 68

Perca 463

Mephitis 91

Nyctophilus 76

Percis 467

Mergus 321

PERCOIDES 450

Merlangus 424

Ocypterus 218

Perdix 278

Merluccius 424

CEdicnemus 286

Periophthalmus 442

Merops 265

Oligopodus 480

Peristedion 468

Micropterus 458

OMNIVOR^S 197

Petaurista 111

Microstoma 411

Opetiorhynchus 260

Petromyzon 382

Molossus 67

Opisthocomus 197

Phaeton 325

Monitor 343

Opistognathus 440

Phalaropus 305

Monocanthus 395

Ophicephalus 431

Phaleris 327

Monochirus 429

OPHIDIA 353

Phalangista 110

Monocentris 469

Ophidium 435

Phascolarctos 113

Monodon 163

Ophisaurus 354

Phascocha?rus 139

Monophyllus 76

Ophisurus 432

Phascolomys 113

MONOTREMA 135

Orcynus 474

Phasianus 273

Mormoops 72

Oreas- 154

Phibalura 221

Mormon 327

Oriolus 205

Phoca 105

Mormyrus 412

Ornithorynchus 135

Phoca 105

Morrhua 423

Orthonyx 258

Phocaena 1 63

Moschus 145

Orcyteropus 133

Phoenicophaus 250

Motacilla 232

Oryx 155

Phrenicopterus 294

Mugil 463

Osmerus 401

Pholis 439

Mullus 462

Osphronemus 484

Phycis 425

Muraena 433

OSSEOUS FISHES

Phyllostoma 70

Mus 118

392

Phylluri 350

Muscicapa 223

Ostracion 396

Physeter 164

Muscipeta 223

Otaria 106

Physeter 164

Musophaga 247
Mustela 425

Otis 284
Otolithes 466

Phytotoraa 246
Piabucus 403

Mustela 89

Ouistiti 57

Picus 256

4

INDEX.

523

Pimelodus 419

Procyon 87

Scisena 466

Pimelepterus 487

Proteus 369

SCINCIDJE 352

PINNATIPEDES

Psaris 217

Scincus 352

304

Pseudoboa 359

Sciurus 125

Pipa 368

Psittacus 253

Schilbe 419

Pipra 221

Psittirostra 241

SCLEROPERMI 394

Pithecia 56

Psophia 281

Scolopax 300

Pithecus 41

Pteraclis 481

Scolopsis 457

Pitta 213

Pterocles 277

Scomber 473

PLAGIOSTOMI

Pteroglossus 251

Scomberesox 411

383

Pterois 461

SCOMBEROIDES 472

PLANTIGRADA 286

Pteromys 127

Scopelus 405

Platalea 295

Pteropus 65

Scopus 293

Platax 483

Ptilonorynchus 204

Scorpsena 459

Platessa 427

Ptyodactyli 350

Scotophilus 76

Platurus 362

Putorius 89

Scyllium 384

Platycephalus 470

Pyrrhocorax 202

Scymnus 387

Platydactyli 349
Platyrhynchos 222

Pvrrhula 242
Python 357

Scythrops 250
Scytalus 361

PLATYSOMI 388

Selache 386

Platystacus 422

QUADRUMANA

Selene 475

Plecotus 80

39

Semnopithecus 45

PLECTOGNATHI

Seps 352

392

Raia 389

SERPENTES 355

Plectorhynchus 487

Rallus 301

Serranus 454

Plectropomus 456

Ramphastos 251

Serrasalmus 403

PLEURONECTES 426

Rana 365

Seriola 474

Ploceus 240

Raniceps 425

Seserinus 486

Plotosus 421

RAPACES 181

Sillago 442

Plotus 324

Recurvirostra 294

SILURID^E 418

Podargus 269

Regalecus 437

Silurus 418

Podiceps 306

Regulus 229

SIMILE 40

Podoa 305

REPTILIA 331

Siren 369

Pcecilia 418

Rhea 283

SlRENIA 160

Pogonias 253

Rhinobatus 388

Sitta 258

Pogonias 466

Rhinoceros 140

Smaris 450

Polychrus 348

Rhinolophus 73

Solea 428

Polynemus 488

Rhinopoma 74

Solenostomus 399

Polyplectron 273

Rhombus 428

SOLIDUNGULA 142

Polyprion 458

Rhynchops 308

Sorex 82

Polypterus 410

RUMINANTJA

Sparactes 217

Pomacentrus 487

144

Spatularia 392

Pomatoraus 402

Rupicapra 156

Sphagebranchus 433

Porphyrio 304

Rupicola 221

Spheniscus 328

Potorous 1 12

Rynchsea 301

Sphyraena 461

Potos 88

Spinachia 476

Preranas 488
Priacanthus 458

Sagrus 451
Salamandra 368

Spinax 386
SQUALIDES 384

Prionites 198

Salanx 41 1

SQUAMIPENNES 482

Prionurus 482

Salarias 440

Squatina 387

Pristigaster 408

Salmo 400

Stelliferus 459

Pristis 387

SALMONIDES 400

Stellerus 161

Pristopomus 457

Sandrus 465

Stellio 345

Proboscidea 77

SAURIA 340

Stenoderma 69

PROBOSCIDEA 135

Saurus 405

Sterna 308

Procellaria 313

Saxicola 230

Sternarchus 435

Prochilus 464

Scalops 84

Sternoptix 406

Procnias 220

Scarus 449

Stomias 41 1

524

INDEX.

Strepsilas 289

Testudo 336

Troglodytes 41

Strix 194

Tetragonopterus 403

Trogon 251

Strom ateus 486

Tetragonurus 476

Trygon 389

Struthio 283

Tetrao 276

Tupaia 84

STURIONES 391

Tetraodon 393

Turdus 210

Sturnus 206

Thamnophilus 215

Typhlops 355

Stylephorus 438

Thecadacttjli 350

Sudis 409

Thrissa ' 408

Umbrina 466

Sula 324

Thynnus 473

Upupa 263

Suricata 99

Thyroptera 77

Uranoscopus 467

Sus 138

Tichodroma 262

Uria 326

Sylvia 225

Tinamus 280

Ursus 86

Synanceia 460

Tinea 415

Synbranchus 434
Syngnathus 398

Todus 222
Torpedo 388

Vampyrus 71
Vanellus 288

Synodontis 419

Tortrix 356

Vanga 215

Syrrhaptes 278

Totanus 298

Vespertilio 77

Toxotes 485

Vesper tilio 77

Tachypetes 323

Trachypterus 438

VESPERTILIONES 65

Tsenianotus 461

Trachichtys 479

Vipera 363

TJENTOIDES 436

Trachinus 467

Viverra 97

Tasnioides 442

Tragelaphus 154

Vomer 475

Takydromus 345

Trapelus 346

Vultur 181

Talpa 85

Triacanthus 395

Tamarin 58

Trichecus 107

Xenops 259

Tanagra 239

Trichiurus 438

Xiphias 480

Tantalus 295

Trichopodus 485

Taphozous 74

Tricophorus 218

Yunx 257

Tapirus 142

Trigla 468

TARDIGRADA 132

Trigonocephalus 362

Zeus 478

Tarsius 62

Trimeresurus 359

Zorilles 90

Taxus 88

Tringa 297

Zygaena 385

Teius 344

Trionyx 339

ZYGODACTILI

Temnodon 488

Trochilus 261

247

Terapon 465

Troglodytes 230

ENGLISH INDEX.

ACCENTOR

232

Bunting

237,239

Darter

325

Agama

346

Burbot

425

Deer

148

Agouti

131

Bustard

284

Diodon

392

Albatross

315

Butcher-bird

216

Dipper

213

Alligator

342

Buzzards

192

Diver

325

Ameiva

344

Dodo

330

Anaconda

356

Cachalot

164

Dogs

93

Anchovy

407

Camel

144

Dog-fish

386

Angel-fish

387

Camelopard

149

Dolphin

162

Angler

471

Canary-finch

245

Dormouse

117

Ant-eater

134

Capercailzie

276

Dorse

423

Antelopes

150

Caracal

103

Dory

478

Apes

41

Carp

413

Dragon

347

Apteryx

330

Cat

104

Dragonet

443

Argali

157

Centriscus

489

Ducks

318

Armadillo

133

Chacal

96

Dugong

161

Arnee

159

Chaetodon

482

Aspic

363

Chaffinch

244

Eaglea

187

Ass

143

Chalcides

353

Echidna

135

Auk

326

Chamaeleoos

351

Fel

432

Aye-aye

63

Chamois

156

Efts

352

Chatterer

220

Egret

292

Baboons

49

Chimaera

391

Eider duck

319

Badger
Band-fish

88
437

Chimpanse
Chinche

41
91

Electric gymnotus
Elephant

434
136

Banstickle

476

Civet

97

Elk

146

Barbel

413

Coal-fish

424

Emu

284

Basilisk

347

Coaita

51

Ermine

90

Bats

65

Coati

87

Bears

86

Cock

272

Falcons

185

Beaver

114

Cock of the wood 276

Father-lasher

470

Bee-eater

265

Cockatoos

254

Ferret

89

Beluga

163

Cod

423

Field mouse 115,

119

Bintourong

98

Condor

183

Fieldfare

211

Bird of Paradise

208

Coney

141

File-fish

394

Bison

159

Conger

432

Fistularia

489

Blackbird

211

Coot

305

Flamingo

294

Black-cock

277

Cormorant

323

Flounder

427

Blackfish

421

Coucal

249

Flycatcher

223

Bleak

415

Cranes

290

Flying-fish

412

Blenny

439

Creeper

260

Fossil birds

330

Blind-worm

354

Crocodile

341

Fossil fishes

490

Boa

356

Cross-bill

241

Fossil reptiles

370

Boat-bill

295

Crows

199

Fox

96

Bohemian chatterer

204

Cuckoo

248

Frogs

365

Bonnet Fluke

428

Curassou

275

Frog-fish

471

Bream

415

Curlew

296

Brill

428

Curlew, pigmy

, 287

Galago

62

Buffalo

159

Gannet

324

Bulfinch

242

Dab

427

Gar-fish

411

Bullhead

469

Dace

415

Garganey

319

526

ENGLISH INDEX.

Gaur

159

Jaguar

101

Musk

145

Geckos

349

Jays

201

Musk ox

158

Geese

316

Jerboa

122

Musk rat 84,

114

Gemmeous dragonet 443

Jerfalcon

185

Musang

98

Gibbons

44

Gilthead

452

Kangaroo

112

Narwhal

164

Giraffe

149

Kestril

186

Nase

416

Glutton

89

Kingfisher

265

Nightingale

226

Gnu

155

Kites

191

Nutcracker

202

Goat

157

Nuthatch

258

Goatsucker

268

Labrus

444

Nyl-ghau

154

Goby

441

Lama

145

Godwit

300

Lamprey

382

Ocelot

102

Goldfinch

246

Lanner

185

Opah

479

Goosander

321

Lapwing

289

Opossum

108

Goose, wild,

316

Larks

234

Orang outang

42

Grampus

163

Lemming

116

Oriole, golden,

205

Grayling

402

Lemurs

59

Ortolan

238

Grebes

306

Ling

424

Oryx

155

Greenfinch

243

Linnet

245

Ostrich

283

Green shark

299

Lion

100

Otter

92

Grosbeak

242

Lion, sea,

105

Ounce

102

Grous

277

Lizards

344

Ounderou

48

Gudgeon

414

Lizard, sea,

405

Owls

194

Guillemot

326

Loche

417

Ox 158,

160

Guinea pig

130

Loris

61

Ox-eye

236

Gulls

310

Lump-sucker

430

Ox -pecker

204

Gurnard

468

Lynx

103

Oyster- catcher

287

Gwiniad

402

Gymnotus

434

Maccaws

255

Paca

131

Mackerel

473

Paco

145

Haddock

423

Magot

49

Panther

102

Hag
Haladrome

383
314

Magpie
Mallard

201
318

Paradise bird
Parrots

208
254

Hamster

121

Mammoth

136

Partridges

278

Hake

424

Manakin

222

Peacock

272

Hare

129

Manatus

160

Peccari

139

Harriers

192

Mandril

50

Pegasus

399

Hawks

189

Mangabey

47

Pelican

322

Hedgehog
Heron

82
291

Mango-fish
Manis

488
134

Penguin
Perch

328
463

Herring

406

Marimonda

51

Peregrine falcon

185

Hippocampus

399

Marmot

124

Petrels

313

Hippopotamus
Hobby

137
186

Martens
Martin

90
267

Pettychaps
Phalarope

228
306

Holibut

138
427

Merlin
Mink

186
90

Pheasant
Pies

273
201

Honey-guide
Honeysucker

248
264

Minow
Missel thrush

416
211

Pigeons
Pike

269
410

Hoopoe

263

Mocking-bird

212

Pilchard

406

Hornbill

198

Mole

85

Pilot-fish

477

Horse

142

Mongooz

60

Pintado

275

Humming-birds

261

Monitor

343

Pintail

318

Hyaena

99

Monkeys

45

Pipe-fish

398

Monoceros

482

Pipit

233

Ibex

156

Moon, fish

479

Plaise

427

Ibis

296

Morse

107

Plovers

288

Ichneumon

99

Mouse

119

Polecat

89

Iguana

348

Mouse, field,

115

Pollack

424

Mouse, shrew,

82

Porcupine

128

Jacchus

57

Mullet

463

Porpoise

163

Jackdaw

200

Muraena

433

Pride

383

ENGLISH INDEX.

527

Ptarmigan

277

Sheep

158

Torpedo

388

Puffin

326

Sheldrake

318

Torsk

425

Puffin petrels

313

Snipe

300

Tortoises

337

Puma

101

Shoveler

31<)

Toucan

251

Shrew-mouse

82

Tropic bird

325

Quagga

143

Shrike

216

Trout

401

Quail

279

Siamang

44

Trumpeter

281

Siren

369

Trunk fish

396

Rabbit

129

Skate

389

Tunny

473

Raccoon

87

Skua gull

312

Turbot

428

Rails

302

Skylark

235

Turkey

274

Rats

118

Sloth

132

Turnstone

289

Rat, musk,

84, 1 14

Smelt

401

Turtle-dove

270

Rat, water,

114

Smew

322

Rattlesnake

360

Snakes

358

Vampyre

71

Rays

389

Soland goose

324

Vicugna

145

Redbreast

228

Sole

428

Viper

364

Rein-deer

146

Sparrow

244

Vulture

181, 183

Remora

431

Sparrow-hawk

190

Reptiles, fossil,
Rhinoceros

370
140

Sparus
Spoonbill

457
295

Wagtail
Wapiti

232
147

Ring-dove

269

Sprat

407

Warblers

225

Ring-ouzel

211

Squirrel

125

Water-hen

303

Roach

415

Stag

147

Water-rat

114

Roebuck

148

Starling

206

Weasel

90

Rook

200

Stellio

346

Weaver

240

Roller

205

Stickleback

476

Weever

467

Rud

416

Stock-dove

270

Whale

165

Ruff

298

Stork

293

Wheat-ear

230

Ruffe

459

Sturgeon

391

Whimbrel

296

Sucker

429

Whin-chat

231

Sable

91

Sun-fish

393

White-throat

227

Salamander

368

Surmullet

462

Whiting

424

Salmon

400

Swallows

266

Widgeon

319

Sanderling

286

Swallow Petrels

314

Wolf

95

Sand-launce

436

Swans

317

Wolf-fish

441

Sand pipers

297

Swift

268

Wolverene

88

Saury pike

411

Wombat

113

Scarus

449

Tapir

142

Woodcock

300

Scisena

466

Teal

319

Woodlark

235

Scink

352

Tench

414

Woodpeckers

256

Screamer

282

Terns

309

Wrasse

446

Seals

106

Tetraodon

393

Wren

230

Sea Lion

105

Thornback

389

Wren, wood,

228

Secretary

184

Thrush

211

Wryneck

257

Sapajous

50,53

Tiger

101

Serpents

355

Tinamoo

280

Yapock

109

Serval

103

Titmouse

236

Shad

407

Toads

366

Zebra

143

Shark

384

Tope

385

END OF VOLUME FIRST.

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