SAG at MAGOUN & SPOTTON. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofstructOOmacouoft Gage's Educational Series, THE ELEMENTS or SeRUCTURAL BOTANY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE STUDY or CANADIAN PLANTS. TO WHICH IS ADDED A SELECTION OF EXAMINATION PAPERS. BY JOHN MACOUN, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Albert University. AND H. BS. SPOTTON,. M.A., Head Master of Barrie High School. ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHORS. TORONTO: W. JI. GAGE & COMPANY, 11 WELLINGTON ST. WEST. 1879. abrver Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Office of the F Minister of Agriculture, by ADAm MiLveEr & Co., in the year 1879. * : The work, of which the present little volume forms the first part, has been undertaken, at the suggestion of several eminent educationists, to supply a palpable want. The works on Botany, many of them of great excellence, which have found their way into this country, have been prepared with reference to climates differing, in some cases, very widely from our own. They consequently contain accounts of many plants which are entirely foreign to Canada, thus obstructing the search for descriptions of those which happen to be common to our own and other countries ; and, on the other hand, many of our Canadian species are not men- tioned at all in some of the Classifications which have been in use. It is believed that the Classification which is to form the second part of this work will be found to contain all the commonly occurring species of the Provinces whose floras it is designed to illustrate, with- out being burdened with those which are either ex- tremely rare, or which do not occur in Canada at all. The present Part is designed to teach the Elements of Structural Botany in accordance with a method which is believed to be more rational than that commonly adopted; and it will be found to supply all that is requisite for passing the examinations for Teachers’ Certificates of all grades, as wellas any others demand- ing an elementary knowledge of the subject. It contains familiar descriptions of common plants, illus- trating the chief variationsin plant-structure, with a view to laying a foundation for the iitelligent study of Systematic Botany with the aid of the second part; then follow a few lessons on Morphology; and the Ministry of Education, Ontario Historical] Collection foe ae By, ay, PREFACE, Elements of Vegetable Histology are treated of in as simple and brief a manner as was thought to be con- sistent with the nature of the subject. The Schedules, the use of which is very strongly recommended, were devised by the late Professor Hens- low, of Cambridge University, to fix the attention of pupils upon the salient points of structure. They will be found invaluable to the teacher as tests of the accu- racy of his pupils’ knowledge. The cost of striking off a@ few hundred blanks of each sort would be very trifling, and not worth considering in view of the resulting advantages. The wood-cuts are from drawings from living speci- mens, except in two or three instances where assistance was derived from cuts of well-known excellence in standard works on Botany. It need hardly be said that the engravings are not in any sense intended to take the place of the living plants. They are designed chiefly to assist in the examination of the latter, and whilst it is hoped that they may be of service to those who may desire to read the book in the winter season, it is strongly urged upon teachers and students not to be satisfied with them as long as the plants themselves are available. The works most frequently consulted in the prepar- ation of the text are those of Hooker, Gray, Bentley and Oliver. Finally, the Authors look for indulgence at the hands of their fellow-teachers, and will be glad to receive sug- gestions tending to increase the usefulness of the work, and to extend a taste for what must ever be regarded as one of the most refining as well as one of the most practically useful of studies, September, 1879. DESCRIPTION OF CUTS. = Fig. : Page : 1. Fibrons root of Battercap.........0ee0eeceeeceeeee, 2 | 2. Magnified tip of rootlet .............2......00..., % enone, DUMODONT os. Side ee sok vs Mes Cocke cee 4 Per eememahGRGO! WaMO) so... ks. fois. Duele ccel Ebel 5. Back view 91 one of the flowers of samo ............ 5 O. Beotion of flower of same ...................00.0, 7 ST ea ane a a it 8. Stamen discharging pollen.......................... 7 9. Head of carpels of ELD LGU CELI N wrens Sr Siietaca see TO 7 {0. A carpel magnified, and showing ovaleswaes sd coe cee. fi 11. Stigma of Buttercup, greatly magnified .............. 8 ER OR ONE pase ter EE Ces oun oe ee 8 ERE COPE ale. .s nees REE lacey ie eee 9 14, Ripened carpel of MOLARS 6.0 v2 Skee wads coasts 10 1b. Vertical ection of same..............02.......0..., 10 16. Section of aseed, showing position of embryo ........ 10 _ 217. Pollen-grain developing its tube :................... 12 18. Section of ovule, showing micropyle ................ 12 ERE Ore oh 5c Oe a Shy Lae 14 Single flower of same, with bracts underneath........ 15 eum ahearpols of tame ages. i026 a8 o éavoce.. ok 16 MO Me Ne Sic ews Nie ie bog Bees, oe 16 Marsh-Marigold ....... Grape wletwrarein' alo Mies Satathters.S Cae 17 BE OL ORIG GE BUNGE) 2255255 « vonkieicodu-22,..0, Lea 18 Single carpel of same, split QP SD ."«; sia mreterdel aera ates Se 18 TES ES NA a eee RS 21 EM NE ose is anit. Po og ects alee 22 Tetradynamous stamens of same.................... 22 EE font aril oo 8 oon BRL 23 The same with one lobe removed to show seeds ...... 23 Monnd-leaved Mallow... .... 2... .0c0scesceveccce lw. 24 Section of flower of same ................0......... 24 La a a ee Cie ean as 24 Ring of carpels and persistent calyx of same.......... 24 Pen RRMA POR 6. oy eso dd dhe bu ooo eae oes 27 EEE OE SURD Co asians dias dabre ence scege Reiter 27 - Diadelphous stamens of same ..... av eit wie: v deplanaenean es 27 Ses ere a nee tty 27 Sepa EMER (notin, os ina hn Noe Soe 27 . Flower of Great Willow-herb ...... Sie eters Sate ate wiacvars 29 - Pistil of same bursting dpen........................ 30 Semin OF BAERO SS OU Sc ep Sack Sabet Oss yo 30 Petes Of Sweet Brier ica: siwieevenx€ec «sss ccukk 32 Section of flower of same.......................... 32 45. Section showing carpels and hollow receptacle of same.. 33 6. Flower of Crab-Apple........................ rte. vr DESCRIPTION OF CUTS. . As SCHON Of BAING: 2. se ssdeb sn ae vee sae meine aces . 48. Cross section of Crab-Apple .........0+..0s.ess0- 49. Compound umbel of Water-Parsnip..............- BO.rpingle flower of SAME’ .,.... once 64. Ligulate corolla of same with epipetalons stamens . 55. Syngenesious stamens of Dandelion ............. 56. aepnces HREOC. OL SAING ie tertte tel sicierkei= wiereielseeentat eke eee Owerjor Catnip) 17 asieiciet> eietiale helenae 57. Single wee wae 58. Front view of same, showing didynamous stamens .... BOs EIStil OF SAME < o.ce caeistele Sietticccrela hare ileccce Enea even GU CanpGlsof Same. 26.' os. S hale Oe rae eee Dlswberiilesower of Cucumber! .. «cca eee 62. Sterile ower of SAME... 2 ssc scl cow rem ree Od-soperie caticinyoL Willow \..../s(ousicle toe clarwteieral aes Gastiertile catkin of \sAMe | .....cyc.seimisaris aeteeie ss eee 65. Single staminate flower of same ................. 66. Single fertile flower of same ...........-....+.--- fy. SEP KAN BOA 2/2 cape -roiet eel i sehdieyel yoke aero ere Roe 68. same showing cotyledons). <2... =... ~ stare ate 77. Net-veined leaf of same ........... shia shorel clans cad ouster Hee lho hee 4 Mrin eth) eae mnooae Se odp do oso sao c os od ee BO ce PALME OL SHE fs a1c/c) se ratetel lola ie foie = /ebotate ere eee rars SO, Heriilelspadi= Of Same).\..c, c\c(bss.0>sc sis Laveicis she Seo wes hiealatinlece & 96 163. Loosely packed cells of the pith of Elder ............ 99 164. Hair from leaf of a Petunia, showing cellular structure. 99 164. (a) Hair from leaf of Geranium................e0e00- 99 165. Tapering and overlapping cells of woody tissu. Sct waar 102 MIPMBMIENELCC QUOE. crt ainicieera daca sinew sa ciatiniaiw se’ s,< 01<6's'ge ola 103 167. Section of a young exogenous stem........ Sins wine 104 168. The same at a later period of growth ..............-+ 104 169. Section of am endogenousstemM .......0 ee cece ee eeee 105 Bee PICHL-HEOMABEG. . ce nccccceeivecessesessesvescceseccee LOY CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE | Examination of a Buttercup .................cccceeeeeee yr CHAPTER II. Functions of the Organs of the Flower................e00 11 CHAPTER III. _ Examination of Hepatica and Marsh-Marigold— Resemblances between their flowers and that of Buttercup .......... 13 CHAPTER IV. Examination of other common plants with hypogynous stamens—Shepherd’s Purse—Round-leaved Mallow.... 21 CHAPTER V. Examination of common plants with perigynous stamens— | Garden Pea—Great Willow-herb—Sweet-Brier—Crab- PONTE CRN cia let et aaln eo of tiara aia ora wtetat aye (a le ax ais) spitaicis. oieleskc ceroee 26 CHAPTER VI. 5 Examination of a plant with epigynous stamens—Water- % TRUSTS a Satay olatar'aym seria) ae i w.o <[o%s a (asa a o/' simi 5, 8iV Seis eA Oe 35 CHAPTER VII. Be _ Examination of common plants with epipetalous stamens— PETRI TI — CALI IPN are oro’ sisi sini mah snicierals alan aie aintcha ms ate 36 2 CHAPTER VII. ; Examination of plants with Monecious and Diccious © flowers—Cucumber—Willow ..,......ccesccccsecceces 40 z CHAPTER IX. _ Characteristics possessed in common by all the plants previously examined—Structure of the seed in Dicoty- UIC DIE CAAT ACUI IERC ECR EIROOC EI CH or 1 RR IC TRC AE ICI 45 CHAPTER X. Examination of common plants continued—Dog’s-tooth Violet — Trillium — Indian Turnip — Calla — Orchis— PPP ie isan clocks sek pes eas ees ge ese waseegs AT CHAPTER xL nmon characteristics of the plants a examine Structure of the seed in Monocotyledons............ oe = CHAPTER XII. : OM orphology of Roots, Stems and Foliage-Leaves ........ - CHAPTER XIII. “Morphology of Flower-Leaves—The Calyx — The ote : The Stamens—The Pistil—The Frnit—The Seed—Ger- -Mination CHAPTER XIV. On the minute structure of Plants—Exogenous and Endo- - genous Stems—Food of Plants CHAPTER XV. Classification of Plants according to the Natural System.... a ss The Herbarium Index and Glossary Examination Questions = ut ~/ a-% tio ry : é : = Oe) Co deny | Sve o0 Fave t ‘ 4 ‘TABLE OF THE COMMON PLANTS EXAMINED, TO- _ ‘GETHER WITH THE FAMILIES TO WHICH THEY = BELONG. _ Buttercup, Hepatica, Marsh-Marigold.Crowroor Famizy. Meepnepherd’s Paurse...... «.--..-+.> Cress Faminy. -Round-leaved, MEOW dese nen css vale Mattow Famity. Garden Pea..... a heie wen chigeas erat dn 6 Putse Faminy. "Great SWIMMER DE os cla: iolenel oye 30 Ss Evenrnec-Prowrose Faminy. ‘Sweet-Brier, Orah-Appla. ..... 6. «2. Rose Faminy. § Water-Parsnip NS AGG ae aN ParsteY Famity. ME RELLLISING Ge Yas 2(-cin ot c\ 6a. b.e ayciatcigiain ‘aie Composite Famity. Oe ACI ICIEE OP OTC Mint Faminy. SS Sy oar Gourp Famiy. : 8 URE OO CE Ce BERE Witiow Faminy. ie z Dog’s-tooth Violet, Trillium ........ Liry Famiry. indian Turnip, Calla ........0...02- Arum Famtty. ie. Se eer e Oxcuis Famtuy. ; MMOURY ©... cea vee Stans alent aire Grass Famiiy. xI si. fae LE MENTS OF BIRUCTURAL BOTANY. 1. The study of Botany is commonly rendered unat- tractive to the beginner by the order in which the parts of the subject are presented to him. His patience be- comes exhausted by the long interval which must neces- sarily elapse before he is in a position to do any practical work for himself. In accordance with the usual plan, some months are spent in committing to memory a mass of terms descriptive of the various modifications which the organs of plants undergo; and not until the student has mastered these, and perhaps been initiated into the mysteries of the fibro-vascular system, is he permitted to examine a plant as a whole. In this little work, we purpose, following the example of some recent writers, to reverse this order of things, and at the outset to put into the learner’s hands some com- mon plants, and to lead him, by his own examination of these, to a knowledge of their various organs—to 2 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. cultivate, in short, not merely his memory, but also, and chiefly, his powers of observation. It is desirable that the beginner should provide him- self with a magnifying glass of moderate power for examining the more minute parts of specimens; a sharp penknife for dissecting; and a couple of fine needles, which he can himself insert in convenient handles, and which will be found of great service in separating delicate parts, and in impaling fine portions for examination with the aid of the lens. CHAPTER I. EXAMINATION OF A BUTTERCUP. 2. To begin with, there is no plant quite so suitable as our common Buttercup. This plant, which has conspicuous yellow flowers, may be found growing in almost every moist meadow. Having found one, take up the whole plant, loosening the soil a little, so as to obtain as much of the Root as possible. Wash away the earth adher- ing to the latter part, and then proceed to ex- amine your spec- imen. Begin- ning with the Root, (Fig.1)the Fig. 1. first noticeable thing is that it is not of the same colour as the rest of ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 3 the plant. Itis nearly white. Then it is not of the same form as the part of the plant above ground, It is made up of a number of thread-like parts which spread out in all directions, and if you examine one of these threads through your magnifying glass, you will find that from its surface are given off many finer threads, called rootlets. These latter are of great im. portance to the plant; it is largely by means of their tender extremities, and the parts adjacent to these, that it imbibes the nutritious fluids contained in the soil. Whilst you are looking at these delicate rootlets, you may perhaps wonder that they should be able to make their way through the soil, but how they do this will be apparent to you if you examine the tip of one of them with a microscope of considerable power. Fig. 2 repre- sents such a tip highly magnified. It is to be observed that the growth of the rootlet does not take place at the very extremity, yy---6 but immediately behind it. The extreme “ tip consists of harder and firmer matter than Fig.2. that behind, and is in fact a sort of cap or thimble to protect the growing part underneath. As the rootlet grows, this little thimble is pushed on first through the crevices of the soil, and, as you may sup- pose, is soon worn away on the outside, but it is as rapidly renewed by the rootlet itself on the inside. Another difference between the root and the part above ground you will scarcely have failed to discover: the root has no leayes, nor has it any buds. You may describe the root of the Buttercup as fibrous. Fig. 3 ties, either in flowers or in flower-buds. BLEMETS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 3. Let us now look at the Stem. (Fig.3.) Itis upright, pretty firm, coloured green, and leaves spring from it at intervals. As there is scarce- ly any appearance of wood in it, we may describe it ‘as herbaceous. At several points along the main stem branches are given off, and you will observe that immediately below the point from which every branch springs there is a leaf on the stem. The angle between the leaf and the stem, on the upper side‘ is called the azil of the leaf (axilla, an armpit), and it is a rule to which there are scarcely any exceptions, that branches can only spring from the axils of leaves. The stem and all the branches of our plant termi- nate, at their upper extremi- 4. Let us now consider the Leaves. A glance will show you that the leaves of this plant are not all alike. Those at the lower end of the stem have long stalks, (Fig. 4) which we shall henceforward speak of as petioles. Those a little higher up have petioles too, but they are not = quite so long as the lower ones, and the highest leaves have no petioles at all. They appear to be sitting on the stem, and hence are said to be sessile. The lowest wh leaves ot all, as they seem to spring from No the root, may be described as radical, SQQVAE whilst the higher ones may be called al a cauline (caulis, a stem). The broad part of a leaf is its blade. In the plant we are now examining, the blades of the leaves are almost divided into distinct pieces, which are called lobes, and each of these again is more or less deeply cut. Both petioles and blades of our leaves are covered with minute hairs, and so are said to be hairy. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 5 Fig. 4. Hold up one of the ieaves to the light, and you will observe that the veins run through it in all directions, forming a sort of net-work. The leaves are therefore net-veined, The points along the stem from which the leaves arise are called nodes, and the portions of stem between the nodes are called internodes. 5. Let us next examine the Flowers. Each flower in our plant is at the end either of the stem or of a branch of the stem. The upper portions of the stem and its branches, upon which the flowers are raised, are called the peduncles of the flowers. Take now a flower which has just opened. \ : >) Beginning at the outside, you will find five ) little spreading leaves, Somewhat yellowish in colour. Each of these is called a sepal, and the five together form the calyx of the 6 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. flower. If you look at a flower which is a little older, you will probably not find any sepals. They will have fallen off, and for this reason they are said to be decidu- ous. So, in like manner, the leaves of most of our trees are deciduous, because they fall at the approach of winter. You will find that you can pull off the sepals one at a time, without disturbing those that remain. This shows that they are not connected together. They are therefore said to be free, and the calyx is described as polysepalous. Inside the circle of sepals there is another circle of leaves, usually five in number, bright yellow in colour, and much larger than the sepals. Hach of them is called a petal, and the five together form the corolla of the flower. Observe carefully that each petal is not in- serted in front of a sepal, but in front of the space be- tween two sepals. The petals can be removed one at a time like the sepals. They, too, are free, and the cor- olla is polypetalous. If you compare the petals with one another, you will see that they are, as nearly as possi- ble, alike in size and shape. The corolla is therefore regular. 6. We have now examined, minutely enough for our present purpose, the calyx and corolla. Though their divisions are not coloured green, like the ordinary leaves of the plant, still, from their general form, you will have no difficulty in accepting the statement that the sepals and petals are in reality leaves. It will not be quite so apparent that the parts of the flower which still remain are also only modifications of the same structure. But there is good evidence that this is the case. Let us, iii ie ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 7 however, examine these parts that re- main. There is first a large number of little yellow bodies, each at the top of a little thread-like stalk. Each of these Fig. 6. bodies, with its stalk, is called astamen. The little body itself is the anther, and the stalk is its filament. Your magnifying glass will show you that each anther consists of two oblong sacs, united length- wise, the filament being a continuation of the line of union. (Fig. 7.) Tf you look at a stamen of a flower which ~ has been open some time, you will find that “each anther-cell has split open along its outer edge, and has thus allowed a fine yellowish dust to escape from it. (Fig. 8.) This dust 1s called pollen. A powerful Fig.?7. Fig 8 Magnifier will show this pollen to consist of grains having a distinct form. As the stamens are many in number, and free from each other, they are said to be polyandrous. VE 7. On removing the stamens there is still left

oaay ve , Fd a ae j sd ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 19 ~ examined, and accordingly, under these headings in our schedule we write down the terms polysepalous, poly- petalous, &e., to indicate this fact. The symbol © means “ indefinite,” or ‘‘ numerous,” and may be used when the parts of any organ exceed ten in number. BUTTERCUP. | | Seen oe PAT iad COHESION. | ADHESION. OF FLOWER. REMARKS. Calyx. Sepals. 5 Polysepulous. | Inferior, Corolla. Polypetalous. | Inferior. Regular, Petals. 5 Stamens. | & | Polyandrous. | Hypogynous. Filaments. Anthers. Pistil. Apocarpous. Carpels. a Ovary. Superior. Bio) eeodan? 30s eee tes ——————S—_ 20 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. HEPATICA. ORGAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. | REMARKS. Calyx. Polysepalous.| Inferior. Coloured like a Corolla. Sepals. 7-12 | 1 Calyx. Wanting. Petals. Porites ee Stamens. & | Polyandrous. | Hypogynous. Filaments. Anthers. Pistil. Avocarpous. Carpels. ee re. Ovary. Superior. Co ae MARSH-MARIGOLD. 1 | ORGAN. No. | COHESION. ADHESION. | REMARKS | 1 ; 7 ' = | Calyx. | Polysepalous. | Inferior. Coloured like a | Corolla. fepals. | 5-9 | Corolla . | Wasting. Petals. eee eee Stamens. | © | Polyandrous. | Hypogynous. Filaments. Anthers. Pistil. Apocarpous Carpels contain several seeds. Carpels. a Ovary. | Superior. i ee —————————— 21 e CHAPTER IV. EXAMINATION OF OTHER COMMON PLANTS WITH HYPOGYNOUS _ STAMENS, SHEPHERD'S PURSE. ROUND-LEAVED MALLOW. 27. We shall now proceed to examine some plants. the flowers of which exhibit, in their structure, impor- _ tant variations from the Buttercup, Hepatica, and _ Marsh-Marigold. : WW 7. // / f) Fig 26. 22. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. Shepherd’s Purse. This plant, (Fig. 26). is one of the commonest of weeds. Asin the Buttercup, the foliage-leaves are of two kinds, radical and cauline, the former being in a cluster around the base of the stem. The cauline leaves are all sessile, and each of them, at its base, projects backward on each side of the stem, so that the leaf somewhat resembles the head of an arrow. Such leaves are, in fact, said to be sagittate, or arrow- shaped. The flowers grow in a cluster at the top of the stem, and, as the season advances, the peduncle gradu- ally elongates, until, at the close of the summer, it forms perhaps half of the entire length of the stem. You will observe, in this plant, that each separate flower is raised on a little stalk ofits own. Each of © these little stalks 1s a pedicel, and when pedicels are present, the term peduncle is applied to the portion of stem which supports the whole cluster. 28. The flowers, (Fig. 27), are rather small, and so will require more than ordinary care in their examination. The calyx is polysepalous, and of four sepals. The corolla is polypetalous, _ and of four petals. The stamens, (Fig. 28), are six in number, and if you examine them atten- tively, you will see that two of them are shorter than the other four. The stamens are conse- quently said to be tetradynamous. Butif there — Fig. 8, had been only four stamens, in two sets of two ; each, they would have been called didynamous. The © stamens are inserted on the receptacle (hypogynous). The pistil is separate from the other parts of the flower (superior). . 29. To examine the ovary, it will be better to select a ripening pistil from the lower part of the peduncl-. i rf ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 23 Itis a flat body, shaped something like a heart, (Fig 29) _ and having the short style in thenotch. A ridge divides it lengthwise on each side. Carefully cut or pull away the lobes, and this ridge will remain, presenting now the appearance of a nar- row loop, with a very thin membranous partition stretched across it. Around the edge, on both sides of the partition, seeds are suspended from slender stalks. (Fig. 80). There are, then, two carpels ig. 99, Fig. 30 _ united together, and the pistil is, therefore, syncarpous. The peculiar pistil of this flower should be carefully noticed, as it is the leading character of a whole group of plants. When you meet with such a pistil, you may be pretty certain that the plant to which it belongs is a member of the Cress or Crucifer family, so called from the four petals sometimes spreading out like the arms of a cross. We shall find, however, that there are cross- shaped corollas belonging to plants of other groups. SHEPHERD’S PURSE. i Oraan. | No. | Couesron. | ADHESION. | REMARKS. | | Calyx. | Polysepalous. | Inferior. | Sepals. 4 | ! / - Corolla. Polypetalous. | Hypogynous. Petals. i , a ee ee ee q } Stamens. 6 | Tetradyna- Hypogynous. | mous. Filaments. / | Anthers. | Pistil. Carpels The two cells of the ovary se- parated by a | Superior. | thin partition. 2 | Syncarpous. Ovary. | 9A ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 30. Mallow. The round-leaved Mallow (Fig. 31) grows along every way side, and is a very common weed y,,1D cultivated grounds. Pro- cure, if possible, a plant which has ripened its seeds, as well as one in flower. The root of this plant is of a different lind- from those of the three plants first examined. It consists of a stout tapering part, descending deep into the soil, from the surface of which fibres are given off irregularly. t= % e mel prove to be the ovary, which in this case is inferior. Its situation is similar to the situ- ation of the ovary in Willow-herb, and, as in that flower, so in this the calyx-tube ad- heres to the whole surface of the ovary, and the three outer divisions of the perianth are simply upward extensions of this tube. No- tice the peculiar twist in the ovary. The effect of this twist is to turn the lip away Ss i a ? 4% ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 57 from the scape, and so give it the appearance of being the lower petal instead of the upper one, as it really is. 72. The structure of the stamens and pistils remains to be examined, and a glance at the flower shows you that we have here something totally different from the common arrangement of these organs. In the axis of the flower, immediately behind the opening into the spur, there is an upward projection known as the column. The face of this column is the stigma; on each side of the stigma, and adhering to it, is an anther-cell. These cells, though separated by the column, constitute but a single stamen. The stamen, then, in this case is united with the pistil, a condition which is described as gynan- drous. 73. If you have a flower in which the anther-cells are bursting open, you will see that the pollen does not issue from them in its usual dust-like form, but if you use the point of your needle carefully you may remove the contents of each cell in a shass. These pollen masses are of the form shown in Fig. 87. The grains are kept together by a fine tissue or web, and the slender stalk, upon which each pollen mass is raised, is attached by its lower end to a sticky disk on the front of the stigma just above the mouth of the spur. Insects, in their Fig. 87. efforts to reach the honey, bring their heads in contact with these disks, and when they fly away carry the pollen-masses with them, and deposit them on the stigma of the next flower visited. In fact, without the aid of insects it is difficult to see how flowers of this sort could be fertilized at all. 58 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. SHOWY ORCHIS. ORGAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. REMARES. } } ees Perianth. |Gamoph;llous. Superior. Leaves. 6 RSE i nas ! | | eile | Pollen-grains Stamens. 1 Monandrous. Gynandrous. collected in | amasses. Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior. Carpels. 3 Ovary twisted. | 74. Timothy. The top of a stalk of this well-known grass is cylindrical in shape, and upon examination will be found to consist of a vast number of similar pieces compactly arranged on very short pedicels about the stalk as an axis. Carefully separate one of these pieces from the rest, and if the grass has not yet come into flower the piece will present the appearance shown in Fig. 88. In Fig. g3, this Fig. the three points in the middle are the protruding ends of stamens. The piece which you have separated is, in fact, a flower enclosed in a pair of bracts, and all the other pieces which go to make up the top are flowers also, and, except perhaps a few at the very summit of the spike, precisely similar to this one in their structure. 75. Fig. 89 is designed to help you in dissecting a flower which has attained a greater degree of developement than the one shown in Fig. 88. Here the two bracts which enclose the flower have been drawn asunder. To these bracts the name glumes is applied. They are present in all ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 59 plants of the Grass Family, and are often found enclos- ing several flowers instead of one as in Timothy. Inside the glumes will be found a second pair of minute © chaff-like bracts, which are known as palets or pales. These enclose the flower proper. 76. The stamens are three in number, with the anthers fixed by the middle to the long slender filament. The anthers are therefore versatile. The styles are two in number, bearing long feathery stigmas. The ovary contains a single ovule, and when ripe forms a seed- like grain, technically known as a caryopsis. TIMOTHY. ORGAN. | NO. ‘ COHESION. | ADHESION. Glumes. | ne | | Palets. | : ; | Stamens. | 3 Triandrous. rahe Hypogynous. Pistil. | peel rpous. | Superior. fi Carpels, | 1 | CHAPTER XI. COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANTS JUST EXAMINED. STRUCTURE OF THE SEED IN MONOCOTYLEDONS. 77. It is now to be pointed out that the six plants last examined, viz., Dog’s-tooth Violet, Trillium, Indian Turnip, Calla, Orchis, and Timothy, though differing in various particulars, yet have some charac- 60 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. ters common to all of them, just as the group ending with Willow was found to be marked by characters - possessed by all its members. The flowers of Dicoty- ledons were found to have their parts, as a rule, in fours or fives; those of our second group have them in threes or sixes, never in fives. 78. Again, the leaves of these plants are straight- veined, except in Trillium and Indian-Turnip, which raust be regarded as exceptional, and they do not as a rule exhibit the division into petiole and blade which was found to characterize the Exogens. 79. We shall now compare the structure of a grain of Indian Corn with that of the Cucumber or Pumpkin seed which we have already examined (page 45). It will facilitate our task if we select a grain from an ear which has been boiled. And first of all, let us observe that the grain consists of something more than the seed. The grain is very much like the achene of the Buttercup, but differs in this respect, that the outer covering of the former is completely united with the seed-coat underneath it, whilst in the latter the true seed easily separates from its covering. Remove the coats of the grain, and what is left is a whitish starchy- looking substance, having a yellowish body inserted in a hollow (Fig. 90) in the middle of one side. This latter body is the embryo, and may be easily removed. All the rest is ulbumen. Fig. 91 is a front view of the embryo, and Fig. 92 shows a vertical section of the same. The greater part of the embryo consists of a single cotyle- don. The radicle is seen near the base, Fig. 90, Fig. 1 Fig.2. and the plumule above. 80. Comparing the result of our observations with are 5 ae Ny ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 61 what we have already learned about the Cucumber seed, we find that whilst in the latter there are ‘wo cotyledons, in the present case there is but 9ne, and this peculiarity is common to all the plants just exam- ined, and to a vast number of others besides, which are consequently designated Monocotyledonous plants, or shortly Monocotyledons, ‘The seeds of this great Class may differ as to the presence or absence of albu- men, just as the seeds of Dicotyledons do, but in the number of their cotyledons ‘they are all alike. The Orchids, however, are very peculiar from having no cotyledons at all. 81. In addition to the points just mentioned, viz : the number of floral leaves, the veining of the foliage leaves, the usual absence of distinct petioles, and the single cotyledon, which characterize our second great Class, there is still another, as constant as any of these, and that is, the mode of growth of the stem, which is quite at variance with that exhibited in Dicotyledonous plants. In the present group the increase in the thickness of the stem is accomplished not by the deposition of circle after circle of new wood outside the old, but by the production of new wood-fibres through the interior of the stem generally, and the consequent swelling of the stem as a whole. These stems are therefore said to be endogenous, and the plants com- posing the group are called PaGORSDS: as well as Monocotyledons. We shall explain more fully the structure of exogen- ous and endogenous stems, wlen we come to speak of the minute structure of plants in a subsequent chapter. 62 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY CHAPTER XII. MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS, STEMS, AND FOLIAGE-LEAVES. 82. From what has gone before, you should now be tolerably familiar with the names of the different organs of plants, and you have also had your attention directed to some modifications of those organs as they occur in different plants. In all these cases, the adjective terms, which botanists use to distinguish the variations in the form of the organs, have been placed before you, and if you have committed these carefully to memory, you will have laid a good foundation for the lessons which follow on Morphology, the name given to the study of the various forms assumed by the same organ in different plants, or in different parts of the same plant. In some instances, the terms employed, being derived from Latin and Greek, and specially devised for botanical purposes, may seem difficult to learn. We believe, however, that this difficulty will be found to be more apparent than real. You will be surprised at the ease with which the terms will occur to your mind if you learn them with the help of plants which are every- where within your reach—if you be not satisfied with being mere book-botanists With a good many terms you will find no difficulty: whatever, since they will be found to have the same meaning in their botanical applications as they have in their everyday use. ~ ——— ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 63 83. The Root. This organis called the descending axis of the plant, from its tendency to grow downward into the soil from -the very commencement of its devel- opement. Its chief use is to imbibe liquid nourishment, and transmit it to the stem. You will remember that in our examination of some common seeds, such as those of the Pumpkin and Bean (Figs. 67-71), we found at the junction of the cotyledons a small pointed pro- jection called the radicle. Now, when such a seed is put into the ground, under favourable circumstances of warmth and moisture, it begins to grow, or germinate, and the radicle, which in reality is a minute stem, not only lengthens, in most cases, so as to push the cotyle- dons upwards, but developes a root from its lower ex- tremity. All seeds, in short, when they germinate, produce roots from the extremity of the radicle, and roots so produced are called primary roots. 84. There are two well-marked ways in which a pri- mary root may develope itself. It may, by the down- ward elongation of the radicle, assume the form of a distinct central axis, from the sides of which branches or fibres are given off, or root-fibres may spring in be cluster from the end of the radicle at the very commencement of growth. If the root grow in the first way, it will be a tap-root (Fig. 93), examples of which are furnished by the Car- rot, the Mallow, and the Bean ; -if in the see- ond way, it will be a fibrous root, examples of which are furnished by the Buttereup (Fig. 1) and by the entire class of Monocotyledcnous or Endogenous plants. 85. Tap-roots receive different names, ac- 64 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. cording to the particular shape they hap- pen to assume. Thus, the Carrot (Fig. 94) is conical, because from a broad top it tapers gradually and regularly to a point. The Radish, being somewhat thicker at the middle than at either end, is spindle-shaped. The Turnip, and roots of similar shape, are napi_ form (napus, a turnip). Fig. 94, These fleshy tap-roots belong, as a rule, to bi- ennial plants, and are designed as storehouses of food for the plant’s use during its second year’sgrowth. Occasion- ally fibrous roots also thicken in the same manner, as in the Peony, and then they are said to be fascicled or clustered. (Fig 95.) 86. But you must have observed that plants some- times put forth roots in addition to those develop- ed from the end of the radicle. The Verbena of of our gardens, for ex- ? 1 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 65 ample, will take root at every joint, if the stem be laid upon the ground (Fig. 96). The runners of the Strawberry take root at their extremities: and nothing is more familiar than that cuttings from various plants will make roots for themselves if put into proper soil, and supplied with warmth and moisture. All such roots are produced from some other part of the stem than the radicle, and are called secondary or adventitious roots. When such roots are developed from parts of the stem which are not in contact with the ground, they are aerial. 87. There are a few curious plants whose roots never reach the ground at all, and which depend altogether upon the air for food. These are called epiphytes There are others whose roots penetrate the stems and roots of other plants, and thus receive their nourish- ment as it were at second-hand. These are purasitic plants. The Dodder, Indian-Pipe, and Beech-drops, of Canadian woods, are well-known examples. 88. The Stem. As the root is developed from the lower end of the radicle of the embryo, so the stem is developed from the upper end, but with this important difference, that a bud always precedes the formation of the stem, or any part of it or its branches. Between the cotyledons of the Bean (Fig. 71), at the top of the radicle, we found a minute bud called the plumule. Out of this bud the first bit of stem is developed, and during the subsequent growth of the plant, wherever a branch is to be formed, or a main stem to be prolonged, there a bud will invariably be found. The branch buds are always in the axils of leaves, and so are called axillary. Adventitious buds, however, are sometimes produced in plants like the Willow, particularly if the 66 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. etem has been wounded. The bud from which the main stem is developed, or a branch continued, is of course at the end of the stem or branch, and so is terminal. 89. If you examine a few stems of plants at random, you will probably find some of them quite soft and easily compressible, while others will be firm, and will resist compression. The stem of a Beech or a Currant is an instance of the latter kind, and any weed will serve to illustrate the former. The Beech and the Currant have woody stems, while the weeds are herde ~ ceous. Between the Beech and the Currant the chief difference is in size. The Beech is a tree, the Currant a shrub. But you are not to suppose that there is a hard and fast line between shrubs and trees, or between herbs and shrubs. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 75 the forms spathulate (Pig. 114), oblanceolate (that is, the reverse of lanceolate) (Fig. 115), and obovate (Fig. 116). 108. In leaves of the second kind we frequently find the base indented, and then the leaf is cordate, or heart-shaped (Fig. 117). The reverse of this, that is, when the indentation is at the apex, is obcor- date (Fig. 118). The hastate, or spear- shaped (Fig. 119), sugittate, or arrow- \ shaped (Fig. 120), and reniform, sr r i kidney-shaped (Fig. 121), forms are Fis, 119. modificrtions of the second class, Fig. 120, Fig. 121. Fig. 122. and will be readily understood from the annexed figures. If the petiole is attached to any part , of the under surface of the leaf, instead \ of to the edge, the leaf is peltate (shield- / shaped) (Fig. 123). 109. Leaves which are lobed are usually described by stating whether Fig. 123. they are palmately or pinnately veined, and, if the former, the number of lobes is generally 76 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. given. If the leaves are very deeply cut, they are said to be pulmatifid or pinnatifid according to the veining (Fig. 124). Ifthe leaf is palmately lobed, and the lobes at the base are themselves lobed, the leaf is pedate (Fig. 125), be- cause it looks something like a bird’s foot. If the lobes of a pinnatifid leaf are themselves lobed, the leaf is bipinna- tifid. If the leaf is cut up into fine segments, as in Dicentra, it is said to be multifid. 110. Apex. The principal forms of the apex are the mucronate (Fig. 122), when the leaf is tipped with a sharp Fig. 124. point, as though the midrib were projecting beyond the blade ; cuspidate, when the leaf ends abruptly in a very short, but distinctly tapering, point (Fig. 126) ; acute, or sharp; and obtuse, or blunt. Fig. 195. 111. It may happen that the apcx does not end in a point of any kind. If A it looks as though the end had been cut off Y, square, it is truncate. If the end is slightly iV notched, but not sufficiently so to warrant the SN fi description obcordate, it is emaryinate. YW Fig. 126. 112. Margin. If the margin is not indented in any way, it is said to be entire. If it has sharp teeth, point- ing in the direction of the apex, it is serrate, and will be coarsely or finely serrate, according to the size of the ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTAYY. yy | - ieeth. Sometimes the edges of large teeth are themselves finely serrated, and in that case the leaf is doubly serrate (Fig. 127). If the teeth point outwards, that is, if the two edges of each tooth are of : the same length, the leaf is dentate, but if the teeth, Fig. 127. instead of being sharp, are rounded, the leaf is crenate (Fig. 128). The term wavy explainsitself. 118. Base. There are two or three peculiar pig, 398 modifications of the bases of simple sessile leaves which are of considerable importance in distinguishing plants. Sometimes a pair of lobes project backwards and cohere | gp 07 the other side of the stem, so that the stem i) \ appears to pass through the leaf. This is the J!) | case in our common Bellwort, the leaves of (1 Ui / which are accordingly described as perfoliate : (Fig. 129). Sometimes two opposite sessile leaves grow together at the base, and clasp the stem, asin the upper leaves of Honeysuckle, Fig. 129. jn the Triosteum, and in one of our species of Eupatorium. Such leaves are said to be connate or con- nate-perfoliate (Fig. 130). In one of our Everlastings the margin of the leaf is con- _ tinued on each side below the LEE ES | [Pens Pe | . ee ———_ Fig. 30. | Fig. 131. point ofinsertion, and the lodes grow fast to the sides \~ i. bby c-4 )y 78 CLEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL LDOTANY. of the stem, giving rise to what is called the decurrent form (Fig. 131). The terms by which simple leaves are described are applicable also to the leaflets of compound leaves, to the sepals and petals of flowers, and, in short, to any flat forms. f Fig. 132. 114. We have already explained that compound leaves are of two forms, pinnate and palmate. In the former, the leaflets are arranged on each side o y the midrib. There may be a leaflet at the end,“ \ — in which case the leaf is odd-pinnate, or the \— terminal leaflet may be wanting, and then the leaf is A f wriuptly pinnate. In the Pea, the ae ‘af is pinnate and terminates in a Li, /Z, ‘endril (Fig. 98). Very frequently ee the primary divisions of a pinnate _., ae leaf are themselves pinnate, and NYA a Se \, the whole leaf is then twice-pinnate -—~ 4 we (Fig. 132). If the subdivision is “x/\SxS>3 continued through another stage, “sf? the leaf is thrice-pinnate, and so on. a i iS Sometimes, as in the leaves of the Tomato, very small leaflets are found between the larger ones, and this form is described as interrupt- — \\) edly pinnaic, (Fig. 188). Fig. 133, ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 79 Tn the palmate or digitate forms, the leaflets spread out from the end of the petiole, and, in describing them, it is usual to mention the number of divisions. If there are three, the leaf is tri-foliolate ; if there are five, it is quinquefoliolate. 115. In the examination of the Mallow, we found a couple of small leaf-like attachments on the petiole of each leaf, just at the junction with the stem. To these the name séipules was. given. Leaves which have not these appendages are exstipulate. 116. Besides the characters of leaves mentioned above, there remain a few others to be noticed. With regard to their surface, leaves present every gradation from perfect smoothness, as in Wintergreen, to extreme roughness or woolliness, as in the Mullein. If hairs are entirely absent, the leaf is glabrous; if present, the degree of hairiness is dcscribed by an appropriate ad- verb; if the leaf is completely covered, it is villous or villose ; and if the hairs are on the margin only, as in our Clintonia, it is ciliate. Some leaves, like those of Cabbage, have a kind of bloom on the surface, which may be rubbeu otf with the fingers; this condition is described as glaucous. 117. A few plants have anoma- lous leaves. Those of the Onion are filiform. The Pitcher Plant of our Northern swamps has very curious leaves (Fig. 134), appar- ently formed by the turning in and cohesion of the outer edges of an ordinary leaf, so as to form a tube, ’ closed except at the top, and armed Dis. 104. 80 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. on the inner surface with bristles pointing towards the hase of the leaf. 118. Finally, as leaves present an almost infinite variety in their forms, it will often be necessary, in de- scribing them, to combine the terms explained above. For instance, a leaf may not be exactly linear, nor ex- actly lance-shaped, but may approximate to both forms. In such a case the leaf is described as lance-linear, and so with other forms. The following form of schedule may be used with advantage in writing out descriptions of leaves. Tiwo leaves—one of Maple and one of Sweet-Brier—are described by way of illustration. If a leafis compound, the particulars as to outline, margin, apex, base, and surface will have reference to the leaflets. LEAF SCHEDULE. "e: AW OF -7..----) MAPLE. SWEET-BRIER. 1. Position. Cauline. Cauline. 9. Arrangement.| Opposite. Alternate. E 3. Insertion. Petiolate. mene ie 4, Stipulation. ae Stipulate. = 5. Division. é ee Odd ere, 7 ae 6. et cation, aa Ewe a if one ‘ Roundish or oval. q | 8. meee pre ay Doubly serrate. SSS SS ee ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 81 Pointed. Acute. Cordate. Hardly indented. Glabrous above ; whitish ipowiy above e; covered 11. Surface. beneuth. with glands beneuth. | CHAPTER XIII. MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWER-LEAVES. THE CALYX. THE CO- ROLLA, THE STAMENS. THE PISTIL. THE FRUIT. THE SEED. GERMINATION. 119. From an examination of the various forms pre- sented by foliage leaves, we proceed now to those of the floral ones, and we shall first consider the chief modifications in the arrangement of flowers as a whole, to which the term inflorescence is applied. 120. It is found that inflorescence proceeds upon two yvell-defined plans. To understand these, let us recur to our specimens of Shepherd’s-Purse and Buttercup. You will remember that, in the former, the peduncle continues to lengthen as long as the summer lasts, and new flowers continue to be produced at the upper end. Observe, however, that every one of the flowers is produced in the axil of a bract, that as the stem lengthens new bracts appear, and that there is no flower on the end of the stem. You will easily understand then, that the production of flowers in such a plant is only limited by the close of the season or by the exhaus- tion of the plant. Such inflorescence is therefore ealled indefinite, or indeterminate, or axillary. It is sometimes also called centripetal, because if the flowers happen to be in a close cluster, as are the upper 82 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. ones in Shepherd’s-Purse, the order of developement is from the outside towards the centre. 121. Ifyou now look at your Buttercup, you will be at once struck with the difference of plan exhibited. Tho main axis or stem has a flower on the end of it, and its further growth is therefore checked. And so in like manner, from the top downwards, the growth of the branches is checked by the production of flowers at their extremities. The mode of inflorescence here displayed is definite, or determinate, or terminal. It is also called centrifugal, because the developement of the flowers is the reverse of that exhibited in the first mode. The upper, or, in the case of close clusters, the central flowers open first. In either mode, if there is but one flower in each axil, or but one flower at the end of each branch, the flowers are said to be solitary. 122. Of indeterminate inflorescence there are several varieties. In Shepherd’s-Purse we have an instance of the raceme, which may be described as a cluster in which each flower springs from an axil, and is supported on a pedicel of its own. If the pedicels are absent, and the flowers consequently sessile in the axils, the cluster becomes a spike, of which the common Plantain and the Mullein furnish good examples. Tho catkins of the Willow (Figs. 63, 64) and Birch, and the spadiz of the Indian Turnip (Figs. 80, 81) are also spikes, the former having scaly bracts and the latter a fleshy axis. If you suppose the internodes of a spike to be suppressed, so that the flowers are densely crowded, you will have a head, of which Clover and Button-bush supply instances. If the lower pedicels of a raceme are considerably longer than the upper ones, so that all the blossoms are nearly on the same én - + Ts s i . 2 . ’ 4 a ald , “ es. Ap, a eas 7 a ies - ‘ -BLEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. Vee Fig. 135. Pig. 136. level, the cluster is a corymb (Fig. 135). If the flowers in a head were elevated on separate pedicels of the same length, radiating like the ribs of an umbrella, we should have an wmbel, of which the flowers of Geranium and Parsnip (Fig. 49) are examples. A raceme will be compound (Fig. 136) if, instead of a solitary flower, there is a raceme in each avril, and a similar remark will apply in the case of the spike, the corymb, and the umbel. 123. The inflorescence of most Grasses is what is called a panicle. This is a compound form, and is usually a kind of raceme having its primary divisions branched in some irregular manner. If the panicle is 84 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. compact, as in the Grape and Lilac, it is what is called a thyrse. 124. Of determinate inflorescence the chief modification is the cyme. This is a rather flat-topped cluster, having something the appearance of a com- pound corymb, but easily distinguished by this peculi- arity, that the central blossom opens first, then those at the ends of the first set of branches of the cluster, then those on the secondary branches, and so on until the outer buds are reached. The Elder, Dogwood, and St. John’s Wort furnish good examples of the cymose Fig. 137. structure. Fig. 137 shows a loose open cyme. 125. It has already been pointed out that cauline leaves tend to diminish in size towards the upper part of the stem, where the flowers are found. Such re- duced leaves, containing flowers in their axils, are called bracts. In the case of compound flower-clusters, this term is limited to the leaves on the peduncle, or main stem, the term bractlet being then applied to those oc- curring on the pedicels or subordinate stems. In the —_ ¥ A #\ Ly 7 ‘, ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 85 case of the wmbel and the head, it generally happens that a circle of bracts surrounds the base of the cluster. They are then called, collectively, an involucre, and in the case of compound clusters a cirele of bractlets is called an involucel. Bracts are often so minute as to be reduced to mere scales. From our definition, it will be evident that the spathe surrounding the spadix in Indian Turnip is merely a bract. 126. It has already been stated that the parts of the flower, equally with the foliage-leaves, must be regarded as modifications of the same structure, and some proofs of this similarity of structure were given. We shall now proceed to consider in detail the variations in form assumed by these organs. 127. The Calyx. As you are now well aware, this term is applied to the outer circle of floral leaves. These are usually green, but not necessarily so; in some Ex- ogens, and in nearly all Endogens, they are of some other colour. Each division of a calyx is called a sepal, and if the sepals are entirely distinct from each other, the calyx is polysepalous ; if they are united in any de- gree, it is gamosepalous. A calyx is regular or irregular, according as the sepals are of the same or different shape and size. 128. In a gamosepalous calyx, if the sepals are not united to the very top, the free portions are known as calyx-teeth, or, taken collectively; as the limb of the calyx. The united portion, especially if long, as in Willow-herb, is called the calyx-tube, and the entrance to the tube its throat. In many plants, particularly those of the Composite Family, the limb of the calyx consists merely of a circle of bristles or soft hairs, 86 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. and is then described as pappose. In other cases the limb is quite inconspicuous, and so is said to be obsolete. A calyx which remains after the corolla has disappeared, asin Mallow (Fig. 81), is persistent. If it disappears when the flower opens, as in our Bloodroot, it is cadu- cous, and if it falls away with the corolla, it is deciduous. We must repeat here, that when calyx and corolla are not both present, the circle which is present is con- sidered to be the calyx, whether green or not. 129. The Corolla. The calyx and corolla, taken together, are called the jloxal envelopes. When both envelopes are present, the corolla is the inner cne; it is usually, though not invariably, of some other colour than green. Each division of a corolla is called a petal, and the corolla is polypetalous when the petals are com- pletely disconnected; but yamopetalous if they are united in any degree, however slight. The terms requiar and irregular, applied to the calyx, are applica- able also to the corolla, and the terms used in the description of leaves are applicable to petals. If, however, a petal is narrowed into a long and slender portion towards the base, that portion is known as the claw, whilst the broader upper part is Fig. 138. called the limb (Fig. 138). The leaf- terms are then applicable to the limb. 130. Gamopetalous corollas assume various forms, most of which are described by terms easily understood. The forms assumed depend almost entirely on the shape of the petals which, when united, make up the corolla, If these, taken separately, are linear, and are ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 87 A} united to the top, or nearly so, the corolla YY will be tubular (Fig. 139.) If the petals I are wedge-shaped, they will by their union | \ produce a fwnnel-shaped corolla. (Fig. 140.) In the campanulate or bell-shaped form, the 1, enlargement from base to summit is more gradual. If the petals are narrowed abruptly into long claws, the union of the claws into a Fig 139 tube and the spreading of the limb at right angles to the tube will produce the salver-shaped form, as in Phlox (Fig. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. ‘89 the anthor is turned towards the centre of the flower, it 35 said to be introrse; if turned outwards, extrorse. 2 AN: _ 183, The cells of anthers commonl7 i open along their outer edges to dis- | charge their pollen (Fig. 147). In most of the Heaths, however, the pol- len is discharged through a minute aperture at the top of each cell (Hig. #o. 47. Tigi. Fig.48. 148), and in our Blue Cohosh each cell 38 provided with a lid or valve near the top, which opons on a kind of hinge (Fig. 149). ——15i, Stamens may be either ertirely distinct from oach other, in which case they are described as dian- . drous, pentandrous, octandrous, &¢., according to their number (or, if more than twenty, as indefinite), or they may be united in various ways. If their anthers are uniteé in a circle, while the filaments are separate (Fig. 52), they are said to bo syngenesious; but if tho filaments unite to form « tube, while the anthers remain distinct, they are said to be monadelphous (Fig. 82) ; if they are in two groups they are diadelphous (Fig. 37) ; +f in three, triadelphous ; if in more than three, polya- delphous. 135. As to insertion, when stamens are inserted on the receptacle, they are hypogynous ; when borne on tho calyx, perwynous ; when borne on the ovary, epiqy- nous; and if inserted on the corolla, epipetalous. They may, however, be borne evex on the style, as in Orchis, and then they are described as gynandrous. 136. If the stamens are four in number, and in two pairs of different lengths, they are said to be didyna- mous (Fig. 58); if six in number, four long and two short, they are tetrad?mamous (Fig. 28), ond, finglly, 90 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. if the stamens are hidden in the tube of a gamopetalous corolla, they are said to be included, butif they protrude beyond the tube they are exserted (Fig. 139). 137. The Pistil. Thisis the name given to the central organ of the flower. It is sometimes also called the gynecium. As in the case of the stamens, the structure of the pistil must be regarded as a modifica- tion of the structure of leaves generally. The pistil may be formed by the folding of a single carpellary leaf as in the Bean (Fig. 159), in which case it is simple ; or it may consist of a number of carpels, either entirely separate from each other, or united together in various ways, in which case it is compound. If the car- pels are entirely distinct, as in Buttercup, the pistil is apocarpous ; if they are united in any degree, it is syncarpous. 138. In our examination of the Marsh Marigold (Figs. 24, 25) we found an apocarpous piustil of several carpels. We found also that each carpel contained a number of seeds, and that, in every case, the seeds were attached to that edge of the carpel which was turned towards the centre of the flower, and that, as the carpels ripened, they invariably split open along that edge, but not along the other, so that the carpel when opened out presented the appearance of a leaf with seeds attached to the the seeds are thus attached, is called the ventral suture, the opposite edge, corresponding to the mid-rib of a leaf, being the dorsal suture. : If we suppose a number of simple carpels to oppro each other, and unite in the centre of a flower, uf evident that the pistil so formed would contain as many cells as there were carpels, the cells being separ- tee: The inner edge of a simple carpel, to which 4 S _ * \ ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 91 ated from each other by a double wall, and that the seeds would be found arranged about the centre or axis of the pistil; and this is the actual state of things in the Tulip, whose pistil is formed by the union of three earpels. When the pistil ripens, the double walls sepa- rating the cells split asunder. To these separating walls the name dissepiment or partition is given. 140. But it often happens that though several car- pels unite to form a compound pistil, there is but one cell in the ovary. This is because the separate carpel- lary leaves have not been folded before uniting, but have been joined edge to edge, or rather with their edges slightly € 3) af turned inwards. In these cases the Vey, seeds cannot, of course, be in the \e centre of the ovary, but will be found on the walls, at the junction of the carpels (Figs. 150, 151). In some plants the ovary © is one-celled, and the seeds are arranged Y ound a column which rises from the bottom | of the cell (Figs. 152, 153). This case is Figs. 152, 153. explained by the early obliteration of the partitions, which must at first have met in the centre of the cell. 141. In all cases the line or projection to which the seeds are attached is called the placenta, and the term placentation has reference to the manner in which the placentas are arranged. In the simple pistil the placentation is marginal ov sutural. In the syncarpous pistil, if the dissepiments meet in the centre of the ovary, thus dividing it into sc parate cells, the placenta- tion is central or axile ; if the ovary is one-celled and Fig. 151. Fig. 150. bears the seeds on its walls, the placentation is partetu’s 92 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. andif the seeds are attached to a central column, it is JFree central. . 142. Besides the union of the ovaries there may also be a union of the styles, and even of the stigmas. 143. A very exceptional pistil is found in plants of 27m the Pine Family. Here the ovules, in- stead of being enclosed in an ovary, are f# usually simply attached to the inner sur- Fig. 154. face of an open carpellary _ leaf or scale, the scales forming what is @ 0 known as a cone (Figs. 154, 155, 156). The plants of this family are hence called Figs. 155, 153. gymnospermous, or naked-seeded. 144. The Fruit. In coming to the consideration of the Fruit, you must fort he present lay aside any popu- lar ideas you may have acquired as to the meaning of this term. You will find that, in a strict botanical sense, many things are fruits which, in the language of common life, are not so designated. For instance, we hardly speak of a pumpkin or a cucumber as fruit, and yet they are clearly so, according to the botanist’s defi- nition of that term. A fruit may be defined to be the ripened pistil together with ary other organ, such as the calyx or receptacle, which may be adherent to it. This definition will perhaps be more clearly understood after a few specimens have been attentively examined. 145. For an example of the simplest kind of fruit let us revert to our Buttercup. As the carpels ripen, the style and stigma are reduced to a mere point. On cutting open one of these carpels when fully ripe, we find it contains a single seed, not quite filling the cavity, but attached at one point to the wall of the latter. What you have to guard against, in this ‘har ghee" weal ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 93 instance, is the mistake of considering the entire carpel to be merely a seed. It is a seed envel- oped in an outer covering which we called the ovary in the early stages of the flower, but which, now that it is ripe, we shall call the pericarp. This pericarp, with the seed which it contains, is the fruit. The prin- cipal difference between the fruit of Marsh-Marigold and that of Buttercup is, that, in the former, the peri- carp envelopes several seeds, and, when ripe, sp/its open down one side. The fruit of Buttereup does not thus split open. In the Pea, again, the pericarp encloses several seeds, but splits open along both margins. The fruits just mentioned all result from the ripening of apocarpous pistils, and they are consequently spoken of as apocarpous fruits. 146. In Willow-herb, you will recollect that the calyx-tube adheres to the whole surface of the ovary. The fruit in this case, then, must include the calyx. When the ovary ripens, it splits longitudinally into four pieces (Fig. 41), and, as the pistil was syncarpous, so also is the fruit. 147. In the Peach, Plum, Cherry, and stone-fruits or drupes generally, the seed is enclosed in a hard shell called a putamen. Outside the putamen is a thick layer of pulp, and outside this, enclosing the whole, is a skin-like covering. In these fruits all outside the seeds is the pericarp. In one respect these stone-fruits resemble the fruit of the Buttercup: they do not split open in order to discharge their seeds. All fruits having this peculiarity are said to be indehiscent, whilst those in which the pericarp opens, or separates into pieces (called valves), are de- hiscent. 904 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY 148. In the Apple (Fig. 48) and Pear, the seeds are contained in five cells in the middle of the fruit, and these cells are surrounded by a firm fleshy mass which is an enlargement of the calyx. In fact, the remains of the five calyx-teeth may be readily detected at the end of the apple opposite the stem. As in Willow-herb, the calyx is adherent to the ovary, and therefore calyx and ovary together constitute the pericarp. These fleshy-fruits, or pomes, as they are sometimes called, are of course indehiscent. 149. In the Currant, as in the Apple, you will find the remains of a calyx at the top, so that this fruit, too, is inferior, but the seeds, instead of being separated from the mass of the fruit by tough cartilaginous cell- walls, as in the Apple, he imbedded in the soft juicy pulp. Such a fruit as this is a berry. The Gooseberry and the Grape are other examples. The Pumpkin and other gourds are similar in structure to the berry, but besides the soft inner pulp they have also a firm outer layer and a hard rind. The name pepo is generally given to fruits of this sort. 150. A Raspberry or Blackberry (Fig. 157) proves, on examination, to be made up of a large number of juicy little drupes, aggre- gated upon a central axis. It cannot, therefore, be a true berry, but may be caiied an aggregated fruit. 151. A Strawberry (Fig. 158) is a fruit consisting chiefly of a mass of pulp, havy- ing its surface dotted over with little carpels (achenes) similar to those of the Buttercup. The flesh of the Strawberry ie. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 95 is simply an enlarged receptacle ; so that this fruit, also, is not a true berry. 152. The fruit of Sweet-Brier (Fig. 45) consists of a red fleshy calyx, lined with a hollow receptacle which bears a number of achencs. This fruit is therefore analogous to that of the Strawberry. In the latter the achenes are on the outer surface of a raised receptacle, while, in the former, they are on the inner surfaco of a hollow receptacle. 153. The Cone of the Pine (Fig. 154) is a fruit which differs in an important respect from all those yet men- tioned, inasmuch as it is the product, not of a singlo flower, but of as many flowers as there are scales. It may therefore be called a c»/lective or multiple fruit. The Pine-Apple is another instance of the samo thing. 154. Of dehiscent fruits there are some varieties which receive special names. The fruit of the Pea, or ; Bean (Fig. 159), whose pericarp splits open along both margins, is called a /equme ; that of Marsh-Marigold (Tig. Fig. 159. 25), which opens down one side only, is a follicle. Both of these are apocar- pous. 155. Any syncarpous fruit, having a dry dehiscent pericarp, is called a capsule. A long and slender cap- sule, having two cells separated by a membranous partition bearing the sced, and from which, when ripe, the valves fall away on each side, is called a silique 96 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. | (Fig. 160). If, as in Shepherd’s Purse (Fig. 29), the capsule is short and broad, it is called a silicle. If the capsule opens € horizontally, so that the top comes \/ off like a lid, as in Purslane (Fig. . Fig.161. 161), it is a pywis. 156. Any dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit is called an achene, of which the fruit of Buttercup (Fig. 14) is an example. In Wheat the fruit differs from that of Butter- pig i¢9, cup in having a closely fitting and adherent pericarp. Such a fruit is called a caryopsis oY grain. A nut is usually syncarpous, with a hard, dry peri- carp. A winged fruit, such as that of the Maple (Fig. 162), is called a Fig. fae samara or key. 157. The Seed. The seed has already been de- scribed as the fertilized vvule. It consists of a nucleus, enveloped, as a rule, in two coats. The outer one, which is the most important, is known as the testa. Occasionally an additional outer coat, called an aril, is found. In the Euonymus of Canadian woods, the aril is particularly prominent in autumn, owing to its bright scarlet colour. The stalk, by which the seed is attached to the placenta, is the funiculus, and the scar, formed on the testa where it separates from the seed-stalk, is called the hilum. In the Pea and the Bean this scar is very distinct. 158. Germination of the Seed. When aseedis lightly covered with earth, and supplied with warmth and moisture, it soon begins to swell and soften, owing to the absorption of water, and presently bursts its ae i ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 97 goats, either to such a degree as to liberate the cotyle- _ dons completely, or so as to permit the escape of the radicle and the plumule. The former immediately _ takes a downward direction, developing » root frem its - lower end, and either elongates through its whole length, in which case the cotyledons are pushed above the surface, as in the Bean, or remains stationary, in which event the cotyledons remain altogether under - ground, as in the Pea and in Indian Corn. Before the root is developed, and the little plantlet is thereby enabled to imbibe food from the coil, it has to depend for its growth upon a store of nourishment supplied by the parent plant before the seed was cast adrift. ‘The relation of this nourishment to the embryo is different in different seeds. In the Bean and the Pumpkin, for example, it is contained in the cotyledons - of the embryo itself. But in Indian Corn, as we have already seen, if constitutes the bulk of the seed, the embryo merely occupying a hollow in one side of it. In such cases as the latter, it will be remembered that the term albumen is applied to the nourishing matter, as distinguished from the embryo. 159. As to the number of cotyledons, it may be re peated that, as a rule, seeds are either dicotyledonous or monocotyledonous. Some plants of the Pine Fam- ily, however, exhibit a modification of the dicotyledo- nous structure, having severak cotyledons, and being consequently distinguished as polycotyledonous. 98 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. CHAPTER XV. ON THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS—EXOGENOUS AND ENDOGENOUS STEMS—FOOD OF PLANTS. 160. Up to this point we have been engaged in observing such particulars of structure in plants as are manifest to the naked eye. It is now time to enquire a little more closely, and find out what-we can about the elementary structure of the different organs. We have all observed how tender and delicate is a little plantlet of any kind just sprouting from the seed; but as time elapses, and the plant developes itself and acquires strength, its substance will, as we know, assume a texture varying with the nature of the plant, either becoming hard and firm and woody, if it is to be a tree or a shrub, or continuing to be soft and compressible as long as it lives, ifit is to be an herb. Then, as a rule, the leaves of plants are of quite a different consis- tency from the stems, and the ribs and veins and petioles of foliage leaves are of a firmer texture than the remaining part of them. In all plants, also, the newest portions, both of stem and root, are extremely soft compared with the older parts. It will be our object in this chapter to ascertain, as far as we can, the reason of such differences as these; and to accomplish this, we shall have to call in the aid of a microscope of much higher power than that which has hitherto served our purpose. 161. If a small bit, taken from a soft stem, be boiled for a while so as to reduce it to a pulp, and a little of this pulp be examined under the microscope, it will be found to be entirely composed of more or less rounded ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 99 or oval bodies, which are either loosely thrown together (Fig. 163), or are pressed into a more or less compact Fig. 163. Fig. 164. Fig. 164 (a). mass. In the latter case, owing to mutual pressure ’ they assume a somewhat angular form. These bodies ‘are called cells. They are hollow, and their walls are usually thin and transparent. The entire fabric of every plant, without any exception whatever, is made up of cells ; but as we proceed in our investigation, we shall find that these cells are not all precisely alike, that as they become older they tend, as a rule, to thicken their walls and undergo changes in form, which, t> a great extent, determine the texture of the plant's . ubstance. 162. A fabric made up of cells is called a tissue. A collection of such cells as we found constituting our pulp, and as we should find constituting the mass of all the soft and new parts of plants, as well as of some hard parts, is called cellular tissue. The cells com- posing cellular tissue vary a great deal in size in different plants, being, as a rule, largest in aquatics, in which they may sometimes be observed with the naked eye. Ordinarily, however, they are so minute that millions of them find room in a cubic inch of tissue. 163. When young, the walls of the cells are quite unbroken. Each cell is lined with an extremely thin mewbrane, and a portion of its cavity is occupied by a 100 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. soft body called the nucleus. The space between the nucleus and the lining of the cell is filled with a thick- ish liquid called protoplasm, and the microscope re- veals to us the fact that, as long as the cells are living cells, a circulation or current is constantly kept up in the protoplasm of each. To this curious movement the term cyclosis has been applied. As the cells become older, the nature of their contents is altered by the introduction of watery sap, in which other substances are found, notably starch, sugar, chlorophyll (to which leaves owe their green colour), and crystals (raphides) of various salts of lime. The substance of which the cell-wall is composed is called cellulose, and is a chemical compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In the protoplasm nitrogen is found in addition to the three elements just mentioned. 164. The growth of a plant consists in the multiplication of its cells. Every plant begins its existence with a single cell, and by the repeated division of this, and the growth of the successive sections, the whole fabric of the plant, whether herb, shru), or tree, is built up. The division of a cell is accomplished by the formation of a partition across the middle of it, the nucleus having previously separated into two pieces. The partition is formed out of the lining of the cell. Each half of the cell then enlarges, and, when its full size is attained, divides again, and so on, as long as the cells are living cells. 165. Butin order to increase their size, food of some kind is essential. Growing plants supply this to their cells mainly in the form of sap, which is taken in by the root-fibres, and mide suitable, or elaborated, or assimilated, by chemical action in the plant itself. By ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 101 very curious process, the liquids absorbed by the root pass from cell to cell, though each is quite enclosed, until they reach the leaves, where the elaboration is performed. ‘The process is carried on under the law, that if two liquids of different density be separated by a thin or porous diaphragm, they will permeate the diaphragm, and change places with greater or less rapidity according to cireumstances, the liquid of less density penetrating the diaphragm more rapidly than the other. The cells of plants, as we have said, contain dense liquid matter. ‘The moisture present in the soil, and in contact with the tender root-hairs (which are made up of cells, you will remember), being of less den- sity than the contents of the cells, flows into them, and is then passed on from cell to cell on the same princi- ple. The supply of assimilated matter is thus renewed as fast as it is appropriated by the newly divided and growing cells. 166. If a plant, during its existence, simply multiplies its cells in this way, it can of course only be a mass of cellular tissue as long as it lives. But we see every- where about us plants, such as trees and shrubs, whose stems are extremely firm and enduring. How do these stems differ from those of tender herbs? How d» they differ from the soft parts of the plants to which they themselves belong? A moment's consideration will make it evident that, as every plant begins with a single cell, and increases by successive multiplications of it, every part of the plant must at some time have been composed cf cellular tissue, just as the newer portions are at present. The cells of those parts which are no 102 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. longer soft must, then, have undergone a change of some kind. Let us try to understand the nature of this change. It has been stated that the walls of new cells are extremely thin ; as they become older, however, they, as a rule, increase in thickness, owing to deposits of cellulose upon their inner surface. It sometimes happens, indeed, that the deposits are so copious as to almost completely fill up the cavity of the cell. The idea will naturally suggest itself, that this thickening of the walls must impede the passage of the sap, but it is found that the thickening is not uniform, that there are, in fact, regular intervals which remain thin, and that the thin spot in one cell is directly opposite a cor- responding thin spot in the wall of its neighbour. Eventually, however, these altered cells cease to convey sap. 167. The hard parts of plants, then, differ from the coft parts in the different consistency of their cell-walls. But they differ also in the form of the cells themselves. In those parts where toughness and strength will be required, as, for ex- ample, in the inner bark, in the stem, and in the frame-work of the leaves, the cells become elongated and their extremities as- sume a tapering form, so that they overlap each other, instead of standing end to end as in ordinary cellular tissue (Fig. 165). To this drawing-out process, combined with the hardening of the walls, is due the firmness Fig. 165. of wood generally, and the tissue formed by these modi- fied cells is known as woody tissue. On account of the great relative length of the cells found in the inner £LEMENTS OF StRUCTURAL BOTANY. 108 bork, and the consequent toughness conferred upon that part, the tissue formed by them is specially dis- tinguished as bast tissue. Associated with the wood. cells are commonly found others, differing from them chiefly in being larger in diameter, and formed out of rows of short cells, standing end to end, by the disap- pearance of the partitions which separated them. These enlarged cells, produced in this way, are <== called vessels or ducts, and a combination of f°” them is known as vascular tissue. Duets in- variably show markings of some sort on their walls. The one figured in the margin (Vig. 166) is a dotted duct, the dots being spaces 9 which have not been thickened by deposits of : cellulose. Other ducts are spirally marked on £ * their inner surface, but in this case the mark- te a af : ings are themselves the thickened part of the Fig. Pt, . cell-wall. It is convenient to speak of the mixtun of woody and vascular tissue as the /ibro-vaseular system. The name parenchyma is commonly applied to ordi- nary cellular tissue, whilst tissue formed of long cells is called prosenchyma, it will be understood, then, that all cells of every description, found entering into the composition of a plant, are only modifications of one original form, the particular form ultimately assumed by the cells depend- ing mainly on the functions to be discharged by that portion of the plant in which the cells occur, EXOGENOUS AND ENDOGENOUS STEMS, 7 168. It has already been hinted that the two great classes of plants, Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, differ in the mode of growth of their stems, We shall _— 104 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. now explain somewhat more in detail the nature of this difference. Bearing in mind the fact stated in the pre- ceding part of the chapter, that old and new parts differ mainly in the shape of their component cells and the toy tuze of the cell-walls, it will be found that the dis- tinction between Exogenous aad Endogenous growth depends mostly upon the relative situation of the new cells and the old omes—of the parenchyma and the prosenchyma. meas 169. Let us begin with the stem of a Dicotyledon. Fig. 167 shows a section of a young shoot. The whole of the white part is cellular tissue, the central portion being the pith. The dark wedge-shaped portions are fibro-vascular bundles, consist- ing mainly of woody tissue, a few vessels, easily recognised by their larger openings, being interspersed. As the shoot becomes older, these bundles enlarge, and others are formed between them, so that the radiating channels of cellular tissue which separate them are in the end re- duced to much smaller compass than in the earlier stages of growth (Tig. 168). The narrow channels are the medullary rays. The cells of which they are composed are flattened by compression. Eventually, a ring of wood is Fig. 168. formed, the medullary rays intersecting it in fine lines, ws the sawed end of almost any log willshow. Outside the zone of wood is the bark, which at first consists altogether of cellular tissue. As the season advances, Fig. 167. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 105 however, long bast cells are formed in the inner part, next the wood, which part.is thereafter specially desig- nated the liber. The outer ring of all, enclosing the whole stem, is the epidermis or skin. 170. It isnow to be observed that, year after year, the rings of wood are increased in thickness by the multipli- cation of their outer cells. There is, consequently, always a layer of soft cells between the wood and the bark. This is known as the cambium layer, and it is here that the whole growth of an exogenous stem takes place. The soft cells on its inner side are gradu- ally transformed into woody tissue and vessels, whilst those on its outer side become the bast cells of the liber, and others form the extension of the medullary rays. Bear in wind, then, that the exogenous stem is char- acterized (1) by the formation of its wood in rings, (2) by the presence of the continuous cambium-layer, and (3) by the presence of a true bark. 171. Let us now consider the structure of an endo- genous stem. Fig. 169 represents a section of one. a Here, again, the white portion is ‘49% > ».. cellular tissue, whilst the dark [ lee a’ 2 cite parts are the fibro-vascular bundles. <= * \ This stem is at once distinguished “4 @ g°*~ from the other by the isolation of ¢ 4, »»/ these bundles. They never co- s 5 alesce to form a ring. That por- Fig. 169. tion of each bundle, which is nearest the centre of the stem, corresponds to the wood of the ~ exogen, whilst the outer portion of each consists of ~ eells which resemble the exogenous bast-cells, but there 106 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. is no cambiwm-layer, and consequently no arrangement for the indefinite continuance of the growth of the bundles. Once formed, therefore, they remain un- changed, and the growth of the stem consists in the production of new ones. These (which originate at the bases of new leaves) being introduced amongst the older ones, act as wedges, and swell the stem as a whole. THE FOOD OF PLANTS. 172. A word or two is necessary on this subject in addition to what has already been said. The nature of a plant's food may be determined by making a chemical analysis of the plant’s substance. As already stated, the chemical elements found in plants are chiefly four, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen. ana nitrogen, the latter elc- ment occurring in the protoplasm of activo cells. What, then, are the sources from which the plant obtains these materials of its growth? In the atmosphere there is always present a gas known as carbon dioxide, or car- bonic acid. This gas, which is a compound of carbon and oxygen, is produced largely in the lungs of animals, anc by them exhaled. It'is readily soluble in water, zo thai rain-drops in their passage through the air dissolve it and carry it with them into the soil. Again, wherever anima, or vegetablc matter is decaying there is pro- duced a gas called ammonia, a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, and, like carbonic acid, readily soluble, so that thic also is present in rain-water. And when it is considered that « very large proportion of the air con- sists of free nitrogen, soluble to some extent in water, and that: tho elements of water itself arc oxygen and hydro- gen it will be cvidont that the moisture in tho earth contains a supply of ever~ one of the elementc ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 107 c chiefly required by the plant. Now it is a matter of common experience that, with rare exceptions, a plant will wither and die unless supplied with adequate mois- ture. We therefore come to the conclusion, that at any rate the greater part of the nourishment of plants is imbibed in liquid form through the roots. The law of endosmose, in accordance with which this imbibing goes on, has already been explained. The sap, as it is called, ascends through the newer tissues, and is at- tracted to the leaves by the constant evaporation going on there, and the consequent thickening of the contents _ of the cells in those organs. 173. And this leads to the question—How does the water-vapour make its escape from the leaves? The microscope solves this difficulty for us. A leaf almost always presents one surface towards the sky and the other towards the ground. It is protected on both sides »y an epidermis or skin, consisting of very closely packed cells. The side exposed to the sun is almost Fig. 170. unbroken, but the lower side is seen, under the microscope, to be perforated by innu- merable little openings, which lead into the body of the leaf. These openings, to which the name stomata, or stomates (Fig. 170) has been given, have the power of expanding when moistened by damp air, and contract- ing when dry. By this wonderful contriv- ance, the rate of evaporation is regulated, and a proper balance maintained between the supply at the root and the loss from the leaves. The stomates, it may be noticed, serve also as means whereby carbonic acid may be directly absorbed from the air. In those plants whose leaves float on water the stomates are 108 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. found on the upper surface, and in vertical leaves they occur pretty equally on both surfaces. Immersed leaves are without stomates. 174. The crude sap, then, which ascends into the leaves is concentrated by the evaporation of its super- fluous water. When so concentrated, the action of sun- light, in connection with the green colouring matter existing in the cells of the leaves, and known as chloro- phyll, decomposes the carbonic acid, contained in the sap, into its carbon and oxygen. The latter gas issues from the leaves into the air, whilst the carbon is retained and combined with the remaining elements to form claborated sap, out vt which the substance of new cells is constructed. 175. It thus appears that the chemical action which goes on in the leaves of plants is precisely the reverse of what takes place in the lungs of animals. The latter inhule oxygen, combine it with the carbon of the blood, and exhale the resulting carbonic acid. The former take in carbonic acid, decompose it in the leaves and other green parts, and exhale the oxygen. Plants may there- fore be regarded as purifiers of the air. 176. It remains to be added, that besides the four substances, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, which are called the organic elements, many others are found in the fabric of plants. When a piece of wood is burnt away, the organic elements disappear, but a quantity of ash remains behind. This contains the various mineral substances which the water absorb- ed by the plant has previously dissolved out of the soil, but which it is not necessary to our present purpose to enumerate here. FO Oe res ey ey eae, eee eee we — ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY, 109 CHAPTER XVI. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS ACCORDING TO THE NATURAL SYSTEM, 177. Hitherto, our examination of plants has been confined to a few selected specimens, and we have examined these chiefly in order to become acquainted with some variations in the details of growth, as exem- plified by them. ‘Thus, we have found plants which agree in exhibiting two cotyledons in the embryo, and others, again, which are monocotyledonous. Some members of the former group were found to exhibit two sets of floral envelopes, other only one, and others, again, were entirely without these organs. And so on through the various details. We now set out with the vegetable world before us—a world populated by forms almost infinite in number and variety. If, therefore, our study of these forms is to be carried on to advantage, we shall have to resolve upon some definite plan or system upon which to preceed; otherwise we shall merely dissipate our energies, and our results will be without meaning. Just as, in our study of language, we find it convenient to classify words into what we call parts of speech, and to divide and subdivide these again, in order to draw finer distinctions, so, in our study of plants, it will be necessary to arrange them 110 _ ELEMENTS OF S ?UCTURAL BOTANY, first of all into comprehensive groups, on the ground of | some characteristic possessed by every member of each group. Just as, in Latin, every noun whose genitive case is found to end in @ is classed with nouns of the first declension, so in Botany, every plant presenting certain peculiarities will be placed in a group along with all the other plants presenting the same peculiar- ities, 178. Some hints have already been given you as to the kind of resemblances upon which classification is based. For instance, an immense number of plants are found to produce seeds with a dicotyledonous embryo, while an immense number of others have monocotyledonous embryos. ‘This distinction, there- fore, is so pronounced, that it forms the basis of a divis- ion into two very large groups. Again, a very large number of dicotyledonous plants have their corollas in separate petals; many others have them united, whilst others again have no petals at all. Here, then, is an opportunity to subdivide the Dicotyledons into poly- petalous, gamopetalous, and apetalous groups. And so we go on, always on the plan that the more widely spread a peculiarity is found to be, the more compre- hensive must be the group based on that peculiarity ; and so it happens, that the smallest groups of all come to depend upon distinctions which are, in many cases, by no means evident, and upon which botanists often find themselves unable to agree. 179. As our divisions and subdivisions will neces- sarily be somewhat numerous, we shall have to devise a special name for each kind of group, in order to avoid confusion of ideas. We shall, then, to begin with, dvaw a broad line of ar a? ae. 2. eee | = > 4 4 of the plant is Ranunculus acris. In like manner, the name of the plant popularly called Marsh Marigold is Caltha palustris. 182. The Key which is prefixed to the Classification will enable you to determine without much difficulty : the Order to which a plant belongs, but nothing more. Having satisfied yourselves as to the Order, you must turn to the page on which that Order is described, and, by carefully comparing the descriptions there given with the characters exhibited by your plant, decide upon its Genus, and, in the same manner, upon its Species. . ‘ THE HERBARIUM. Those who are anxious to make the most of their botanical studies will find it of great advantage to gather and preserve specimens for reference. A few hints, therefore, on this subject will not be out of place. It will, of course, be an object to collectors to have their specimens exhibit as many of their natural char- acters as possible, so that, although dried and pressed, there will be no difficulty in recognizing them; and to this end neatness and care are the first requisites. Specimens should be collected when the plants are in flower, and, if possible, on a dry day, as the flowers are then in better condition than if wet. If the plant is small, the whole of it, root and all, should be taken up ; if too large to be treated in this way, a flower and one or two of the leaves (radical as well as cauline, if these be different,) may be gathered. As many of your specimens will be collected at a dis- tance from home, a close tin box, which may be slung over the shoulder by a strap, should be provided, in which the plants may be kept fresh, particularly if a few drops of water be sprinkled upon them. Perhaps a better way, however, -is to carry a portfolio of conveni- ent size—say 15 inches by 10 inches—made of two pieces of stout pasteboard or thin deal, and having a couple of straps with buckles for fastening it together. Between the covers should be placed sheets of blotting paper, or coarse wrapping paper, as many as will allow the specimens to be separated by at least five or six sheets. ithe advantage of the portfolio is, that the : 16 116 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. plants may be placed vetween the sheets of blotting paper, and subjected to pressure by means of the straps, as soon as they are gathered. If carried in a box, they should be transferred to paper as soon as possible. The specimens should be spread out with great care, and the crumpling and doubling of leaves guarded against. The only way to prevent moulding is to place plenty of paper between the plants,and change the paper frequently, the frequency depending on the amount of moisture contained in the specimens. From ten days to a fort- night will be found sufficient for the thorough drying of almost any plant you are likely to meet with. Havy- ing made a pile of specimens with paper between them, as directed, they should be placed on a table or floor, covered by a flat board, and subjected to pressure by placing weights on the top ; twenty bricks or so will answer very well. When the specimens are thoroughly dry, the next thing is to mount them, and for this purpose you will require sheets of strong white paper ; a good quality of unruled foolscap, or cheap drawing paper, will be suit- able. The most convenient way of attaching the spec- imen to the paper is to take a sheet of the same size as your paper lay the specimen carefully in the centre, wrong side up, and gum it thoroughly with a very soft brush. Then take the paper to which the plant is to be attached, and lay it carefully on the specimen. You can then lift paper and specimen together, and, by pressing lightly with a soft cloth, ensure complete ad- hesion. To render plants with stout stems additionally secure, make a slit with a penknife through the paper immediately underneath the stem; then pass a narrow band of paper round the stem, and thrust both ends of ———S lee ———s se ee ee ee ee ee ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. T17 the band through the slit. The ends may then be gummed to the back of the sheet. The specimen having been duly mounted, its botan- ical name should be written neatly in the lower right- hand corner, together with the date of its collection, and the locality where found. Of course only one Species should be mounted on each sheet; and when a sufficient number have been prepared, the Species of the same Genus should be placed in a sheet of larger and coarser paper than that on which the specimens are mounted, and the name of the Genus should be written outside on the lower corner. Then the Genera of the same Order should be collected in the same manner, and the name of the Order written outside as before. The Orders may then be arranged in accordance with the classification you may be using, and carefully laid away in a dry place. If a cabinet, with shelves or draw- ers, can be specially devoted to storing the plants, so much the better. ; Rel aL ania iret (ted aed Bey gs cae he on eS eunhlat 5. rake 3 ore VP GRE AGT Boreas ne? WES | I et se ae esl Sar fie Tee iets i Ce tant yay CAG eer COPIER nce te sant bean. eat Wate Ty VRE ee ee 8 4 se Se ‘ri : 7 » | 3 : er at 5A asit5 abe ES INDEX AND GLOSSARY The references are to the Sections, unless Figures are specified. Abruptly pinnate, 114. Absorption by roots, ?, 165, 172. Acaulescent : apparently without a stem, 18. Accessory fruits: such as consist chiefly of an enlargement of some organ, such as the calyx or receptacle, not organically united with the pistil, 151, 152. Achenium or Achene, 156 Achlamydeous : having neither calyx nor corolla, 56 Acicular, Fig. 110. Acrogens, 179. Acuminate : with a long tapering point. Acute: sharp-pointed, 110. Adherent: » term applied to the union of unlike parts; e.g. stamens with corolla, &c. Adnate (anthers), 132. Adventitious : occurring out of the natural position. Adventitious roots, 86. Adventitious buds, 88. Aerial roots, 86. Aestivation : the folding of the floral envelopes in the bud. Aggregate fruits, 150. Air-plants (epiphytes), 87. Albumen (of the seed): solid nourishing matter distinct from the embryo, 12. Albuminous seeds, 59. Alternate (leaves), 99. Ament or Catkin, Figs. 63, 64. Amplexicaul: clasping a stem. Anatropous : a term applied to ovules when inverted, so that the micropyle is close to the point of attachment. Andrecium: the cirée of stamens collectively, 132. Androus: an ending of adjectives descriptive of stamens, ¢.g., monandrous, polyandrous, &c. 3 Angiospermous : applied to plants whose seeds are enclosed in an ovary. Annual: a plant which grows from the seed, flowers, and dies, in the same season. Anophytes, 179. Anthe : the essential part of a stamen, containing the pollen, 132. Apetalous : without a corolls ; having only ono sot of floral envelopes, 20 , 4 a29 fi 120 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Apocarpous: applied to pistils when the carpels are free from each ether. Appendage: anything attached or added. Appressed : in contact, but not united. Aquatic: growing in the water, whether completely, or only partially, immersed. Arborescent: resembling a tree. Aril, 157. Arrow-shaped, Fig. 120. Ascending: rising upward in a slanting direction; applied chiefly to weak stems. Ascending axis : the stem of a plant. Ascidium : a pitcher-shaped leaf, Fig. 134. Ashes of plants, 176. Assimilation, 165. Auriculate: same as awricled, having rounded lobes at the base ; applied mostly to leaves. Awl-shaped, Fig. 112. Awn : a bristle, such as is found on the glumes of many Grasses, Barley for example. Axil, 3. Axile : relating to the axis. Axillary : proceeding from an axil. Axillary buds, 88. Axillary flowers, 120. Axis: the stem and root. baceate: like a berry. Bark, 169. Bast, 167. Bearded: furnished with hairs, like the petals of some Violets, &e. Bell-shaped, 130. Berry, 149. Biennial: a plant which grows from seed in one season, but pro- duces its seed and dies in the following season. Bifoliolate : having two leaflets. Bilabiate: two-lipped, Fig. 142. Bipinnate: twice pinnate, Fig. 132. Bipinnatifid : twice pinnatifid, Fig. 123. Blade ; the broad part of a leaf or petal. Bracts, 19, 125. Bracteate : subtended by a bract. Bractlets : secondary bracts growing on pedicels, 125. Branches: growths from the sides of a stem, originating in axil- lary buds, 3. Breathing-pores (stomates), 173. Bud: an undeveloped stem or branch, Bulb, 92, a ee ae ee ee oe a INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 121 Bulbiferous : producing bulbs. Bulblets, 95. Bulbous: like a bulb in shape. Caducous, 128. Calyx, 5. Cambium layer, 170. Campanulate, 130. Capillary: fire and hair-like. Capitulum: same as head, 122. Capsule, 155. Carina, or keel: the two coherent petals in the front of a flower of the Pea kind, Fig. 36. Caryopsis, 156. Carpel, 7. Carpellary : relating to a earpel, e.g., carpellary leaf, &G. Cartilaginous: tough. Catkin, Figs. 63, 64. Caulescent : with an evident stem. Caulicle: another name for the radicle. Cauline: relating to the stem, e.g., cauline leaves, &c., 4. Cell: the hollow in the anther, which contains the pollen. See also 161. Cell-multiplication, 164. Cellular tissue, 162. Cellulose, 163. Centrifugal inflorescence, 121. Centripetal inflorescence, 120. Chalaza : the part of an ovule where the coats are united to the nucleus. Chlorophyll, 163, 174. Ciliate, 116. Cirecinate : curled up like the young frond of a Fern. Circulation in cells, 163. Circumcissile: opening like a pyxis, Fig. 161. Classification, 177. Claw (of a petal), 40, 129. Climbing stems, ‘0. Club-shaped: with the lower part more slender than the upper, as the style of Dog’s-tooth Violet, Fig. 73. Cohesent: a term applied to the union of like parts, 26. Cohesion, 26. Collerm, or neck : the junction of the stem and root. Collactive fruits, 153. Column, 72. Coma: atuft of hairs, such as that on the seed of Dandelion Fig. 56. : Complete, 8. Compound, or Composite, flowers, 49, 122 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Compound leaf, 100. Compound spike, corymb, &c., 122. Cone, 143. Coniferous : bearing cones. Connate: growr together. Connate-perfoliate, Fig. 130. Connective, 132. Convolute: rolled inwards from one edge. Cordate, 108. Corm, 66. Corolla, 5. Corymb, Fig. 135. Corymbose: like a corymb. Cotyledons, 58. Creeping, 90. Crenate, Fig. 128. Cruciform : cross-shaped, as the flowers of Shepherd's Purse, &c. Crude sap, 174. Cryptogams, 179. Culm, 90. Cuneate : wedge-shaped. Cuspidate, Fig. 126. Cyclosis, 163. Cymeo, 124. Cymose: like a cyme. Decandrour : with ten separate stamens. Deciduous 5. Decompoun : spplied to leaves whose blades are divided and subdivided. Decumbent: applied to stems which lie on the ground but turn upward at the extremity. Decurrent, Fig. 131. Decussate: applied to the arrangement of leaves, when successive pairs of opposite leaves are at right angles, as in the plants of the Mint family. Definite inflorescence, 121. Deflexed: bent down. Dehiscent, 147. Dehiscence of anthers, Figs. 147, 148, 149. Deliquescent: applied to stems which dissolve into branches, Deltoid, 146. Dentate, 112. Depauperate: unnaturally small. Depressed: flattened down. Descending axis: the root, 83. Determinate inflorescence, 121. Diadelphous: applied to stamens, 36. Diandrous: with two separat~ stamens, INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 123 Dichlamydeous: having both sets of floral envelopes. Dicotyledonous, 58. Dicotyledons, 59. Didynamous (stamens). 50 Digitate, 101. Dicecious, 56. Disk : in flowers of the Composite Family, the centre of the head as distinguished from the border ; a fleshy enlargement of the receptacle of a flower. Dissected: finely cut. Dissepiment, 139. Distinct: not coherent, (see Coherent). Divergent : separating from one another. Dodecandrous: with twelve distinct stamens. Dorsal suture, 138. Dotted ducts, Fig. 166. Double flowers : abnormal flowers which stamons and carpels bave been transformed into petals. ; Downy : covered with soft hairs. Drupe, 147. Drupelet, a little drupe. Duets, 167. Earthy constituents of plants, 176. Elaborated sap, 174. Elementary constituents of plants, 176. Elementary structure, 160. Elliptical : same as oval, 105. Emarginate, 111. Embryo, 12. Embryo-sac, 16. Emersed : raised above the surface of water. Endocarp: ‘* When the wallsof a pericarp form two or more Jay- ers of dissimilar texture, the outer layer is called the Eipicarp, the middle one Mesocarp, and the innermost Endocarp.”— Gray. Endogen, 81. Endogenous growth, 171. Endosmose, 172, 165. Enneandrous : with nine distinct stamens. Entire, 112. Ephemers : lasting one day only. Epicalyx, 33. Epicarp : see Endocarp. Epidermis, 169. Epigynous : inserted on the ovary, 46. Epipetalous : inserted on the corolla, 47. Epiphytes, 87. Equitant (leaves), 98. 124 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Essential organs, 17. Evergreen : retaining foliage during winter. Exalbuminous, 59. Excurrent: said of main stems which are distinet, and well- marked to the top,as in the Pine and Fir; the reverse of deliquescent. Exhalation, 175, 173. Exogen, 60. Hxogenous growth, 169. Exserted protruding, 136. Exstipulate, 115. Extrorse, 132. Fascicle: a close bundle, either of leaves or flowers. Fascicled roots, 85. Feather-veined: same as pinnately-veined, 101. Fertile flower, 53. Fertilization, 17. Fibrous thread-like, 2. Fibro-vascular system, 167. Filament, 6. Filiform, 117. Fimbriate: fringed. Fleshy fruits, 148. Fiora: adescription of the plants of a district; a collective name for the whole of the species of a district. Floral envelopes, 14. Floret, 48. Flower: the part of a phanerogamous plant in which the stamens and pistil are situated. Flower-leaves, 11. Flowering plants, 179. TPlowerless plants, 179. Toliaceous : like a leaf in appearance. Toliolate : having leaflets. Follicle, 154. Tree, 5. Fruit, 144. Fugacious: falling away early. Funiculus, 157. Funnel-shaped, Fig. 140. Furcate: forked. I'usiform: same as spindle-shaped, 85. Gelea: an arching petal or sepal, as the two upper onesin Catnip, ip. 57. Camoplizllous, 63. Gamopetalous, 129, Csmosepalous, 127, INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 125 Genera: plural of genus. Genus, 179. Germ : same as embryo. Germination, 158. Gibbous : swollen on one side. Glabrous, 116. Gladiate : sword-shaped. Glands: applied generally to cells or hairs on the surfaces of plants, in which resinous or oily matters are secreted; but the term is also used to describe any projection, the use of which is not clear. Glandular: bearing glands. Glaucous, 116. Globose: like a globe or sphere. Glumaceous : bearing or resembling glumes. Glumes, 75. Gourd, 149. Grain, 156. Granules : particles. Gymnospermons, 143. Gymnosperms, 179. Gyneecium, 137. Gynandrous, 135. Habitat: a term applied to the region most favourable to the growth of a plant : the place where it grows naturally. Hairs, 116. Hairy, 4. Halberd-shaped, Fig. 119. Hastate, Fig. 119. Head, 122. Heart-shaped, 108. Heptandrous: with seven distinct stamens. Herb, 89. Herbaceous, 89. Herbarium : a botanist’s collection of dried plants. Hexandrous: with six distinct stamens. Hilum, 157. Hirsute : rough with hairs. Hispid : covered with stiff hairs. = Hoary : densely covered with fine grayish hairs Hortus siceus: same as herbarium. Hybrids: plants resulting from the crossing o. nearly related species. Hypogynous, 135. Imbricate : overlapping like shingles on a roof. Immersed : wholly under water. Imperfect, 53. 126 INDEX AND GLOSSARY: Included, 136. Incomplete, 19. Incurved (petals) Fig. 50. Indefinite, 26, 134. Indefinite inflorescence, 120. Indehiscent, 147. Indeterminate inflorescence, 120. Indigenous: naturally growing in a country. Inferior: underneath; farthest from the axis; the.ovary is inferior when the calyx adheres to it throughout ; the calyx is inferior when free from the ovary. : Inflorescence, 119. Innate, 132. Inserted : attached to. Insertion : the point, or manner, of attachment. Internodes, 4. Interruptedly pinnate, Fig. 133. Introrse, 132. Involucel, 125. Involucre, 125. Inyolute: rolled inwards from both edges. Irregular, 35. Isomerous: haying the parts equal in number. Joints: a name sometimes given to the nodes of a stem. Keel, see Carina. Kernel, 16. Key-fruit, 156. Kidney-shaped, Fig. 121. Labellum (or lip), 71. Labiate, 50. Lanceolate, Fig. 113. Leaf, 97. Leaf-arrangement, 99. Leaf-green, see Chlorophyll. Leaflet, 100. Leafstalk, 4. Legume, 154. Leguminovs: producing or relating to legumes. Liber, 169. Ligneous: woody. Ligulate, 131. Ligule: a strap-shaped corolla n Grasses, a seale-liko projec- tion between the blade of a leaf and the sheath. Limb, 129, 130. Lip, see Labellum. Linear, Fig. 111. “ E n ec " d INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 1Sf:.3 “Lobe, 4, 100. | Loeulicidal (dehiscence) : splitting midway between the partitions. _ Loment: a jointed legume. Lyrate : pinnately-lobed, with the terminal lobe much larger than the others. Marcescent: withering persistent. Marginal: relating to the margin. Markings*(on cells), 167. Medullary rays, 169. Membranous : thin, like a membrane. Mesoearp: see Endocarp. Micropyle, 16. Midrib, 101. Monadelphous, 134. *“Monandrous: with a single stamen, 72. Monochlamydeous; with only one set of floral envelopes. Monocotyledonous, 80. Monocotyledons, 81. Moneecious, 53. Morphology, 82. Mucronate, 110. Multifid, 109. Multiple fruits, 153. Naked flowers : those which are destitute of calyx and corolla. Naked seeds: those not enclosed in an ovary, 143. Napiform, 85. Natural system of classification, 177, &e. Naturalized : introduced from other countries, but growing spon- taneously from seed. Neck, see Collum. Nectary : that in which nectar is secreted. Needle-shaped, Fig. 110. Net-veined, 4. Neutral flowers: those having neither stamens nor pistil. Nodding: hanging with the top downwards, like the fiower in Fig. 72. Node, 4. Normal: regular; according to rule. - Nucleus (of an ovule), 16, 157 ; (of a cell), 163. Nut, 156. Nutlet: a small nut, or nut-like body, 50. Obeordate, 108. Oblanceolate, 107. Oblique: having the sides unequal. Obliteration (of partitions), 140. Qblong, 105. 4128 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Obovate, 107. Obtuse, 110. Ochrea: a tube formed by the union of both edges of a pair of stipules. Ochreate: having ochree. Octandrous: having eight separate stamens. Offset: a short, prostrate branch, rooting at the end. Opposite, 99. Orbicular, 105. Orders, 179. Organic clements, 176. Organs: the parts or members of a living body. Organs of Reproduction: the parts of the flower. Organs of Vegetation: root, stem, and leaves. Orthotropous: applied to ovules when straight, so that the micro- pyle is as far as possible from the »oint of attachment. Oval, 105, Ovary, 7. Ovate, 106. Ovoid: egg-shaped. Ovule, 7. Palate, 131. Palet, 75. Palmate, 101. Palmately-lobed, 109. Palmatifid, 109. Panicle, 123. Papilionaceous, 35 Pappoze, 128. Pappus: a circle of bristles or hairs representing the limb of the calyx in flowers of the Composite Family, 48. Parallel-veined: same as straight-veined, 62. Parasites, 87. Parenchyma, 167. Parietal : on the walls, 141. Parted: almost completely cut through. Pectinate: pinnatifid with lobes like the teeth of a comb. Pedate, Fig. 125. Pedicel, 27. Pedunele, 5. Peltate, Fig. 123. Pentandrous : with five distinct stamens. Pepo, 149. Perennial: a plant which continues to grow year after year. Perfect : having both stamens and pistil. Perfoliate, 113. Perianth, 63. Pericarp, 145. Sig os gah FN es * a ~~, . 0 i “ - ae 1 q ns” INDEX AND GLOSSARY Porigynous, 36. Persistent, 32. Personate, 131. ; ; Petal, 5. ; oe - Petiolate: having petioles. = Petiole, 4. : xa Phanerogamous or Phmenogamous, 179. a: Pilose : having long soft hairs. : Pinna’? a primary division of a pinnately compound leaf. Pinnate, 101. Pinnately-lobed, 109. Pinnatifid, 109. Pinnule: a secondary division of a pinnately compound leaf. Pratl 137, 7. Pistillate: having a pistil, 53. _ Pitcher-shaped (leaf), Fig. 134. pee eth, 169, Placenta, 141. - Placentation, 141. _ Plumose: feathery. Plumule, 58. Pod: a dehiscent fruit. Pollen, 6. ; Pollen-tube, 16. 7 Pollinia : pollen-masses, Fig. 87. Polyadelphous, 134. Polyandrous : with numerous distinct stamens. Polycotyledonous, 159. Polygamous: having perfect as well as imperfect flowers. - Polypetalous : having separate petals. Polysepalous : having separate sepals. Pome, 148. Posterior: next the axis. Preeflvration, see Astivation. Prefoliation : the disposition of leaves in the bud. Prickles, 96. Procumbent: lying on the ground. Prosenchyma, 167. Prostrate, 90. = Protoplasm, 163. Pubescent: covered with fine down. Mt a: having transparent dots, like the leaves of St. John’s — ort. Putamen, 147. Pyxis, 155. ~ Quinquefoliolate: having five leaflets. =a y. - Raceme, 122. 130 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Racemose: like a raceme. Rachis: an axis. Radiate, 101. Radical: pertaining to the root. Radical leaves, 4. Radicle, 58. Raphides, 163. Ray: the marginal florets of a composite flower, as distinguished from the disk. Receptac'e, 8. Recurved: curved backwards. Reflexed: bent backwards. Regular: with parts of the same size and shape. Reniform, Fig. 121. Reticulated: netted. Retuse : slightly notched at the apex. Revolute : rolled back. Rhizome, 91. Pibs, 101 Ringent, 131. Root, 2, 83. Root-hairs, 165. Rootlet, 2. Rootstock, 91. Rotate, 130. Rotation in cells, 163. Rudimentary : imperfectly developed. Rugose: wrinkled. Runcinate: with teeth pointing backwards, as in the leaf c? Dandelion. Runner, 90. Sagittate, Fig. 120. Salver-shaned, Fig. 141 Samara, Fig. 162. Sap, 172, 174. Sareocarp : the flesh of a drupe. Scabrous: rough. Scandent: climbing. Scape, 19. Scar, 157 Scion: a young shoot. Seed, 17, 157, 158. Seed-vessel, see Ovary. Sepal, 5. Septicidal (dehiscence) : splitting open along th partitions.o Septum : a partition. Series, 179. Serrate, 112 Soe Ss eo Sessile, 4. Setaceous: like a bristle. Sheath : a tube surrounding a stem, 62. Sheathing: surrounding like a sheath. Shield-shaped, see Peltate. Shoot: a newly formed branch. Shrub, 89. Silicle, 155. Silique, 155. Simple (leaves), 100 ; (pistil), 137. Sinuate : wavy on the margin. Solitary, 121. Spadiceous, 179. Spadix, 69. Spathe, 69. Spathulate, 107. Species, 179. Spike, 122. Spikelet, a secondary spike. Spindle-shaped, 85. Spine, 96. Spiral markings, 167. Spores: the reproductive bodies in Cryp.ogams which correspond _ to the seeds of Phanerogams. Spur, 131. Stamen, 6, 132. Staminate (flower): having no pistil, but only stamens. Standard : the broad upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla. Stem, 5, 88. Stemless, 18. Sterile (flower) : having no pistil. Stigma, 7. Stigmatic : bearing the stigma. Stipulate: having stipules, 115. Stipule, 31, 115. Stolon: a short branch which droops to the ground and takes root. Stomate, 173, Stone, see Putamen. Stone-fruit, see Drupe. > Strap-shaped, see Ligulate. Striate: marked lengthwise with lines or furrows. Strobile: same as Cone. Style, 7. Gub-class, 179. Subulate, Fig. 112. Succulent: juicy ; fleshy. Sucker: an underground branch, at length emerging and form~ ing a stem. L~ 4 =o 7 F a, Pe, 182 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Superior, 7, 37, 44. Suppression : absence of parts. Suspended: hung from above. Suture, 138. Symmetrical, 42. Syncarpous, 29. Syngenesious, 47 Tap-root, 84. Teeth (of calyx), 32. Tendril, 90. Terete: cylindrical. Terminal: at the end of a stem or branch. Ternate : in threes. Testa, 157. Tetradynamous, 28, 136. Tetrandrous: having four distinct stamens. Thalamiflorous : having the stamens inserted on the receptacle. Thalamus: the receptacle. Thread-shaped, see Filiform. Throat (of cilyx), 128. Thorn, see Spine. Thyrse, 123. Tissue, 162. Tomentose: woolly. Toothed, see Dentate, 112. Torus: same as receptacle. Tree, 89. Triadelphous, 134. Triandrous: having three distinct stamens. Triennial: lasting three years. Trifoliolate : having three leaflets. Truncate, 111. Trunk: the main stem. Tube, 34, 128, Tuber, 91. Tuberous: like a tuber. Tunicated, 92. Twining, 90. Two-lipped, see Labiate, 50. Umbel, 122. Umbellet : a secondary umbel. Unguiculate: having a claw. Valvate : edge to edge, but not overlapping. Valve, 41, 133, 147. Valved: having valves. Varieties, 179. INDEX AND GLOSSARY, Vascular tissue, 167. Veins : the finer parts of the framework of a leaf. Venation, 101. Ventral suture, 138. Vernation, same as Prefoliation. Versatile, 132. Vertical leaves, 98. Verticillate, 99. Vessels, 167. Villose, 116. 133 Wavy : with alternate rounded hollows and projections, 112. Wedge-shaped : like a wedge, the broad wart being the a~ex. Wheel-shaped, see Rotate. Whor!: a circle of three or more leaves at the same node. Woody tissue, 167. ACP PE INpape ra. Selections from Geaminatton Papers. UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO. 1. Define suckers, stolons, offsets, runners, tendrils, thorns, and prickles, describing their respective origins and uses, and giving examples of plants in which they occur 2. What are the functions of leaves? Describe the different kinds of compound leaves. 8. What is meant by inflorescence? Describe the different kinds of flower-clusters, giving an example of each. 4. Mention and explain the terms applied to the yarious modes of insertion of stamens. 5. How are fruits classified ? What are multiple or collective fruits? Give examples. 6. Relate the differences in structure between endo- genous and exogenous stems. Describe their respective modes of growth. 7. What is the food of plants? how do they obtain it ? and how do they make use of it ? 8. Describe the component parts of a simple flower. How is reproduction effected ? 9. Describe the anatomical structure of a leaf, and the formation and office of leaf-stomata. 10. Explain the consequences of flowering upon the health of a plant, and shew how these effects are reme- died in different climates. What practical bearing has this upon horticulture ? 11. Trace the development of a carpel from a leaf. Describe the different forms assumed by placente in 134 APPENDIX. 185 compound ovaries, aud explain the origin of these variations. 12. Mention the principal modes in which pollen gains access to the stigma. What are hybrid plants, and how are they perpetuated ? 18. Describe the ‘anatomy of a leaf. What are stomata ? 14. What is the placenta in a seed vessel ? Describe the different modes of placentation. Shew how the varieties of piacentation agree with the “ altered-leaf theory ” of the pistil. 15. Give the characters of the Composite. How is the order subdivided ? Describe the composite flower, and mention some of the common Canadian examples of this order. 16. Give the peculiarities of Endogens in seed-leaf, leaf, and stem. Subdivide the class. Describe shortly the orders Aracew and Graminee. 17. Deseribe the wall of a seed-vessel, and notice its varieties of form. 18. What is meant by the dehiscence of a capsule ? Shew the different modes in which pods dehisce, and give examples of each. 19. Give the characters and orders of Gymnosper- mous Exogens. 20. Give the charazters of Ranunculacee. Describe shortly some of the principal plants of the order. 21. Give some account of the special forms which the leaves of plants assume. 99. What are stipules? What their size and shape ? 23. What is meant by Imperfect, Incomplete, and Unsymmetrical flowers respectively ? 24, Describe Papilionaceous-and Labiate corollas. 25. Write notes on Abortive Organs, Gymmnosper- mous Pistil, and Pollen Granule. 96. Distinguish between the essential and non-essen- tial materials found in plants, and notice the non-es- sential. 97. What is vegetable growth ? Illustrate by a ref- 136 APPENDIX. erence to the pollen granule in its fertilization of the ovary. 28. What is an axil? What is the pappus ? 29. What are the cotyledons? What is their fune- tion, and what their value in systematic Botany ? 30. Distinguish between HKpiphytes and Parasites ; Describe their respective modes of growth, and give ex- amples of each. 31. What is the difference between roots and subter- ranean branches ? Define rhizoma, tuber, corm, and bulb, giving examples of each. How does a potato differ botanically from a’ sweet-potato ? 82. Describe the calyx and corolla; what modifica- tions of parts take place in double flowers ? 33. What is a fruit in Botany ? Explain the struct- ure of an apple, grape, almond, strawberry, fig, and pineapple. 34. What organs appear in the more perfect plants ? In what two divisions are they comprised ? 35. Weak climbing stems distinguished according to the mode in which they support themselves, the direc- tion of their growth, the nature of their clasping organs. 36. Structure and parts of a leaf: What is most im- portant in their study? Give the leading divisions, and mention what secondary distinctions are required in specific description ? 37. Function of the flower : its origin: its essential and accessory parts: names of the circles and their component organs: circumstances which explain the differences among flowers. 38. Parts of the fully formed ovule and distinctions founded on their relative position. 39. Sub-kingdoms and classes of the vegetable king- dom. SECOND CLASS TEACHERS’ CERTIFICATES, PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 1. Name the parts of the pistil and stamens of a flower and give their uses APPENDIX. 137 2. What are Perennial plants? Describe their mode of life. . 3. “There are two great classes of stems, which differ in the way the woody part is arranged in the cellular tissue.” Fully explain this. 4. Describe the funetions of,leaves. How are leaves classified as to their veining’ 5. Name and describe the organic constituents of plants. 6. Name the organs of reproduction in plants, and describe their functions. 7. Give, and fully describe, the principal parts of the flower. 8. What are the different parts of a plant ? Describe the functions of each part. 9, State all the ways by which an Exogenous stem may be distinguished from an Endogenous. 10. Describe the functions of leaves. What is the cause of their fall in autumn? Draw and describe a maple leaf. 11. Name the different parts of a flower, and deseribe the use of each part. Draw a diagram showing a sta- men and a pistil and the parts of each. 12. What is the fruit? Why do some fruits fall from the stem more easily than others ? 13. Of what does the food of plants consist? In what forms and by what organs is it taken up, and how is it asssimilated? Name the substances inhaled and those exhaled by plants, and the uses of each in the economy of nature. 14. Describe fully (1) the plant in Vegetation; (2) the plant in Reproduction. 15. Describe Fibrous roots, Fleshy roots, and differ- ent kinds of Tap-root. 16. Describe the structure and veining of leaves. 17. ‘The nourishment which the mother plant pro- vides in the seed is not always stored up in the embryo.” Explain and illustrate. “8. Describe the various modes in which Perennials 138 APPENDIX. “provide a stock of nourishment to begin the new growth.” 19. Describe fully the organs of reproduction in a plant. Describe the process of germination. 20. What are the parts of a flower? Give illustra- tions by diagram, with a full description. 21. Name and describe the principal sorts of flowers. 22. What elementary substances should the soil con- tain for the nourishment of plants ? 23. How are plants nourished before and after appearing above ground ? 24. Tell what you know about the various forms of the calyx and the corolla. 25. Explain the terms Cotyledon, Pinnate, Root- stock, Filament, and Radicle. 26. Explain the terms Papilionaceous, Cruciferous, Silique, and Syngenesious; and in each case name a family in the description of which the term under con- sideration may be properly applied. 27. Give the characters of the Rose family. 28. Deseribe the various modes in which biennials store up nourishment during their first season. 29. Explain the meaning of the terms Sepal, Bract, Raceme, and Stipule. Describe minutely the Stamen and the Pistil, and give the names applied to their parts. 30. Are the portions of the onion, the potato, and the turnip which are capable of preservation through the winter, equally entitled to the name of roots? Give reasons for your answer. FIRST CLASS CERTIFICATES. 1. What are the cotyledons? Describe their fune- tions, &c. State their value in systematic botany. 2. Describe the difference in structure and modes ot growth of exogenous and endogenous stems. 8. Describe the circulation in plants. ‘In the ac of making vegetable matter, plants purify the air for animals.’ Explain this fully. APPENDIX. 139 4. What are Phoenogamous plants 9 Define Raceme, Corymb, Head, Panicle, Ament. 5. Give the characters of (a) The classes Exogens and Endogens; /b) The Mint and Lily families. 6. To what family do the Cedar, Clover, Mustard, and Dandelion respectively belong ? 7. Why does a botanist consider the tuber of the po- tato an underground stem ? 8. Give the philosophical explanation of the nature of a flower considered as to the origin and correspond- ences of its different parts. 9. Draw a spathuiate, an obcordate, a truncate, a palmately-divided and aw odd pinnate leaf. 10. Explain the constitution of a pome or apple- fruit. 11. What organs appear in the more perfect plants, and in what divisions are they comprised ? 12. Give the function of the flower, its origin, and its essential and accessory parts. 18. Describe the nature and chief varieties of roots, and distinguish between them and underground stems. 14. “As to the Apex or Point leaves are Pointed, Acute, Obtuse, Truncate, Retuse, Emarginate, Obcor- date, Cuspidate, Mucronate.”’ Sketch these different forms. 15. “There is no separate set of vessels, and no open tubes for the sap to rise through in an unbroken stream, in the way people generally suppose.” Comment on this passage. 16. The great series of Flowering Plants is divided into two classes. Describe these classes. 17. Give the chief characteristics of the order cruci- fere (Cress Family), and namé some common exam- les of this order. 18. State the difference between definite and indefin- ite inflorescence, and give examples of the latter. 19. Of what does the food of plants consist ? in what form is it found in the soil ? How isit introduced into the plant? What inference may be drawn respecting the culture of the plant ? 140 APPENDIX. 29. Distinguish weak climbing stems according to the mode in which they support themselves, the direc- tion of their growth, and the nature of their clasping organs. 21. Name the thice classes of Flowerless Plants, and give an example of cach. 23, Explain the terms Spore, Capsule, Bract, Stip- ule, Afbumen, and Epiphyte. 23. What are tendrils, and of what organs are they supposed to be modifications ? 24, Give the characters of the Cress Family, and name as many plants belonging to it as you can. 25. Tell what you know about the minute stracture and the chemical composition of vegetable tissue. 26. Describe the origin of the different kinds of pla- centas ; aud of the different parts of the fruit of the plum, the oak, and the maple. 27. Describe fully the proc2ss by which it is sup- posed that water is carried up from the roots of plants. 28. Give the meaning of the terms stomate, indehis- cent, thyrse, glume, pyxis. Distinguish epiphytes from purasites. 29. Describe any plant you have examined; if you can, tabulate your description. 30. Name all the families of monoyetalous dicotyle- dons which you remember, and give the characters of any one of them. McGILL UNIVERSITY. 1. Describe the germination of a plant. 2. Explain the differences in the structure of the embryo. 3. Explain the functions of the icoot. 4. Describe the structures in a leaf, ana expiain their action on the air. 5. Mention the several parts of the stamen and the pistil, and explain their uses. 6. Describe an Achene, a Samara, a Drupe and a Silique. oy ee ie APPENDIX. 141 7. Describe the differences in the stems of Exogens and Endogens, and the relations of these to the other parts of the plant and to classification. 8. Explain the terms Genera, Species, Order. 9. What is an excurrent stem, an axillary bud, bud scales ? 10. Explain the terms primoraval utricle, parenchyma, protoplasm, as used in Botany. 11. What are thefunctions of the nucleus in a living cell? 12. Explain the movements of the sap in plants. 13. Describe the appearance under the microscope of raphides, spiral vessels, and dise-bearing wood-cells. 14. Describe the structure of the bark of an Exogen. 15. Describe freely the anatomy of a leaf. 16. Describe shortly the parts and structures denoted by the following terms, spime, aerial root, phyllodium, cambium, stipule, rhizoma. 17. Give examples of phawnogams., cryptogams, exogens and endogens, properly arranged. 18. Describe the principal forms of indeterminate inflorescence. 19. In what natural families do we find siliques, didynamous stamens, labiate corollas, or pappus-bearing achenes. Describe these structures. 20. State the characters of any Canadian Exogenous Order, with examples. 21. Describe the cell-walls in a living parenchymatous cell. 22. Describe the fibro-vascular tissues in an Exogen- ous stem. 93. Describe the appearance of stomata and glan- dular heirs under the microscope. 24. Define prosenchyma, corm, cyclosis, thallus. 25. Explain the sources of the Carbon and Nitrogen of the plant, and the mode of their assimilation. 26. Describe the pericarp, stating its normal struc- ture, and naming some of its modifications. 97. Explain the natural system in Botany, and state the gradation of groups from the species upward, with examples. 142 APPENDIX, ONTARIO COLLEGE OF PHARMACY. 1. What do plants feed upon ? 2. What do you understand by the terms Acaulescent, Apetalous, Suffrutescent, Culm ? 3. Name some of the different forms of Primary, Secondary, and Aerial Roots, giving examples. 4. Explain the following terms descriptive of forms of leaves, giving sketch:—Ovate, Peltate, Crenate, Serrate, Cleft, Entire, Cuspidate, Perfoliate. 5. Explain difference between Determinate and In- determinate inflorescence, giving three examples of each. 6. What organs are deficient in a sterile and a fertile flower ? 7. Give the parts of a perfect flower, with their rela- tive position. 8. Give the difference between simple and compound Pistil, with example of each. 9. Name the principal sorts of buds, and explain how the position of these affects the arrangement of branches. 10. Give description of multiple and primary roots, with two examples of same; also explain the difference between these and secondary roots. 11. Name the principal kinds of subterranean stems and branches, and explain how you would distinguish between these and roots. 12. In the classification of plants explain difference between classes and orders: genus and species. 13. Name three principal kinds of simple fruit. 14. When roots stop growing does the absorption of moisture increase or decrease ? Give reason for it. 15. Upon what do plants live? Indicate how you would prove your answer correct. 16. In what part of the plant, and when, is the work of assimilation carried on ? 17. Name three principal kinds of determinate, and some of indeterminute inflorescence ; name the essential organs of a flower. —— APPENDIX. 148 18. In what respects do plants differ from inorganic matter? And from animals ? 19. Describe a Rhizome, Tuber, Bulb; and say if they belong to the root or stem ; which are Rheum, Jalapa, Sweet Potato, Onion ? 20. Define the difference between natural and special forms of leaves ; between simple and compound leaves. Give example of each. Sketch a connate-perfoliate leaf. 21. Mention the parts of an embryo. Ofaleaf. Of a pistil. Ofastamen. Ofa seed. 22. What is meant by an albuminous seed? By diwcions flowers? By a compound ovary ? 23. What is the difference between determinate and indeterminate inflorescence ? How do they influence growth of the stem? Give three principal kinds of each. 24. Name the parts of a flower. What office is performed by the ovule ? Name two kinds. 25. Name the parts of a vegetable cell. What are spiral ducts ? 26. In what parts of the plant is the work of absorp- tion carried on? In what part the work of assimila- tion? How do plants purify the air for animals ? 27. Explain the natural system of classification in Botany? Name and characterize the classes of plants. 28. Explain the structure and functions of the Leaf, Bud, Root. 929. Give some of the terms used in describing the shape of a simple leaf as concerns (a) its general con- tour, (5) its base, (c) its margin, (d) 1ts apex. 30. Name the organs in a pertect flower ; describe fully the structure of the anther and pollen. What is coalescence and adnation of the parts of a flower ? 31. Explain the terms Raceme, Pappus, Coma, Rhi- zome, Pentastichous. 39. State the distinction between Exogens and Endo- ens. 33. What are cellular structures as distinguished from vascular? What is chlorophyll ? 144 APPENDIX. 34. Mention the organs of fructification, and explain the process of fertilization in a flowering plant. 35. Explain the structure of a seed, and describe in a few words the process of germination. 36. D fine what is meant by the following terms :— Morphology, Polycotyledonous, Epiphyte, Pedunele, Stipules. r 87. Describe briefly the root stem, leaf, and flower of the common dandelion, giving the functions or office of each. 38. Name some of the most common forms of leaves, giving a few rough outlines. 39. Of what part of the flower does the fruit nomin- ally consist ? What additional parts are in some inr stances present ? 40. Define the terms Drupe, Pollen, Gynandrous, Pome, Adnate. 41. Explain the process of fertilization in flowering plants, and mention the different ways in which it is brought about. 49, Enumerate the different varieties of tissue recog- nized by botanists, and give their situation in an Endo- genous stem. THE END, EXAMINATION PAPERS. ARITHMETIC, By J. A. McLetian, LL.D., Inspector High Schools, and THos. KiRKLAND, M.A., Science Master, Normal School, Toronto. SEcOND EDITION. PRICE $1.00. From the GUELPH MERCURY. . . « The work is divided into six chapters. The first is on the Unitary Method, and gives solutions showing its application to a variety of problems, in Simple and Compound Proportion ; Percentage, Interest, Discount, Profit and Loss ; Proportional Parts, Partnership; Chain Rule, Exchange, Alligation; Commission, Insurance. &c., Stocks; and Miscellaneous Problems. The second is on Elementary Rules, Measures and Multiples, Vulgar and Decimal Fractions. The third contains Examination Papers fer entrance into High Schools and Collegiate Institutes, the fourth for candidates for third-class_certifi- cates, the fifth for candidates for the Intermediate Examination and second-class certificates, and the sixth for candidates for third-class certificates and University Honours. It will be observed that the work begins with the fundamental rules—those principles to be acquired when a pupil first enters upon the study of Arithmetic, and carries him forward till prepared for the highest class of certificates and for Honours of the University. . . . Teachers will find in it a necessary help in supplying questions to give their classes. Those who aspire to be teachers cannot have a better guide—indeed there is not so good a one—on the subject with which it is occupied. From the ADVERTISER, es By all who are groping after some method better than they have at present, this volume will be cordially welcomed, and many who have never suspected the possibility of accomplishing so much by independent methods, will be, by a perusal of the introduc- tory chapter, impelled to think for themselves, and enabled to teach their pupils how todoso. . . It is far superior to anything of the kind ever introduced into this country. . . . The typographical appearance of the work is of a very high character—quite equal, in fact, to anything of the kind issued by the best publishing houses of London or New York, From the TELESCOPE. : . The plan of the work is excellent, the exercises being arranged progressively, each series preparing the student for the next. The problems are all original, and so constructed as to prevent the student using any purely mechanical methods of solution. . . . We should really feel proud of our Canadian Authors and publishing houses, when we consider the infancy of our country and the progress it has made and is making in educational matters, and particularly in the recently prSNlished educational works, Miller & Co.’s Educational Series. HAMBLIN SMITH’S MATHEMATICAL WORKS, ARE USED ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY In the Normal and Model Schools, Toronto, Upper Canada College; Hamilton and Brantford Collegiate Institutes; Bow- manville, Berlin, Belleville. and a large number of leading High Schools in We Province. HAMBLIN SMITH’S ALGEBRA, With Appendix, by Alfred Baker, B.A., Mathematical Tutor, Univer sity College, Toronto. Price, 90 cents. THOMAS KIRKLAND, M.A., Science Master, Normal School. “Tt is the text-book on Algebra for candidates for second-class 2ertificates, and for the Intermediate Examination. Not the least valuable part of it is the Appendix by Mr. Baker,” GEO. DICKSON, R.A., Head Master, Collegiate Institute, Hamilton. “Arrangement of subjects good; explanations and proofs exhaus- tive, concise and clear; examples, for the most part from University and College Examination Papers, are numerous, easy and progressive. There is no better Algebra in use in our High Schools and Collegiate Institutes.” WM. R. RIDDELL, B.A., B.Sc., Mathematical Master, Norma) School, Ottawa. “The Algebra is admirable, and well adapted as a general text- book.” W. E. TILLEY, B.A., Mathematical Master, Bowmanville High School. **1T look on the Algebra as decidedly the best Elementary Work on the subject we have. The examples are excellent and w ell arranged. The explanations are easily understood. R. DAWSON, B.A., T.C.D., Head Master, High School, Belleville. ** With Mr. Baker’s admirable Appendix, there would seem to be nothing left to be desired. We have now a first-class book, well adapted in all respects to the wants of pupils of all grades, from the Leper in our Public Schools to the most advanced student in our Collegiate Institutes and High Schools. Its publication is a great buon lo the over-worked mathematical teachers of the Province NEW ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC ON THE UNITARY METHOD. By Tuomas Kirxianp, M.A., Science Master Normal School, and Wit. Scorr, B.A., Head Master Model School, Toronto. Intended as an Introductory Text-Book to Hamblin Smith's Arithmetic, Cloth Extra, 176 Pages. Price 25 Cents. W. D. DIMOCK, A.B., Head Master Provincial Model Schools, Nova Scotia. The Elementary Arithmetic by Kirkland and Scott I can heartily recommend to our teachers. As a preparatory Arith- metic | have not seen itsequal. The young pupil, ty the arrange- ment of the principles presented and the exercises laid down, is led almost unconsciously to the great field of the unknown, by a step, that makes his earlier arithmetical studies a pleasure and @ profit A. H. McKAY, Principal ot Pictou Academy and Public Schools. : Ihave examined your Elementary Arithmetic on the unitary neg by Kirkland and Scott, and have no hesitation in saying that I consider it the best Elementary Arithmetic which I have yet seen. Itis admirably adapted to the requirements of grades Ist, 2nd and 3rd of our schools, as it offers, in addition to our present text-book, a copious and well selected assortment of ex- ercises, a good arrangement and conciseness in definition and explanation. W.E. SPRAGUE, Head Master, Model and Public Schools, Cobourg. Since failures in Arithmetic are mainly due to a want of power in independent analysis—to a lack of knowledge of the unitary method and of skillinits application—this volume which discusses the problems on independent methods will be cordiaily welcomed by teachers. Asa discipline of the mind in tea hing the pupil to think and reason, Arithmetic is pre-eminentif taught by logical methods ; and this work places it in the power of the younger classes to be benefitted by such methods. A very praise- worthy feature of the book is the large number of examples and problems peculiar to so small a work. JAMES DUNCAN, Principal Hissex Model and Windsor Central chook After a thorough perusal of the Elementary Arithmetic by Kirkiand & Scott, Pas no hesitation in saying that it is better adapted to the schools of this country than any similar book that has come within the range of my twenty-seven years experience. The arrangement is natural and comprehensive. The questions are in clear, terse, attractive language. W. BR. RIDDELL, B.A., LL.B., &c., Math. Master Ottawa Normal School. I consider it well adapted for the purpose for which it is in- cended. JOHN DEARNESS, Public School Inspector, East Middlesex. Lhave examined this book with increasing pleasure and can speak of it in almost unqualified recommendation. It is,in my opinion the best alementary Arithmetic I have examined. THREE EDITIONS SOLD IN SIX MONTHS On HAMBLIN SMITH’S ARITHMETIC, ADAPTED TO CANADIAN CURREMCY BY THOMAS KIRKLAND, M.A., Science Master Normal School, Toronto, and WM. SCOTT, M.A., Head Master Model School, Ontario. 4th Edition, Price, - 75 Cents. Authorized by the Minister of Education, Ontario. Authorized by lhe Council of Public Instruction, Quebso. Recommended by the Senate of the Univ. of Halifax. Authorized by the Chief Supt. Education, Manitoba. FROM NOVA SCOTIA. A. C. A. DOANE, Inspector of Schoois, Barrington, N. & “ Hamblin Smith’s arithmetic seems very suitable to the neces- sities of our public schools. The exercises are admirable, and the eXamination papers are invaluable as aids to teachers in thorough training. They will also prove of great service to pupils desirous of passing the grade tests. The author appears not torelyso much on set rules as upon explanations and the clearing of seeming obscurities, so that pupils may readily comprehend the questions and proceed to the solutions. I cordially recommend its use to all those desirous of obtaining an acquaintance with this branch of useful knowledge. Cc. F. ANDREWS, Inspector for Queen’s Co., Nova Scotia. “J have much pleasure in certifying to the superiority of the Canadian edition of Hamblin Smith’s Arithmetic over any text book on that subject that has yet come under my notice. It is prscrigal, complete and comprehensive. The appendix and exam- ation papers are important and valuable features. I shall be pleased to recommend its early introduction.” W. 8. DANAGH, M.A., Inspector of Schools, Cumberland, N. 8. HAMBLIN SMITH’s ARITHME110.—“ It has a value for candidates preparing for public examination, as the examples have been mostly culled from Examination papers, indeed I may say that I have not seen any other work on this branch that is so specially calculated to assist the student in passing with credit official tests. I therefore think that Hamblin Smith's Arithmetic should be Placed on the authorized list of books for public schools.” Ie, s ae 2 My ay Pap ace pe — os ™ es hi Bet 4 VILE z Z Cy EEL LEE Z DATTA D AAT IAAMEID DED OEAII LAT IOD LALIT OL MEMATIIIIE SP tty TLE PIPE I