of ; = “I / x = Wi ———. »)} / | EXTREME CARES om a et ed - 4 - Lol Kane Ao - my. tie //www.archive. orovetle ele IVE | 7 hi - , . eo ne i a aE | ' ELEMENTS O F UNIVERSAL ERUDITION, CONTAINING AWN ANALYTICAL ABRIDGMENT OF THE SCIENCES, POLITE ARTS, AND BELLES LETTRES, By Baron *BIELFELD, SecreTARy oF LeGaTiIon To THE KinG*or Prussia, Precer- — tor To Paince Ferpinaxn, amp CHANCELLOR OF ALE THE Universities 1N THE Dominions oF 1s Prusstan Ma- yesty, AvTHOR OF THE PotsTicat InsTiTUTES, &c, Indoéti difcant, & ament meminiffe periti, TRANSLATED FROM TH® LAST EDITION PRINTED _ AT BERLIN 3 By W. HOOPER, M.D. ONY. o.\e VOL. Il. \ LONDON: | Painted sy G. Scort, For J. ROBSON Booxserrer 1m New-Bonp Street, anv B. LAW 1n Ave-Mary Langs. MDCCLXxX. ~~ So i“ ed x co " »* se re Bn Fete Ge Oy a ae sip’ th. we + » , 3 ———e : —_ —f G59 °N Vek MoT -s THIRD VOLUME. 3H EEE EERE RRO Cuap. + Page ts F the Belles Lettres, and the fciences of the memory in general - 1 p il. Of mythology - _- 15 Til. Chronology - - 36 IV. Of hiftory in general, and of its divi- fions - - 69 V. Ancient hiftory . : go VL. The hiftory of the middle Age 123 VII. Modern hiftory - - 145 VIll. Ecclefiaftic hiftory - . 187 IX. The hiftory of the Chriftian Church, of herefies, popes and reformers 207 X. Of antiquities - - : 231 ~ i ws 2. ee ii” CONTENTS>: Cuap. Page XI. Medals and coins - - 244 XII. Diplomatics. - - 260 XIII. Statiftics - - 268 ‘XIV. Of travels and travellers - 279 XV. Of Geography - - - 287 XVI. Genealogy - - 303 XVII, Blazonry - ~ 310 XVIIL. Of Philology in general 319 XIX. Of the oriental languages 328 XX. Of the other learned languages, and of paleography —- “),., ae *-XXI. Modern languages ° - 349 XXII. Digreffion on exercifes 359 XXII. ————on certain anomalous arts 7 | ‘and feiences SL 377 XXIV. ————on chimerical arts and {ciences - = « -g@s XXV. ———_—_on {chools, colleges, uni- verfities and academies 402 XXVI. The hiftory of the fciences 414 XXVII. Of the knowledge of authors, and of biography —- =‘ \4e9 XX VIII. Digreffions, 1. On criticifm 5 2. 3 On literary journals ; 3. On li- braries - - 437 BOOK rue THIRD. ag Sy. 3S a F OF THE BELLES LETTRES, AND THE Sciences of Memory in General. if HETHER we confult the voluminous dictionaries of the French language, or thofe treatifes that profefs to point out the method of ftudying and teaching the Belles Lettres, we find not, in the one or the other, either a clear definition, or a fuccinét explica- tion of the words Belles Lettres, nor any fum- mary of thofe iciences which are comprehend- ed under that general and collective denomi- nation. It appears to be a vague term, under which evety*one may include what- Vor. IIL, A ever 2 UNIverRsaAt ErvupiTion, ever he thinks proper. Sometimes we are told that by the Belles Lettres is meant, ** the know- ** ledge of the arts of poetry, and oratory; ** fometimes, that the true Belles Lettres are ** natural philofophy, geometry,and other effentiak ** parts of learning ; and fometimes, that they com- *‘ prehend the art of war, by land and fea: in * fhort, they are made to include all that we know, ‘* and whatever we pleafe; fo that in treating on “* the Belles Lettres, they talk of the ufe of the “‘ facraments, &c.*” In a word, it were an endlefs tafk to attempt to enumerate all the parts of literature that different learned men have comprehended under this title. The fame indecifion is to be found in the term humanity or claffical learning ; under which they include at pleafure, either more or lefs of the preparato- ry parts of learning, as grammar, rhetoric, &c, which are taught at f{chools, or in colleges, to fuch as are intended for the ftudy of the fuperior fciences. In the midft of this uncertainty, it feems to be lawful for a private foreigner, who dwells at two hundred leagues diftance from Paris, and is much embarrafsed by fo many dif- ferent refpeCtable authorities, to fix for. himfelf the true import of the term; provided, however, that he humbly acknowledge his error whenever any mafter of the French language fhall prove, by well-eftablifhed ufage, that he is wrong. Il. We . Rollin’s method of eens, and ftudying the Belles Lettres. | ’ ial Se Re ee ea. Vy ™ - ee le iw . “ Tat Betures LetTres. 3 II. We comprehend, therefore, under the term belles lettres, all thofe inftructive and pleafing {ciences‘which occupy the memory and the jude- ment, and do not make part, either of the fu- perior fciences, of the polite arts, or of me- chanic profeffions, 8c, To thefe we confecrate this third volume of the analyfis of the fci« ences ;-and we truit that we fhall not omit any of » them that ought naturally to be here included : for we hope, that memory and judgment will ferve us as companions and guides in this long and difficult career. Iif.. All that relates to hiftory or philology, requires at firft, nothing more than fight and memory. In our earlieft years thofe faculties are in their greateft vigour; all objects that then prefent themfelves make the moft lively and jafting impreffions: the memory feems to trace on a young mind all thofe fciences which it is capable of comprehending, with indelible characters. The difcerning faculty is formed more flowly ,; the mind requires a longer time to attain the capacity of diftinguifhing thofe ~ obje&ts that are prefented to it by the fight or the memory. The judgment, or underftand- ing, requires {till more time to combine thofe objects, to compare them with each other, to draw from particular inferences ge.eral conclu- fions, to form them into fyftems, and to reduce them into fciences, Liaftly, the genius, or inventive faculty, by aid of the fenfes, the me- ‘ A 2 mory CS. pee eee kee ye ee, ‘ _" ‘ _ ™ r y F fad 4 Universat ErvDITION: mory and the judgment, creates, produces, or difcovers, either new truths, or undifcovered combinations, or brilliant comparifons, and ftrik-° ing images. This appears to us to be the na- tural progrefs of the faculties of the human mind, and by this progrefs man is conducted in the career of his ftudies. He fhould begin, iff his early days, to apply to thofe fciences that ex- ercife the memory ; proceed to the forming of the. difcerning faculty; then elevate his mind to thofe fuperior {ciences that occupy the judg- ment; and at length launch forth into the fublime regions of the polite arts ; which are the produce of a well ftored memory, an en- lightened judgment, and a fruitful genius. IV. The peculiar employment of childhood fhould be the learning of languages: for they. are the inftruments with which his mind is to work. To the beginning of youth, fhould be given a rough draft of the principal fciences of the memory, fuch as contains only facts, dates, and axioms: a fketch, for example, of hiftory, | a kind of gazette of fimple events, without in- ferences or refleétions, moral or political, with- out charaéters, and without ornaments, In the dawn of manhood, while the young itudent is preparing for the univerfity, he fhould make himfelf a thorough mafter of logic, or the art of reafoning: he fhould then likewife acquire fome tincture of the philofophic fciences ; and make a fecond, more comprehenfive, and more | rational Tue Berres Lerrres. 5 rational courfe in hiftory. Now opportunities fhould alfo be given him of making fome. ef- fays of his genius, that it may be conjectured of what future productions he may be capable. The univerfity will furnifh him with the :necef- fary inftructions in the fuperior fciences, and he will at laft advance to the practice of the polite arts: he will invent, improve, produce; he will become at once a learned man, and a re- fplendent genius ; even a Leibnitz, if providence fhall permit, V. Hiftory ought in a peculiar manner to be — the ftudy of every one, who would: attain a liberal education; as it is a general ftorehoufe for all the fciences, and a fchool for all the vir- tues. Whoever is appointed to inftruct the children of princes, of the nobles, or principal inhabitants of the land, fhould endeavour, in — the firft place, ftrongly to imprefs on their minds a chronological feries of all the remark- able events that are recorded in hiftory, from the creation of the world down to the prefent day; making them well obferve at the fame time the feveral fynchronifms, or the various events that have happened at the fame period in differ- ent parts of the world. By thefe means he will open in their minds a repofitary, where every par- ticular event may hereafter be ranged in its proper place ; for, otherwife, without this, hiftory would prefent a mere chaos to the memory, without order or connexion, When the ftudent has thus = Pee wt Pee” 6 Universat ErvupirTIow. thus acquired a ready knowledge of chronology, he may undertake, with his tutor, a complete and rational courfe of hiftory: and there Clio fhould pluck for him the golden apples of the garden of the Hefperides. ‘The animated and ftriking pictures of hiftory offer two forts of ex- amples, the one to imitate, and the other to avoid.* It is the bufinefs of an able inftructor carefully to point out, in the annals of all na- tions, thofe facts and characters that muft ‘in- fpire their pupils with admiration or horror; and confequently excite in their minds a defire to imitate their virtues,. and avoid their vices. The portraits of the truly great, as well as the ty- rants of antiquity, when lively drawn, mutt ftrongly affect the young ftudent; for they will feem to fay: ‘* Future generations, princes, “heroes, ftatefmen, {fcholars, philofoghers ! ‘* Providence, for our greater reward, or more, «exemplary punifhment, has placed our ftatues — ‘in this gallery, to ferve as amiable or detefta- «¢ ble models to future ages. Emulate our vir- “ tues, and have a juft.abhorrence of our crimes. “ Know that your real characters, that your * actions, however abfurd or unjuft, and with *¢ whatever veil you may cover them, or under ** whatever mafk you may difguife them, will, * like ours, ftand naked before pofterity. The * piercing public eye will penetrate the moft ** fecret folds» of; your hearts. A thoufand ** fagacious obfervers continually furround you, *¢ and a thoufand pencils are conftantly ready to Paint Ps aed ye a een. Tue Betres LetTrres: y ** paint you to pofterity, fuch as you really are. *¢ Hiftory flatters not: it is the witnefs, not the ** adulator of mankind,” VI. We muft here make a few obfervations on the degree of credibility that a rational mind fhould give to the truth of hiftory, or, in other words, on bifforic faith. No act or eyent can poffibly happen, but fuch as is the refult ar pro- duce of human actions, or the effects of nature : all aétions_muft- therefore arife from fituations, circumftances or relations. We may be well aftured, that all human actions, however extra- ordinary and wonderful, never have been, nor ever can be fupernatural or miraculous; ex- cept .thofe fignal miracles only which God vouchfafed to operate, in order to eftablifh the Judaic and Chriftian religions; and of which they are the foundations, Thefe objects of our religious faith, of our piety and profound vene- ration, are as much above our weak comprehen- fion, as facred revelation is above philofophy, or mere human reafon. It is with a lively, evangelic faith, that we are to acknowledge the truth and evidence of thefe faéts. The hittoric faith on the contrary is, if we may ufe the ex- preffion, ftrictly argumentative. It examines, it doubts ; and here doubt is the beginning of wifdom, foe as abbé Vallemont has very juftly obferved, there is no merit, either before God gr man, in a flupid credulity, VIL We 8 Universat Ervorritos: VII. We. fhould take due care, therefore; not to’ pufh our hiftoric faith fo far as to believe all the prodigies, all the fables and. extrava- gancies that are related by profane hiftory, and efpecially that of the ancients. It would cer- tainly be ridiculous to doubt that there have been fuch princes as Cyrus, Alexander, and Czfar, and that they were great conquerors: but it would be ftill far more. abfurd to give credit to all the marvellous ftories that have been related by~ hiftorians: it would be madnefs to believe that Romulus and Remus were fuckled by a wolf; that. Numa Pompilius held an inter- courfe with the nymph Egeria ; that the head of Ancus Martius burned ‘in the Capitol; that _ Curtius threw himfelf. into a gulph; or that the gods fpoke by the means. of oracles. Is it not ridiculous enough to fee, in the eighteenth century of Chriftianity, a learned, elaborate and very ferious differtation, to prove that the oracles did not ceafe.to fpeak at the coming of Jefus Chrift; when it is evident to every man of any knowledge, that there never was any fuch be- ings as Jupiter or Apollo, and confequently that they never did fpeak? Such fubjeés:as thefe ought to be ranked. with the ftories of giants, or the Tale of a’Tub; and, whenever we meet in profane hiftory with like accounts of prodigies and miracles, hiftoric faith, or rather human credulity, fhould ceafe, and the fenfible part of mankind fhould reafon thus: either the gods were to blame fo to difpofe the order of : nature, THe Betres LetTTres, c) nature, that it is not capable of producing the complete felicity of created beings, and efpecia!ly of mankind, or elfe thofe gods were guilty of an abfurdity, by interrupting the eftablifhed order of nature, to produce effects, that might have been produced by merely following that eternal order. It is to be: obferved here, that we are now fpeaking of the gods of paganifm only. VIII. Hiftoric faith is moreover founded en- tirely on human teftimony,. and that foundation is unfortunately very weak. What affurances have we, that the witneffes of events have never been deceived? or even that’ they have never been willing to be deceived? The fame, and {till more may be faid of hiftorians, who have been very rarely witnefles of the facts they relate, but have taken them merely from report. Now, if we fuppofe thefe faéts to be certain, we mutt conclude, that thefe witneffes and hiftorians were angels; for it is not in the nature of man to be infallible. The more witneffes likewife any prodigy has, forthe moft part, the more rea- fon there is to fufpect ic: for the multitude are conftantly inclined to deceive themfelves; are fond of the marvellous, and drown the voice of the fmall number of the difcerning part of man- kind, We have feen the miracles of the bleffed abbé Paris, that were attefted by thoufands of witnefles, whofe veracity was indifputable, and yet they have at laft been proved to be nothing more than artful impoftures, 1X. The - o >. > 2 * = ay *: wr , ; > Io UNIVERSAL Frubirron, IX. The imperfeétion in the frame of man, the weaknefs of his difcernment, and the errors of his judgment, on one fide, and the ftrength of his paffions on the other, render his teftimo- nies conftantly equivocal and fufpicious. Hear the accounts of two general officers that have been in the fame battle ; read the gazettes that relate the events which have happened in our own days, and frequently before our eyes, and judge how far you can depend upon the real truth of thofe facts. This being the cafe, you may eafily determine what degree of credit is to be given to thofe marvellous relations, which are fuppofed to have happened among nations lef enlightened than we are; in thofe ages, when learning was quite‘in its infancy, before printing was invented, and when the propagators of falfe reports ftood in no dread of the feverity of criti- cifm. Let thefe and many other reflections, that we fhall pafs over in filence, fet due bounds ta your hiftoric faith. X. The paffions likewife, to which human nature is liable, conftantly caft a veil over the truth. It is an ancient faying, that.an hiftorian ought to have no religion, and no country. He is however, conftantly, either a friend, or enemy of the prince or hero whofe hiftory he relates ; he is prejudiced foror againft a country, a peo- ple, areligion, a party or government. Paffion continually guides his pen. We cannot read, without indignation, all that Tacitus writes a- | gaint Ve —————i a 7 Tue. Berres LetTrres. if gainft Tiberius, whofe profefied enemy he was; Let Tiberius perform the moft innocent, _moft juat and honourable actions, Tacitus would find means to make them appear odious; though he frequently did it in a very awkward manner, Thucidydes, Xenophon, and Jofephus, were ex- cellent hiftorians ; but if thofe people, who were the enemies of the Jews and Greeks, had found hiftorians of equal ability with their antagonifts, it is likely that the actions of the feveral heroes would have been fet before us in very different lights. Notwithftanding the refpect that is due to the fathers of the church, we cannot fay that they were entirely free from paffions. They gave to Conftantine the furname of Great, who was doubtlefs one of the greateft dolts that ever _ exifted; but he was a friend and protector of the Chriftian priefts. The emperor Julian they reprefented as a monfter, and a man of mean abilities; whereas he was one of the greateft men that hiftory has recorded, his unfortunate apo- ftacy excepted. Judge, after sa of the credit that is due to hiftorians. XI. The ftatefman and the fcholar, the man of the world, and the man of genius, neverthe- lefs, will and ought to make himfelf acquainted with hiftory, He ought even to know it in the manner it has been tranfmitted to us, with all its fables, errors and falfhoods, He ought to know, for example, all that the ancient hiftorians haye related of the labours of Hercules; of the expedition 12 Uwniversart’ Ervorrron: expedition of the Argonauts; of the fiege of Troy, &c,: &c. though he do ‘not give the fame credit to thefe as to the gofpely It is of | little import to us, whether thefe relations be true or not, either in fubftance or in circum- {tance ; it is fufficient that we know in what manner hiftory relates them. Thefe marvellous: {tories even fometimes furnith affiftance, pleafing ideas and allufions, to poetry and eloquence. The ftrict veracity of faéts does; not: appear. to: become interefting to us, but in proportion as’ hiftory approaches thafe ages that immediately precede the prefent ; for the titles, the poffef- fions, and pretenfions of modern princes and nations, are entirely founded on thefe hiftorical facts, and on the minuteft circumftances that have attended them. The real influence ‘of: thefe facts and events on the interefts of modern nations, can go very little further back than the time of Charlemagne. The principal points are, to determine in what ftate that monarch found Europe; what were then the rights of the peo- _ ple; after what manner he conquered them ; by what method he eftablifhed the weftern em- pire; what rights. he thereby acquired ;\ and what.are the revolutions that have happened in the world fram that period down to the pres fent day, XII. It: is therefore from this famous epoch, that it concerns us thoroughly to know the veracity of facts; and of all their circumftances, | Thate Toe Berres LetTrTres. ij. Thofe of the preceding ages being more the objects of curiofity than utility, we fhall leave them to the learned refearches of critics, anti- quaries, and commentators ; acknowledging the obligation we have to their laborious inquiries. We fhall fay nothing here of the ftudy of the other parts of hiftoric and philologic fcience. That only requires, as we have already obferved, good eyes, a juft difcernment, and a happy me- mory. What remarks may be neceflary relative to that matter,. we fhall make in the courfe of our analyfis of thofe fciences, XIIf. The love of truth obliges us to make here one obfervation, and which we do at the rifk of offending, and regardlefs of the confe- quence. Every man who would acquire a true knowledge of the hiftoric fciences (and frequent- ly of the philofophic alfo) fhould learn them from fuch works as are wrote by Proteftants. The inquifition of the church of Rome ftrikes all catholic writers, and efpecially hiftorians, with a wretched timidity, that conftrains them to difguife the truth, or at leaft to fupprefs it, and be filent on all thofe matters that can in the leaft affect their religion. In all fuch faéts as relate to the origin and increafe of the hierar- chy, thofe authors are to be altogether fufpected ; efpecially when they belong themfelves to the ecclefiaftical ftate, and their fortune vifibly de- pends on the court of Rome. We will defy any one to produce a fingle work of this kind, . in 14 Universatr Ervuopirtroy. in which we cannot point out vifible marks of this unhappy truth ; and which we find ourfelves obliged, however unwilling, to declare in this place. The inconvenience is greater than is eafily imagined.. XIV. And now, ye Studious Youth, who feék to inform yourfelves by this abridgment of the. courfe you fhould purfue in the ftudy of the fciences, conftantly remember, that theory alone, however perfect it may be, will perpetually re- main a barren knowledge ; that hiftory, efpecially, fhould direé& you to a fagacious conduét, fhould infpire you with a love of virtue, and with an averfion to folly and to vice. Be not therefore content with knowing much, but let your know- ledge be the guide to your talents ; for, in a word, | Omnia tendunt ad praxin, CHAP. “MytTHoutocy. 1s RNP FA SAR FARO FR C .H.A:P... Il. MYTHOLOG Y, I. 4 Rete word mythology is a Greek compound, that fignifies a di/courfe on fables, and com- prehends, in a collective fenfe, all the fabulous and poetic hiftory of pagan antiquity. It fol- lows therefore, that this fcience teaches the hif- tory of the gods, demi-gods, and fabulous heroes of antiquity; the theology of the pagans, the principles of their religion, their myfteries, me- tamorphofes, oracles, &c. By this definition, it appears fufficiently what are the objects of which we are to treat in this chapter. IJ. If we well confider the matter, we fhall find, that there were, in pagan antiquity, three different religions. Firft, That of the philofophers, who treated metaphyfically of the nature, the at- tributes, and of the works of the Supreme Being. They endeavoured to difcover the true God, and the manner‘in which he ought to be worfhipped. ; It 16 Universat ErvupbitTIion. It is not wonderful, that thefe men of exalted genius fhould in fome degree ridicule, in their works, the two other pofitive religions, and thofe gods on whom they were founded; at the fame time that they outwardly profeffed the eftablifh- ed religion, in order to preferve the peace of fociety, and to avoid the perfecutions of the legiflature, and the infults of the populace. For in fact, was it poffible for them to believe the pagan fables? Muft they not forefee, that their religion would one day give place to another, while their own works would pafs with their names to the lateft pofterity? And could they fuffer the thought, that their reputation would be tarnifhed in the eyes of that pofterity, by: having it imagined they believed fuch idle tales as were broached by the priefts of their times ? Could Plato, Socrates, Seneca, and Cicero, be unconcerned for their fame among future generations, and future philofophers ?.. And what fhould we at this day have faid of thofe great men, had they been fo political, or hypocri- tical, as to have entirely concealed their fenti- ments with regard to thefe matters ? II. The fecond religion was that of paganifn, which was the eftablithed religion of all the an- cient nations, except the Jews. This was the doctrine that was taught by the priefts, and pro- tected by the fovereigns, Its dogmas were de- montftratively falfe, but not always fo abfurd as may at firlt appear, efpecially if we annex (as I think .— se MyTuotocy. 7 think we fhould) to the divinities, and to the re- ligious ceremonies of the pagans, a fenfe that is frequently myftic, and always allegoric; if we remember, that the firft heathens deified thofe great men to whom the reft of mankind were indebted for any fignal benefits, as Jupiter, Apollo, Ceres, Bacchus, Hercules, A£fculapius, &c. in order to induce others, as well of the prefent as future ages, to reverence and to imitate them. Would not an ancient pagan, it he were to return upon the earth, have fpecious argu- ments, at.leaft, to fupport his religion, when he faw weak mortals beatify or canonize,:merely by their own authority, other weak mortals: (fre- quently mere pedants) and place them in heaven, without the permiffion or approbation of the Supreme Being? MHappy is it for mankind, when at different times iagacious pontiffs purge the calendar, and the brains of the people, from a herd of pretended faints, and prevent them, at leaft after their death, from doing injury to fociety, by interrupting thé induftry of the labo- rious inhabitants with keeping their feftivals, » IV. The third religion was idolatry, or the religion of the populace. For the common people, born to be deceived in every thing, con- founding in their imaginations the ftatues of the gods, the idols of their divinities, the emblems of their virtues and of religious worfhip, with the gods, divinities, virtues and worhhip them- felves, adored thefe images, and proceeded to Vor. If, © B extravagancies | 18 UnivErRSsSAL ERvUDITION. extravagancies the moft ridiculous, and frequent- ly moft criminal, in their ceremonies, feafts, li- bations, facrifices, &c. It is to be feared, that, as long as there are upon the earth men of our limited capacities; this triple religion’ will conftantly fubfift under different forms ;. and we . are much deceived, if it may not be found under the empire of Chriftianity itfelf, notwithftanding the purity of its doctrine: — It will be eafily con- ceived, that it is not of the religion of philofo- phers, nor that of the populace, of which we are’ ‘to treat inthis chapter on Mythology; but of that whicls fubfifted under the authority of the magiftracy and the priefthood, and confequently of paganifm in general. | V. As far-as we are able to judge by all’ the ancient authors we have read, the pagans adored the Sovereign Lord of the univerfe under the name of Fate or Deftiny, (Fatum) which we muft not confound with Fortune, who was. regarded as a fubaltern divinity. Jupiter himfelf, all the gods, every animated being, the heavens, the earth, the whole frame of nature was fubfervient to Deftiny, and nothing could reverfe its decrees. This divinity was fo highly adorable, as to be above all rank, and was regarded as too fupreme to be reprefented under any fenfible image or ftatue, or to have any temple erected for its worfhip. We do not remember to have read, that any facrifice was ever offered to this Deftiny, or that any i aa or city was ever dedicated to its | } name. MyTHOLoOeY. 19 fame, Weare almoft inclined to think, that the pagans were fenfible, that the temple and the worfhip of the God of gods ought to be in ' the heart of man. Mention is made, indeed, of a temple that was dedicated to the unknown God, but we are ignorant whether or not Deftiny | were thereby meant. We mutt not confound this Deftiny, moreover, with the goddefs of chance, of which there are fome antique ftatues that reprefent her in a recumbent pofture, and playing with little bones ; for this was nothing more than an invention of fome ftatuary. VI. After this general and philofophical idea of the Supreme Being, comes the pofitive religion of the pagans. This was entirely founded on fable, which took its rife either from ancient traditions, or hiftorical events, altered or aug- mented by the imaginations of the poets, by fuperftition, or by the credulity of the people ; or élfe it confifted of allegoric or moral fictions, A crowd of writers, and among the reft Noel le Comte, (Natalis Comes) the abbots Bannier and Pluche, &c. have made many refearches into the origin of fable: and they think they have difcovered its fource, 1. in the vanity of mankind; 2. in the want of letters and charac- ters; 3. in the delufive eloquence of orators ; 4. in the relations of travellers; 5. in the fic- tions of poets, painters, ftatuaries, and dramatic writers; 6, in the diverfity and uniformity of names ; 7. in the ignorance of true philofophy ; B 2 8. in 20 UNnirvEerRsaL ERvUDITION. 8. in the foundation of colonies, and the inven- tion of arts; g. in the defire of having gods for our anceftors ; 10. in the imperfect or falfe in- terpretation of the holy criptures 5 Ir. in the ignorance of ancient hiftory; 12. in a like ig- norance of chronology ; 13. in that of foreign Janguages ; 14. in the tranflation of the religion of the Ee'yptians and Phoenicians into Giseces 15. in the ignorance of geography; and 16, in the belief that the firft people had of the inter- courfe of gods with men. It is certain, that all thefe matters taken together are fufficient to produce many thoufands of fables; are more than fufficient to enable us to deceive ourfelves and others, and to give rife to infinite reveries. But we fhould take care how we draw from thefe fources demoniirations that might be ufed, by infidels, as arguments to overthrow the hiftory of the Jews; a people the moft ftupid, moft credulous, and oftentatious of all others. In the mean time, the pagan philofophers them- felves afferted, that it was a god who invented | _ the fable: fo much they were convinced of its ingenuity, and of its {trong tendency to inftruét mankind in their duty. VII. Mythology therefore, when properly treated, begins with making learned refearches into the real origin of fable, of paganifm, and of that idolatry which was its confequence. It recurs for this purpofe even to the beginning of the world; and after finding that Laban, the father- MyTHOLOGY. 21 father-in-law of the patriarch Jacob, was a maker of idols, and that he had his little images, or houfhold gods, which he formed of baked earth, and which fhows, that idolatry exifted in the greateft antiquity, it then explains co/mogony,, and ¢heogony, or the belief that the firft inhabi- tants of the earth entertained of the creation of the univerfe, and what the pagan theology taught of the genealogy of their falfe gods. It begins with the tradition of the Chaldeans, a people fo ancient, that Nimrod was their firft king; but at the fame time, fo credulous and fuperftitious, that we may regard them as the authors of all thofe fables, and the propagators of all thofe vifions, that have fince blinded human reafon. According to this tradition, a monfter named Oannes, or Oes, half fifh and half man, Sprang from the fea, before the chaos was com- pletely difperfed, and gave laws to the Chaldeans. A woman, called Omorka, reigned over all the eatth. Bel cut her in two, and made of one moiety the heavens, and of the other the earth. They likewife invented the two primitive beings, of which the good one, who was named Ora- majdes, had the direction of heaven, and the other called Arimanius, that of hell. VIII. The fcience of mythology then teaches the theogony of the Phoenicians ; concerning whom it draws great lights from Sanchoniathon, a prieft of Beryte, who lived before the Trojan wars, more than four hundred years before He- hed 22 UNIVERSAL ErvpIrTIon. fiod and Homer, and of whom Eufebius has pre- ferved confiderable fragments. From thence it pafies to the theogony of the Egyptians, of whom Thot or Thaut, the founder of that nation, was likewife, they fay, their firft hiftorian, that Sanchoniathon even copied from him; and of whom we find many relations in the Greek hif- torians, efpecially in Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and in Eufebius of Cefarea. It then examines the theogony of the Attlantides, who dwelt on the weftern part of Africa, and of whom Diodo- rus alone has preferved any account. From thence it proceeds to the theogony of the Greeks, which is far better known to us, as we find ac- counts of it, more or lefs particular, in numbers lefs Greek and Latin writers. This theogony had the fame foundation as that of the Romans; the latter having only extended it by adding to the Greek divinities certain gods or demi-gods, formed of their heroes, and certain fymbolic and allegoric divinities, which mythology ex- plains at the fame time; and it is on this oc- cafion, that it enters into a particular explication of the cofmogony and theogony of Ovid; whofe book of metamorphofes contains as copious de- {criptions as we could defire of the fable of the ancients: what was their belief concerning the habitations of the blefied after their death, or of the Elyfian fields ; as well as of their hell or T'artarus; of the dog Cerberus ; of the ferryman Charon; of the Furies , of the four rivers, Cocy- tus; ees Phlegethon a and Styx, which water the Tartarian - MyTHOLOcY. - 23 Tartarian regions, &c. The learned have likewife made many inquiries, and many ingeni- ous difcoveries concerning the theogony of the ancient Germans, Celts, the Scythian and Hy- perborean nations. In the laft place, this fci- ence furnifhes great lights on the theogony of the Bramins, the Troglodytes, the Indians, the Chinefe, and even the Americans; all which it concludes with a regular and minute examina- tion of the pagan theology, and particularly that of the poets. {X. All thefe matters being well digeftec in the minds of thofe who would make a regu- lar ftudy of pagan theology, they continue their refearches into the time, the epoch and, place of the real origin of paganifm and idolatry, and they prove that the pagans began by adoring the heavenly bodies, tite ftars and planets. They next,examine into the progrefs of idolatry, what were the temples of the pagans, their altars, their enclofures, their facred groves, their afylums, the idols and ftatues of their deities; in what manner they were reprefented, what were their facrifices, the victims that were offered, what were the facred veffels, the cen- fers.and other inftruments that were ufed in the facrifices, libations, and other religious ce- remonies; concerning the priefts, priefteffes, and other attendants on the fervice of each di- vinity : what were the feftivals that were ce- lebrated among the Greeks and Romans, as well 24 Universat Eruption. well as among the Orientals: what ‘the days of penitence and fupplication, the feafts of 'the gods or leétifternia, their invocations or in- cantations, and exorcifms, the religious cere- monies obferved at laying the foundations of Cities, 8c. _ XX. Divination, or the prediction of future events, a weaknefs that has at all times poffeffed the human mind, forms alfo an important ar- ticle of pagan theology. It is therefore in this place, that mythology confiders the nature of Oracles, and in particular, 1. The oracle of “Dodona, the moft ancient of Greece. 2. That of Jupiter Hammon or Ammon, in Lybia.: . 3. That of Jupiter Philius. 4. That of A- pollo, both of Heliopolis. 5. That of Apollo of Delphos. 6. That of Trophonius in Boeo- tia. 7. Thatof Venus of Aphaca, a country between Byblos and Heliopolis, fituate on a fmall lake; and a great number of other oracles of lefs note, difperfed over Greece and other countries. It alfo examines in what manner thefe oracles gave their anfwers, the ceremonies that were obferved in confulting them, the frantic emotions of the prieftefs Pythia on her tripod; and thofe of other priefts. It then endeavours to determine if there ever were in faét any Sibyls, which, whatever has been faid, is ftill very doubtful; it draws, however, from all the fources of antiquity, a kind of -hiftory ef thefe Sibyls and of their prophecies. It | next: MyTHoLrtocy:, 28 ext paffes to the examen of the nature of au- guries, aufpices, harufpices, prefages, _pro- digies, and phenomena, of expiations and ab- lutions, of the magic and aftrology of the an- cients, &c. Whoever has thoroughly ftudied all thefe objects, is fully provided with the pre- liminary knowledge that is neceffary to enable him to proceed fteadily and fecurely through the darknefs of ancient mythology, and he may thereby advance more confidently to the exa- mination of the nature of the pagan divinities themfelves. XI. The celebrated treatife of Cicero de na- tura deorum will here furnifh great lights; but modern authors who have treated on thefe mat- ters, have not been contented with this alone; they have, fo to fay, extracted the eflence of all antiquity, of which they have formed fyftems ; but unluckily thefe fcarce ever agree with each other. As philofophers, it is of very little im- portance for us to know what was the nature of thefe gods, feeing we know that they were mere- ly fabulous: but as hiftorians and antiquaries, it concerns us to know what was the nature that was attributed to them in general, and in par- ticular, what were the origin, genealogy, rank, functions, authority and operations, that were attributed to each divinity; and it is on thefe matters that we have {till fome remarks to make. XII. The 26 UNIVERSAL ErvditTion: XII. The gods of the ancient Greeks and Romans were all either Dii majorum gentium, or Dit minorum gentium : that is, of the firft or fecond order. The former were alfo called confentes, magni confultores, &c. Accotding to Ennius they were twelve in number, and are included in thefe verfes : Juno, Velta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars, Mercurius, Jovis, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo, To thefe were added eight others under the title of /eleéi, which were Sol, Luna, Tellus, Genius, Janus, Saturnus, Liber, and Pluto. The fecond order, or minorum gentium, were called Adfcriptitii, Medioximi, Minufcularii, Putatitiil, Indigetes, Semones, &c, the prin- cipal. of which were Ai{culapius, Bacchus, Caftor, Fauna, Hercules, the Lares or Penates, Pol- lux, Quirinus, Semo Saneus or Dius Fidius, &c. XII. According to the fecond divifion, all their divinities were claffed into, 1. Celeftial gods, 2. Terreftrial gods, 3. Sea gods, and 4. the Infernal deities, or Jnferi. The celettial _ gods were Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Aurora, Cupid, Cybele, the Graces, Hebe, Iris, Lu- na, Mars, Mercury, Minerva, Nemefis, Sa- turn, Themis, Venus, &c. The terreftrial gods were fHolus, Aftreus, Aftreea, Ceres, Diana, the Fauni, Feronia, Flora, Janus, Momus, the Mufes, Pales, Pan, Pomona, Priapus, the MyTHoLtocy, 27 the Satyrs, Silenus, Silvanus, the god Ter- minus, Vefta or Rhea, Berecynthia, Vulcan, Harpocrates, &c. The fea gods were Nep- tune, Amphitrite, Thetis, Canopus, Glaucus, Ino, the Nereids, Nereus, Oceanus, Palaemon, Triton, &c. The infernal gods were Pluto, Proferpine, Charon, Minos, ‘Afacus, Rhada- manthus, the Furies, Death, Night; the Fates, Plutus, &c, XIV. The third divifion ranged the divi- nities according as they prefided, 1. Over the pregnancy of women (Pregnantium.) 2. At parturitions (Parturientium.) 3. At births (Na- feentium.) 4, At adulteries. 5. At marriages: to which they added, 6. Dii morales, or moral gods, and 7. Funeral gods, The gods of pregnancy were Pilumnus, Intercidona, and Deverra: the gods of parturition, Juno, Lu- cina, Diana, Egeria, Profa, Poftverta, Mena- genata, Latona, the gods that were called Nixi, or of labor, &c. The gods of birth were Janus, Opis, Nafcion, Cunina, Carmenta, Va- ginianus, Levana, Rumia, Potina, Educa, Offilago, Carnea, Nundina, Statilinus, Fabu- linus, Paventia, &c. The gods of adultery were Juventus, Agenoria, Strenua, Stimula, Horta, Quies, Murcia, Adeona, Abeona, Vo- luptas, Orbona, Pellonia, Numeria, Camoena, Sentia, Angerona, Heres, Martea, Laver- na, the god Averruncus, Confus, Catius, Volumnus and Volumna, Honorius, Aius Lo- cutius, &c, The nuptial gods were Diana, Domiduca, 28 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION. Domiduca, Domitius, Hymenzus. or Hymen,’ Jugatinus, Jupiter perfectus, Juno perfeéta, Juno cinxia, Junaunxia, Lucina, Manturna, Mutinus, Dea Mater prema, Suada, Thalaffius, Venus, &c. The moral gods were called Virtus, Honor, Fides, Spes, Juftitia, Pietas, Mifericordia, Clementia, Pudicitia, Veritas, Mens, Con- cordia, Pax, Salus, Felicitas, Libertas, Pe- cunia, Rifus, Invidia, Contumelia, Impuden- tia, Calumnia, Fraus, Difcordia, Furor, Fama, Fortuna, with all their epithets good or bad, Febris, Pavor and Pallor, Paupertas, Necef- fitas, Tempeftas, Silentium, &c. The fune- ral gods were Pluto, Libitina, Nenia, Death, the Fates, &c. XV. Heftod indeed pretends that all thefe gods derived their origin from chaos, but we have already pointed out more juft fources. It is almoft incredible to what a prodigious number the fuperftition and weaknefs of the Greeks and Romans multiplied thefe divinities; there have been thirty thoufand of them enumerated. | It will not be expected that we fhould here at- tempt to defcribe them, nor will it be remark- ablé if we have forgot to mention even fome of the firft rank. Although vyaft as this company of gods is, mythology does not omit to trace. the hiftery of the greateft part of them, as it is taught by paganifm; and they who are defirous of particular information in thefe matters may eonfult with advantage the theogony of Hefiod, videllhe’ saa the MvytuHotrocy. 29 the catalogue of Apollodorus, the metamorpho- fes of Ovid ; the fables of Hygina; Lylii Gre- gorii Gyraldi Syntagma de Diis Gentilium, the mythology of Natalis Comes; the books of Ge- rard Voffius de Idolatria Gentilium ; Johannis Boccatii Genealogia Deorum; the Pantheon of Pomey ; the hiftory of heaven by abbé Pluche ; the hiftoric explanation of fables, by abbé Ban- nier; and numberlefs other works of the fame kind in all languages. XVI. There were ftill many other diftinétions, of which the pagans made ufe to mark their rank, the funétions and nature of their feveral divinities. For example, the goddefs Vefta, or the mother of all the gods, was ‘adored by all people in general. Mars, Bellona, Victoria, Fortunata, &c. affifted all parties. The topical gods, on the contrary, were adored in particular countries only; as Aftarta in Syria, Derceto and Semiramis among the Affyrians. Ifis and Ofiris by the Egyptians; Quirinus at Rome, &c. The title Semones, which was given to a certain clafs of divinities, was doubtlefs derived from Semi-homines, that is, demi-men, and fignified the fame as femi-dii, or demi-gods. Thefe were monarchs and illuftrious heroes, or thofe great men who were the founders of cities and nations, that were deified by way of apo- theofis, Pythagoras had taught the Chaldeans the doétrine of tranfmigration, and that after their death, thofe who were virtuous, would be elevated go Universatn Ervovirion. elevated to the rank of divinities. This doétriné was adopted by all the pagan world. The apotheofis, after they had erected temples and altars to the new gods, was celebrated with much folemnity.. In the laft ceremony, an eagle was fixed on the catafalk, or funeral pile, on which was placed the image of the hero, and when the pile began to burn, the eagle was let loofe, who, mounting into the air with the flames, feemed to carry the foul of the departed hero up to heas ven, XVII. Mythology informs us alfo, who thofe perfons were that antiquity regarded as the chil- dren of the gods, fuch as Thefeus, Hippolytus, Paris, 8c. what the pagans believed, with regard to the nature of their Genii and Demons, of their Dryades, Hamadryades, Nymphs, Tritons, Sirens, Fawns,. Silvaiis, Centaurs, and other fubaltern divinities; and in this manner it ex. plains all the fyftems of the pofitive religion of the Greeks and Romans, They who are defir- ous Of extending their knowledge of paganifm ftill further, of knowing the dogmas of each particular people, what were their gods; and the various manners in which they were worfhip- ped, fuch as Apis, Ifis, Ofiris, &c. the adoration of crocodiles and onions, &c. among the Egyp- tians, muft ftudy the different theogonies of thefe people, and notwithftanding all the infor- mations which ancient and modern authors af- ford, this ftudy is yet boundlefs, and attended with MyTHOoLocy. 31 with many difficulties and uncertainties. Though it appears demonttrative, that: the origin of pa. » and of idolatry in general, was derived from: the Chaldeans, from whom the Egyptians drew that doétrine which they after tranfmitted to all other nations; and confequently that the primordial divinities. were the fame, under dif. ferent denomifiations, among all the idolatrous nations of the earth. XVIII. The nature of this work will not permit us to defcend to further particulars. But to give our readers an idea of the manner in which mythology treats its fubjeéts, and of the method that fhould be obferved in ftudying fable, or the hiftory of the gods of antiquity, we fhall here give, by way of example, a curfory defcrip- tion of Parnaffus and its inhabitants. Parnafflus was a mountain of Phocis, that had two fummits, one of which was called Tithoreus, and the other Hyampeus. Others fay, that one of thefe hills was named Helicon, and the other Cytheron, and that it is an error to imagine, that Helicon was a mountain of Boeotia. However that be, this double hill was confecrated to Apol- Yo and the mufes, who there held their ufual refidence. According to fable, there had been a remarkable combat on this hill, between Helicon and Cytheron, Whoever flept on , Parnaffus, when he waked, became a poet. Apollo Hon there yz Universar Ervpirtiown, there a temple. There alfo was the fountain. Caftalia, into which Apollo had metamorphofed a nymph that he loved, and had given to its waters the power of making all who drank of them poets. At the foot of Parnaffus flowed the river Hippocrene, that had the famé virtue 5 and the fource of which was opéned by a ftroke of the foot of the horfe Pegafus. . This river nourifhed a great number of fwans, that were regarded as facred. Pegafus was a winged horfe, that belonged to Apollo, and grazed on the fummit of Parnaffus. He fprang from the blood of Medufa, when Perfeus cut off her head, which was placed among the ftars. Such was the de-. licious abode of Apollo, the fon of Jupiter and Latona, who was born, with his twin fitter Diana, in the ifland Delos. He killed the Cyclops who forged the thunder bolts with which Jupiter had: overthrown his fon /Efculapius ; but for that. prefumption, he was forced to leave heaven, and to become an inhabitant of the earth. He guarded the oxen of Admetus; he aided Nep- tune to build the walls of Troy; and Alcotheus in forming the labyrinth. He killed the dra- gon or ferpent Python. He invented mufic and phyfic; and was honoured as the god of poets and phyficians. ' He was reprefented as a young man, without a beard, his head furrounded with rays, and bearing in his hand a bow, or a lyre. As the ancients denoted the fun by the name of Apollo, they fometimes reprefented him alfo as feated in a chariot, drawn by two white horfes, preceded MyTHOLOGY. 33 preceded by Aurora andthe ftar Venus: Phaeton his fon, being defirous of conduéting thefe horfes, was thrown into the fea. Apoilo was alfo called Phoebus, Titan, and Sol. He is known to have had amours with Arfinoe, Corycia; Me- loene, Cyrene, Mantho, Sinope, Calliope, and others; by whom he had Delphe, Naxe, Mi- letus, Arabe, Garamas, Sirus, Linus, Orpheus, and other children, He had peculiar honours paid him in the Pythian games at Delphos, and in the fecular games at Rome. , XIX. The Mufes were thé companions of Apollo in his rural abode. They were likewife called the learned fifters; as alfo the Camoenian, Heliconian, Parnaffian, Aonian, Pierian, Pe- gafian, Aganippian, Thefpian, Libethrian and Caftalian fitters. They were the daughters of _ Jupiter and Mnemofyne, and were régarded as the goddefies of fciences and arts in general. There were nine of thefe mufes, to. whom they attributed, 1. to Clio, hiftory, 2. to Melpo- mene, tragedy, 3. to Thalia, comedy, 4. to Euterpe, flutes and other pneumatic inftruments of mufic, 5. to Terpfichore, the harp and the dance, 6. to Erato, the lyre and the lute, 7. to Calliope, heroic verfe, 8. to Urania, aftronomy, and g. to Polyhymnia, rhetoric and eloquence. The Graces alfo fometimes quitted Venus to pay their court to Apollo. Vor. Hl, C XX. Such 34 Univeirsau Erupition. XX. Such was the idea they entertained of _ ‘Parnaffus and its inhabitants. There is no doubt but that under thefe fabulous repre- fentations, thefe fenfible images, were concealed allegoric and moral meanings ;_ nor can it be de- nied but that their method of cultivating the arts and fciences, by this manner of expreffing their ideas, was as ingenious and pleafing as it is poffible toimagine. Every other fubje¢t that paganifm embraced, it treated with the fame ge- nius and in a manner equally pleafing; and though that religion was altogether fallacious, yet we muft allow that it was extremely well cal- culated to promote the polite arts, by thofe re- fined, noble, graceful, brilliant images, by thofe charming fubjeéts which it conftantly pre- fented, and which it ftill offers to the poet, painter, fculptor and every other artift. XXI. But this was not a power fufficiently ftrong to fecure paganifm againft that viciffitude, that decline and diffolution, which finally attends all the produétions of this world. This religion, which had fubfifted near five thoufand years, and almoft from the origin of the human race, gradually declined in proportion as the lights of Chriftianity and philofophy illumined the minds of mankind. For though the pagan religion, and the fables on which it was founded, were pleafing and favourable to the polite arts, they were not however calculated to fatisfy the minds of philofophers, nor to promote the real good of mankind, M+yrnoOLocy. 35 fankind, by fecuring their temporal and eter- nal happinefs. It is even furprifing, that fo great _@ genius as the emperor Julian fhould attempt to revive the embers of paganifm, which infen- fibly declined, and had received a mortal blow at the beginning of the fourth century by the emperor Conftantine the Great. ' Julian em- ployed all the refourcés. of his imagination, of his eloquence, of his power, and even of his own fatal example, to revive it, but in vain. The fatal period of paganifm was . arrived, \and nothing could fave it from deftruction;. The furious Theodofius, to whom bigotted -priefts and hiftorians have affigned the name of Great, totally overthrew it toward the clofe of the fame century; deftroyed thofe temples and altars which yet fubfifted, difperfed its colleges. and exterminated its priefts.. From that dire epoch, nothing of paganifm has remained, except fome ruins-difperfed in the remote parts of the earth, and among people wretched and almoft unknown; where this religion, once fo flourfhing and _ uni- verfal, is now degenerated into grofs and dif- guftful idolatry. mwC’4 CHAP. 36 Universar Ervpirrion. © HOA Roa. CHRONOL OG Y. Ay C Hronology is the fcience that teaches the method of meafuring time and diftin- guifbing its parts. It is more difficult, than may at firft appear, to determine the precife idea, and clearly to explain the nature of time. That ingenious and fubtile impoftor Mahomet has given in his Alcoran fome traces of very refined ideas of this fubjeét. But, leaving thefe meta- phyfical refearches, we fhall content ourfelves with faying, that by time we here mean the du- ration and fucceffion of created beings. To de- termine a fixed and fenfible meafure of duration, it is neceflary to find fome motion that is con- ftantly uniform, which may ferve as a fcale for that meafure. From the creation of the world, it has been obferved that the courfes of the heaven- ly bodies afford the moft univerfal meafure of motion to all the intabitants of the earth. As it was originally imagined that the fun turned round the earth, his annual and diurnal revolu- tions were fixed on for the common meafure of time ; and by this meafure they divided the du- ~ ration CHRONOLOGY. 37 tation of beings info years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes and feconds. It may feem ftrange to an aftronomer, or chronologift, to read, in the firft chapter of Genefis, that God did not create the fun, moon and ftars till the fourth day, and that there were days and nights be- fore there was any fun.. But who can fay what is there precifely meant by the word day? Mo- fes, who lived about three thoufand years after the creation, wrote the origin and hiftory of the Jews. In order to which he recurred to the origin of all things: he began with the crea- tion itfelf: but he wrote to men, and to men who were even lefs enlightened than we are, efpecially in matters of aftronomy. He was therefore obliged to make ufe of expreffions that were to them intelligible. The fcriptures were moreover given to mankind to ferve them as guides in matters of religion, and not to teach them aftronomy; of which were they ignorant, they would be obliged to believe, for example, that the fun moves round the earth, and that it was ftopped, though a thoufand timés greater than the whole terreftrial globe, by the defire of Jofhua at Gibeon ; and that the moon halted in the valley of Ajalon, &c. alt which is direétly contrary to the eternal laws of nature, and therefore, taken in the ftrict letter, cannot betrue. But who knows what means Providence may have employed to produce thefe appearances? With- out making further inquiry into thefe matters, let us acknowledge the goodnefs of the Holy Spirit 38 Universart-Ervprtiown. Spirit that has vouchfafed to {peak to ‘mankind in a language adapted to their ‘capacities, in pointing out the path that leads to eternal feli- city ;) where thofe dark clouds which now fur- round the human underftanding fhall be difperf- ed, and it will then perhaps difcover many of thofe pofitions to be errors which philofophers and aftronomers now regard as axioms, or incon- teftable truths. If. Since Copernicus has difcovered that the earth moves in its orbit round the fun, it necef- farily follows, that the meafure of time arifes from the motion of this our globe. But as chronology is founded on apparent aftronomy, or on that part of it which confiders the celeftial bodies and-their motions as they appear to our fenfes, and forms its calculations in ° confe- quence, all that we fhall here fay of its opera- tions, will therefore relate to that part of. aftro- nomy which is regulated by appearances. III. The term chronology, when taken in its full extent, has two objects that may feem to be’ in a manner two different {ciences, but which have a natural connexion. The firft is the meafuring of time and its different divifions,; now this part of chronology i is regulated by aftronomical calculation, and confequently makes a part of mathematics. And it is by this method that we are enabled to make complete calendars or almanacs. The fecond part of chronolgy Bix conlifts CHRONOLOGY, | 39 confifts in fixing the dates of all thofe events that ~ are related in hiftory, and of ranging them in the feveral divifions of time in which they occurred: and by this means chronology becomes one of the effential parts of hiftory. This fecond part of chronology draws its principles from.the firft ; but it has need,of other iupports, as of criti- cifm, of the teftimony of authors, of ancient coins, medals, infcriptions, &c. of fuch epochs in hiftory as are inconteftable ; of eclipfes of the fun and moon, and other aftronomical obferva- tions, &c. We fhall now make the analyfis of chronology according to this natural divifion, and fhall confider it from thefe different points of view. IV. The time that the fun employs in going completely round the earth is called a day. We alfo call that time the fun remains above the horizon, day; and the time he is under it, night. As the fun’s. motion is flower when he is in the apogee than when in the perigee, it fol- lows that the firft fort of days, which are alfo called natural days, muft be fhorter in fummer than in winter, The natural day is divided into four-and-twenty hours, the hour into fixty mi- nutes, and the minute into fixty feconds. As the point of mid-day or noon can be obferved, by means of the meridian, with the greateft pre- cifion, aftronomers begin the day at that point, and count twenty-four hours in fucceffion ; which, when thus counted, are called aftronomic hours. The common people, on the contrary, begin wera oO mt © ee ee ee 40 Universart Exvopirtion, begin the day at midnight, and count twelve hours to mid-day, and from thenée twelve hours more to midnight ; and thefe are se Euro- péan hours. Vi The andiene Atabs, and fome other na- tions, began theif day with the aftronomers ; but the Egyptians and Romians at the fate time we do. The Italians and Chinefe (as did alfo the Athenians) begin their day at funfer; and the modern Greeks, by the example of the Babylo- nians, begin it at funrife. Fhe hours therefore that are counted after the former method are called Italian, and the latter Babylonian hours: and in both methods they count twenty- four hours in fucceffion. The Jews begin the day alfo at funfet:' anciently they divided each day, whether long or fhort, into twelve hotirs, and the night the fame. Fhefe unequal hours are called Judaic or planetary hours: the fudaic hours therefore are long or fhort,’ according to the duration of the day. The Chaldean {cruple is the ..",> part of an hour. The Jéws, Arabs, and other oriental nations, make ufé of this divi- fion, atid call thefe fcruples Helakim. Eighteen Chaldean {crtiples are equal to one minute, and confequently 15 minutes are equal to 270 fefuples. VE.-A week is the {pace of feven days. This divifion of time took its origin from the creation. It was adopted by the patriarchs and other Jews, and has pafied from them to moft other nations. The Curonovocy. 41 _ ‘The Perfians, however, do not count by weeks, nor do forme of the Indian nations. We owe the nates of the days to the Egyptians and aftrologers, who have given to each day: the name of that planet, which, according to them, reigns over the firft hour of that day, beginning with Saturday. They therefore range the days as follows : h Dies Saturni, - or - Saturday. © Dies Solis, - - - -= Sunday. > Dies Lune, - - - - Monday. '$ Dies Martis, - - - Tuefday. 3 Dies Mercurii, - - - Wednefday, u Dies Fovis, - - - Thurfday. ¢ Dies Veneris, - - - Friday. Chriftian aftronomers and chronologifts have preferved thefe figns of the Latin names: in their almanacs; but we begin the week with Sunday ¢ Dies Solis) the day that Chriftians confecrate to devotion, and to the memory of the refurreGtion of our Saviour; their week therefore ends with Saturday, or the day of the Jewifh Sabbath. Sometimes they alfo mark the feven days of the week in the calendar by the firft feven letters of the alphabet; thus, A. Sunday. B. Monday. C. Tuefday. D. Wednefday. E. Thurfday. F. Friday. G, Saturday, Which ta" -_, . eet 42 Universat Ervupirion: Which is of ufe. in. calculating the days, as each letter or fign, that is once adopted to fig- nify any particular day, conftantly, denotes the fame day throughout the year. VII. A /olar month is the {pace of time that the fun employs in pafling through a fign of the Zo- diac. The folar months are equal among them- felves, and, according to the mean motion, each folar month is equal to 30 days, 10 hours, 29 - minutes, and 5 feconds, But this kind of month cannot be ufed in the common affairs of life, as we can there only count by whole days. A /unar month is the {pace of time from one new moon to another. ‘The duration of a lunar month be- ing 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 fe- conds, cannot, for the fame reafon, be obferved in common life. | VITE. A folar year is the time in which the fun runs through all the twelve figns of the Zodiac, and’ is confequently compofed of twelve: folar months. But there are here two neceflary ob- fervations to be made. The firftis, that the fo- lar year, confifting of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, it cannot likewife be obferved in com- -mon life; and great confufion would arife if the year did not conftantly begin on the fame day. The folar year, therefore, is reduced to 365 days only, and when the odd hours and mi- nutes amount to a day, it is added to that year, which then confifts of 366 days. The fecond gbfervation is, that when 365 is divided by 12, - the > | CHRONOLOGY. * 43 the quotient is 30,5, ; therefore, as the folar year confifts of twelve months, feven of thefe months fhould have 30 days, and five 31; and when the year confifts of 366 days, there fhould be fix months of 30 days, and fix of 3r. But in our chronology a different method is obferved. In the common year, of 365 days, the months of january, March, May, July, Auguft, October. and December, have 31 days each; thofe of April, June, September, and November, 30; and the month of February 28 days: but when the year confifts of 366 days, February has 29 days: fuch a year is called Biffextile, or Leap- year, and the day that is added is called the In- tercalary day. It is alfo mecefflary to obferve, that as the time above 366 days confifts of 5 hours 49 minutes, there will be in a century, be- fide the 24 intercalary days, a furplus of 5 hours and 40 minutes, which, in 400 years, will amount to 22 hours 40 minutes, or almoft a day, which muft therefore be alfo intercalated at the end of the fourth century, IX. The /wnar year is compofed of 12 lunar months, and confifts of 354 days, 8 hours, 38 minutes, and 36 feconds: confequently the dif- ference between the folar and the lunar year, amounts to 10 days, 21 hours, 24 feconds. Chronology therefore demonftrates, by the aid of aftronomic calculation, that, in a hundred lu- nar years, there muft be intercalated about 53 months; unlefs we would have the beginning of the 44 UNIversar Ervpditron; the year run through all the feafons, and fall fometimes in fummer, and fometimes in winter. X. The common Fulian year has 365 days, and the biffextile 366. The fourth year is al- ways biffextile. The emperor Julius Czefar, the reformer of the Roman calendar, fixed the folar year, by the advice of his aftronomer Soffygenes, at 365 days, 6 hours, and confequently at 11 mi- nutes more than the truth; and which produced, in a hundred years, a difference of 18 hours and 20 minutes. The Julian year was ufed through- out all Chriftianity till the year 1582, when pope Gregory again altered the calendar. XI. The common Gregorian year confifts, like the Julian, of 365 days, and the biffextile of 366. But as in a hundred years there can be only 24 biffextiles, at the end of four hundred years there will confequently be a furplus of 22 hours; Gregory therefore appointed the biflex- tile every fourth year, but at the end of the cen- tury he directed there fhould be three common years together, and has fixed the biffextile only at the end of the fourth century: which makes a difference with the true folar year of r hour and 20 minutes in 400 years, and confequently a whole day in 7200 years. On the other hand, the Gregorian year begins, in 400 years, always three days fooner than the Julian year, This difference had increafed, from the time of the council of Nice to the pontificate of Gregory, to 10, and at the beginning of the prefent century; . Dee to CHRONOLOGY. 45 to 11 days. Thefe 11 days have therefore been refcinded from the calendar, and this laft re- formation is called the New Stile, and has been adopted by all the nations of Europe. XII. The names of the months, and the num- ber of days they contain, are to be found in all almanacs. The Romans reckoned at firft only 10 months, from whence came the names Sep- tember, October, November, December. They . had alfo a peculiar method of counting the days. The firft day in each month they called the Ca- lends. The calends were followed in the months of March, May, July, and October, by fix No- nes, and in the other months by four Nones. Thefe Nones were alfo followed by eight Ides, and the reft of the days were called the Calends of the fucceeding months; as appears by thefe veries ; Prima dies menfis cujufque ef difla Calende. Sex Maius, Nonas, Odiober, Fulius & Mars, Quatuor at reliqui ; dabit Idus quilibet offo. Inde dies reliquos omnes dic effe Calendas. All this was counted backward. We begin the year with the firft day of January, as did Ju- lius Czfar; and which is nearly at the time that the fun enters the fign Capricorn. XIII. The Egyptian years of Nebuchadnezzar are all of 365 days, and the twelve months each of 30 days, which making only 360 ; they added five 7) ‘ 46 Universat ExvpbirTion. five days to the end of each year, which they called the fupernumerary days. Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon began to reign in the year of the world 3257, and, by the agreement of all chro« nologifts, 747 years before the common era. The era and year of Nebuchadnezzar fhould- be clearly determined, in order to be made ufe of iti drawing lights from the aftronomic obfervations of Ptolemy; The year of the Moors was much’ the fame with that of the Egyptians, | XIV. The Perfians had anciently the % exdegird year, which agreed in all refpects with that of Ne+ buchadnezzar, except that it began on the 16th of July, and that of Nebuchadnezzar on thé 26th of February, of the Julian year. The five days that were added they called Mufteraka : but; under the reign of the fultan Gelal, they changed their year, and adopted the fpace of the folar year; that is, 365 days, 5 hours, 49 min. 15%, 0”, 48°". They ftill reckoned 30 days to each month, and the 5 Mufteraka at the end of the year: but after inferting fix or feven times in the fourth year an intercalary day, they made once, in five years only, a biflextile. They called it the Gelalian year, and it proves that the Per- fians have been, for time immemorial, very ex- pert in aftronomy ; that they knew very accu- rately the fpace of the folar year, and how to in- tercalate the days in the moft proper manner, in order to make the equinoxes and folftices fall al- ways on the fame days of the year. The CHRONOLOGY. 49 XV. The Syriac year agrees in all things with the Julian, except that the months bear other names, and that the beginning of this year falls in the month of Odtober of the Julian year. Ulugh Beigh, Albateignius, and other oriental authors, count by’Syriac years. XVI. The Attic year of the Greeks is a lunat year, and confifts of 12 months, which have al- ternately 29 and 30 days. But to prevent it from beginning at all the feafons of the folar year, the Greeks made a biffextile of 13 months, and counted the fixth month twice. So that in a re- volution of 19 years, the 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, 16 and 1gth, were always Biffextile years. The beginning of this year was fixed to the day of the new moon which immediately preceded the fummer folftice. In the time of Meton and Eudoxus, they placed it on the 8th of June; and, inthe time of Timo- charis and Hipparchus, it was fixed on the 27th of July. The Greeks were of all people the moft wretched aftronomers, and their chronology is con- fequently full of confufion. The lunar year of the Macedonians agreed with the Attic, and the folar year with the Julian. The Macedonians fometimes divided the year, moreover, into four equal parts, on the fun’s entrance into the four cardinal points, and they alloted to each quarter gt days, XVII. The Arabic or Mabometan year is a lu- nar tyear that has 354 days. But as the Arabs adopted 48 Universat Ervpirtrovy. adopted the lunar aftronomic year of 354 days; 8 hours, 48 minutes, they fometimes inferted a day at the end of the year, fo that in the {pace of 29 years, the 2, 5,7, 10, 13, 15, 185 215 24, 26, and 29th years were Biffextiles. Their months were alternately of 29 and 30 days; and in the biffextile years the laft month, Dulheggiag was allo of 0 days. The firlt year of this pe- riod began on the 15th July of the Julian ca- lendar. XVIII. The year of the modern Fews ig allo a lunar year of 354 days, and has twelve months that confift alternately of 29 and 30 days. They fometimes added to the month Odar, or March, another entire month of 30 days, which . they called Veodar, or more than March. Their ins tercalary years are, in 19 years, the 3, 6, 8, 1 ly 17, and roth. The Jewith year begins on the day of shat new moon, which, according to the moon’s mean motion, is neareft to the autumnal » equinox. Sometimes they refcind from the com-_ mon year, ‘as well as from the biffextile, a day of the month Kiftow, or December; fo that the common year then confifts of 353 days only, and the biffextile of 383. Sometimes alfo they add a day to each of thefe forts of years, and then the former is of 355, and the latter of 385 days; the reafon of which is, becaufe they mutt not ce- lebrate the new moon of the month Tifchri or Oétober, on the 1, 4, or 6th days of the week, or begin the new year on thofe days, — | as CHRONOLOGY. 49 as that would be contrary to the inftitutions of their anceftors. XIX. The folar year of the Jews is exactly I the fame as the Julian. It. is divided into four equal parts; which are called Tekuphas, and are feverally named Tekupham Tifchri, Tebeth, ' Nifan and Tamuz : and are diftinguifhed by the fun’s entrance into the four cardinal points, Aries, Cancer, Libra, ‘and Capricorn; and thefe days they celebrate with great folemnity. KX. The point of time, from whence any number of years is begun to be counted, is cal- led a period, era, or epoch. “he word era comes from the Latin 2s, becaufe the Romans marked their years with a kind of {mall brafs nails, The difference between the terms era and epoch is, thag the eras are certain points fixed by fome | people or nation, and the epochs are points fixed by chronologifts and hiftorians; ‘The idea of an : era comprehends alfo a certain fucceffion of | years, proceeding from a fixed point of time, and the epoch is that point itfelf. Thus the Chriftian era began at the epoch of the birth of Jefus Chritt, , XXII. Chronological charaélers are thofe marks by which one point of time is diftinguifhed from another; which, by its refemblance, might other- wile be miftaken for it. Now, as the eclipfes of the fun and moon, the fun’s entrance into the | . Vor. Ill. D - four 5o Universart ErvupitTion. four cardinal points, the new and full moons, the relative pofitions of the planets, and other celeftial phenomena, can be calculated to the greateft precifion, they may be regarded as in- fallible marks of time. Therefore, when we . know the year of any people, and find a fact re- lated by an author according to the chronologic date of another people, and that author alfo makes mention of another event that happened at the fame time among the former people, we may find, by the known year of one of thefe people, the unknown year of the other. Accord- ing to thefe two methods of calculating, we may alfo find, by years that are known, how many years have paffed between them and the time any event has happened, the precife date of which has not been marked by hiftorians. For example, the year that a prince came to the crown may not be mentioned in the annals, but we may find that in a certain known year of his reign there was a remarkable eclipfe of the fun; from whence we may eafily calculate the precife year that he began to reign. XXH. Mathematic chronology teaches us, moreover, the method of reducing, by means of calculation, the different years and periods of different: people to-one common meafure; to compare the one with the other, and thus to find the precife time in which every event recorded in hiftory has arrived. _ By thefe means we are enabled not only to range the facts of various bait, Gi sly nations, - tl en, — eS oe ae ae eS ee ee ae CHRONOLOGY. | 5i mations, whofe hiftory is known to us, with their dates, in a regular feries ; but alfo to reduce all thefe events either.to the Chriftian era, or that of the creation of the world. To facilitate this bu- finefs, the celebrated Jofeph Scaliger has con- trived a particular method, which we fhall pre-. fently explain. XXIII. The cycle of the fun is a revolution of years, at the end of which, the letters that mark the Sundays and other feafts return in the fame order.in which they were in a former year. This revolution is performed in 28 years. » The fun has no particular relation to this period, and it is only fo called becaufe the letter of Sunday is principally fought after. Chronology furnifhes rules alfo for finding the Sunday or Dominical letter, and confequently thofe of the other days of the week, XXIV. The cycle of the mcon is a revolution of 19 years; at the end of which, the new and full moon fall on the fame day of the Julian year. This method was invented by Meton the Athe- nian, who firft obferved, that after this term the lunations were the fame. _ But this ‘lunar cycle will not hold true for longer than 310 years in fucceffion. “The number that fhows the year when the lunar cycle a is called the golden number, D 2 AXYV. rs 52 UniversaAt ErRvpDITION. XXV. The ep2és are the fupernumerary days and hours that the Julian and Gregorian months have more than the lunar months. Thefe latter . months being of 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 feconds, it follows that a common month of 31 days muft have 1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 feconds, and a month of go days will have 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 feconds, more than a lunar month. The annual epaéis form in like manner the difference between a folar or civil year, and a lunar aftronomic year. | XXVI. The cycle of indiftion, or Roman cycle, is a revolution of 15 years. This method of computing was made ufe of by the ancient Ro- mans, and it is ftill ufed in bulls and apoftolic refcripts, as well as in inftruments drawn up by German notaries. It is not certain by whom, or for what purpofe, this cycle was firft invented ; but, by comparing it with the number of years ftom the birth of Chrift, its firft year falls three years before our Saviour’s birth; though it does fot clearly appear that the indiction was then in ule. | XXVII. The Yulian period is a {pace of time that includes 7980 years. Scaliger, who i- ventéd this period, compofed it of the folar cycle of 28 years, the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the indiétion of s5 years. For thefe three numbers, multiplied into each other, produce 7980. if. we fuppofe, therefore, that the world has not yet ; | exifted _— Dh thn i be ad - t Ln, tal CHRONOLOGY. 53 “exifted 6000 years, this imaginary period goes er than the creation. But as all the years fince the creation bear diftinét charaéters in all the three revolutions we have mentioned, Scali- ger made good ufe of it to compare and reduce, with.more facility, the years and epochs of diile- rent nations of the earth. XXVIII. Modern Chriftians count the years from the birth of Chrift; but the firft Chriftians reckoned trom Dioclefian, and which they called the Dioclefian era, or the year of martyrs. The Moors ftill make ufe of it in ealoulating their fef- tivals, and call them the years of grace. We fhall prefently fpeak more fully of thefe different eras, and efpecially that of modern Chriftians, XXIX. In the Chriftian calendar the feafs or. feftivals are divided into moveable and immoveable. The moveable feafts, or thofe that do not always fall on the fame day of the year, are Afh-Wed- nefday, Good-Friday, Eafter-Sunday, Afcenfion-. day, Whitfunday, Trinity-Sunday, &c. The immoveable feafts are New-yeat’s day, the Epi- phany, Lady-day, St. John Baptift, Michaelmas, Chriftmas-day, &c. By virtue of the canons or decrees of the Council of Nice, ** The feaft of . Eafter is ta be for ever celebrated on the firft Sunday that follows the firft full moon after the vernal equi- nox ; and if that full moor fall on a Sunday, Eafter- day fhall be kept the Sunday following.” Mathema- tical chronology fhews different methods of cal- culating, . 54 Universar Ervuprrion. culating, according to this decree, which is fol- lowed by all Chriftian nations, the day of the year on which Eafter will always fall; as well in the Gregorian as Julian calendar. XXX. Laftly, this part of chronology teaches the method of conftructing a complete calendar, as follows: 1. To find the feaft of Eafter, and the dominical letter. 2. To divide the calendar “into weeks, and regulate the moveable feafts by that of Eafter; inferting at the fame time the im- - moveable fea{ts, with the names of thofe faints that are appointed for each day. 3. To extract, from thofe tables that are called Ephimeres, the place of the fun and moon in the zodiac, as well | as. of the other planets ; to find the rifing and fer.’ ting of the two former, the duration of the twi- light, and the length of the days and nights ; and to infert all thefe matters in their proper places. 4. To remark when a planet is vifible to us, and when it is hid by the fun’s rays, §. At the beginning of each month to make ob: _ fervations on the feafons, and to give account of the eclipfes of the fun and moon, and of other celeftial phenomena. ites XXXII. Thus far wehave treated of mathematic chronology. We fhall now, in as brief a manner as poffible, make the analyfis of hiftoric chronolo- gy, or of that fcience which teaches to diftin- guitfh the feveral events related in hiftory accord- ing to the order of time in which they hap- pened, _ CHRONOLOGY. 65 pened. It is in this fcience that Julius Afri- canus, Eufebius of Czfarea, George Cyncelle, John of Antioch, Denis, Petau, Cluvier, Calvi- fius, Uther, Simfon, John Marfham, and many other learned men, have excelled. It confifts of four principal parts, that form the foundations on which all its learned refearches reft,. Thefe are, 1. Aftronomic obfervations, and particularly on the eclipfes of the fun and moon, combined with the calculations of mathematic chronology on the different eras and years of different na- tions. 7 2. The teftimonies of credible ai iaie 3. Thofe epochs in hiftory which are fo deter- mined and evident that no one has ever contefted them. 4. Ancient medals, coins, monuments, and ene We fhall examine thefe four principal parts in the order they here ftand, and conclude with fome reflections on the uncertainty that {till reigns, notwithftanding thefe lights, in chrono- logical hiftory. XXXII. It is with great reafon that the eclipfes of the fun and moon, and the afpects of the 56 Universat Ervoprition. the other planets, have been called public and celeftial characters of the times, as their calcula- tions afford chronologers infallible proofs of the _precife epochs on which a great number of the mott fignal events in hiftory have occurred. So that in chronological matters we cannot make: ‘any great progrefs, if we are ignorant of the ufe” “OF aftronomic tables, and the calculation of eclipfes. The ancients regarded the latter as prognoftics of the fall of empires, of the lof of battles, of the death of monarchs, &c. And it is to this fuperftition, to this wretched igno- rance, that we happily owe the vaft labour that’ hiftorians have taken to record fo great a number of them. The moft able chronologers have col- lected them with ftill greater labour. Calvifius, for example, founds his chronology on A4 eclipfes of the fun, and 127 of the moon, that he fays he had caculated. The grand conjunc. tion of the two fuperior planets, Saturn and Ju- piter, which, according to Kepler, occurs once in 800 years in the fame point of the zodiac, — and which has happened only eight.times fince _ the creation, (the lait time in the month of De- cember 1603) may alfo furnifh chronology with inconteftable proofs, The fame may be faid of the tranfit of Venus over the fun, which has been ebferved in our days, and all the other uncom- mon pofitions of the planets. But among thefe celeftial and natural characters of times, there are are alfo fome that are named) civil or artificial, on and CHRONOLOGY. 57 and which, neverthelefs, depend on aftronomic calculation. XX XIII. Such are the folar and lunar cycles, the Roman indittion, the feaft of Eafter, the biffextile year, the jubilees, the fabbatic years, the combats and Olympic games of the Greeks, and hegira of the Mahometans, &c. And to thefe may be added the periods, eras, epoehs, and years of different nations, ancient and mo- dern. We fhall only remark on this occafion, that the period or era of the Jews commences with the creation of the world; that of the an- cient Romans with the foundation of the city of Rome ; that of the Greeks at the eftablifhment of the Olympic games; that of Nebuchadnezzar, with the advancement of the firft king of Baby- lon to the throne; the Yezdegerdic years, with the laft king of the Perfians of that name; the hegira of the Turks with the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, &c. The year of the birth of Chrift was the 471 3th year of the Julian period, according to the common method of reckoning. Chronology teaches us to calculate the precife year of the Julian period on which all thefe epochs happened, | XXXIV. The teftimony of authors is the fe- cond principal part of hiftoric chronology. Tho’ no man whatever has a right to pretend to infal- libility, or to be regarded as a facred oracle, it would, however, be making a >. 7 judg- ment 58 Universat Eruption. ment of mankind, to treat them all-as dupes or impoftors ; and it would be an injury offered to public integrity, were we to doubt the veracity of authors univerfally efteemed, and of facts that are in themfelves right worthy of belief. It would be even a kind of infatuation to doubt that there have been fuch cities as Athens, Spar- ta, Rome, Carthage, &c. or that Xerxes reigned in Perfia, and Auguftus i in Rome; whether Han- nibal ever was in Italy ; or. that the emperor Conftantine built Conftantinople, &c. ‘The una- nimous teftimony of the moft refpeéctable hifto- rians will not admit any doubt of thefe matters. When an hiftorian is allowed to be completely able to judge of an event, and to have no.intent of deceiving by his relation, his teftimony is irre- cufable, But to avoid the danger of adopting error for truth, and to be fatisfied of a faét that appears doubtful in hiftory, we may make ufe of the four following rules, as they are founded in reafon. . We ought to pay a particular regard.to the reftdudnies of thofe who wrote at the {ame time the events happened, and that have not been contradicted by any cotemporary author of known authority. Who can doubt, for exam- ple, of the truth of the faéts related by admiral Anfon, in the hiftory of his voyage round the world? The admiral faw all the faéts there mentioned with his own eyes, and publithed his book when two hundred companions of his voy- age CHRONOLOGY. 59 fe were ftill living in London, and could have contradicted him immediately, if he had given any falfe or exaggerated relations. 2. After the cotemporary authors, we fhould give more credit to thofe who lived near the time the events happened, than thofe who lived at a diftance. 3. Thofe doubtful hiftories, which are related by authors that are but little known, can have no weight if they are at variance with reafon, or eftablifhed tradition. 4. We muft diftruft the truth of a hiftory that is related by modern authors, when they do not agree among themfelves in feveral circum-. ftances, nor with ancient hiftorians,- who are to be regarded as original fources. We fhould efpecially doubt the truth of thofe brilliant por- traits, that are drawn at pleafure by fuch as never knew the perfons they are intended for, and even made {feveral centuries after their de- ceafe. XXXV. The moft pure and moft fruitful fource of ancient hiftory is doubtlefs to be found in the Holy Bible. Let us here for a moment ceafe to regard it as divine, and let us prefume to confider it as a common hiftory. Now, when we regard the writers of the books of the Old Teftament, and confider them fometimes as authors, ./! =e To ae | ‘ 6> Universat Ervptrion, authors, fometimes as ocular witneffes, and fome- times as refpectable hiftorians ; whether we re- flec&t on the fimplicity of the narration, and the air of truth that is there conftantly vifible ; or, when we confider the care that the people, the governments, and the learned. men of all ages have taken to preferve the true text of the Bible ; or that we have regard to the happy-con- formity of the chronology of the holy fcriptures with that of prophane hiftory ; or if we obferve the admirable harmony that is between thefe books and the moft refpeétable hiftorians, as Jo- féphus and others; and laitly, when we confider that the books of the holy fcripture furnifh us alone with an accurate hiftory of the world from the creation, through the line of patriarchs, judges, kings and princes of the Hebrews; and that -we may, by its aid, form an almoft entire: feries of events down to the birth of Chrift, or the time of Auguftus, which comprehends a {pace of about 4ooo-years, feme fmall interrup- tions excepted, and which are eafily fupplied: by profane hiftory : when, we fay, all thefe refleétions are juftly made; we muft conftantly allow that the {criptures form a book which merits the firft rank among all the fources of ancient hiftory. It has been objected, that this héck contains con- tradictions ; but the moft able interpreters have reconciled thete feeming contradictions. It has been faid, that the chronology of the Hebrew text and the Vulgate do not agree with the chronology of the verfion of the Septuagint; but CHRONOLOGY. 6x but the foundeft critics have fhown that they may be made to agree. It has been obferved, moreover, that the fcriptures abound with mi- racles and prodigies ; but they are miracles that have really happened : and what ancient hifbory is there that is not filled with miracles and other marvellous events? And do we for that reject their authority ? Cannot the true God be fup- pofed to have performed ‘thofe miracles which pagan hiftorians have atttibuted to their falfe divi- nities? Mutt we pay no regard to the writings of Livy, becaufe his hiftory contains many fabu- lous relations ? XXXVI. The epochs form the third principal part of chronology. Thefe are thofe fixed points in hiftory that have never been contefted, and of which there can, in fact, be no doubt. Chrono- logers fix on the events that are to ferve as epochs, ina manner quite arbitrary ; but this is of little confequence, provided thedates of thefe. epochs agree, and that there is no contradiction in the facts.themifelves, When we come to treat exprelsly on hiftory, we fhallmention, in our progrefs, all the pr, ipal-epochs. In order rightly to underftand and to range each epoch in its proper place, it is neceffary to remember the fignification of the following terms, befide thofe we have already explained in the courle of this chapter. An 62 Universat ErvupiTIon. An age or century is the courfe of a hundred years, or folar revolutions. : Luftre is the {pace of five years. _ The poets make frequent ufe of this: term. Olympiad is a {pace of four years, which the Greeks counted from the celebration of one of the Olympic games to another. The firft Olym- piad began in the year of the world 3228, and confequently 776 years before =e common era. Epoch : To what we have juft faid on this term, it is proper to remark here, that chronolo- gers diftinguifh three forts of epochs: the firft they call facred; the fecond, ecclefiaftical; and the third, civil or political. Era: Befide what we have faid in the twen- tieth fection, we muft here obferve, that the word probably took its rife from the ignorance of copyifts, who, finding in ancient manufcripts “the letters ‘A. E.R. A. Annus Erat Regni Au- “gifti, made of them the fimple word era, or;\as the Latins write it, era. The Seleucian era, from whence the Macedo- nians began to count, is alfo denoted by the Gre- cian years, of which the Jews principally made ufe after they were fubdued by the Macedo- nians. It began with the great Seleucus, fur- named CHRONOLOGY. 63 named Nicator, in the year of the world 3692, and 312 years beens the vulgar era. The Spanifh era began with the year of the world. 3966, and 38 years before the common era. This era is very famous in the councils, and in the ancient monuments, of Spain. Anachronifm is an error in the calculating or fixing of time. So Virgil committed an ana- chronifin i in making Aineas and Dido live at the fame time, when there were bbe years diftance between them. Synchronifm is, as we have already faid, the concurrence of different events at the fame times A general fynchronifm is a defcription of all thar happened in the various parts of the world at the fame period. -XXXKVII. Medals, monuments, and infcrip- tions, form the fourth and laft principal part of chronology. It is fcarce more than 150 years ' fince clofe application has been made to the ftudy of thefe, and we owe to the celebrated Spanheim the greateft obligations, for the pro- fs that is made in this method: his excellent work, De preftantia et ufu numifmatum antiquo- rum, has fhown the great advantages of it; and ' iris évident that thefe monuments are the moft authentic witnefles that can be produced. It is by the aid of medals that M. Vaillant has com- pofed 64 Universat Ervpiriow. pofed his judicious hiftory of the kings of Syria, from the time of Alexander the Great to that of Pompey: they have been, moreover, of the greateft fervice in elucidating all ancient hiftory, efpecially that of the Romans ; and even. fome- times that of the middle age. We thal! have occafion to {peak more fully of their ufe in the chapter where we exprefsly treat of medals* and antiquities. ‘What we here fay of medals, is to be underftood equally, in its full force, of ancient infcriptions, and of all other authentic monu- ments that have come down to us: as the fa- mous /rundel marbles, which an Englith noble- man of that name purchafed from the Turks in the Levant, by William Petre, whom he fent thither for that purpofe. Thefe marbles, which . were ranged at London in the rooms and garden of the .earl of Arundel, on the border of the Thames, were found in the ifland of Paros, and contain a chronicle, wherein the principal epochs of the hiftory of the Athenians are exaétly and diftinéily marked, from the firft year of the Cecrops, which began 1582 years before the Chriftian era. John Selden compofed a book jin 1629, the title of which is. Marinora Arundelliana, wherein he explains thefe valuable antiquities. Who can fay what happy difcoveries of monu- ments, Fortune, propitious to letters, may have referved for us in the ruins.of Herculaneum : -and which may ferve.as well to elucidate as te eftablith ancient hiftory ? AXXVIII. CHRONOLOGY. 65 XXXVIII. Every reader, endowed with a juft difcernment, will readily allow that thefe four parts of chronology afford clear lights, and are excellent guides to conduét us through the thick darknefs of antiquity. That impartiality, how- ever, which directs us to give a faithful relation of that which is true and falfe, of the certainty and uncertainty of all the fciences, obliges us here freely to confefs, that thefe guides are not infallible, nor the proofs that they afford ma- thematical demonftrations. In fact, with regard to hiftory in general, and ancient hiftory in par- ticular, femething muft be always left to conjec- ture and hiftoric faith. It would be an offence againft common probity, were we to fuffer ours felves to pafs over in filence thofe objections which authors of the greateft reputation! have made againfl the certainty of chronology. We fhall extract them from their own works; and we hope that there is no magiftrate, theologian, _ or public profeffor in Europe, who would be mean enough to accufe us of a crime, for not unworthily difguifing the truth. -XXXIX. 1. The prodigious difference there is between the feptuagint Bible and the vulgate, in point of chronology, occafions an embarrafi- ment, which is the more difficult to avoid, as we cannot pofitively fay on which fide the error lies. The Greek Bible counts, for example, from the creation of the world to the birth of Abraham, 1500 years more than the Hebrew and Latin ‘Wor. III, E Bibles, 66 Universat Erupirion. Bibles, Sc. 2. How difficult-is. it to afcertain the years.of the judges of the Jewith nation, im: the. Biple ?, What darknefs, is: fpread, over ther fucceffien. of the. kings of. Judaly and LMfrael,? The ‘calculation of time is there fo. inaccurate, that’ the. fcripture. never marks if they are curs rent or complete. years.. For.we cannot fuppofes that a patriarch, judge, or king, lived exactly 60, 90, 100, or g69 years, without any odd: months or days. 3. Tihe different names that the Afiyrians, Egyptians, Perfians, and Greeks; have, given to.the fame prince, have contributed: no; a little, to. embarrafs all ancient chronology: ‘Three or four princes: have borne the name of Affuerus, though they had alfo other names. If we. did) net. “tha that. Nabucodonofor, Nabu- codrofor, and Nabucolafiar, were the famename, or the name of the fame man, we-fhoulddearcely believe it.. Sargon 1 is Sennacherib:, Ozias is Aza- tias; Sedecias is Mathanias; Joachas is: alfo called. Sellum-;. Afaraddon, which is - pro- nounced indifferently. Efarhaddon. and Afarhad# don, is called Afenaphar. by the Cutheans; and~ by an oddity of which we do not know the ori- gin, Sardanapalus is called by the Greeks 'Te- nos Concoleros. 4. There remain’ to us but-fewe. monuments of the firft»monarchs.of. the worlds: Numberlefs books have. been loft, and/ thofes which have come dowm to us are mutilated or» altered. by tranfcribers, The Greeks began to- write very late. Herodotus, their firft hiftorian, ’ was of a credulous difpofition, and: believed all the CHRONOLOGY. 67 the fables. that’ were related. by the Egyptian priefts. The Greeks were in general vain, par- tial, and held no nation in efteem but cheir own. The Romans were ftill more infatuated with no- tions of their own merit and grandeur: their hif- . torians were altogether as unjuft as was their fe- nate, toward other nations that were frequently far more refpectable. And, with regard to the Jews in particular, it feems, whatever Jofephus may fay, that their nation, who pofiefied only that imall country called Paleftine, never made a fufficient figure in the world to attract the regard of the hiftorians of other civilrzed people. 5. The eras, the years, the periods and epochs were not the fame in each nation ; and they, moreover, began at different feafons of the year. All this has thrown fo much objcurity, over chronology, that it appears to be beyond all . human capacity totally to difperfe it. XL. Chriftianity itfclf had fubfifted near 1200 years, before they knew precifely how niany years. had paffed fince the birth of our Saviour. They faw clearly that the vulgar era was defective, but’ it was along time before they could comprehend that it required four whole years to make up the true period. Abbé Denis the Little, who, in the year 532, was the firft among the Chriftians to form the era of that grand epoch, and to count » the years from that time, in order to make their chronology altogether Chriftian,’ erred in his cal- culation, and led ail Europe into his error. E 2 - They 68 Universat Erupirion. They count 132 contrary opinions of diffe- rent authors concerning the year in which the Meffiah appeared on the earth. M,. Val- lemont names 64 of them, and all celebrated writers. Among all thefe authors, however, there is none that reckon more than 7000, nor lefs than 3700 years. But even this difference is enormous. The moft moderate fix the birth of Chrift in the 400oth year of the world, The rea- fons, however, on which they found their opi- nion, appear to be fufficiently arbitrary. XLI. Be thefe matters, however, as they may, the wifdom of Providence has fo difpofed ali things, that there remain fufficient lights to en- able us nearly to connect the feries of events: for in the firft 3000 years of the world, where profane hiftory is defective, we have the chrono- logy of the Bible to direét us ; and after that pe- riod, where we find more obfcurity in the chro- nology of the holy fcriptures, we have, on the other hand, greater lights from profane authors, It is at this period that begins the time which Varro calls. hifforic : “as, fince the time of the Olympiads, the truth of fuch events as have hap- pened fhines clear in hiftory. Chronology, there- fore, draws its principal lights from hiftory; and, in return, ferves it as a guide: as we fhall fee in. the following chapters. a CHAP. ee HirsTory. 69 CiFL-A, Pi: BY. On HISTORY IN GENERAL, AND ITS Saravers tte Ri 6. E are now come to one of the moft pleafing profpeéts in the vaft empire of the fciences ; to one of the moft important ob- jects of univerfal erudition ; to a ftudy worthy. to engage the attention of the firft. of mankind. Hiftory is now the fubject of our reflections. All who have hitherto treated on this interefting part of literature, and have attempted to point out the moft proper method of attaining it, have “conftantly repeated what Cicero and their other predeceffors, ancient and modern, have faid in praife of hiftory. We do not think it neceffary here to enumerate thofe encomiums, but fhall endeavour to add to their fagacious reflections fome further remarks on the utility of this ad- mirable fcience, M II, Ignorance was ever difgraceful to huma- nity ; and it is more efpecially fo in an age which offers 70 «69h niversat Ervpirion. offers fo many fources of inftruétion,. that it cannot proceed but from negligence or idlenefs. Even among the leaft civilized people, hiftory . has been at all times held in efteem. Before the ufe of letters were known to mankind, they tran{mitted to their pofterity the a¢tions of their anceftors, their heroes, and the founders of their nations, by hymns or fongs, in which poetry, ig- ‘norant as it then was, conftantly mixed fable with truth. It is for. this reafon, doubilefs, that the moft ancient people, and even the Greeks, confounded thefe two terms, calling hiftory fometimes fable, and fable, hiftory. For the word hiftory is derived from the Greek verb tsogeiv, which fignifies to contemplate or confider, Un- der this collective term, therefore, they compre- hended not only the knowledge of things paft, but alfo mythology, Efopean and’? Milefian : fables, ‘romances, tragedy, comedy, pantomimes, &c. But words like thefe, which are too univerfal, ‘conitanftly difcover the indigence of a language; for, by comprehending too many objets, they ferve only to create confufion in our ideas, ag “well as in the fciences. It is for this reafon ‘that the moft fagacicus of modern literati endea- your to difpel the chaos of erudition, and to give to each word, each term of art, a fixed and determinate fignification, and not to compre- hend, under the denomination of a fcience, any objects that do not abfglutely and nec aeae re- Jate thereto, : IH. Ac- - 7 HasTory. mt * Ill. According to reafon, therefore, as well as the practice of modern writers, biflory isa true relation of real facts and events that bave occurred in ‘the werld. It mere curiofity did net excite in the mind of man a rational delire of knowiag what has pafed on the earth, that is remarkable and interefting, from the creation ,to..owr own time; and if the knowledge of all thefe matters ‘did not intprove the underftanding of thofe who are deftined to live among the intelligent part of mankind, and did not render their converfation more pleafing, more firikiag and inftructive, yet would they find, in the Rudy y of hiftory, number- lefs other advantages, that are ftill moré itnpit- tant, and that prove its excellence. Hiftory, being the faithful depofitory of all the actions, good and bad, of the whole race of mankind, who have lived in all ages, and have performed any diftinguifhed parc on the theatre of the world, forms the mot powerful incentive to _ virtue, and prefervative from vice. The maft fuccefsful uiurper, the moft abfolute and cruel _ tyrant, would not have his memory appear loaded with infamy in the eyes of pofterity. To cover the iniquity of his enterprifes, he accompanies them with manifeftoes, and other memoirs of juf- tification. But hiftory here tells him, that his efforts are vain, that the time will come when his iniquity will be unvailed, and the fecret folds of his heart ‘laid open; when neither the arts of his worthlefs minifters, nor the eulogies of venal pens, will be able to defend him: that pofterity will _ 92 Universart Erupirion. will be his judge ; and that the only method of obtaining a favourable fentence, is, by perform- ing worthy actions: that true glory is never to be found but in real merit: that hiftory flatters not: that it treats the wicked even with an in- exorable feverity ; and that it pays no refpect to fceptres or diadems, IV. Hiftory likewife forms, fo to fay, a courfe of experimental morality and politics, where the - caufes and effects of human actions are expofed to our fight. It is a fcene where the charaéters and precepts of Theophraftus, la Bruyere, and Shaftefbury, are put in action. Here all- takes a body, a mind, a foul. Experience, which cofts mankind fo much time, and fo many errors, is here acquired at once, or, at leaft, by a fingle ftudy. Princes efpecially, and they whom Pro- _vidence has called to the government of a people, or to the dictating of laws, fhould never be ig- norant of this fcience: for, though they ought not to draw their maxims of government, or their laws, from hiftory itfelf, feeing that would render them pitiful imitators, by chance, of the wifdom, but much more frequently of the folly and depravity of paft ages, hiftory, neverthelefs, will warn them of numberlefs rocks that are but juft covered by the vaft ocean of politics, and again{t which they would be in continual danger of rufhing, if they were not directed by this {kil- ful chart. | | V. We History. 7% V. We have three objeéts to eee in this ‘chapter; which are, 1. The manner of writing hiftory : 2. The manner of ftudying it: 3. The different divifions, or fpecies of hiftory. With regard to the manner of writing hiftory, the firft fault that we find in all hiftorical writings, ancient and modern, and which appears to us of no {mall magnitude, is, that they confift of a mere defcription of thofe wars that have defolated the earth from the origin of the human race. It fhould feem as if mankind found nothing g ereat in nature, nothing worthy their attention, but that which ought to cover them with fhame and confufion: that which ariles from their depravity, a mad defire of victory, of deftroying each other; a barbarous cuftom of maintaining their preten- fions by the force of arms; of imagining that fu- perior force gives right ; and the folly of placing a vain honour, a falfe glory, in their brutal quar- rels and combats. Follies are frequently conta- gious : that of heroes has infected their hifto- rians: blood muft be conftantly fpilc: if they were to place only one man upon the earth, they would make him fight, either againft the gods or devils, or with ferpents and montfters, or elfe with his own fhadow, rather than paint him peaceful and amiable. If they fhould fuppofe two men to exift, it would be merely with a de- fign that they might deftroy each other, or at jeaft that one of them might murder his compa- nion, 94 Universat Erupirrion, ‘ion, When they made Cadmus fow the earth with teeth, from whence men fprung up, it was neceflary that thefe firft of human race fhould immediately attack and butcher each other. Barbarians! to whom no object appears great but that of war! The nurture of the human race, their eftablifhments, their migrations, the found-* ing of cities and colonies, the progrefs of the hu- man mind in the arts and fciences, grand inven- tions and difcoveries, as that of navigation and a new world, and a thoufand like objects; Are mot thefe worthy of regard? A king came to the crown on fuch a day, infuch a year: without the Jeaft reafon he attacked fuch a people, and after that fo many others ; or he was himfelf attacked; and fuch were the confequences of his wars, he overthrew fo many cities, he took fo many pri- foners, and left fo many dead upon the field; and at laft this mighty monarch himfelf is killed, or he dies with remorfe in his bed. You have here, in a few words, the fubftance of hiftory in general; fome little ornaments of moral and political reflections apart, VI. The fecond fault of ‘hiftorians is, the bad proportions they obferve in the arrangement of their works. Each hiftory, whether univerfal er particular, refembles a peacock, who, to a very fmall head, and a body indifferently large, hhas joined an enormous tail; which continually extends as it approaches the extremity, The | beft History. "8 eft writers of hiftory are faulty in this refpect. _ Every one can repeat thofe excellent lines with which Tacitus-begins his annals ; and when they _fhall remark the cencifien he there obferves, and compare it with the prodigious number of ani- madverfions that are fpread over his hiftory, and the prolixity with which he concludes, they will be convinced that our obfervation is juft. It is ‘to be wifhed, therefore, that the writers of hif- tory would acquire the art of extending their in- troductions, and of contracting their conclufions, that there might be more uniformity in the parts, _more regularity and harmony in the whole. Cu- “sious and learned refearches, pleafing and ufeful - fefleétions, are very natural amplifications. And why are not facts that occur in the beginning of a hiftory as worthy of our attention as thofe of latter times ? We know thereare many who are of a contrary opinion, but wethink they deceive themfelves. All the details of recent events ierve only to promote chicanery and the quarrels of fovereigns: their minifters make ule of them to produce arguments in defence of their preten- fions. But, fhould hiftory be debafed to fuch -purpofes as theie? Are there not memoirs, pe- riodieal productions, and archives, fufficient to kindle thefe difputes, to furnifh deductions, and to fupport thefe literary wars? VII. All modern capital hiftories have like- wife the fault of being highly prolix. What life is fufficiently long, what eyes are good enough, 76 Universar Ervorrion, enough, and what memory is ftrong enough,’ to read and retain thefe works? Thofe of de Thou, Mariana, Rapin Thoyras, Barre, Daniel, and the reft of this clafs? By naming a few hifto- rians only, it is eafy to enumerate feveral hun- Cred folio and quarto volumes : and if we refleét that M. le Long, in his Hiftorical Bibliotheque, has produced the names of. more than twenty thoufand authors who have wrote the hiftory of France only; and that the late count de Bunau collected above thirty thoufandGerman hiftorians, whom they call Scriptores rerum Germanicarum, we may eafily conceive how enormous a chaos all this muft form, and what indefatigable 1a- bour it would require to wade. through this vatt, barren defart of erudition. In proportion as the world increafes in years, this hiftoric body in- ¢reafes in bulk, and muft at laft fink by its own weight, All that can be done in this cafe Is, to regard thefe voluminous works ag hiftoric dic. tionaries, that are not to be read, but confulted occafionally. VIII. Independent of thefe faults, which the | hiftorian ought to avoid, there are alfo fome Precautions to be obferved, in order to which it will be proper here to lay dewn certain precepts. 1. No one fhould attempt to write a hiftory without a perfect knowledge of all its parts, By conitantly running, a man may excel in the race, but he will never excel as a hiftorian, merely by writing. It is true, thatin the courfe of -the work ‘History. a7 work he may frequently make curious and ufeful diftoveries, but the ground of the fubjeét on which he is to treat ought to be familiar to him; he fhould therefore well confider his ftrength before he attempts the enterprife. 2. When a choice is judicioufly made, he fhould examine the fources (fontes) from which the faéts are to~ be drawn. Original memoirs, manufcripts, ar- chives, and other {carce papers, are of an inefti- mable value to-an hiftorian, by enabling him to prefent the public with fubjeéts that are new and interefting. But, if he be not provided with thefe, he ought at leaft to confult the hiftorical bibliotheques, in order to inform himfelf of thofe authors who have wrete on that part of hiftory ; to procure their writings ; to make a careful exa- mination of them, and to extra¢t all that can be of ufe to his fubjeé&t. A judgment more than common is here’neceflary, in order to diftinguith the falfe, the fabulous, exaggeration and preju- dice, from truth.and impartiality ; and to deter- mine the degree of credibility that is to be af- figned to each author. The chapter, in which we fhall treat of the knowledge of authors, will contain fome further inftructions on this fubject. IX. When the hiftorian is provided with thefe materials, he fhould, jdly, begin his work by extracting thofe articles that are to compofe his hiftory. And here it is indifpenfably neceffary to make a judicious choice, and to range them in a clear order, Nothing that is ipterefting fhould be 78 Universar Eruprrioy, be omitted, and nothing which: canbe omitted fhould hold the place of that which is intereft- ing. An hiftorian fhould faithfully relate all that is commonly faid of an event; ‘and of its circumftances, without being obliged to be anfwer- able for the ftri& truth of what they may fome- times contain that is marvellous or incredible. He that would. write the hiftory of Rome, and fhould pafs in filence the tradition of Romulus | and Remus being: fuckled by a wolf, would commit an egregious fault. No reafonable man can believe that Hatton, archbifhop of Mayence, was devoured by rats, and yet it would be un- pardonable to make no mention of fach report, when writing the hiftory of that archbifhopricks - An able writer will endeavour, in the firft place; to'reconcile thefe forts of popular traditions with the-truth, and:which-if Ke cannot effect, there is a certain manner of relating fuch ftories, by which the reader will. immediately perceive that'- the hiftorian gave'them no credit. The follow- | ing words of a celebrated author, contain alfo an important obfervation: “* There are a thoufand “ incidents that are interefting to a cotemporary, “ but’ whiclr are: loft to the eyes of potterity ; “and which, difappearing, leave thofe great “events only vifible, that have determined the “fate of empires, Every thing that is: done, . «© does’ not deferve tobe written.” For the reft, . he will produce a mere chaos only, painful and. difguftful to the'reader, who, after having made choice of the matters. he would relate, does not. reduce Historw™ 79: reduce them toa regular chronology, by making a-rough draft of the hiftory he propofes to write, by carefully obferving the feveral epochs, by never lofing fight of the fynchronifms, and by» taking {pecial caution to avoid all anachronifms, which. are the moft unpardonable faults. in. hiftory. X. 4. Particular anecdotes are of the higheft ufe in ornamenting a hiftory, but we fhould take- care not to be too lavifh in thefe ornaments, for, by that mean, ‘ they become infipid: The hifto- rian fhould therefore be moderate in the. ufe of thefe,, and have conftantly before his eyes the gravity and’ majefty: of hiftory. 5. We have fo often faid that an hiftorian fhould. be. impartial, - that he fhould have neither country, nor particu lar religion, and the obfervation is itielf {fo ma~- nifeft, that ic may feem almoft fuperfuous ia this.place. An exceffive predilection, notwith- ftanding, is a fault with which the generality of French hiftorians may be juttly reproached. They. fee nothing great, but what is to be found among themfelyes. “They are fo much poffeffed with this prejudice, that, in an univerfal hiftory, they fix the periods by the annals of their own. mo- narchy, and make, for example, an epoch of the time that Lewis XIV. after the death of his prime minifter, refolved togovern by himfelf. We fhould be glad to know of what importance this was to the. reft of the world. It appears to us to be a mean and ridiculous piece of flattery. XI, The 80. Universar.Ervpirtioy. XI. The ftyle is fo important an object in writing a hiftory, that we cannot fufficiently re- commend an attention to it. How excellent. fo- €ver are the matters that a book contains, is of little.importance, if, for want of perfpicuity and elegance in the Writing, we cannot be induced to read it. If, in the choice of a ftyle, we were obliged to make ufe of that which is very concife . - or very diffufed, we fhould incline to the former. The point of perfeétion is, however, in a jut medium. Style is a gift which every writer re- Ceives from nature. We know of no two that are precifely the fame. If we may be permitted fo propofe the beft French models of ftyle, we _think they may be found in the Hiftory of Charles XII. and in the Age of Lewis XIV, by M. Vol- taire; in the Revolutions of the abbé Vertot, in the Hiftoric Pieces of the abbé St: Real, in the Univerfal Hiftory of M. Hardion, and in fome other modern hiftorians, The ftyle that M. Bof. fuet, bifhop of Meaux, has employed in his Dif. courfe on Univerfal Hiftory, is inimitable, and might ferve as a capital model, if that prelate had not endeavoured after too much eloquence, and if he did not fometimes do violence to the truth, in order to be always favourable to relj- gion; of which he appears to be the panegyrift. XII Faéts and events make the body of a hiftory ; the inftructions they afford make the foul of it.. A hiftory mutt refemble a journal or gazette, if the author does not introduce thofe efficacious History. Sx efficacious reflections, which fometimes difcover the fecret caufes of human actions, and fome-. times point out their confequences, And here a bold and lively genius is neceflary; one that can break through thofe obftacles which ftop the vul-: gar mind, and that can produce thoughts where truth and novelty are united: it is here that an uncommon difcernment is requifite ; a marvel-. lous fagacity that can penetrate the human heart, that can make its way into the cabinets of princes, and into the minds of minifters and generals, that can unfold what paffes there, and that. judges of their thoughts by their ations, rather than by their words and writings. All thefe re- fiec&tions, moreover, fhould arife from the fub- jects themfelves, and not be forced into the work. They fhould likewife be made with modera- tion, and not in the manner of Tacitus, who, fo to fay, drowns all events in the fea of politics. Laftly, as all the reflections that a hiftory con- tains fhould tend to form the heart as well as the mind of the reader, to render virtue amiable, and meliorate the human race; all malevolent fatire, all fallacious reafoning, all impiety, ‘all ri- dicule of religion, are at once ill placed, and highly blameable in hiftory. The writer who fhall think to fhine by thefe means, will find he makes a very different appearance in the eyes of the fagacious part of mankind, though he may fometimes dazzle the ignorant: and he will be the lefs efteemed for thefe railleries, as they are Vor. Ul, F far at $2 Universat ERvUDITION. far from. being fo difficult to produce as fome may imagine. XIII. It is a general cuftom to make from hiftory a gallery of portraits; formed of the cha- raters of the principal ators that are introduced on the fcene: to paint their exterior figures, as well as their manners, paffions, &c. We do. not entirely difapprove of this cuftom; but who- ever fhall confider how difficult it is for a painter to catch the likenefs of an object that he has be- fore his eyes, and of a difeerning perfon to paint the mind even of thofe with whonr he is inti- mately acquainted, will eafily judge what kind of regard is to be paid to thefe fort of portraits that are drawn feveral ages.after the exiftence of their originals, the features of which are colleéted from ancient authors, who frequently knew no more about them than the modern painter, One of the beft drawn portraits we have ever read, is that which M. Duclos has placed at the end of his excellent hiftory of Lewis XI. And yet we ‘imagine, that if any courtier who was admitted to a familiar acquaintance with that monarch, was to come now upon the earth, he would fcarce know his mafter. As to thofe formal panegyrics which fome hiftorians make on their heroes, there is nothing which appears to us more infipid, and more unworthy of the truth and gravity of hiftory... XIV. History. 33 XIV. g. Almoft all the ancient hiftorians have an idle method of crowding their hiftories with a number of harangues, We will for once affume a decifive tone, and pronounce all thefe harangues, that are pretended to have been ad- drefied to whole armies, to be either fictions or abfurdities; for it is impoffible for the com- mander of an army to make himfelf heard, even by a whole regiment that is neareft to him, and ftill much lefs by a numerous army extended by ranks and files. For even the proper officers would fcarce be able to make the words of com- mand heard on the day of action, though pro- nounced in monofyllables, and with a loud voice, if the foldiers were not previoufly acquainted with them. The general therefore, who fhould {train his throat with making a long florid ha- rangue before a battle, to an army that could not poffibly hear it, would be defervedly re- garded as a madman. Thofe orations which are fuppofed to be made from the roftrum to an af- fembly of the people, by an ambaflador to a monarch, or by a public orator to a fenate or council, are more juft, more. natural and pro- bable. But even fuppofing them to be true, they ought not to be very frequently introduced : for they are a fort of machinery chat lofe their power when too often ufed. ’ XV. 10. Laftly, in writing a hiftory we may fometiines make an advantageous ufe of setters, difeourfes, reflections, fayings and wri- ¥ 2 tings 84° Universat Ervupirion. tings of thofe kings, heroes or magiftrates of whom we are {fpeaking, by relating them either entire or in abftract : and this is an advantage that ought not to be neglected; for nothing gives hiftory a greater air of veracity, or better proves its authenticity. When with thefe precautions the writer is {paring im his accounts of wars, when he avoids all long defcriptions of battles and fieges, which, after all that can be faid, from the time of Jofhua and Cyrus down to the pre- fent age, ftrongly refemble each other, and are attended with a difguftful uniformity; and if inftead of thefe he explain the caufes of grand revolutions and remarkable events, and. efpeci- ally if he be ftriétly true, judicious and impar- tial in his relation, he may fafely indulge in the pleafing reflection of having wrote a hiftory worthy the approbation of the prefent age, and of pofterity. XVI. Moft of the precepts. we have here given for the manner of writing hiftory, have am intimate connexion with the manner of /tudying it. Whoever would apply to this ftudy, ought i the firft place to recollect all that we have faid in the preceding chapter on chronology: — for if we do not carefully diftinguifh the feverak eras, periods and epochs, we fhall never be able to form in our minds a regular and funda- mental fyftem of hiftory, and to range each fact in its proper place, .The methed that appears. to ee oes, =, History. $5 ro us of all others the moft eligible, is nearly contained in the following particulars. XVII. We would begin by placing before the eyes of our pupil a fketch, the mere ouilines of univerfal hiftory, or chronological tables ; or rather a large hiftorical and chronological chart, fuch as that of which Juftus Lipfius conceived the idea, and which we have fre- quently intended to execute, had not other very different occupations diverted our attention. When we perceived that this general draught had made a fufficient impreffion on the mind of our pupil, we would make him read aloud the moft concife and finifhed abridgment of hiftory we could procure; taking particular care to re- mark to him, as he went on, the feveral fyn- chronifms or events that happened at the fame period among the different nations of the earth. By this mean we fhould by degrees fill up our fketch, and provide our pupil with what is called the thread of hiftory. This preliminary ftudy would take up but little of his time, and would be of great ufe to him during the whole courfe of his life. We have elfewhere wihhed, that the hiftories of all nations, ancient and modern were wrote on the model of the chro- _ nological abridgment of France by the prefi- dent Henault, which we cannot too often re- peat; and we have the high fatisfaction to fee that our with is daily carrying into execution. XVUL 86 UniversaLt ERvDITION. XVIII. We would then pafs with our pupil through a curfory lection of thofe authors, as. well ancient as modern, that are called the fources of hiftory (fontes): of thefe we would choofe but a finall number, and would take particular care to felect thofe only whofe authen- ticity appears unqueftionable. After this, we would go through a complete courfe of univer- fal hiftory, which we would endeavour to en- liven with moral, political and military reflec- tions, with critical remaks on dubious faéts, &c. And _ here efpecially, we would place before his fight the portraits of thofe great men who have filled the throne, or direéted the c-binet, have commanded armies, adorned the mitre, or illu- mined the f{ciences. We would endeavour here to point out their virtues and their vices, their fagacious and their futile a¢tions, their glory and their fhame. We would paint the tyrant, the rapacious minifter, the fenfelefs or brutal com- mander, the bigoted prieft, and the idly labo- rious fcholar, in their proper and difguftful colours: in a word, it is here that we would endeavour to draw all that comprehenfive and and Jafting utility which hiftory is capable of affording. XIX. In the laft place; during the remainder of thofe years which are confecrated to his educa- — tion, we would teach him the hiflory of each particular modern nation, beginning with that of his own country: and here we would point out the- HirstTory. 87 mhe fources from whence he might draw the hiftory of each particular province or di- ftri&t, the annals of each city, &c. And in the ‘courfe of our progrefs we would ftudy ecclefi- aftic hiftory, that of litterature, and thofe other matters, with the enumeration of which we fhall conclude this chapter, and which will make the fubjects of fome of thofe that follow. XX. Hiftory in general is divided into 1. Civil or political hiftory, which relates all the revolutions and all the memorable events that have occurred in governments; and gives an account of the method by which all nations have been founded, eftablifhed, maintained and improved; of their increafe, ‘decline, and final diffolution. 2. Military hiftory, which recounts the wars that each people have fuftained, their battles and fieges, the good and bad fuccefs of all their military operations; thofe generals that have diftinguifhed themfelves, &c. Xenophon, Po- lybius, Vegetius, Quincy, and many others, have wrote military hiftories. Hiftory, as well civil as military. is fubdi- vided into The ancient. That of the middle age. The modern. The three following chapters will explain thefe fubdivifions, and give their analyfis. 3. Re- $8 Universat Ervpirion. ~-geReligious hiftory ; ; which treats in general of the religion and worfhip of all nations, both “ancient and modern; of religious ceremonies, and of the origin, progrefs and decline of each religion. 4. Ecclefiaftic hiftory, or that of the Chrif- ‘tian church in particular ;, which teaches the ori- gin and revolutions of the true religion, of the oppofitions and perfecutions it has fuftained, of the fuccefs it has met with, and of the triumph it has finally obtained; from the commence- ment of the world to the prefent time. Jt com- ' prehends alfo the hiftory of the various herefies and {fchifms of the popes and reformers, &c, and is fubdivided into The hiftory of the church of God under the Old Teftament. And The like hiftory under the New Teftament. _, § The hiftory of litterature, which treats _of the progrefs of the human mind in general, _and comprehends Phyfical or natural hiftory, which relates all _ that has arrived, or rather. all that has been dif- covered and obferved, that is remarkable, from the time of the creation; either in the heavens, ‘in’ the elements, or among men, animals, in- fects, plants, and in general among all the parts and productions of nature. Philofophic hiftory, that teaches the progrefs of philofophy among all the people of the ; earth, The Hrstory. 89 _ The hiftory of erudition, which gives an account of the ftate of the other fciences among all nations. —__ Technical hiftory, that treats of the progrefs of the arts, as well liberal as ufeful. 6. The hiftory of the learned; which relates the lives and productions of the learned men of all ages, in thofe works that are called Biogra- - phies. 7s Si: Giétheceone hiftory (Hiftoria mixta vel mifcellanea); which contains all forts of anec- dotes, political, ecclefiaftic, military, literary and civil, that are of any importance, and that are not included in pragmatic or political hi- ftory. XXI. They make in the fchools ftill other divifions of hiftory, as into Sacred and profane. Univerfal or fundamental, and particular or fpecial. Real and poetical or fabulous. Antediluvian and poftdiluvian. European, ‘Afiatic, African, APTN. &c. &c. But without attending to thefe aivinote, which are founded lefs in the nature of the ob- . je€ts that relate to hiftory, than in the imagina- tions of thofe who profefs it, and which, far from _ elucidating this fcience, ferve only to perplex it, _ by overloading. the memory; we fhall content ourfelves with thus merely enumerating the prin- oo Universat Ervupition. cipal of thefe divifions, that our readers may not be quite ignorant of them, and fhall imme- diately pafs to the analyfis of the real objeéts of hiftory. Ne ON ee Ne aN eee Oe CHAP. V. ANCIENT HISTORY. E, can write that only which we know, and in all the hiftoric fciences, we can earn that only which is written. From this in- conteftable axiom we may draw fome inftrudtive confequences. ‘The firft is, that our ancient hiftory cannot go higher than Adam, who is re- prefented to us by Mofes (the moft ancient of all thofe authors and hiftorians whofe works have come down to us) as the origin of the hu- man race. We know indeed, that in working a quarry of porphyry they have lately found, in the middle of a block of a prodigious fize, a bar of wrought iron, and that according to the Ancient Hisrory. gt the calculations of the moft fkilful naturalifts, it would require more than ten thoufand years for fo large a mafs of that hard marble to grow round a bar, and if they knew the art of forg- ing iron more than ten thoufand years fince, the world muft be much older than Mofes makes it to be. We know alfo that the world has, num- berlefs other natural marks which feem to prove an antiquity {till far greater. We are not ignorant moreover of all the arguments that may be drawn from the chronology of the Chaldeans, Egyptians, and Chinefe, which go vaftly high- er than that of Mofes: but it feems-to us, at the fame time, that the world alfo affords num- berlefs marks of a recent ftate, which counter- balance the former, and at leaft reduce the fe- veral arguments to conjectures only. All the chronologies of the Chaldeans, Egyptians and Chinefe, are founded moreover entirely on tra- ditions, and on certain vouchers that are equally equivocal and fufpicious. During the firft ages of all nations the art of writing was unknown. It was a long time before letters were invented : and what confidence can be placed on a chro- nology, fupported only by traditions, and, what is worfe, by the traditions of the Orientals, whoie heated imaginations have at all times pro- produced fwarms of reveries, fables and extra- vagancies ? II. But let us fuppofe for a moment that there have been Preadamites. This might in- jure 92 Universat Eruprition, jure us much as Chriftians, becaufe if this fa@e ‘could be eftablifhed, it would render the Mofaic hiftory very doubtful; but it would be of very little ufe to us as hiftorians. For what could hif- _ tory have to do with thefe preadamite people, of whom we know nothing, either by writing or tradition? Befide, all the ancient chronology of ° the Egyptians and Chinefe is the moft wretched that can be conceived, built on the weakeft foun- dations, and fo confufed, that it is impoffible to. deduce any one fact from it that bears the leaft character of authenticity. Reafon and religion therefore equally require that we begin our an- cient hiftory with the creation of the world, ac- cording to the account of Mofes, and confe- quently that we regard Adam as the firft of mankind. : Ilf. The fecond confequence we draw from our firft principle is, that the greateft part of thofe ancient people, who inhabited the different countries of the earth, being ignorant of letters, could not tranfmit the hiftory of their own na- tion, even to their defcendents, and ftill much _ lefs to others. There may have been thoufands of nations, whofe very names are not come down to us. Some of thefe names indeed were by chance tranfmitted by oral tradition to thofe people who firft knew the ufe of letters, and particular- ly to the Greeks: but thefe Greeks were at once credulous and fallacious. Herodotus, the firft _ of their hiftorians, readily believed all the fables ; . and Ancient History. 93. and traditions which the Egyptian prieft had told. him on’his travels ; and of thefe he compofed nine poems in profe, each of which he dedicated. to one of the mufes, and recited them one after the other at the Olympic Games, and which the people greedily received, admiring all his mar-. vellous ftories. IV. The third confequence we draw from our principle is, that ancient hiftory is lefs the. knowledge of what has really happened in the world, than of that which hiftorians have re- Jated, and what they have affirmed as facts.’ And, in truth, is not this fufficient? Does it not contain fufficient matter fully to fatisfy our curio- fity? Do we not find in hiftory, as it now is, fo vaft a compilation of facts and events, that the longeft life, and moft happy memory, is fcarce fufficient to learn and retain them.. Is not the time of antiquaries, critics, and commentators, fully em ployed in learned refearches? And of what con fequence is it to us, after all, to know the exaé truth of each ancient faét or event ? Would this precife knowledge render us in any refpect bet« ter, or can it in the leaft contribute to our hap. pinefs? On the contrary, it is eafy to prove, that the prefent generation are more obliged to an ancient hiftorian who has recounted an event fomewhat fabulous in its circumftances, but in a manner that is interefting, agreeable and ufeful, than to 6ne who has related faéts that are pres cuny true, but ina manner cold, dry, and dif intercfting, of UNiversat Ervupitiown. interefting. A fable teeming with inftrudtion appears to be, in this cafe, far preferable to a barren truth. V. We by no means defpife the efforts of thofe men of tranfcendent genius and indefatigable application, who pafs their whole lives in mak- ing judicious inferences, or ingenious conjectures, in order to reconcile paffages, difcover truths, or diffufe lights over the hiftory of the firft ages of the. world: but we think, at the fame time, that their labours are not accompanied with any real certainty, or any direct utility to mankind. While I was writing the above I difcovered, from the window of my clofet, a large hole in my garden wall; I enquired among my domef- tics, I confulted even my chaplain, concerning the caufe of this hole. Each of them affigns the reafon at a venture, and all of them fupport their opinions with warmth. An arch fellow fteps up and tells us we are all in the wrong, difcovers the real faét, and leaves us all fufi- ciently confounded. I imagine the inquirers into the faéts of ancient hiftory are frequently in the fame circumftance with me and my wall. © VI. When we duly confider the matter, we find that ancient hiftory may be divided into two parts. The firft contains. the hiftory of the Jews, or Hebrews, or of thofe who are called the people of God. Independent of that religious faith which this hiftory requires of Chriftians, feeing Ancient History, 45 feeing it forms the bafis of their religion, it me- rits likewife a peculiar regard by all mankind, confidering it merely as profane annals, 1. Be- caufe it carries with it the marks of veracity, while the ancient hiftory of other nations, efpe- cially during the firft ages, is manifeftly nothing more than a collection of fables. 2. Becaufe it contains a chronological fucceffion of events, al- moft without interruption, which we do not find in any other hiftory; as we fhall fee further on. And 3. Becaufe it forms a general fcale, a com- mon meafure of chronology for all other hifto- ries ; for, without this, we fhould not find in any of them any meafure of time, nor any cer- tain epoch ; all ancient hiftory would be a mere chaos, impoffible to be reduced into any form : a region covered with impenetrable darknefs. VII. This hiftory, which, on more than one account, deferves the title of facred, admits of many divifions, of which we fhall here mention two only, and thefe appear to us natural, and remarkable by the importance of their epochs. For, in the firft place, we may confider the Jews under four kinds of governments ; as, 1. The patriarchal, under 22 patriarchs, 2. The judiciary, under 22 judges, 3. The royal, under 22 kings. 4. The facerdotal, under 22 pontiffs; among whom fome have born the title of kings, as Arif- tobulus, Alexander, Hircan, Antipater, Herod, &c. The 96 Universat Ervupitrion The Jewifh hiftory differs from all others: _ in this particular divifion. 1t may, moreover, be divided into different ages, which may be thus ) fixed ': | The t. mica with the creation of the world, and ending with the uni-. ‘Years; verfal deluge, comprehends — 1657 2. Beginning immediately after the de- luge, and ending with Abraham, in the year of the world 208 39 com-— prehends . 426 3. Beginning with debichornt etnfacediad | as the father of the Jewifh nation, and ending with the departure from Egypt, which was in the year 2513, comprehends - -~ = 430 4. Begins with the going outof Egypt; when Mofes, becoming the legiflator and judge of the people of Ifrael, conduéted them through the defart, and left to Jofhua, his fucceffor, the care of the conqueft of the coun- try of Canaan, and the eftablifhment of the Jews in that promifed land. This age begins with the Judaic re- public, and continues to the time if the eftablifhment of the a saad , comprehends- -—— - - 399 _&. Begins with the reign of Saul, the — firtt king of the Jews, who was anointed by Samuel in the year 2909, and concludes with the end of -Akerentr History. 97 of the captivity of that people in Ba- ~ bylon when Cyrus permitted them to return, in the year of the world. 3468. This period includes alfo the divifion of the Jewifh monarchy, with the eftablifhment of the king- a dom.of Judah and that of Ifrael ; “it . Years. —confitts of se (hs - 559 : 6. Begins with the liberty that Cyrus granted to the Jews, and ends with the birth of Jefus Chrift, which was about the year of the world 4000, and confequently comprehends - 532 In all, - 4000 This epoch includes, among the reft, the wars that the Jews had to fuftain againft the Romans, and which ended in rendering them tributary to that monarchy. VIII. At the beginning of the feventh age, there appeared, among the chofen, people, the Meffiah, the Saviour, the Redeemer of mankind. Forty years after the death of Chrift, Jerufalemi was deftroyed by Titus, the fon of Veipafiah, and, after him, efnperor. The Temple was pil- laged, the inhabitants partly exterminated, and partly carried away captive, and difperfed, over the face of the earth. Thus finifhed the republic’ of the Jews; who, from that fatal period, have never been able to afiemble as a nation. They who followed the Meffiah and embraced his holy Vor, IIL. G doétrine, 98 Universat Ervupirion, doctrine, which may be faid to be grafted on that of the Hebrews, called themfelves, after his name, Chriftians; and dated the epoch of their hiftory from the birth of Chrift. This epoch, . as we have faid, began about the year of the world 4000; and, to the time of writing this work, it has continued 1765 years. So that, without entering into a minute chronology, the world, according to common opinion, has fub- fifted, from the epoch of the creation to the pre- fent time, 5765 folar years of 365 days. TX. The hiftory of the Jews, as we find it in the holy fcriptures, and as it is confirmed by Jo- fephus, one of the beft hiftorians the world has produced, ferves alfo to diffufe great lights over the hiftories of thofe ancient people with which this firft nation had wars, alliances, or connec- tions: and in thefe hiftories, fable is confe- quently lefs mixed with truth, than in thofe of other ancient nations, which are founded entirely upon doubtful traditions and monuments. We are, however, to draw, from profane authors alfo, all information that can be of any ufe in eluci- dating the hiftories of thefe nations, and of re- ducing them into the form of a fyftem, however imperfect it may be. But, notwithftanding thefe aids, and all the pains that have been taken, there are ftill many chafms to be fupplied in thefe hittories. | X. Of Anertent History, 99 X. Of all chofe ancient nations, whofe names, as well as their actions, have not been defttoyed by the length of time, the diftance of place, and the ignorance of letters, there now remain only, 1. The hiftory of the Moabites, from their founder, Moab, the fon of Lot, to the time-of Nebuchadnezzar. 2. The hiftory of the Ammonites, from Am- mon to the fame Nebuchadnezzar. 3. The hiftory of the Midianites, from Mi- dian, the fourth fon of Abraham, to their two laft kings, Zeba and Zalmuna, who were vanquifh- ed by Gideon. 4. The hiftory of the Edomites, the defcend- ants of Edom, the fon of Ijaac, to the time of Joram, the king of the Jews, by whom they were deftroyed. 5. The hiftory of the Amalekites, whofe founder was Amalek, the grandfon of Efau, to the time of Saul and David, when they no longer fubfiited as a nation. 6. The hiftory of the Canaanites, properly fo called, from their founder Canaan, the fon of Ham, to the time of Solomon, when they were confounded in the common name of Pheeni- cians. 7. The hiftory of the Philiftines, from Miz- raim, the fon of Ham, their founder, to the time they were in part overcome by king Heze- kiah, when their capital, Afded, was deftroyed ‘ by the Affyrians ; and finally, to the time that G2 the > a. = = *: ie Bas oe! >." CP ————) = roo UNIveERSAL ErvpiTION. the laft kings of Gaza, of that nation, were van- quifhed by the Egyptians, and their nation en- tirely extirpated. 8. The hiftory of the ancient Syrians, as well thofe of Zobach, as thofe of Damafcus, from Rehob, the firft king, who lived in the time of David, to the reign of Jeroboam, who deftroyed Damatcus. g. The hiftory of the Phoenicians, from Age- nor, the firft king of Sidon, who reigned a fhort - time before the Trojan war (though, ' according to Jofephus; Sidon, the eldeft fon of Canaan, gave his name to that city and the country round about) to the time that Sidon, as well as Tyre, were reduced under the yoke of Alexan- der the Great. 10. The hiftory of the Affyrians, from Pul, or Phul, to’ Sardanapalus. ‘The capital of this empire was Nineve. 11. The hiftory of the Babylonians or Chal- deans. This nation was more ancient than that. of the Affyrians. Their founder was Nimrod, and Nebonaffar their firft king, whofe’ confort was the famous Semiramis. Nebuchadnezzar, 17th king of Babylon, deftroyed the kingdom of the Affyrians ; and that of Babylon fell in its turn, in the reign of its twentieth king, Nabo- | nadus (who was the Affuerus of the fcripture) into the hands of the Medes and Perfians. 12, The hiftory of the Medes, whofe empire arofe out of the ruins of that of Affyria,’ or’ra- ther became formidable, when they were freed 7 from AncrenT HtistTory, IOr from the yoke of the Affyrians. Their firft king was Arbaces, The epoch of their grandeur was in the reign of their feventh king, Cyaxares, who conquered, in conjunction with Nebychad- nezzar, the city of Nineve. Affifted by the Per- fians, they alfo took, during the fame king’s reign, the city of Babylon; and laftly, Aftyages (the Balthazar of the prophet Daniel) became pofiefiéd of the whole empire. _ XI. 13. Thehiftory of the Perfians, or Elamites; who owed their origin to Elam, the fon of Sem. The firft king, of whom there is mention made in the fcripture, was Kedorlaomer. Cyrus, the founder of the new empire of the Perfians, made himfelf mafler at the fame time of thofe of the Medes and Babylonians. Their laft king, Da- rius, furnamed Codomanus, was vanquifhed by Alexander. . 14. The hiftory of the Scythians, or Chome- reans, who were alfo called Cimbri, or. Celts, and were defcended from Gomar, the eldeft fon of Japhet. Their firft king was Scythes, a pre- tended fon of Hercules; and their laft Atheas, who was conquered by Philip, king of Ma- cedon, 15. The hiftory of the Phrygians, who are faid to be defcended from Thogarme, the. fon of Gomar. Midas was one of their moft ancient kings; he reigned foon after the deluge of Deu- calion. After the death of Adraitus, who lived in che time of Croefus, the royal houfe was ex- tinct, and Phrygia became a province of Lydia, 16. The 102 Uwnwiversat Ervupition. 16. The hiftory of Phrygia Minor, or Troy. Dardanus and Teucer were its firft kings, and Eneas its Jatt. 17. The hiftory of the Myfians. Olympus is fituate in this country; and the firft king of Myfia was alfo called Olympus in hiftory. The laft was Arius; though there are mention made of kings of Myfia in the time of me Atta- lian kings of Pergamus. 18. The hiftory of the teint Their firft king was Mones, and their laft Craefus, who was vanquifhed by Cyrus. ig. The hiftory of the Lycians. Their ori- gin, and a great part of their hiftory, belongs to fabulous times. One of their kings, named | Cy- bernifcus, commanded in the fleet of Xerxes againft the Greeks. 20. The hiftory of the Cilicians.. It is pre- tended that they drew their origin from Farfis, the fon of Javan, who peopled Cilicia, and gave his name to the city Tarfus. This people had kings at Thebes and Lyrneffus, who all bore the common name of Syennefis. Cilicia did not become a province to Macedonia till after the deftruction of the kingdom of Perfia.—And fuch were the principal ancient nations, of whom any hiftory,- though imperfe& enough, has come down to us. XII. The fecond part of ancient hiftory con- tains, ‘ The hiftory of the other empires, mo- narchies, republics and leffer ftates, that have anciently AncrentT History. 108 anciently fubfifted in the world, and of whom no knowledge is to be had, but from profane writers.” And among whom we confequently find more obfcurity, lefs order, lefs connection, and lefs certainty. But, before we proceed to the analyfis of thefe hiftories, let us here make fome general reflections, that perhaps may not be without their ufe. If we confider the vaft ex- tent of the known part of the earth, and remember that it has always been divided into great, middling, and fmall ftates ; and if we re- fie€&t on the immenfe number of mankind that muft have there exifted, and that the human race have conftantly been divided into nations, governments, and colonies, more or lefs nume- rous, we mutt be furprized to find, in the general fyftem of ancient hiftory, which comprehends a fpace of 4000 years, fo fmall a number of parti- cular hiftories. It is therefore neceffary to ob- ferve, that, in the firft ages of the four quarters of the world, Afia alone was civilized; and, confequently, the firft order of men was to be found in that country only. Europe and Africa were fcarce difcovered, or at moft their borders, and the people who inhabited them, only were | known. The center of Europe was as unknown as the center of Africa is at this day. That cen- ter is about the country which is now called Franconia; for, if we place one point of a com- pafs on that part where ftands the city of Nuren- berg, and deferibe a circle’ with the other, we fhall comprehend very nearly all our part of the globe, : : \ 104 UNIVERSAL KRuUDITION. globe. The feptentrional regions were entirely unknown, though they were very populous. But all thefe inhabitants of Europe and Africa, _ efpecially thofe who lived toward the two poles, were nothing better than a fort of favages, with- out manners and without knowledge, ignorant of the ufe of letters, and, in a word, fuch as man- kind in general are, without arts and fciences. The Romans difcovered them by degrees, fub- dued them, and fent among them a-fort of po- lifhers, to make them more tame and traétable, and to infpire them with notions of humanity, as in our days we fend miffionaries into’ the fouthern countries as we difcover them. The Romans beftowed. on all thefe people the title of barbarians, which they right well deferved : they alfo fometimes fent their criminals amongft them, by. way of banifhment. Now, if we even knew the hiftory of thefe people, it would not - certainly, be worth the while to write it or fludy it. For a hiftory that affords no inftruétion be- comes an object of mere idle curjofity, and is only an ufelefs burden to the memory ;, it would . perhaps be altogether as interefting to know the . hiftory of a colony of baboons, as fuch figures of men as thefe. On the contrary, it is of con- fequence to us to know the hiftory of thofe po- lifhed nations who inhabited ancient Afia and its neighbouring countries, and, in general, of all | | civilized people ; ; and of thefe we ‘haus fufficient accounts in the annals that are come down £0 us. XII. Ame- SL —————— ra i Be = Ancrent History. 10g XII. America remaining undifcovered till the beginning of the fifteenth century, the know- Jedge of its firft inhabitants cannot make any part of ancient hiftory. For the reft, we muft . here obferve again, that as the fecond part of an- cient hiftory, which is called profane, includes fo many obfcurities and fables, which preceded the real faéts, Varro has divided time into three parts. The firft comprehends obfcure and un- certain time, which is, from the origin of the human race to the deluge of Ogyges, about the year of the world 2208 ; 1796 years before the common era, and 1020 before the firft Olym- piad. The fecond includes the fabulous time, and begins with the deluge of Ogyges, and con- tinues to the Olympiads, that is, to the year of the world 3228, and 776 before the common era: this continued 1020 years. The third comprehends the hiftoric time, and begins with the Olympiads, that is, in the year of the world 3228, and 776 before the vulgar era, It is called Hiftoric, becaufe, fince the Olympiads, the truth of faéts that have occurred has been. confirmed by hiftory. - XIV. The poets have alfo divided hiftory after their manner, that is to fay, by fictions. They diftinguifh, firlt, the golden age, which they attribute to Saturn and Rhea; the fecond is the filver age, afcribed to the reign of Jupi- ter. This age they extend to the time that ty- rants appeated among the human race ; who, to render ¥ SPS ree ee a ” 106 UNIVERSAL ERuDITION. render themfelves powerful, opprefléd mankind by violence and injuftice. The filver age, there- fore, muft terminate with the time that Nimrod, the grandfon of Cham, rendered himfelf terrible, built Babylon, and laid the foundation of the em- . pire of the Chaldeans, about the year of the world 1771, and-115 yeats after the deluge. The third was the brazen age, which was, when ra- pacious men, poffeffed with the luft of domi- nion, endeavoured to reduce their brethren to a ftate of flavery. The fiege and burning of Troy by the Greeks happened in this age, with which likewife the poets finifh the time when thofe heroes they called demi-gods appeared upon the earth. The fourth age is that of iron, which began with the firft Olympiad, that is, in the year of the world 3228. About this time Hefiod complains of living in an iron age; and Ovid, in the defcription he gives of it, fays, that all forts of crimes began then to prevail. They pretend it ftill continues; but we may fay with the worldling, . Ob! le bon tems, que ce fiecle de fer! XV. As we comprehend, in the idea of an- cient hiftory, a continued feries of all facts and events that have happened among civilized na- tions, from the creation of the world to the birth of Chrift, being a fpace of about 4000 years, we are here to confider, under profane hif- tory, | 1. The i I oe kl le ll ae Awcient History. roy (1.) That of the empire of China. They talk much of the chronology of this people, which according to Father le Compte*, includes more than 40,000 years from the foundation of their empire ; but unlefs it can be clearly proved, that the Chinefe have known the ufe of letters for 40,000 years paft, we mutt regard their chro- as fabulous, chimerical, and altogether ridiculous: for there is no tradition, no other monument or voucher that can laft fo long. And and fuppofing the Chinefe to have exifted for fo great a period, muft there not have been other peo- ple upon the earth? Were not India, and all other countries adjacent to China inhabited? And muft not thefe people have learnt from the Chi- nefe, in 40,000 years, the ufe of letters? Is it poffible, that the communication between neighbouring nations could be fo far interrupt- ed? The ridiculous fables likewife, with which the antient Chinefe hiftory is crowded, from be- ginning to end, confirm, in every rational mind, a contempt for their boafted chronology. Their moft fagacious hiftorians, moreover, commonly fuppofe that Fohi, their firft king, mounted the throne 2252 years before the birth of Chrift. The character they draw of this Fohi, is not un- like that of Noah, who may alfo very well be that Saturn of whom the poets talk, and who lived about the fame time, Confucius the philofopher, a prieft and legiflator of the Chinefe, flourithed Vol, I. p. 205. about —* ro8 Universat ERupirTion. about 550 years before the commen era. In the year of Chrift 1279, the Tartars made themfelves mafters of this empire, and their fa- mily bore the name of Iven. XVI. (2.) The hiftory of Egypt. The chronolo- gy of the Egyptians is altogether as extravagant as that of the Chinefe, and has no better foun- dation. The Chaldeans or Babylonians affigned myriads of years to their monarchy. The Egyp- tians, piqued at their pretenfions, would not yield them the preference in point of antiquity. Their priefts, and thofe they called fages, afferted that gods and demi-gods reigned in Egypt 42,984 years before their kings. It would be fome fatif faction to know by what channel, or rather by what miracle, the knowledge of this has come down to our days, fuppofing it to be true. They have found means however to gain credit for thefe reveries with Diodorus Siculus, Herodotus, Manethon, and many others equally weak, credu_ - ‘lous,and fond of marvellous relations. The indefa- tigable labours of that learned writer John Mars fham, united with thofe of Uther, and fome other able’ chronologers, have helped to diffipate, in fome degree, this real Egyptian darknefs, and to reduce ‘the hiftory of this country, quite fabu- lous as it is in its origin, to a fyftem tolerably | rational. This hiftory then is divided into dy- nafties, or races of fovereigns that have reigned in Egypt. Seven of thefe dynatties comprehend the reign of gods, from Vulcan to Typhon : nine, the Ancient History. tog the reigns of the demi-gods from Orus to the demi-god Jupiter.. It is eafy to conceive what credit is to be given to fuch hiftory. Then come the obfcure dynafties of the kings of Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Heliopolis; and all this brings their hiftory down to the time of Sefoftris, or Sethofis, or Sefac, who reigned in the year of the world 3033. He made many conquefts in Afia, and took Jerufalem in the fifth year of Rehoboam king of Juda. It is here that ma- ny hiftorians quit Marfham, and follow the fyt- tem of Ufher. They begin the hiftory of Egypt with the year of the world 1760; and confider this kingdom, 1ft, as under unknown kings dur- ing 160 years ; 2d. under fix paftoral kings dur- ing 260 years,’ that is to the year 2180, when Amafis drove out thefe royal fhepherds ; 3. un- der 48 kings that are named Pharohs, during 1299 years, that is to the year 3479, when Cambyfes king of Perfia conquered Egypt ; 4. - under two Perfian kings during 164 years to the year 3673, when Alexander joined Egypt to his other conquefts; 5. under the Greeks, that is, under Alexander fix years; 6, under 13 Ptole- mies and Cleopotra the laft queen of Egypt, dur- ing 294 years, which comes to the year 3974, when Auguftus, after the death of Cleopatra, reduced Egypt to a province of the Roman em- pire, and laftly, 7. under the dominion of the Caliphs and Ottomans, from the time that Omar the fecond caliph, or heir of Mahomet, con- uered t in the year 637. quered Egyp year 637 yer Ee trro.)6COr«C UU niversAL ERuDITION: XVII. (3) The hiftory of the Afyrian Monarchy, We have already mentioned this hiftory in the tenth fection, but we cannot avoid {peaking of it here, as one of the four grand monarchies, fo called by way of excellence, and to which it is frequently the cuftom to reduce almoft all ancient hiftory. From this point of view, therefore, we regard the Affyrians, not as a particular nation, but as the fovereigns of Syria, Mefopotamia, Babylon, Perfia, and, in a word, of all Afia ex- cept India. It is all thefe countries united that are comprehended under the name of Affyria the Great, which formed the empire of Ninus and Semiramis, and which is called for that reafon the firft monarchy; and fometimes it is alfo called the monarchy of the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Affyrians, &c, by which is always meant the fame empire; and which they make to com- mence, for that reafon, not before the year of the world 2737, with Ninus the fon of Bel, and with Semiramis his confort; and to finith with Balthazer, who. was flain by the foldiers at the taking of Babylon by Cyrus: and thus the Affyrian monarchy was overthrown, and paffed to the Medes and Perfians. XVIII (4) The hiftory of the Perfan Mao- narchy, which is the fecond of thofe that were called’ Grand. This, vaft empire comprehend- ed not only. Perfia, properly fo called, and of which we have made mention in the. fecond fec- tion, but almoft all Afia, and fometimes alfo all athe * the the eet hee. oA am ¥ “Mpa all a A ee o ——. + = eo ANCIENT History. ig the circumjacent country; feeing that Xerxes, after fubduing all Egypt, came into Greece and took Athens. The hiftorimns make this grand monarchy to begin with Cyrus in the year of the world 3468, and to laft 206 years under twelve kings, of whom Darius was the laft, who being conquered by Alexander near Arbella, his eftates and provinces pafied to the dominion of the con- queror, and contributed to form the third grand _ monarchy. XIX (5) The hiftory of the Grecian Monareby, which was the third grand monarchy. The hif- tory of this empire will be very difficult to ex- plain, and ftill more to comprehend without making the following reflections. The Grecian monarchy did not properly fubfift more than fix years and ten months under the reign of Alex- ander furmamed the Great, who had already reigned fix years over Macedonia, when he began to make himfelf mafter of the eaft; but, to con- ceive a clear idea of the manner in which fo vaft a monarchy was formed, it is neceflary to. be- gin by fully underftanding the general hiftory of Greece ; then to ftudy that of the kingdom of ' Macedonia, and after that to confider the life and conquefts of Alexander in particular ; to know the people, kingdoms, empires, and other ftates that he fubdued, in order to form a mo- narchy almoft univerfal ; and laftly to know, how this immenfe monarchy was difmembered by his fucceflors, The firft object of inquiry therefore is rz2_s U ntversat Ervuprrion. is the hiftory of the Greeks, the moft curious and moft important of all antiquity. XX. Greece was fo named from an ob- {eure king called Greecus. Another.king; who was named Hellen, gave to the Greeks thé - name of Hellenifts. The different augmentations of this people have occafioned the learned to dif- tinguifh their hiftory into four different ages; marked by the like number of important epochs. The firft age comprehends almoft 700 years, from the foundation of the fmall kingdoms of Greece to the fiege of Troy. To this period be: longs the foundation of Athens, Lacedemon; Thebes, Argos, Corinth and Sicyon ; the. atro- cious aét of the Danaides, the Jabours of Her- cules, and, in general, all the exploits of the firft heroes of Greece, “Phe fevorid age includes 800 years, from the Trojan war to the battle of Ma» rathon, The third age continued only 158 years: it begins with the battle of Marathon, and ends with the death of Alexander. So many accomplifhed philofophers, orators and generals, never exifted upon the earth at the fame time, as during this period. The fourth age was not longer than the third; for, after the death of Alex- ander, the Greeks began to decline, and at laft became fubjeét to the dominion of the Romans, -XXI. Here we are to diftinguith that which is called Great Greece, which comprehends fome adjacent countries alfo with Greece properly fo called, \ ' AncrenT HisTory. 113 called. It is very certain that never any country fo fmall contained fo many kingdoms and re- publics. They make the number amount to 49, among which are fome whofe names are {carce known. They are as follow: 1. Sicionia or Agi- alia, 2. Leleg, 3. Meffina, 4. Athens; 5, Crete, 6.. Argos, 7. Lacedemon or Sparta, 8, Pelafgia, g. Theffalia,. 10. Attica, 11. Phocis, 12. Lo- cris, :3..Ozela, .14. Corinth, 15. Eleufina, 16. Elis, 17. Pilus, 18. Arcadia, 19. Egina, 20. Ithaca, 21. Cephalone, 22. Phthia, 23. Phocidia, 24. Ephyra, 25: A®oliay 26..Thebes, 27. Ca- lita, 28, Aftolia, 29. Dolopa, 30. Oechalia, 31. Mycenz, 32. Euboea, 33. Mynia, 34. Do- ris, 35+ Phera, 36. Iola, 37. Trachina, 38. Threfprocia, 39. Myrmidonia, 40. Salamine, 41. Scyros, 42, Hyperia or Melite, 43. The. Vulca- nian Ifes, 44. Megara, 45. Epirus, 46. Achaia, 47. lonia, 48. The Ifles of the A°gean Sea, and 49. Macedonia. XXII. All thefe ftates in fact flourifhed in Greece, and their united force refifted for a long time the attacks of their common enemies, ef pecially thofe of the Perfians, who were often roughly treated by the Greeks.. We muft not however form too grand an idea of all thefe kingdoms and republics. They were for the moft part towns only furrounded by a fmall territory. The ftrength of the Greeks confifted more in their courage and conduétt, than in the extent of their country, which however was ex- Vor. IIT: at. tremely ~~ in ae 114 Uwniversat ErupitTtion. tremely populous. They who would apply to the ftudy of the Grécian hiftory, fhould make it their principal endeavour to learn the different deftinies of Scionia, Argos, Arcadia, Sparta, A- thens, Corinth, Thebes, Mycenz and Mefiene. For it is there that they will find great models of every kind, and they will there fee that the po- liteft_ genius, and the profoundeft {cience may be united in one people, with the moft noble and amiable valour. XXIII. The kingdom of Macedonia made, as we have feen, part of Greece; its firft king was Caranus, a native of Argina, and grandfon of Hercules. This family reigned, in feventeen generations, till the time of Alexander. Philip, father of that celebrated hero, was an ambitious, able, warlike prince, anda great politician. He laid the foundation of that immenfe power which his fon obtained by his numerous victories, and which will render him renowned to the end of time. The prophet Daniel compares him to a winged leopard, and in fact he flew from con- queft to conqueft; for in fix years and ten months, he fubdued Thrace, Greece, Egypt, a part of Arabia and Africa, Syria, Pamphylia, the two Phrygias, Caria, Lydia, Paphlagonia, Affyria, Sufiana, Drangiane, Arachofia, Gedra- nia, Aria, Bactriana, Sogdiana, Parthia, Hyrcania, Armenia, Perfia, Babylon, Mefopotamia, and India. All thefe extenfive countries were ad- “ded to Macedonia, and in the year of the world wi . i, 7 Anecrent History. 15 world 3674; Alexander was declared king of Afia ; when he made magnificent facrifices to his gods, and diftributed to his friends, his riches, - cities and provinces, ftill however referving to himfelf the right of fovereignty. But he did not enjoy thefe great profperities long, for on May 22, 3681, he was taken off by a violent fever, in the thirty third year of his age. XXIV. After the death of Alexander, thofe great men who had affifted in founding the Gre- cian or Macedonian monarchy, were the firft to overthrow and demolifh that coloffus. They divided the whole monarchy into ten provinces, whofe governors feemed to depend on four that were principal; thefe were Ptolemy who had Egypt; Seleucus, who reigned in Babylon and Syria ; Caffander, to whom fell Macedonia and Greece; and Antigonus, whofe portion was Afia Minor. But this arrangement did not lait long, for each of them aimed at independence; and at length all the ftates, kingdoms, and provinces, that compofed the fucceffion of Alexander, and. were governed by his fucceffors, pafled, one after the other, under the dominion of the Romans. All thefe ftreams, great and fmall, at laft fell into the ocean of the Roman monarchy, and were there loft. XXV. (6.) The hiftory of the Roman Monar- chy. The annals of mankind prefent nothing more grand than the Roman empire, as well H 2 with 7 116 Universatr ERvupITIon. with regard to its. power and extent, being in- comparably more powerful and more extenfive than any of the three former monarchies, as to the great men of every kind which it produced. To form.a juft and clear plan of this hiftory, we muft take matters from their origin, and tranf- port. ourfelves to the country of the Latins. This country, the moft celebrated of Italy, took its name from Jatendo, becaufe Saturn, chafed from his kingdom by his fon Jupiter, came here to. hide himfelf. The firft inhabitants of this country were thofe called Aborigenes, the next were the Egueans,-then the Aufonians, the Her- nici, the. Latins, the Rutuleans, and the Volci- ans. Latium is that country which is now. called Campagna di,Roma, Before the foundation of Rome, which became its capital, it was governs! ed. by kings, of whom are recorded, 1. Picus the fon of Saturn,. the firft king of thofe Latins called Aborigines, becaufe they were; the original. people of the country. He began his reign in the year of the world 2708, and reigned 37 years. 2.,Faunus his fon reigned 44 years. 3. Latinus his fon reigned 34 years, | 4, ZEneas, the foh of Venus, landed in Italy after the taking of Troy, and married Lavinia the daughter of king Latinus. He reigned after his wiles father only three years. | 5. Afcanius, and fourteen other kings his fuc- cellar, reigned in Latium till the time of Nu- mitor Ancrent History. 117 mitor and his brother Amulius, which was in the year of the world 3249. 6. Romulus and Remus, who laid the foun- dation of the city of Rome, and of a new em pire. XXVI. We may confider the Roman empire as under feveral different {tates. 1. Under feven kings from Romulus to Tar- quin the Proud, during 245 years. ‘2. As a republic under the confuls during 465 years, that is tothe year of the world 3960, when _ Cafar began to make himfelf fovereign lord by the deftruction of liberty. Numberlefs actions of war and policy fignalized this period, and e- fpecially the three Punic wars, that is, thofe again{t Carthage. 3. Under Julius Cefar, who stormed with the title of perpetual dictator and imperator, or ge- neral of the army, He was affaffinated in the midft of the fenate. Auguftus and Pompey difputed the empire. Pompey fell. Auguftus reigned, and took the title of emperor. Jefus Chrift, the Saviour of the world, was born in Ju- dza; with this ever memorable period ancient hiftory ends. The hiftory of the middle age here begins, and comprehends the remaining part of the Roman monarchy, as we ‘hall fee in the fol- lowing chapter. XXVII. This is what we may, and ought na- turally to comprehend under the idea of ancient hiftory * bet ata + Py 6ty — (s = 4 \>"-~ = Pere Te 7onY Law? Sree “Ss es a ; , bd os 118 Universat ErvupDITION. hiftory. To render this fyftem however quite complete, it is proper to obferve hete, that, inde- pendent of the monarchies and empires which we have here enumerated,there have been in the world, during the firft forty centuries, fome other peo- ple and ftates, who though they have not ar- rived at that extreme power which conftitutes empires of the firft magnitude, and though they may not have produced events important enough to attract the attention of all future ages, yet are they notwithftanding worthy to be remembered, though it were only on account of the intimate connexion they have had with the four great ~monarchies ; and confequently the ftudy of their hiftory becomes neceflary. Thefe people were, In ASIA, 1. The Jdumeans or Edomites, who inhabited the country of Seir, between Arabia, the gulph of Perfia, and Judea. The principal cities were Bozra and Petra. They united with the Jews in the time of Hircan, and had the fame fate with them. 2. The Arabians, defcended from Ifmael. There is mention made of the kings of Arabia in the latter hiftory of the Jews. In the reign of Trajan they became tributary to the Romans, but they regained their liberty, and at laft fub- mitted to Mahomet in the year 625; from which time their princes have been called caliphs, About i rhe fame time a party of thefe Arabs paffed into Africa, , AncrenTtT History. 119 : Africa, drove the Vandals from thence, and ef- - tablifhed themfelves on the borders of Tunis. 3. The Armenians, whofe country was ancient- ly a province of Perfia, and in that ftate fell under the government of the Macedonians. During the reign of Tigranes, the Armenians * were conquered by the Romans, from which time they were governed by petty princes, and at laft fell under the dominion of the Parthians. 4. The Amazons, who dwelt, as is fuppofed, in Cappadocia, and were originally Scythtans. The firft queens, of whom they talk, lived in the time of Adyftus of Argos. The latter of them were conquered by Thefeus, and the re- mains of this nation eftablifhed themfelves after that time beyond the river Tanais. 5. The Carians, who inhabited Afia Minor, and were anciently called Leleges. They were for fome time fubject to Minos, king of Crete; were afterward conquered by Cyrus, and at laft fubmitted by degrees to the Ionians. 6. The Odrifes, a people of Thrace. 7. The Paphlagonians, who dwelt between the Euxine fea and Galatia, and took their name from Paphlagon fon of Phineas. They were conquered fucceffively by Croefus, Cyrus, and by the Romans, who, during the time of the em- peror Dioclefian, incorporated that ftate with the province of Pontus, 8. The kingdom of Pergamus, whofe laft king, Attalus, left by his will his kingdom to the Ro- mans, g. The Se ee 120 UniversArt Erxvupition. . g. The kingdom of Bithynia,. .. 10. The kingdom of Cappadocia. -11. The kingdom of Pontius, which nuded with Mithridates. _12. The. kingdom. of Armenia. - Thefe Sue fmall kingdoms were fituate in Afia Minor. » 13, The kingdom of the Parthians, whofe “ kings were. punish Arfacide. It finithed: 126 years before the vulgar era, after Artaban. IV. was killed by the Perfians. 14. The kingdom of india, which sales its name from the river Indus. Bacchus, they fay, was the firft who conquered it; the kings of Perfia'poffefied a portion of it till the time> of Alexander... Since his death the Indians have always had kings of their own, | “In AFRICA: XXVIII. (1) The Car thagintans.. were a Pa. | ny of Phoenicians, who citablifhed themfelyes. in the year of the world 3147, acquired a for- midable power by their commerce, and poffefied all the weftern coaft of Africa, They were re- duced by the three Punic wars to a Roman pro-. vince. : 2. The Cyreneans were a Grecian colony efta- blifhed in Africa. 3 | 3. The Ethiopians: who though they had-al-. ways their own kings, yet their hiftory is fo con- nected with that of the Egyptians, as to make them infeparable. 4. The ini a iige ee BN: a wae ee ae AncrenT History. 124 4. The Numidians, who had always powerful kings.. Mafiniffa and Jugurtha were formidable to the Romans, who neverthelefs reduced this kingdom at laft. to a Roman: province. In EUROPE. XXIX. (1) The Etru/cans in Italy, between the Tiber and Appenine mountains. This country was called Tuicia.. They are faid to have been originally Lydians. The Gauls,.by their invafi- ons, obliged them to change their ftation, and by degrees they became fubjec& to the Romans. 2. The Jderians dwelt originally in Afia. One of their colonies was eftablifhed on the coaft of Spain, where they were oppofed, firft by the Carthaginians, and afterwards by the Romans. 3- The Jiyrians, who inhabited thé country that is now called Dalmatia, and fome other parts. They had originally their own kings, but at length fubmitted to the Roman yoke, 4. The Britavnic ifles, or the kingdom of Albion. The firft kings of thefe ifles were Bri- tons. Julius Czfar difcovered, as we may fay, thefe iflands, and it was with much difficulty that the Romans maintained their dominion there. 5. The Gauls, Their country was divided into Cifalpine and Tranfalpine. Czefar reduced them to the Roman authority. 6. The Pannonians: who inhabited Hungary, Dalmatia, and European Turkey. They formed a powerful oe) » = inal Bos =" Pare! e 4 < 1 , e — 122 Universat ErnvopiTion. a powerful nation, and were not reduced by the Roman emperors till very late, and did not re- main any long time under their dominion, 7. The Thracians. A rough and warlike peo- ple, who inhabited the modern Romania; their firft king was called Teres. This country was fubdued by the fucceffors of Alexander. The Gauls overrun it foon after : but they were drove out by one Deuthes, whofe fucceffors reigned tranquilly over this nation to the time of the em- -peror Vefpafian. XXX. Whoever fhall apply to the ftudy of an- cient hiftory according to the plan here laid down, we well hope, will be able to acquire a complete knowledge of it, efpecially if they thall make a judicious choice of the beft hiftorians and moft faithful annals that are ftill remaining, of thefe remote, and very frequently obfcure ages. CHAP. pT eee ea ee a ee ee Oc a . , ak ao ae —_— ee ee ea ri aad ~ 4 — oe History. 123 CHAP. .VI. The HISTORY of the MippLeE AGE. I. S we do not find, in the writers of univer- fal hiftory, the limits of that period, which is comprehended under the term of Middle Age, either diftinftly or uniformly marked, we may be allowed to fix its bounds here, by two of the grandeft epochs in all hiftory, fuch as ftrike the mind and make the ftrongeft impreffion on the memory, and form at the fame time fo na- tural a divifion in hiftory, that the chronological order of facts becomes thereby more clearly and eafily conceived. We include therefore, in the middle age, thofe eight centuries which paffed between the birth of Chrift, and the re-eftablifh- ment of the Weftern empire by Charlemagne ; who was crowned emperor at Rome on Chritft- mas day in the year 800, by pope Leo III. If. Ac the birth of our Saviour, Auguftus, the firft emperor that was acknowledged in that qua- lity, and as fovereign, reigned over the Roman monarchy, the whole earth being under his do- minion, except China and thofe countries that were cither unknown, or too diftant to be included, or een : cs See pt as ee ee 124 Universat ErupitTion. or inhabited by favage nations, or too inconfide- rable to attract regard. All that was worth the trouble of conquering, and all whofe hiftory is — worth the trouble of tudying, was conquered, and in fubjection to the Roman empire.. The hiftory of all the nations of the earth, during the middle age, is therefore included in the annals of the Roman'monarchy: and when a people that was unknown, as for example, the Vandals, the Herulians, the Saracens, and others, ap- peared upon the theatre of the world, and made . invafions or conquetts. in the dominions of the — empire; itis the bufinels of general hiftory to explain the particular hiftory of fuch people, as far as it is capable of explanation. For we cannot avoid confeffing, that there reigns great obicurity in the middle age, and that there are many chafms in the hiftories of particular nations, who were either in fubjection to the Roman cm nite or at war with it. Ill. The firft objects, that offer themfelves in the hiftory of the middle age, are the Roman monarchy under forty-feven emperors, from Au- euftus to Theodofius the Great, who reigned over the known world for 395 years; and the tranflation of the feat of that immenfe empire from Rome to Conftantinople. We then fee the partition of that empire between the two fons of | Theodofius, Arcadius and Honorius, and the: eftablifhment of the two empires, the Eaftern and the Weftern, which arofe from that diyifion. We | ve . ‘ ~Aocrent History. 125 We learn, in the third place, the revolutions and the events that occurred in that part of the world Which’ belonged to. the empite of the Eaft, of which Conftantinople was the feat, and Arcadius the firftemperor:. and in the fourth place, we fee all the revolutions and events that occurred in the dominions: that made part of the Weftern em- pire, of which Rome was the capital, and Hono- rius the firft emperor. This feries of events con- tinues, as we have faid, till, the time that Charle- magne re-eftablifhed that empire, or rather when he formed a new one out of the ruins of the old. It will be-neceffary to give our readers a more circumftantial account of thefe matters, in order to enable them to form a clear idea of the knowledge they fhould endeavour to acquire of thehiftory of the middle age. IV.. We have therefore to confider, in this age of 800 years, firft, the Roman empire, un- der the following fortyfeven emperors : “ s 9 ae ae? _ y. Auguftus, who reigned after the birthof Chrit 15.0 @ 2. Tiberius, his adopted fon, who reigned . - 22 7 7 3. Caligula, fon of Germanicus, reigned = 3 9 28 4. Claudius, the fon of Drufus, : - 13 8 20 s5- Nero, his adopted fon : ~ - = 13°80 6. Galba, the fon of Servius Galba : - 0 6-7 7. Otho, the fon of Salvius Otho - - © 30 $. Vitellius, of an ob{cure family newer cui: 8. 2 9. Velpafian, the fon of Titus Flayius Sabinus 9g 6 2 10. Titus, the fon of Vefpafian . - 2 2.0 ; | 11. De- Te Le eS eT ee i . ' aay » se” - 126 UnNiversaLt ErvuDITION. Y. M.D. 1r. Domitian reigned : - - 15 6 § iz. Nerva, an old man, reigned only ~ I 49 13. Trajan, a Spaniard : - - 19 6 16 14. Adrian reigned - - - 20 1®@ 29, 15. Antoninus - - - i a 16. Marcus Aurelius - - - - 19 0 @ 17. Commodus, the fon of Marcus Aurelius - 12 9 © 18. Pertinax, the fon of a brickmaker “i Dy Be 19. Didius Julianus purchafed the empire, and reigned but - - - 0 0 26 20. Severus, who died at York, after reigning 17°" S's 21. Caracalla and Geta fucceeded their father Se- verus. Caracalla murdered his brother Geta at the end of one year and 22 days, and reigned, in all © - - 6s SE ee zz. Macrinus reigned - - - 1 1 26 23. Heliogabalus - - = “3°79 4 24. Alexander Severus - - 13 9 @ 25. Maximinus, of Thrace - -~ 297 @ 26. Pupienus and Balbinus reigned fcarce - £00 27. Gordianus - «| "6 ao ag 28. Philip, with his fon Philip II. : - 5 0 0 29. Decius, furnamed Trajanus - - 2 0° 30. Gallus, with his fon Volufianus - 209 31. A milianus - - a. O Sian 32. Vallerianus and Gallienus - ene iS? 33. Gallienus reigned alone, after his father, - 8 © @ It was during this reign that the thirty tyrants arofe. 34. Claudius II, called the Goth, reigned + 1 10 12 35- Aurelian reigned - . 6. GD) g 36. Tacitus - “ = ' a6) 26 37. Probus, the fon of a vilidanet - 6 4.0 38. Carus, with his two fons, Numerianus and | Carinus, reigned altogether - - 2090 39. Dioclefian - - - 18000 ; 40. Conftantius Chlorus, - o- jw at we . 41. Conftantine, furnamed the Great, reigned 30 9 27 F He k ‘ Ancrent History. 127 ; | Y. M.D. _ He transferred the feat of the empire to Bizantium, and called it, after his own name, Conftantinople. He alfo divided his empire into two parts, the Eaft and the Weft. The Eaft'comprehended Hungaria, Tranfilvania, Valachia, Moldavia, Thrace, Macedonia, ay Pontus, Afia, and Egypt. The Weft con- tained Germany, Dalmatia, Sclavonia, Italy, Gaul, England, Spain, and Africa. 42. Conftans, Conftantius, and-‘Conftantinus, di- vided among them the empire of Conftantine their father. This was a time of perpetual troubles and commotions, which lafted about 24 o 43. Julian, furnamed the Apoftate, reigned but 1 8 44. Jovian, of Pannonia, reigned only *.0 72 45- Valentianus reigned - - I1 8 46. Gratian, his fon, divided the empire with Va- lentianus I]. Gratian reigned \- - 16 0 6 And Valentianus reigned 16 y. § m. 24d. 47- Theodofius the Great reigned - . = 16..0 20 V. This firft period of the hiftory of the middle age, under forty-feven Roman emperors, includes therefore 395 years, and comprehends, as we have faid, the hiftory of all nations, as all known parts of the earth formed Roman pro- vinces, or were at war with that people ; for their luft of dominion led them to attempt the con- ueft of every country they knew. Theodofius divided the empire between his two fons. Ar- cadius had that of the Eaft, and continued his refidence at Conftantinople, as did his fucceffors. This empire of the Eaft lafted 1058 years, under feventyfix emperors, to the time of Conftantine Palgologus, who perifhed at the taking of Con- ° ftantinople eas. i. 1228 Universat ErvupiTIoNn. ftantinople by Mahomet II. in the year 14533 after the death of whom, this formidable empire paffed under the dominion of thie Ottomans. This firft period of the hiftory of the Eaftern em- pire defcends therefore fromy Arcadius to Nice- phorus Logothata, the 29th emperor, who was elected by the armiy after the death of Irene, in the year 802 of the Chriftian era, and to that period, this hiftory belongs to the middle age. The fecond period begins with that emperor, and ends with'the taking of Conftantinople. It ‘comprehends the fucceffive reigns of fortyeight emperors, to Conftantine Palezologus, during 641 years. This laft period makes, properly, part of modern hiftory, and may be. very well ranged under that divifion. But that we may not interrupt the regular feries, by being obliged — to recur to it in the fucceeding chapter, which will be otherwafe fufficiently long, -we fhall here bring i it to a conclufion. V1. The firft period of the hiftory of the Eaftern empire, which belongs to the middle age, comprehends therefore the following reigns; Y. M. D. 1. Arcadius, who reigned - - 13-315 4 2. Theodofius II. - - - - 42 2 28 3. Marcian - - a 1@ 5 6h'O Leo - 217 OR * ct II. called the younger, rigned oly. 1 00 5. Zeno, of Ifauria, 17 0 °O 6. Anaftafius, of Dyrrachium or Dicorus - 27: aaa 7. Juftin . - © 23 im i le Ancrent History. 12g. Y. M.D. > Jattinian, by whofe order was made the Ro- man code, and ta whom the famous Belifa- rius was general, reigned : + 38 7 13 g- Juftin I. called Curopalatis : - 10 10 20 20. Tiberius Conftantine . 2 2 610 $ t1. Matirice of ere . 7s 15 1z. Phocas - - a > 8.409 #3. Heraclius or 8 : - 30 10 © 14. Conftanitine; hisfor = - - 04 90 #5. Heracleonas, the fecond fon of Heraclius os @ 26. Conftans II. the fon of Conftantine - 17.6 @ 37. Conftantine, called oo or Long- ) beard - | - i170 6 18. Juftinian HI. his fon - + 10 0 6 19. Leona, emprefs, reigned - - 30 06 20. Abfimarus Tiberius, whofe reign was one’ ie ow, troubles - - - 13.66 1. Philippicus Bardanes ‘3 <2 93 2. Anaftafius 2 - - a a a ts TheodofiussIIE. fcaree ‘ + 10 6 24. Leo of Ifauria, called Ichonomachus = 2% 2 25 25. Conftantine V. furnamed Caproni + 34 2 26 26. Leo IV. his fon’ . a ee) 27.Conftantine VI. called Porphyrogsitmyand ee 28. Irena, his mother, reigned : And hate finifhes the firft period of the hiftory of the Eaftern empire, and the middle age, with the year of our era 8or. VII. The fecond period of this empire (which makes part of modern hiftory) contains the fol- lowing reigns : Y. M. Dy ag. Nicephorus Logit, who bom - 8¢e¢0 §0. Michel C tis o. 2 8-6 Vo., Hi "SS" yy. 31. Leo 130 Universart Ervpition): Y. M. De 31. Leo of Armenia - - - 7 5 32. Michel IT. called the Stammerer - 89 o 33- Theophilus, his fon ~ 7 - IZ) 3°20 34- Michel III. fon of Theophilus $< 1 tg 35. Bafilius of Macedonia ios - 10 7 36. Leo VII. called the Philofopher - 25 0 06 37. Alexander, his brother, about - - (3 6 %@ «38. Conftantine VIL. Sa. amet reigned near . . - 47 0 © 39. Romanus Poripcadia: his fon oo ge ee ae 40. Nicephorus Phocas - - ot Gus ie 41. John Zimifces - . o) SPS 42. Bafilius and Conftantine, brothers, died one after the other, having reigned more than 50 0 © 43. Romanus reigned - ~- 5 6% 44 Michel of Paphlagonia = -, 6 °6 @& 45+ Michel Calaphatus reigned only te er eee Zo€, the widow of Michel of Paphlagonia affumed the government, and reigned, with her fifter Theodora - . a ge And then married. 46. Conftantine Monomachus, who eel with » - Zo€ and Theodora - -' a2 oe 47. Theodora reigned after them, alone - 190 48. Michel the Warrior, an old man, reigned Io @ 49- Haac Comnenus - - - ole © , so. Conftantine Ducas - a 7 6¢ 1. Eudoxia, his widow, reigned with John, bro- ther of Conftantine, and the three fons which he had. by his wife, Michel, Andronicus, and Conftantine, about. ~ - I 060 @© 52. Romanus Diogenes married Eudoxia, and reigned - - ~ g§ 8 a2 $3. Michel Ducas - . - 6 6% 54. Nicephorus IT. - - - 3 6 ° 55- Alexis Comnenus abe - 37 415 In his time, that is, atthe beginning of the twelfthcentury, commenced the famous croi- AncrentT History, ; ae fades of the Occidental Chriftians againft the Turks and Saracens, in the Eaft, 56. John Comneaus - - $7- Manuel Comnents - : - 58. Alexis 11, his fon - ai sing 59- Andronicus Comnenus - - 60. Ihac, of the houfe of Angelus Comnenus 61. Alexis III. his brother A ip : 62. Alexis Mirtillus reigned only - ri At this time there began to be two feats of @ empire, one at Adrianopolis, by Theodorus Lafcaris, and the other at Trebizond, by Alexis Comnenus. , 63 Baldwin, a Frenchman, made himfelf mafter 131 Y. M.D. of Conftantinople, and was crowned emperor,” _ in the year 1204. But he reigned only INTERREGNUM. 64. Henry, count of Flanders, brother of Bald- win, fucceeded him, and reigned - 65. Peter de Courtenai, count of pray, ens 66. Robert, his fon 67. Baldwin II. the fon of Rébert, after reigning was drove out of Conftantinople by Michel ~ Palsxologus, the tutor of John and Theodore Ducas Ill. the fons of Theodore Ducas H. who had reigned at Adrianopolis. 68. Michel peed made himfelf emperor, ~ and reigned - - - 6g. Andronicus II. his fon : - yo Andronicus III. Palzologus Jle dopa. V V. Palwologus reigned under the tute- Mg hs VI. Cestecexenns, who ufurped the whole authority, but at laft gave his daughter in marriage to John, and, after having reigned aM : . I zee 3° 22 42 13 Nwoo°oM @® “m OO 0°00 0 8 _ oot 0 eo0o 8 32 Universat Ervoitié6n Be Y. M. Da with his fon-in-law and pupil, was obliged »- to abdicate, and turned monk, . John V. feigned alone - SSR 8 93. Andronicus IV. Paleologus reigned a i2igabo .' 9’ 74. Emanuel Palzologus ~ - “ 310.0 75. John VII. Palzologus - 27 0-@ 76. Conftantine XIII, or, according to sidileas XV. and laft emperor of Conftantinople, was preffed to death amidft the multitude, at the ‘ taking of that city by Mahomet II, in the year 1453, after having reigned about - 8 o @ VIII. It were to be wifhed that we could co- ver with a thick veil the whole hiftory of the Eaftern empire, and conceal from the eyes of youth thofe horrors with which it is crowded from beginning to end. All thefe emperors, unworthy of fo.auguft a title, were either egre: gious dolts, or execrabile villains; who acquired he diadem, and maintained it, by the blackeft treafons and murders. A ftream of blood flowed inceffantly. Continual inftances of poifoning, putting out of eyes, and other like horrors. » No traces of genius or of virtue. This part of hit _tory ought to be-made known merely to infpire “a juft averfion to guilt : what is ftill. more, de- slorable, all thefe’ crimes were committed under’ “the fhadow of religion, or rather fanaticifm and fuperftition. We fhall fee im the *hiftory of the ehurch, by what unlucky fchifm Chriftianity was, fo to fay, torn afunder, and divided into the Greek _and Latin-churches. © Conftantinople adopted » Sewet , Sogo% phe ee “Ancient History, 133 ‘ the dogmas and rites of the Greek church, and Rome, the dogmas and rites of the Latin. IX. They who would make a thorough ftudy of the hiftory of the middle age,, thould there include*the particular hiftories of fuch people as were in fubjection to the Eaftern empire, or againft whom its emperors waged war. ‘The bounds of this work will not permit us to enter into fo large a detail; but when, in the next ’ chapter on modern hiftory, we comé to treat of the Ottoman empire, we fhall not forget to inform our readers who thofe Turks were that took Conftantinople under Mahomet II. and made it the feat of their empire. It only remains here to fay a few words on the kingdom of Jerufa- lem, the emperors of Trebizond, and thofe of Adrianopolis, XX. The kingdom of Jerufalem continued only 88 years, under nine kings ; that is, from the year 1099, when the Chriftian army took _ Jerufalem from the fultan of Egypt, to 1187, when Saladin, fultan of Syria and Egypt, retook it from the Chriftians, There reigned, during that time, . Y. M.D. 1. . Godfrey of Bouillon, fcarce - ot 6 © 2. Baldwin fucceeded his brother, and reigned - 18 o o 3- Baldwin II. ficceeded his coufin, and reigned 12 0. © 4- Foule, count of Anjou, married Beatrix, the daughter of Baldwin II. and reigned *- If 096 ' §. Baldwin III. who fucceeded his father - 28 Oo 6, Amau- ° _g. Baldwin IV. the Leper, fucceeded his father 13 0 =. 2 334 Uwniversat Ervupirion. Y. MD. 6. Amaurus, count of Afcalon, fucceeded his fa- ther - - - 10 8. Baldwin V, reigned only ~ J under the protection of ’ g- Guy of Lufignan, when the city of Jerufalem was taken by aflault, 2 O&. 1187, and all the Holy Land pafled into the hands of the infidels, XI. Colchis, or the province of Trebizond, was. in the poffeflion of Alexis Comnenus, with the title of principality, under the emperors of Conftantinople, when the French took that capi- tal, in the year 1204. Alexis, fecing Conftanti- nople in the hands of the French, made himfelf fovereign of Colchis, without however affuming the title of emperor; nor did: the two princes who fucceeded him. It was the fourth fovereign, John Comnenus, who ufurped that title. Tre- bezond therefore had nine emperors, who were, 1. John Comnenus; 2. Alexis Comnenus ; 3. Bafil Comnenus; 4. Bafil Comnenus II. 5. N. Comnenus, the natural fon of Bafil II. 6. Alexis Comnenus II, 7. Alexander Comnenus; 8. John Comnenus II. and g. David Comnenus, who fur- rendered all Colchis to Mahomet II. a conqueror - too powerful for him to withftand. Thus ended the empire of Trebizond, after having lafted 257 years. ; XII. The fmall empire of Adrianopolis was founded in 1204, by Theodore Lafcaris, who had ee ee Ancrzenr History. 135 had married Ann Comnenus, the daughter Of ‘Alexis Comnenus. It continued only 60 years, under four emperors, who were, ~ ) Y. M. D. 1. Theodore Lafcaris, who reigned - - 18 © o He married his daughter Irene to 2. John Ducas, who fucceeded him, and reigned 33 2 © 3. Theodore II, fucceeded his father, and reigned 4 © © 4+ John, his fon, fucceeded, and reigned one year and fome months with his brother Theodore, Michel Palzologus, their tutor, caufed them to be murdered, and then joined the empire of Adrianopolis to that of Conftantinople, of which he had already made himfelf matter. And thus we have given a flight {ketch of the moft important eyents that popirhd 4 in the Eaftern empire. XIII. The fourth part of the hiftory of the middle age comprehends the hiftory of the Weftern empire, from the partition of the Roman monarchy, that is, from the year 395, to the year 800, of the Chriftian era; and in which we diftinguifh the following epochs : 1. The emperors of the Welt, to the year 475. Y. M.D. 1. Honorius, who died at Ravenna, after reigning 28 © o z. Valentinian III. the fon of Conftantius, reigned 30 0 © Attila, king of the Huns, ravaged Italy: the empire.of the Weft declined, and the im- perial feat was almoft always, after this, at Ravenna. 3. Maximus ufurped the empire ; but he was foon cut in pieces by the Romans, and thrown - into the Tiber; he reigned only ci Ole Genferic, #36 UNiyersat Ervpition. Y. M. By, Genferic, king of the Vandals, whom Eu- | ; doxia, widow of Valentinian, had called from Africa, entered Rome, and pillaged that city for 15 days. ‘Fhe Weftern empire is dey ftroyed. Africa is poffefled by the Vandals ; Spain by the Vifigoths; Gaul by the Franks; the Britith Ifles by the Pics, Englith, and Saxons; and Italy by the Lombards. The princes who fucceeded were rather pretenders * to empire than emperors. However, we muft not omit them. A Avitus reigned ° a aN? geeg 5. Majorian eg - r £58 6. Severus - - - - 3 8 27 VE Anthemius - - > $5 2 28 8, Anicius, called Olibrius, reigned - ~- © 7 16 9- Glicerius abdicated, after he had reigned + 4 3 2f 10. Juliys Nepos reigned . - Pe ¥1- Romulus Auguftulus, fon of Oreftes, was the Jaft Roman emperor that was acknowledged at Rome ; he was difpoffefffed by Ordoacer, - king of the Heruls, after having reigned only o 10, 5 The Wett was, after this, without emperors ; for 324 years, that is, to the time of Charle- magne, ‘Thus the ancient Roman empire, that was fo formidable under the firft Au- . ye guftus, was reduced to a mere fhadow of ex- iftence under Auguftulus: this fovereignty, which began very lowly under the firft Ro- mulus, ended ftill more infignificantly under the loft Romulus ; and was loft like a rive let 1 that runs into the ocean, ; - " KIV, In order to have a juft conception’ of the hiftory of the middle age in general, and of that of the empire of the Wett during i its decline and — ———se SS Te ea ee ee , : Ancrent History. 137 and diffolution, in particular, it is indifpenfably neceflary to acquire fome knowledge of thofe ferocious people, who, in the fourth and fifth centuries, over-ran all Europe, and penetrated even into Africa. But as all thefe people were barbarians, a kind of favages, without arts or fcience, eyen ignorant of the ufe of letters, and’ who had always been in a manner vagabonds © upon the earth, without city or country, it is evident that they could have no annals, and that all we can fay of their origin and their hiftory ~ muft be a mere collection of conjectures. It js, moreover, impoffible for us to enter here into a the labyrinth of learned inquiries; we muft therefore content ourfelves with giving the names of thefe people, and merely informing our readers of what they ought to inquire after in this part of univerfal hiftory. XV. The great and memorable migration of people happened toward the clofe of the fourth, and in the fifth centuries of the Chriftian era. A numerous fwarm of unknown and barbarous nations came, in part from the north, partly from the Palus Mceotis, and partly from the Eaft, by Hungary and Pannonia, and entered the pro- vinces that formed the dominion of the empire, Thefe people gravitating on each other, to ufe the expreffion, conftantly impelled all that were before them, till they at laft penetrated the fouthern confines of Europe and Italy itelf; where, meeting with a weak refiftance only, they put ae ee eS Se eee See ee Re 338 UNiversat ErupitTion. put an end to the fucceffion of Roman empe- rors, and to their monarchy. ‘The principal of thofe wandering and warlike people were, 1. The Vifigoths, who appeared under the condutt of their king, Alaric. 2. The Oftrogoths, who became famous under their king Theodoric, who conquered Italy, and whofe defcendants pofleffed it for a long time. 3. The Vandals. 4. The Alains. 5. The Suevians. 6. The Heruleans, who were led by their king, Odoacer. 7. The Huns, of whom Attila was chief. 8. The Longobards, or Lombards. g. The Pitts. 10. The Scoti, or Scotch. rz. The Slavi, or Efclavonians. 12. The Gepideans and Avarians. All thefe people flocked, one after the other, from the grand feminary of mankind, that is, from the moft northern provinces of Europe, and even of, Afia: as Norway, Sweden, Ruffia, - and perhaps Siberia and Tartary alfo. The moft part of the names they bore are analogous to the modern low Saxon, or feem to be derived from it. The Goths, for example, fignify, in that language, Good people: the Quades, the Bad: the Huns, Dogs: the Slavi, Slaves: the Lon- gobards, perhaps Longbeards; and fo of the reft. It is apparent, that the greateft part of thefe: a ; Ancient History. 1g _thefe people came from thofe countries that make _ part of Low Saxony. XVI. All thefe people are frequently con- _founded with each other in hiftory; and fre- quently, alfo, the fame people was divided into _ different governments, which had each a parti- cular name. All this has produced a chaos very difficult to be reduced into any order. The greateft fatisfaction is, that ic is of very little im- portance, to the prefent inhabitants of civilized Europe, to know the particular hiftories of all thefe barbarians; and that it is of no confequence if we do fometimes err in thefe matters. But it is not a matter fo infignificant to know the _hif- tory of thofe who have made a confpicuous figure in the world, who have either founded or :pof- fefled grand fovereignties in Europe; and efpe- cially thofé who fucceeded the emperors of the Weft, and became poffeffed of the ruins of their monarchy. It is with this view that we thal] here treat of the hiftory of the empire of the Welt, from the death of Romulus Auguttulus to the time of Charlemagne: and when, in the hiftory of empires, kingdoms, and other modern ftates, we fhall have occafion to fpeak of their origin and antiquities, we fhall endeavour to in- veltigate the kind of eftablifhment that thefe wandering people infticuted in each one of them in particular. XVII. It “440 Universat Ervupition XVII. It remains therefore to confider here the ftate of the Weftern Roman empire under nine kings ; one of the Heruleans, and eight of the Oftrogoths ; during ninety-two years. Ac- - cording to common opinion, the Goths came from Scandinavia, a peninfula which is now in- habited by the Swedes and Norwegians. After having roved fome time on the borders of the Baltic Sea, they paffed into Scythia, and efta- blifhed themfelves along the borders of the Eux- ine Sea. They who advanced the furtheft to- wards the eaft were called Oftrogoths, that is, Eaftern Goths ; and they who dwelt toward the weft were named Wifigoths, or Weftern Goths. In the year 476, all Y. M. D, - 1. Odoacer, king of the Heruleans, made himfelf’ matter of Rome, drove away Auguftulus, and. called himfelf king of Italy. He reigned - 16 6 oO _ 2. Theodoric, king of the Oftrogoths, retgnet - 33 6 0 3. Athalaric reigned . : - 8.00 4- Theodahat ° - . 2°64 °@ 5- Witiges - - - "4° (89 During this reign Belifarius, general of the emperor Juftinian, had well nigh drove all the Goths out of Italy, 6. Theobald reigned — = .. 25 ° 7. Alaric - - - es MO 8. Totila - - - 6 @ @ _g- Tejas, the laft king of ths Goths in Italy, After having taken many cities during the abfence of Belifarius, he made himfelf mafter of Rome, and pillaged it for forty days ; i, _ after reigning about - 10 ®& He was vanquifhed by Narfes, whom the em- peror _— — ” te lilt ae al Pl eS ee ef Ancient History. 140 > peror Juftinian had fent into Italy : and thus _ ended the kingdom of the Oftrogoths. Italy remained in pofleffion of the emperor of the Eaft, and Narfes obtained the government ; but the Romans fent great complaints to Conftantinople, againft that eunuchy -Jufti- "nian recalled him. in. anger; but, inftead of obeying, he fent fecretly to Albion, king of the Lombards, who’ paffed into Italy, and there founded a kingdom that lafted till the time of Charlemagne. XVIII. The laft ftate of the Weftern em- ‘pire, in the middle age, comprehends therefore the reigns of twenty-three Lombard’ kings, dur- ing 205. years. The Lombards were alfo a northern people, who firft eftablifhed themfelves on the fouthern borders of the Baltic Sea, and advancing by degrees more toward the fouth, at laft penetrated Italy, and thete founded their kingdom in Cifalpine Gaul; which was after named Lombardy. MED. 4 Albion entered Italy, and there reigned” © = 3°6 © Juttin, emperor of the Eaft, fept Longin to Ravenna, as his exarch. “w b ‘a. Celphis reigned - ~ Pp 2 | After his death there was an ncregman, which lafted : - -Yo 0 o 3. Antarit_ reigned - . -"*5 6-0 4 Agilulf - 1 -26 00 ‘5, Adelwald reigned alone, after his father - 9 2.0 6. Ariowald reigned - ~_,* 12 @-0 “q. Rotharis |. + 4), - 16 4 90 »@eRodoald « 8 - = 6-0'0 9. Ari- #42 Universat Ertprrion. Y. M.D, 9- Aribert - + « - 2060¢6 10. Gondebert, and his brother 11. Berthier, reigned, together, only “ ° 12. Grimoald - - 2 Bd 6 13. Garibaud, his fon . a & 3 © Berthier returned to Pavia, where he was again acknowledged as king, and reigned - 18 © © 14. Cunibert reigned, after his father Berthier 12 0 © 15. Luitbert, his fon, reigned only - ©0 80 16. Racombert, duke of Turin, reigned alo - 0 3 9 x7. Aribert II. reigned - - 8-0 © 18. Aufprand died-at the end of - - © 3 6 19- Luitprand, his fon, reigned - | ae ee 20. Hildebrand, his grandfon, only a Yee: iv zi. Rachis - . ~- $5 6 0 22. Aftulf - - - 6 0 © 23. Didier, duke of Etruria, reigned -i7 © @ He was‘conquered in the year 781 by Char- ; lemagne, and the kingdom of the Lombards ended with him, ; XIX. After Narfes had revolted, and while Albion was bufied in founding the kingdom of the Lombards, the emperor of the Eaft, Juftin II. fent Longin to Ravenna, to endeavour to efta- blith his affairs in Italy, and to promote his in- “tereft: But Longin made himfelf duke of Ra- _venna, and affumed the title of Ewarch, by which ais meant, without fuperior. They commonly oreckon fixteen exarchs, who reigned at Ravenria oduring 184 years, to the time of Aftulf, the laft “king but one of the Lombards, who took that city, and put an énd to the exarchy. Thefe ex- archs Le. ee ee ee Ancrent History. 49 . archs (whom fome alfo name vicars, or prefects) were, P ¥.MD. 1. Login, who governed - -15 00 2. Smaragdus - - - 3009 3. Romanus - - ~ -II 0 o 4: Callenic, . - - - 4.00 Smaragdus, in his age, gs again - 900 5. John Remiges *- 460 6. Eleuthera [My - - 300 7- Ifaacius - - - - 23 0 0 $. Theodore Calliopas - ot ae} 9. Olympius ” : . 3 °0 Theodore ee ae is re-ftablifed, and gor verns - 34 : ° oO 10. Theodofius, or Theodore, governed - ©. 6.0 11. John Platini, or Platon - nk . O 32. Theophilactus > : “ - $8 06 o 13- John Rifocop, or st ot: - ‘ 225-68 14. Scholafticus . * -312 oF o 15. Paulus .s - ° «2 @: © 26. Eutichius, the latt exarch ~ "244 0 © Who, after he was drove from Ravenna, re- tired to Conftantinople. XX. In proportion as the Roman empire in the Faft, and more efpecially in the Weft, de- clined, there arofe in the world, but principally an Europe, feveral kingdoms and other inde- pendant ftates, the revolutions of which belong to the hiftory of the middle age. Thus, in the year 420, Pharamond reigned as king in France. In the year 408 the Goth and Vandal kings reigned in Spain, and fo of the reft. But as thefe eftablifhments include the origin of thofe MQ: ‘se -" 7 144 Universan Erupitriow imoharchies and ftates which now exift, it is more éligible to make the account of them precedé the hiftories of modern nations, in order to pre= vent any interruption in the feries of thofe hifto- ries, and all embarrafiment in the ftudy of them. The next chapter, therefore, will contain all that relates to this matter.in the middle age. XXI. But as the kings of the Vandals in Africa had, in the fifth ahd fixth centuries, much concern 1m the affairs of Italy, and as their empire difappeared before the end of the middle age, fo that we fhall have no further occafion to mention them, it appears neceffary to give the chronology of the kings of that nation in this place. The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa dafted 108 years, under fix kings, who were, . oT MB. 1. Genferic; king of the Vandals, who founded that kingdom in the year 427, afd reigned - 48 0 © 2. Huneric, fon-in-law of Valentinian III. fuc- ceeded his father, and reigned ‘ -:8 © Oo 3. Gondebaut, the grandfon of Huneric, reigned 11 0 o 4: Trafimond fucceeded her brother, and reigned 26 0 5. Hilderic reigned - - 8 6 6. Gilimer was put in the place of Hilderic, who had been unjuftly septa. of the throne. He reigned ” =. - 9 © @ And was vanquifhed by Belifarius, in the year 534. And thus ended the kingdom of the Vandals. Here we fhall conclude our fketch of the hif- tory of the middle age : very happily, if we have . iy ital ae teal oa oe Mopern History. 145 in any degree difperfed that thick darknefs with which it is furrounded ; and have given a regu- Jar and clear plan, at leaft, by which if may be fuccefsfully fludied. AD e PAR FAR # PARRA CHAP. Vil. MODERN HISTORY. HARLEMAGNE appeared upon the earth. He was the fon of Pepin, mayor of the palace of Childeric III. and the laft king of France, of the Merovingian family. In the year 751, Pepin himfelf was made king, and died in >68. Charles was born in 741, Hewas of German extraction, of the nation called Francs, and was born in Germany. He efta- blithed the feat of the empire he founded at Aix- Ja-Chapelle: he and his courtiers {poke German; and the public acts were wrote in German. He fubdued the other tribes of his nation, converted them to Chriftianity, and taught them to read and write their native language. When he came to the throne of F rance, in the year 768, Con- ftantine V. was emperor of the Eaft, and, after Vou, UI, K him, 146 UNIVERSAL ErvpiITION. him, Leo IV, Conftantine VI. the emprefs Irene, and Nicephorus. Italy was in the power of Aftulf, king of the Lombards. Stephen IV. and, after him, "Adtian I. and Leo III. were popes. Germany contained many nations that were but little civilized: Wittekind was chief of the Saxons. Winceflaus, and, after him, Crzezonifle, reigned in Bohemia. Gotric, or Sigefroi, was king of Denmark. Biorno III. and, after him, Alaric III. reigned in Sweden. Lefcus I. was duke of Poland. The Saxons were mafters of England, and had there eftablifhed feveral fmall kingdoms, which were united. in 801 under Eg- bert, firft fole king of that country. Fergus, and, after him, Solvathius, Achaius, and Congal- lus, reigned in Scotland. Aurelius, and, after him, Silon, Mauregat, Veremond, and Alphonfo the Chafte, reigned in the Auftrias and the king- dom of Leon. The reft of Europe was entirely ~ barbarous ; and what they called civilized was not much better. Such was the ftate of Europe when Charlemagne, by the death of his father, became king of France. But this hero foon made new’ acquifitions, bearing in one hand the fword, and in the other the promifes of the gofpel. By the extinction of the kingdom of the Lombards in 773, he got poffeffion of all Italy. By con- quering the Saxons, and by converting them to Chriftianity, he became mafter of all Germany. - By the election of the Roman people in 800, he - obtained the empire of the Welt, with the title ‘of Empétot’; and a fhort time before his death, . HT di ; : 4 “in ~~ eee eee ae MopEeRN Aistory, ¥47 in 809, was very near adding: to his vaft domi- nions the kingdom of Spain, - Il. It is therefore with the advancement of this monarch to the imperial dignity, with the re-efta- blifhment of the empire of the Weft, in the firft year of the ninth century, that commences what is called Modern Hiftory. The face of Europe was changed. It became at once, Chriftian and civilized. It was then that modern king doms, republics, and ftates, were either founded, or acquired their true confiftence. This laft age of the world, down to the prefent day, con- tains 965 years. The means by. which the Di- vine Providence thought proper to civilize Eu- rope, and, almoft all the other nations. of the known earth, during that period; the fucceffive progrefs of the arts and, iciences ; the ufeful in- ventions of every kind ; the degree. of perfec- tion to which manufactures and commerce have been carried ; the difcovery of a new world; the eftablifhment of pofts and public banks, and of every kind of intercourfe between mankind; the improvement of navigation, and a thoufand like objects, require as much to be clearly invefti- gated and explained in modern hiftory, as do the politics of kings, the ftratagems of minifters, the exploits of heroes, and the revolutions of king- doms.. It is therefore our bufinefs here to pre- fent our readers with a clew to this labyrinth, but we truft they will not expect that we fhould con- duc them thro’ all its minute windingsand recefles, K 2 by et = eee rr a” 1448 Universat ErvupiTion. by entering into a defcription of thofe {mall ftates that may be called miniatures of govern- ment. We fhall therefore confine ourfelves to an inquiry into the ftate of the following na- tions. . II. L. The new Empire of the Weft, called the Holy Roman Empire. 1. Before the interreg- num: 2. During the interregnum: And, 3, Af- ter the interregnum. Before the Interregnum. 1. Under nine Carolovinian emperors, or thofe who were the defcendants of Charlemagne ; to wit, 1. Charlemagne; 2. Lewis I. the De- bonnaire; 3. Lothario; 4. LewisII. 5.Charles the Bald; 6. Lewis II. the Stammerer; 7. ' Charles the Grofs; 8. Arnold; 9, Lewis IV. called the Child, who died without an heir in the year - - - = giz 2. Under fix Saxon Emperors : that is, 1. Con- rad I. Duke of Franconia. 2. Henry I. cal- led the Fowler. 3. Otho I. called the Great, 4. Ocho Ii. refufed. 5. Otho IIL. called the Marvellous. 6. Henry II. furnamed the Saint, who died in the year a 1024. 3. Under five Franconian Emperors, who were 1, Conrad If. the Salic. 2. Henry MI. the: Black. 3. Henry 1V. 4. Henry V. 5. Lo- thario, who died in — y 137 4. Under Moverwn Hrsrory. 149 4. Under fix Suabean Emperors, to wit, 1. Con- rad IVI. of Suabia. 2. Frederic Barbaroffa. 3. Henry VI. called the Severe. 4. Philip. 5. Otho IV. 6. Frederic II. who was poifon- ed in the year — —_ 1250 During the Interregnum, This was a time of trouble and confufion that lafted twenty-three years ; and during which, 1. Henry Rafpo of Thuringia. 2. Conrad IV. of Suabia. 3. William, Count of Holland. 4. RichardI. King of England. 5. Alphonfo X. of Spain: and, 6. Ottocar of Bohemia, were eleét- ed by different factions; or pretended to the’ em- pire, and endeavoured to attain it, either by ca- bals, or by force of arms; whilft Conradin, Charles of Anjou, Mainfroi, and the Popes, ex- cited a thoufand troubles in Italy. This inter-. regnum at laft ended in the year 1273 After the Interregnum. 1. Under twelve Emperors of divers houfes, _chofe by the electors, r. Rodolph, Count of Hapfbourg. 2. Adolph, Count of Naffau. 3. Albert of Autftria, called the One-eyed. 4. Henry VII. Count of Luxembourg. 5. Lewis V. of Bavaria. 6. Frederic III. of Auftria, cal- led the Handfome, who difputed the empire with him, abd, after the death of Lewis, Ed- ward III. King of England; Frederic theSevere, Mar- ro UniversAat EruDITION. Margrave of Mifnia; and Gunter, Count of Schwartzbourg, were elected emperors, without ' being able to get poffeffion of that dignity, which fell at laft on, 7. Charles IV. of Bohe- mia. 8. Winceflaus, King of Bohemia. 9. Frederic of Brunfwic. .10. Robert of Bava- ria. 11. Jocelin of Moravia: and, 12. Si- gifmond, fon of the .Emperor Charles IV. King of Hungary, who died in - - 1437 2. Under thirteen.Emperors chofe by eleéctors from the houfe of Auftria; to wit, 1. Albert IL. 2. Frederic IV. 3. Maximilian I. 4, Charles V. 5. Ferdinand I... 6. Maximilian Il. 7. Rodolph II. 8. Matthias. 9, Fer- _dinand II. 10. Ferdinand Il. 11. Leopold. 12+ Jofeph: and, 13- Charles VI..who died in 1740 3. Under, the Emperor Charles VII. Elector of Bavaria, who died in | 7 1744. 4. Under the Emperor Francis I, Duke of Lorrain, and Grand Duke of Tufcany, who died in 1765 IV. JI, The empire of the Eaft, poffeffed by the Sultans, or Turkifp Emperors, , or the Ot- _toman Porte. ‘This hiftory divides itfelf natu- rally into two parts, In the firft we are. to in- veltigate the origin of the Turks or Ottomans; _ _ and the fate of that people till the time of Ma- homet II- who took Conftantinople,. and. there fixed the feat of his dominion. In the fe- — cond we are to bring the hiftory of the Ottoman 2 i empire, Movern History. 161 2 empire, from Mahomet If. down to. the prefent time, In the firft part we thall fee, that.. she Arabs or Saracens, who were a people defcended from Ifhmael the fon of Abraham and-_of Hagar, inhabited the country which is calledArabia, from the word Araba,. which fignifies. folitude.. Thefe Arabs are alfo fometimes called Ifmmael- ites, fometimes Agarenians, and fometimes Sar- razins, from the word Saraz, which fignifies to, fteal; becaufe this people traverfed: the country in order to rob on the highways, . In 571 the falfe prophet Mahomet was born among-them, and taught them a new religion, which théy fol- lowed, as we fhall fee in the néxXt: chapter, Mahomet, who was at once a prophet, a legifla- tor, and a conqueror, made himfelf fovereign of the Saracens or Arabs. The fuccefiors of Mahomet bore the title of Caliph$. About a hundred years after the death of Mahomet, a people of Scythia, . named Turks, came by. the Cafpian Sea, paft Mount Caucafus, and. efta- blifhed themfelves in that country, which is now called Georgia, Turcomania and Diarbeck, The Saracens at firft waged war with .thefe. new comers; but about the middle of the eighth century they made peace, and incorporated with them, on condition that the Turks fhould em- brace the Mahometan religion, and join. with them in fighting againft the Chriftians, who were come to moleft them, even in Afia, The word Turk fignifies a fhepherd of peafant, It has ef- faced Fise UniaverrsAr Ervopittow faced that of Saracen and Arab. Thefe two people therefore united, formed only one nation; and gave themfelves the title of Muffulmans, or true believers‘ The Caliphs, fucceffors of Ma- homet, extended their dominions on every fide- 1, Ottoman, whofe origi and time of birth is uncertain, made himfelf mafter of the power and territories of all thé other Caliphs and Sol- dans who then reigned in the Eaft: he laid the foundation of that empire, which is called Og- toman, from his hame, and took the title of Sul- tan. This happened in the year 1303. His fucceffors were, z. Orchan: 3. Amurath: 4. Bajazet: 5. Izazebel : 6. Solyman : 7. Mofes: 8. Mahomet: 9g. Amurath II. 16. and laftly, Mahomet IE. | ' V. In the fecond part of the hiftory of the Ottoman empire, we fee Mahomet IT. overthrow the empire of the Greeks in the Eaft, make hime felf mafter of Conftantinople, and there eftablith the feat of his monarchy, and take to. himfelf the title of Emperor and Grand Seignior. . This great event happened on the 29th of May, in the year 1453. The fucceffors of Mahomet II. were, 1. Bajazet II. 2. Selim: 3. Solyman If 4. Se- lim I. 5. Amurath HIT. 6. Mahomet III. 9 Achmet : 8. Muftapha: 9. Ofman: 10 Amu- rath IV. 11. Ibrahim : i2, Mahomet IV. 13. Solyman III. 14. Achmet II. 15. Maftapha IT. 16. Achmet III, 17. Maftapha III. which makes in all, from the firft period to Mahomet II. ten Sul- Movern History. 153 Sultans : and in the fecond period, from Maho- met IJ. to our days, feventeen emperors or Grand Seigniors. VI. After having thus brought down the hifto- ty of the two grand empires of the Eaft and Welt, to our own days, we may ftudy to advan- tage the hiftory of all other empires, kingdoms, republics, and modern ftates, by following the geographic order in which they prefent them- felves to us in the map of Europe; beginning with the weft, and advancing toward the eaft, till we come to Afia, Africa, and even to America, that we may learn the hiftories of the people who at this day inhabit thofe parts of the world. And in this manner we begin with learning, VII. IZ. The biftory of Portugal; which is divided into the following epochs: 1. The ori- gin of the Luficanians ; the defcription of an- cient Lufitania, and of its inhabitants. 2. The firft part of the hiftory of the Lufitanians, to the year of Rome 607. 3. Their itate and conduc under the Roman government, from the year of Rome 607 to the year of Jeius Chrift 395. 4. The manner in which that country was invaded ° by the northern barbarians ; and what paffed to the year of Jefus Chrift $00. 5. The fate of Lufitania during modern times, to the year 1075, 6. The government of the Moors in Portugal, 7. The erection of Portugal into a county ; and the reigns of Henry and Alphonfo Henriquez, 8. The erection of Portugal into a kingdem; and 154 Universat Eruption. and the reigns of Alphonfo I. called Henriquez, SanchoI. and Alphonfo II. 9. The reigns of Sancho II. called Capel, Alphonfo III. Dennis, Alphonfo IV.. Don Pedro, and_ Ferdinand, .to the year 1383. 10. The interregnum. 11. The reigns of Don John I, Edward, Alphonfo V. Don John JI. Emanuel, called the Great, Don John III. Sebaftian, and Cardinal Henry, to the year 1580. 12. The reign of Philip II. King of Spain, who became King of Portugal. 13. The affairs of the Indies under the three laft Kings, Sebaftian, Henry, and Philip II. to the year 1640. .14. The reign of Philip IV.. and the revolution in favour of the Duke of Bragan- za, who was proclaimed King by the name of Don JohnIV. 15. The confequence of this re- volution, and the wars of the Portugueze againf{t Spain, to the year 1656, . 16. The reign of Al- phonfo VI. and the further confequenee of the wars againft Spain ; the depofition of this Prince, and the advancement of Don Pedro his brother to the crown of Portugal ; the reign of John V. and laftly, the reign of JofephI. the prefent King of Portugal. VU. VI. The hiftory of Spain, which contains the following epochs. 1. The ancient hiftory of Spain, in part ob- fcure and fabulous, from Japhet and Tubal to the eighth century after the birth of Chrift, when the Saracens penetrated into Spain. This pe- riod Movrrn History. 155 riod includes about 2862 years, and is divided into three memorable epochs; which are, | That which pafied in Spain before the Ro- mans : That which was under the Romans: and The fate of Spain after the Romans. 2. The middle hiftory of Spain; which con- tains what paffed from the invafion of. the Sa- _ Facens and the Moors, to the time of their en- tire expulfion : a period that comprehends about 779 years; and during which many Barbarian and Chriftian Kings reigned over divers pro- vinces of Spain ; and who formed the kingdoms of Caftile, Leon, Navarre, Arragon, and Portu- gal, befide that of the Saracens ; and this comes down to the year of Jefus Chrift 1474. 3. The modern hiftory of Spain; which be- gins with the-reign of Ferdinand the Catholic, who united under his {ceptre all the kingdoms, provinces and colonies belonging to Spain, and formed of them one powerful monarchy. This laft period, which includes 291 years, to the year 1765, contains the remarkable reigns of, ». Ferdinand V. called the Catholic: 2. The fix Kings of the houfe of Auftria; to wit, Philip I. . called the Fair, fon of the Emperor Maximilian I. 3. Charles V,. Emperor: 4. Philip I. 5. Phi- lip II. . 6. Philip IV. 7. Charles IL. and three Kings of the -houfe of France’; that is, 8. Phi- ip V. g. Ferdinand VII. and 10, Charles III. In this laft period due attention alfo fhould be had 56 Universat ErubDiTiox. had to the manner in which feveral provinces of Africa, in Italy and the Low Countries, &c. have been united to the Spanifh monarchy : and likewife the manner in which America was dif- covered, and reduced, under the reigns of three Spanith Kings ; and many other very remark- able events. IX. V. The biftory of France. Thofe hiftorians who fuppofe with M. Mezerai, that the Romans firft gave the name of Gaul to that large tract of land which lies between theAlps, the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean Sea, the Ocean and the Rhine, feem to have lefs foundation for their opinion, than they who maintain that this extenfive and pleafant country was very populous in the firft ages of the world, as appears by the moft anci- ent monuments ; that thefe people had probably a name before the exiftence of the Romans, and that they called themfelves Galli; and, that be- Ing too numerous for their own country, they pafied the Alps at the beginning of the Roman republic, and occupied a part of Italy, which was called Cifalpine Gaul; that they: extended their colonies even to Afia, where they inhabited a country called Galatia, which is the name the - Greeks. gave to Gaul; and that other detach- ments of this nation advanced into Germany, beyond the Rhine. Be thefe matters however as they may, the hiftory of France may be di- vided into feveral periods; the principal of which are characterized by events that are im- . portant, Mopvern Hisrory. 157 portant, and proper to affift the mind of thofe who make ic their ftudy. X. The firft period comprehends the hiftory of ancient Gaul, to the time that Julius Ceefar finifhed the conqueft of that country, about forty-eight years before the birth of Canft. The fecond period contains the time that Gaul was under 'the dominion of the Romans, till the Francs entered that country, and there eftablifhed their refidence ; which includes about 400 years. The third period, which begins about the year of Jefus Chrift 412, contains the govern- ment of the Francs in Gaul; and goes only to the year 420, From that period the kingdom of France has been governed by kings that have fprung from grand houfes, which they call Ra- ces; and of which there are five that form fo many diftinét and confpicuous divifions in the hiftory of this illuftrious monarchy, The fourth period, therefore, contains the hiftory.of France, under twelve Kings of the Me- rovingian race, from Pharamond the firft King; that is, from the year 420 to 752; when Chil- deric III. after the death of Charles Martel, was depofed by the States, and Pepin eleéted in his ftead. This period comprehends ‘332 years, The firft period makes part of ancient hiftory ; the fecond, third, and fourth belong to the mid- die age; the fifth, and all that follow, appertain to modern hiftory. | The —s i A tt 58 Universant ErvupDiITIon., The fifth period contains the hiftory of thir- teen Kings of the Carolovinian race, from Pepin. the Short to Lewis V. called the Drone; that is, from the year 752 to 987: making 235 years, The fixth period includes the reigns of fourteen Kings of the Capetian race, from Hugh Capet to Charles IV. called the Fair ; that is, from 987 to 1328: being 341 years, ‘The feventh period contains the reign of twelve Kings of the Valefian race, or of the houfe of Valois; from Philip VI. of Valois to Henry III. that is, from the year 1328 to 1589: including 261 years. The eighth period. contains the reigns of four Kings, of the race or houfe of Bourbon, from Henry IV. called the Great to Lewis XV. named the Well-beloved ; that is, from the year 1592 to the prefent year 1765 : comprehending 163 years. XI. After having acquired a fufficient know- ledge of the kingdom of France, it is proper to be acquainted, with, VI. The biftory. of the Kings of Bourgogne, as it is not only intimately connected with that of France, but alfo throws great light on thofe of Germany, Spain, the Low Countries, &c. And here we muft carefully diftinguifh, (1.) the . Kings of the firft kingdom of Bourgogne, and retaeeaioer that when the Vandals, Suavians, and Alains, quitting Germany, pafied theRhine, and, entered oer ea MopERN History. 159 entered Gaul, the Bourgognians, being amon eft them, fixed themfelves near the Rhine, ni founded a kingdom that lafted 128 years ; that is, from the year 406 to 534. Their govern- ment comprehended, toward the clofe of it, the Dutchy of Bourgogne, Franch County, Dauphi- ny, and Sayoy; under five Kings, named, 1. Gondicair: 2. Gonderic and Chilperic, who were brothers: 3. Gondebaut, Godegifel, Chil- peric, and Gondemer ; likewife brothers 4. ‘Si- gifmond’; and, 5. Gondemer, who, was deprived of his kingdom by the fucceffors of Clodomire King of France ; and his dominions united to thofe of that kingdom. (2.) The Kings of Bour- gogneTransjurane: ‘and we muft here remember, ‘that about the year 888, after the depofition of the Emperor Charles the Grofs, Raoul or Ro- dolph, fon of the younger Conrad, and grand- fon of Hugh, poffeffed the country between Mount Jou and the Alps; that is to fay, as A and Switzerland; and was. crowned King. of BourgogneTransjurane at St. Maurice in Valois. This kingdom lafted 145 years, under four Kings: who were, 1. Raoul : 2. Raoul Il. 3. Conrad: and, 4. Raoul III, called the Drone. Conrad had united to his kingdom that of Arles; and Raoul III. having no family, left dll his rich pofleffions to Conrod Il. called the) Salic : fo that after his death this kingdom palfed to the Emperors, who fucceeded Conrad, and.made a part of the Germanic empire. (3.) The Kings of Arles or Provence. Lewis the Stammerer, King 160 UNniversabt EruDITION. King of France, dying, and leaving only princes that were quite young, Bofon, brother to Queen Richilde, wife of Charles the Bald, founded the kingdom of Arles (regnum Arelatenfe) and of which he made himfelt King. This kingdom was furrounded by the Soana, the Rhone, and the Alps. It cannot be properly faid to have exifted more than 53 years; and had only two Kings, which were, Bofon, who was crowned at Vienna by the Archbifhop of Lions ;, and, 2. Lewis, fon of Bofon, whom Berenger took pri- foner in Veronne, and whofe eyes he put out. Lewis the Blind reigned, notwithftanding, forty- three years, and left a fon named Charles Con- ftantine. But as he was too young to reign, the Provencals elected Hugh King of Italy, to be King of Arles. There were great conten- tions between this Hugh and Raoul Il. King of Bourgogne : but by the interpofition of friends they were reconciled. Raoul renounced his pre- tenfions to the kingdom of Italy ; and Hugh, in return, ceded to him all he poffeffed in Brefie, Viennois and Provence, and even the title of King of Arles; which kingdom was therefore united to that of Bourgogne Tranf- jurane. Be XII. And here we fhould alfo ftudy, VII. The biftory of the Dukes of Lorrain, the Dukes of Normandy, Princes of Orange, &c. but we muft content ourfelves with the bare mention of thefe, without making their analyfis, that aa Movern HisTory:. rey that we may not extend this chapter beyond its due bounds. We therefore pafs directly to, XILI. VII. The Hiftory of Switzerland, or the Thirteen Cantons. The people that are now cal- led Swifs, were anciently called Helvetians. A- bout fiftyfix years before the birth of Chrift, they made an invafion upon Gaul; but the Gauls calling the Romans to their affiftance, thefe not only drove out the Helvetians, but brought them alfo entirely under the dominion of the fe- nate dnd people of Rome. The capital of their country was called Aventicum, a {mall town that is now called Wifflisburg. The moft remark- able periods in the hiftory of the Swifs, befide the aforementioned epoch, are, 1. The time the Helvetians were in fubjection _ to the Romans. . 2. The time that the greateft part of Switzer- land paffed under the power of the ancient Kings of Bourgogne (fee fect. XI). 3. The time when, after the extinction of the kings of Bourgogne, Switzerland became a pro- vince of France. 4. The time when Switzerland was annexed to the kingdom of Lothair (regnum Lotharingia, or Lorrain). 5. The time when it made a province of the the empire of Germany, after the diffolution of the kingdom of Lorrain. ‘6. The time when it made a part of the king- dom of Arles. Vor. III. L, 7. The 162 Univrersat Ernvupition. 4, The time when it fell under the power of the emperors of Germany. 8. The time when Switzerland threw off the yoke, or when the Cantons affociated, and formed a free republic. - g. The time that has paffed fince that affo- ciation, under the government of the thirteen free Cantons, down to the prefent day. To which may be added, * ro, The hiftory of the country of the Gri- fons, and ' a1. The hiftory of the countries affociated with the Helvetic republic :- and laftly, -12. The hiftory of the city and republic of Geneva, ' KIV. IX. The Hiftory of Italy, fince the time of Charlemagne, that is, from the begin- ning of the ninth century to the prefent time. In this general hiftory of Italy we have to re-. gard, in particular, 1. The hiftory of the Popes, confidered as fecular Princes and temporal Sovereigns. 2. That of the kingdom of Sardinia. 3. That of the kingdom of Naples. 4. That of the kingdom of Sicily. 5. That of the kingdom of Corfica. 6. The hiftory of the Grand Dutchy of Tuf- cany, or Florence. 7, The hiftories of the eight moft confider- ble dutchies and principalities ; which are, a The - -MonErn History. 163 a The dutchy of Savoy, and the county of Piedmont. b The dutchy of Milan. c That of Montferrat. da That of Mantua. e That of Parma and Placentia, f That of Modena. g That of Mirandola. r 4 That of Monaco. 8. The hiftory of the ifland of Malta and of the religion, or order; of the Knights of St, John of Jerufalem. g. The hiftory of the republic of Venice. 10. That of the republic of Genoa. 11. That of the republic of Lucca. And 12. The hiftory of the republic of St. Marino, To which may be alfo added, 13. The hiftory of the ifland of Cyprus, which had once its proper Kings, but has fince ’ paffed under the dominion. of the Ottoman em- pire. It would require an entire volume fully to. explain all the principal periods and epochs of the particular hiftories of each of thefe go- vernments. But, as on one hand the hiftory of Italy is intimately connected with thofe of all the principal modern monarchies; and as,on the other, there are many excellent hiftories of this country, we muft refer our readers to them, as they can only expect here to find general in- ftructions for the guidance of their ftudies in thefe matters, L 2 XV. X. The 164 Universar Eritpnirion. XV. X. Lhe Hiftory of Great Britain, or of the kingdoms of England and Scotland, and the hiftory of Ireland. ‘Fhe hiftory of England is, like moft others, eafily divifible into three pe- riods, which comprehend, 1. The ancient hiftory of England, whofe ori- ginal name was Albion, fo called from the white chalky mountains with which the coafts of that ifland are furrounded. The hiftorians begin this period with a king named Brutus, the fon of ffineas Sylvius, king of the Latins, and grand- fon*of Afcanius, the fon of Aineas the Trojan. They pretend that he began to reign in Albion in the year of the world 2828. This period continued to the year 3895, and confequently till within about a century of the Chriftian era. This is a period of obfcure and fabulous con- jectures, when England was governed by kings _ that may be called Aborigines, or originally of the country, of which, however, they pretend to have a regular chronological lift. 2. The hiftory of the middle age of England. The Romans invaded England, under the con- duct of Julius Czar; and though it appears they were but badly received, yet it is certain that the fucceeding kings of this country paid an | annual tribute to the Romans, and were obliged to fuffer their prefect to refide there. This go- vernment lafted 503 years, under a long fuccef- . fion of kings who were natives of the country, and of whom Arthur, one of the laft, was the moft famous. In the fifth century the Saxons . and Mopvern History. 165 and Angles made a defcent in England, and there eftablithed feven fmall kingdoms; this govern- ment was diftinguifhed by the name of the Hep- tarchy ; and lafted 369 years, and the domi- nion of the Saxons in England continued in all 564 years. 3. The modern hiftory of England. Soon after the death of Charlemaene, chat is, in the year 801, the feven Saxon kingdoms in Eng- land were united in one, under Egbert, king of the Weft Saxons, who fubcued all the others, and reigned alone in that country. He and his fucceffors were greatly molefted by the Danes, who alfo made a defcent in this ifland, com- mitted hoftilities, and endeavoured to eftablifh themfelves there; and which at laft they effe&ed, in the year 1017, when Canute the Great, king — of Denmark and Norway, was alfo crowned king pf England. This Danith epoch continued only 50 years, for in the year 1066, William I. called the Conqueror, duke of Normandy, landed on the Englifh coaft, drove out the Danes, and caufed himfelf to be crowned king of Eneland. From that time England has been governed by, | "Three kings of the houfe of the dukes of Nor- mandy, from William the Conqueror to Henry I. during 70 years, and to the year 1136. One king of the houte of Blois, named Ssephen, who reigned 19 years. Fourteen kings of the houfe of Anjou, from Hen- ry Il. duke of Anjou, ead and Aquitain, ta - 166 UNrversat EruDiITIon. to Richard III. during 331 years, down to 1485. Three kings defcended from the earls of Rich- mond, from Henry VII.to Edward V1. during 68 years, and to the year 1553. Two queens, Mary and Elizabeth, during 50 years, to 1603. - Fourkings of the houfe of Stewart of Scotland, James I. Charles I. who was beheaded, Charles IT. ,and James II. who, with the Protector Cromwell, reigned, during 85 years, to the year 1688. One prince of Orange and Naffau, William IIL. crowned king of England in 1689, and died in 1702. One queen, Ann, daughter of James II. and wife of George prince of Denmark. She died in 1714. Three kings of the houfe of Hanover, George. George II. and George III. during 51 years, to the prefent time. XVI. The Hiftory of Scotland. ‘The hiftorians of this country, after relating fome conjectures concerning the origin, and firft ages of the Scotch, begin their hiftory with Fergus, king of Treland, whom the Scoti called from thence, and appointed their king; being no longer able to bear the horrid invafions of the Picts. Fifty- eight kings reigned after him in Scotland, dur- ing 959 years: that is to fay, from the year 411 to 1370. The laft of thefe kings was David II. who died without iffue. Robert II. fon of Wal- ter -Moverwn History. 169 ter Stewart, great ftewart of Scotland, and of Mary, daughter of king Robert Bruce, fucceeded his uncle, and reigned twenty years. He had eleven fucceffors of his own family ; and thefe twelve kings of the houfe of Stewart bring the Scotch hiftory down to 1603, when James VI. (and the Firft of England) fucceeded Elizabeth queen of England, and united the two kingdoms which compofe Great Britain. The Hiftory of Ireland. If we are to believe the Irifh hiftorians, there were kings of this country more than 1500 years before the birth of Chrift, and they mention one of them, named Slanius, who reigned in the year of the world 2448. They fay alfo, that this country was divided into five governments, each of which had a king; and that, over thefe: five kings, there was one who was fupreme, and bore the title of King of Kings.. There is, however, very little appearance of truth in the Irifh, hiftory, till about the year of Chrift 420, when a prince named Loegarius reigned in Ireland. Hiftory fays that his wife and children embraced. Chrif- tianity, but that he himfelf remained in his infi- delity, and that he was killed by a clap of thun- der, after having reigned go years. This king had forty-feven fuccefiors, who, with him, filled the throne of Ireland for 732 years; that is, to the year 1162, when this kingdom paffed under the dominion of the Englifh. The forty-eighth and laft king of Ireland was named Roderic. Henry VIII, was the firft Englifh monarch who took ; 368 Uwniversart ErvpirTIon. took the title of king of Ireland, by virtue of an act of the parliament of Dublin. XVII. XI. The Hiftory of thé Low Countries, and, in particular, that of the Seven United Pro- vinces, containing, 4 Duchies: Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Guelders. | 7 Counties: Flanders, Artois, Hainault Hol- land, Zealand, Namur, and Zutphen. 5 Principalities, or feigniories: Friezland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyfflel, and Groe- ningen. 1 Margraviate; that of Antwerp ; which, to- gether, form the 17 United Provinces, that are called the Low > Countries. In the time of the Romans, the Rhine traced the limits between Gaul and Ger- many. That part of the Low Countries which is on the weft borders of the Rhine, was ‘mamed Gallia Belgica, Belgic Gaul; and that fituate on the eaft belonged to Germany, and was called Batavia. In the fifth century, when the Franks paffed into Gaul, the Low Countries remained annexed to France, under the Mero- vingian kings. In the partition which the Carlovinian emperor, Lewis le Debonnair, made of his dominions, the greateft part of the Low | Countries falling to Lothair, made a confiderable part of the kingdom of Lorrain; and that king- dom being diflolved, the feventeen provinces | aboveés Movern Hrsrory. 169 abovementioned were fucceffively formed. Their governors acquired great power, and at the time of the invafion of the Normans, they made themfelves independent. This hiftory therefore contains three periods. In the firft, inquiry is to be made into the origin of each dutchy, county and feigniory, till the time of their union in the fifteenth century. In the fe- cond, the union itfelf is to be explained, and the - manner fhown in which they fell under the power, (1.) of the kings of Bourgogne, (2.) of the houfe of Auftria, and (3.) under the domi- nion of Spain, till the year 1564. And in the third period, it is to be explained in what man- ner the feven previnces of Guelderland, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friezland, Overy ffel and Groe- ningen, united themfelves, in order to throw off the Spainifh yoke, and under the condu& « of the prince of Orange and Naffau, came to be declared by Spain free provinces. Laftly, is to feen the ftate of this powerful Republic down to the prefent day; together with the important eftablifhments which it has formed in the three other parts of the world, but efpecially in Afia, The hiftories of the counts of Flanders, the counts of Holland, &c. that of the princes of Orange of the houfe of Naffau, are alfo intimately con- neéted with that of the Low Countries. XVIII. XII. The Hiftory of Germany. This hiftory likewife divides itfelf into three periods, which form, the Ancient Hiftory, chat of the Middle 170 Universat Ervpirion.. Middle Age, and that of Modern Germany. The firft period comprehends the origin of the Germans, .whom they fuppofe to be defcended from Tuifcon, or Teuthon, otherwife called Af canes, the fon of Gomer, the grandfon of Japhet, and great grandfon of Noah.’ This chief, they - fay, began his reign in the year of . the world 1812. It feems likely enough that thefe people took their German name Teutfche from Theuton, and that of Germans, or Germani, appears to be derived from the old German word Gerr, that is, war, and from the word Man, by which they were diftinguifhed as men addicted to war. Their name of Allemands came doubtlefs from Allemannus Hercules, prince of Suabia, who reigned they fay about the year of the wofld 2399. It is eafy to conceive that all this ancient hiftory muft be obfcure, uncertain and fabulous. The people who inhabited thefe countries ,.knew not the ufe of letters: they tranfmitted to their pofterity the memorable actions of their founders and of the heroes of their country, by hymns and fongs. Inthe Greek hiftorians, thefe na- tions are always confounded under the name of Scythians, Celts, &c. and it is impoflible to diftinguifh them. The firft knowledge we have of them muft therefore be from the Romans, who. thought them worth the trouble of con- quering, and had connexions with them: and confequently all that we can learn of them muft be drawn from Strabo, Ptolemy, Czefar and Taci- Hs : and thefe authors did not even underftand | the —— “Movern History. 17% the language in which thofe hiftoric hymns were fung. It appears by thefe writers that the an- cient Germans were mere barbarians. Among that dark ignorance and that ferocity with which they were furrounded, there were however to be feen fome fparks of virtue, valour, art and know- ledge. Tacitus fays, for example, that they were much addicted to drinking; and this im- plies that they had the art of making wine, of fome other ftrong liquor: that author, indeed, exprefly fays, that they brewed beer (cerevifia). He fays alfo, that they trafficked with the Ro- mans, and fold them, among other things, am- ber,- which they gathered on the borders of the Baltic Sea; and named Glefe. All this fuppofes fome exertion of induftry. This firft period comes down to the birth of Chrift. XIX. The middle age comprehends the re- volutions in Germany from-the commencement of the Chriftian era to the time of Charlemagne, including eight centuries. It is in this fecond period that we find, (1.) The accounts of the wars that the Germans fuftained againft the Ro- mans, who were never able completely to fub- due them. (2.) The particular enumeration of the different nations that then inhabited Ger- many. (3.) The progrefs of each of thefe peo- ple; their ftate during the decline of the Roman empire, and the manner in which each of them infenfibly recovered their liberty, It is a matter well worthy of remark, that during all the mid- dle 72 6 Universat ErupitTion. dle age, the Germans remained ignorant of the artof writing, and that Charlemagne was the firft who taught them the ufe of letters. All there- fore that has been wrote of the hiftory of the Germans during the middle age, was either by foreigners, or by monks, and others equally ig- norant, after the eight century. It is fuficiently manifeft what regard ought to be paid to thefe. The greateft inconvenience is, that we cannot form a juft and diftinct idea of the ftate of the German nations before Charlemagne. That they had chiefs is certain, but the fame chief of a nation is fometimes named rex, and fometimes dux, princeps, margravio, or comes, and fome- times {till different from any of thefe. All the Scriptores rerum Germanicarum of the middle age, are but fo many troubled and confufed fources: the bufinefs here, however, is to know what has been wrote, rather than what has really happened. XX. The modern hiftory of Germany begins with Charlemagne, and comes down to Francis I. that is to fay, down to the prefent time. The hiftory of thefe emperors being already included in that of the empire, it only remains in the third period of the hiftory of Germany, to con- fider, (1.) The particular hiftory of the twelve grand fovereign houfes of Germany, which are thofe of Auftria, Brandenburg, Bavaria, Baden, Brunfwick, Anhalt, Hefle, Holftein, Mecklen- burg, Naffau, Saxony” and Wirtemberg. (2.) That Movern History. 173 That of the {tates and countries which thefe houfes pofiefled. (3.) That of the archbifhopricks, bi- fhopricks, abbies, military orders, &c. (4.) That of the free cities and thofe that hold immediately of the empire, &c. To which may be added divers hiftorical matters, as (5.) an inquiry into the origin of electors, and in what manner the chiefs of divers Germanic nations recovered their — liberty by the right of poftliminy, after the ex- tinction of the Carolovinian houfe. (6.) The particular hiftory of the Anfeatic league. (7.) That of the war of thirty years; and numberlefs other particulars which relate to the Modern Hiftory of Germany. The hiftory of the houfe of Auftria, and that of Brandenburg, merit a more particular ftudy; becaufe the heads of thefe auguit houfes are at this day elevated to the firft rank among the fovereigns of Europe. XXI. XIII. The Hiftory of the Kings of Bobe- mia. This country, fituate on the borders of the Elbe, was anciently inhabited by the Sclavi, whom they named Behemanns or Behaims, for it is not more than 200 years fince they called Bohemia, Behaigna. It was originally governed by dukes, the firftt of whom, named Zicco, conducted, with his brother Lecho, in the year 550, a powerful colony into this country, uninhabited, and almoft covered with forefts. From his time there have been twenty-two dukes in Bohemia, the courfe of 536 years, down to the year 1086, The laft of thefe dukes was named Uladiflaus IE. ‘ fix 74 Universar Ervupbitron fix years before whofe.death Bohemia was ho- noured with the title of a kingdom by Henry IV. and Uladiflaus reigned in. quality of king. There were twenty kings his fucceffors to the year 1307, when Henry duke of Carinthia, and king of Bo- hemia, was depofed. ,From that time feventeen kings and one queen of the houfe of Luxemburg and that of Auftria, have reigned in Bohemia; the firft of whom was John of Luxemburg, fon of the emperor Henry VII. At this time Bo- hemia makes part of the hereditary eftates of the houfe of Auftria. XXII. XIV. The Hiftory of the Kings of Hun- gary. That country which is now named Hun- gary, was formerly called Pannonia. The Huns, a Gothic people, eftablifhed themfelves there, and gave the country their name, Attila made his city the capital of Sicambia, and gave it the name of Buda, which was that of shis brother. The. Huns gave themfelves very little trouble about writing their hiftory. We know that there were at firft dukes in Hungary, and that in the year 1000, it was erected into a kingdom in fa- your of Stephen, called the Saint, That king _ had fixty-fix fucceffors, down to the prefent day ; and Hungary alfo makes part of the hereditary dominions of the auguft houfe of Auftria. XX. XV. The Hiftory of Poland. This country was anciently named Sarmatia, and its inhabitants Sarmates, We have only aconfufed account, te Ne Ll ee f , s ? Mopverrn History. 175 account, that this country was originally govern- ed by dukes or princes, of whom there were twelve fromCraco and his brother Lechus I. during 450. years: that is, from the year of Chrift 550, to 999: that on the laft named year Poland was erected into a kingdom by the emperor Otho III. that it had afterwards four Polifh kings who reigned during eighty-two years: that the laft of thefe kings, Boleflaus II. ' called the Cruel, occafioned this country, by his bad conduét, to lofe the title of kingdom ;. and that it was governed from, 1081 to .1370,.by . twelve princes, among whom was the renowned Piaft: that in the year 1370 it refumed the _ rank ofa kingdom,; and that it has finc® had eighteen elective kings, who have been chofen as well from foreign houfes, as from the Piafts, or original families of the country: that the firft of thete elective kings was Lewis king of Hun- gary, and the laft Auguftus II. elector of Sax- ony ; and that this prince dying in the year 1763, the ftates of Poland have placed on the throne Staniflaus Hl. of the family of Poniatowfky, a prince in every fenfe worthy to wear that crown, The Hiftory of Lithuania is comprehended under that of Poland. The hiftory of Pruffa is like- wife included, in part, under that of Poland, in part under thofe of the orders of the Teutonic knights, and the knights Templars, and in part under that of ‘the houfe of Brandenburg. The hiftory of Finland, Livonia, Eftheria and Courlend; is 776 Universart ErvupitTion, is comprifed under thofe of Sweden, Ruffia and Poland. XXIV. XVI. The Hiftory of the kingdom of Denmark. \f we regard what is faid, and ftill more, what they have not fcrupled to write, we muft begin this hiftory with Gomer II. great- ‘grandfon of Japhet, who was the firft that in- habited Cimbrica Cherfonefus, or Cimbria, 1800 years after the creation of the world, 193 years after the deluge, and 2098 before Chrift. This country, they fay, was governed, at firft, by eleven fucceflive judges, the firft of whom was .cotemporary with Abraham: that in the year of the world 2910, and 1058 before Chrift, Dan founded the kingdom of Denmark, and called it after his name: that it had twenty-fix Kings, all of whofe names they know, and their principal actions, to the time of Dan III. who- began to reign 141 years before the common era: that 110 years before this epoch, there was a great migration of the Cimbri and Teutoni, who penetrated into Italy ; but were there al- moft entirely extirpated by the Romans; and at this time it: is that the ancient hiftory of Den- mark ends, that is, about feventy-four years be- fore the birth of Chrift. That of the middle age begins with Fridlef 1. furnamed the expedi= tious, who was the twenty-feventh king; and continues till Sigefroi, whofe reign began about the year 760, and ended with the eighth cen- tury. This age comprehends a fucceffion of — thirty-. ever. we EE —— se MopeRrn History, 179 _ @hirty one kings. But they whofe defign it is to * Jknow what hins really happened, will give but little credit to all.thefe relations, as they will not believe it poflible that a nation, which knew not the ufe.of letters tilla long time after the reign of Charlemagne, fheuld be able to trace their origin'to the time of the deluge; or that they could, by any monuments whatever, be able to deduce their hiftory from that period, without interruption, down to modern times, that is to the ninth century: they will therefore be per- fuaded that ali thofe ancient hiftories-and chro- nicles, in verfe and profe, on which their autho- rities are founded, are nothing more than a mafs. of fables, written by impoftors and. vifionaries two or three thoufend years after the facts are fuppofed to have happened, and confequently that they knew no more of the matter than we do, Without making any further inquiry therefore into thele relations, we fhall fay, ‘that the modern hiftory of Denmark, which begins about the year 800 with Goteric, Godfrey, or Gotilae,.is more clear and lefs uncertain. It in- cludes the reigns of fifty-five kings, during 965 years, that is, from the year 8or tothe prefent time. So that the hiftorians count.one hundred and thirteen kings who have reigned in Denmark, from Dan I, to Frederic 'V. who now fo worthily fills that throne. The; introduction of Chrifti- anity into Denmark, under Eric I. and the fixty- feventh king, about the year 850, falls in this Jaft age, which alfo abounds with .rematkable Vor. III. M events. 18 Universat Erupitiow events. The hiftory of Norway is included in that of Denmark; as are thofe of the iflands of Iceland and of Greenland, if any fuch there are. XXV. XVID. The Hiftory of Sweden. The ancient hiftory of this kingdom is altogether as fabulous as that of Denmark. All its firft ac- counts confift of relations, fongs and legends,’ of the allegoric traditions of ancient priefts or poets, On thefe authorities they fuppofe that Magog, the fon of Japhet, and grandfon of Noah; was the origin from whom defcended the Scy- thians andGoths. Magog left five fons. From one of them, named Suenon, they fay the Swedes are defcended: from Gog or Gethar, they fuppofe the Goths or Gete derive their original. ‘Ubbon fuc- ceeded his brother Suenon, and built, they fay, the city of Upfal. They here make a fucceffion of twenty-five fabulous kings, from Magog to Both- avill, and which comes down to the birth of Chrift. The middle age begins with the reign of Alaric, and after him of Eric II. and continues to Ingo Il. or Ingel, and lafts about 800 years ; including the reigns of thirty-five kings, whofe hiftory is fcarce more certain than that of the former. ‘The modern hiftory begins with the Risk Charles and Biorn. About the year 831, the em- peror Lewis the Debonnair fent Anfgairus, ‘bi- fhop of Bremen and Hamburgh, into Sweden, © to preach the gofpel, and Chriftianity was re- ceived Movoderwn History. 79. atived ‘into that-kingdom. From Charles to Suercher If. that is, to the year 1ts40, there Were twenty-two other kings who reigned in Swe- den, during a fpace of 302 years: and from Eric IX. called the Saint, who fucceeded Suer- cher II. there is 4 {ucceffion of forty kings, who have filled the Swedith throne, down to the pre- fent day, during 615,years: This long feries of i22 kings is very glorioufly terminated by the feigning monarch Frederic Adolphus, a prince of the houfe of Holftein: The hiftory of Lap- Jand, as far as any hiftory can be found of that country, is entirely included in that of Sweden. XXXVI. XVIII. The Hiftry of Rufia. AN that we cian fay of the ancient hiftory of Ruffia is; that this country was thé hive from whence that innumerable fwarm of people iffued; which overs tan all Europe; and patt of Afia and Africa. It would be a vain and frivolous enterprife to endeavour to inveftigate either the ancient hif- tory, or that of the middle age; of this immenfe country, as no written accounts of them havé come to out knowledge. The foundation of this vaft and formidable empire, which was civilized by the labours of Peter the Great, and of thofe princeffes who have borne the fceptre after him, and who at this day make fo confpicuous a figure on the theatre of the world, *vas not laid ull the ninth century of the Chriftian era. The fame origin is ufually afcribed tothe inhabitants of this country as to thofe of Poland and Bohemia. M 2 The ae 180 UniversaL ERUDITION. The language called Sclavonian, which they al fpeak, but in different dialects, feems to confirm this conjecture. All the colonies of the great nation of Sarmatia took, in the fixth century, the name of Sclavi ; by which they meant to exprefs that they were purfuers of glory, for fuch is the import of that word in the Sclavonian language. That of Rufia, or Roffaia, implies a people that. are difperfed ; and this etymology is confirmed by Procopius, a Greek hiftorian of the fixth ‘century. The ftory of one Ruffus, the brother of Lexkhus and Czekhus, is an invention of modern writers among the iiynans or Dal- matians. Inthe years 861 and 862, the inhabitants of Ruffia chofe for their governors three Varegeam princes, Rurika, who firft fixed his refidence at Ladoga; Sineus, at Bielo Ofero, and Truvera at - Uborka. The two laft died without children in the fpace of two years, By that means Rurika became fole fovereign of Ruffia; and having. augmented the city of Novogrod, which had been lately built, he there eftablifhed his refi- dence. In 878, this great prince, Rurika, died, and left Igora, his fon, under the tutelage of Olegha, his uncle ; he governed Rufiia thirty- five years. When Igora came to age of matu- rity, he efpoufed a young maiden of 'Plefkow, named Olpha. This prince was maffacred by the Drevelians about the year 945, and Sueto- flava, his fon, reioned in his ftead, under the tu- telage of his mother Olpha, with whom he’ al- ways MopverRn HisToOrRy. uSr ways lived in harmony. This princefs embraced the Chriftian religion at Conftantinople, and was baptized by the name of Helena. Her fon, however, did not follow her example. Jarapolka reigned after.his father Suetoflava, from the year 972 to 988. His brother Vladimire, or Wolo- dimir, called Bafil, fucceeded him, .and embraced the Chriftian ‘religion according to the rites of the Greek church. From this point, the hiftory of Ruffia becomes more luminous.: for, with the doctrine of ‘Chriftianity, the ufe of writing was introduced among this people. From Wo- Jodimir or Bafil, to Bafil V.. during 546 years, that is, from 988 to 1534, we find a fucceffion of thirty-five fovereigns, who reigned in Rufiia under the title.of Great Dukes. John IV. or Iwan Bafilowitz, the fon and fuccefior of the laft Bafil, took the title of Tzar, or Czar, which his fucceffors have continued to bear, and which, in the Sclavonian.tongue, properly fignifies a king. He alfo joined :to his titles that of Povelitela and Samodertza, confervator or fovereign of all the Ruffias. Foreigners call this prince the Tyrant, ‘but the Ruffians name him the Severe. He had fix fucceffors, who contented themfelves with the title of czar, till the year 1613, when Michael Fedorowitz, of the haufe of Romanova, mounted the throne, and took.the title of czar, emperor, and autocrator (or fovereign confervator) of all the Ruffias. This title of emperor is no longer contefted with thefe powerful monarchs. From Michael Federowitz there were three emperors of i i Me i) 7 a r : ' 7 . iy 2 Univerrsart Ervupition. of Ruffia, Alexis his fon, Teodore or Theodore, and Ivan, or John V. to the year 1696, when Peter I, furnamed the Great, came to the throne : a monarch who made the moft aftonith- ing, and at the fame time the moft happy efforts, toward the civilizing of the Ruffian nation. This Buc man died in 1725; and the throne’ of uffia has been fince filled by Catherine, the widow of the emperor Peter ; by Peter II. his * grandfon ; by Ann, the daughter of John V. by John VI. grandfon of John V. by Elizabeth Pe- trowna, daughter of Peter the Great; by Peter III. grandfon of Peter, and lattly, by the auguift Catherine Il. now reigning, XXVIT. If the Coffacks, Calmacs, the inha- bitants of Siberia and the Ukraine, the Samoeids, hended under that of Ruffia. It will not be ex- pected that we fhould lofe ourfelves in thefé de- farts. We mutt here fay a few words, however, concerning the Tartars. Tartary i in Afia, which they call Great Tartary, is an immenfe country, that is as imperfectly known to geographers, as the fucceffion of its fovereigns is to hiftorians and chronologifts, It was. thefe ‘Tartars, how- | ever, that i in the year 1 280 made themfelves mat- ters of China ; and it was then that the family named Ivan began to reign there. There were nine Poriaian emperors "of that houfe, which lafted 89 years. In “4369 the Tartars were: drove out of China ; 5 but in 1645 they re-en- . tered, ee Moverw Hisrory. 183 eered, under the command of their cham, or king, Xun Chi, whom they named the Grand Kam; again fubdued the empire of China, and the family of that Tartar prince continues to reign there till thisday. Zitt/e artary compre- hends ai] that country which is between the Ta- nais and Boryfthenes. It is far from being:pre- cifely known what time the Tartars made’ them- felves mafters of this country, for the opinions of hiftorians differ widely concerning this matter. ‘That which appears the moft probable is, that the dukes of Lithuania having fubdyed the Far- tars, they fent princes of their nation to rale in this country. The laft of thefe princes was named Aczkirei, from whom came the race of Girei, and al] thofe pretended emperors who-have ned in Little Tartary fince the year 1452. About the middle of the fixteenth century, Se- lim, emperor of the Turks, fubdued Crim Tar- tary, and took the fortrefs of Cafa: and from that time the Kam of the Tartars has been cho- fen by the Ottoman Porte: fometimes: indeed they have fuffered the eldeft fon of the Kam to fucceed him, and at other times they have not. We have feen, moreover, a Kam called to Con- ftantinople to give account of his conduct, and fent into banifhment. We are the better pleated with this opportunity of mentioning the Tartars, as their hiftory leads us to make three reflec- tions. The firft is, that we cannot conceive from whence the illuftrious author of the Per- flan Letters could learn that the Tartars con- guered m4 Universact Ervupition. quered almoft the whole world. For if that were the cafe, it certainly was not fince that people who inhabit Great and Little Tartary have borne the name of Tartars. Perhaps he thereby means the Scythians or Celts, or tome other ancient and warlike people. The fecond obfervation is, that if modern hiftorians know - fo little of the revolutions and actions of a na= tion that is now exifting, and before our eyes, but who are ferocious, uncivilized, and have no writers among them, what. are we to think of the ancient hiftories of all nations, and efpecially thofe of the north, who, for thoufands of years, were in the fame circumftances, and: were.igno- rant of the ufe of characters, and the art of writ+ ing ? And laftly, that thofe philofophers deceive themfelves, who imagine that a nation becomes more formidable by being ignorant of arts and fciences. The example of the Tartars fufficiently proves the contrary, and fhows that a people may be numerous, brave and warlike, and’ yet not able to form themfelves into a body as’a nation, and ftill lefs able long to fupport themfelves, if they do not become civilized, and cultivate the arts and fciences. _The Goths and Vandals proved this truth formerly. What remains of thofe people are there now upon the earth? If any of them can be faid fill to exift, they are ~ become civilized ; for the children of the Goths and Vandals that were born among polifhed na- tions acquired the manners of thofe people from their infancy. | XXVIII. ,Moverw History. 185 . XXVIII. To render the ftudy of modern hit tory complete, we muft tranfport ourfelves into the other three parts of the world, and we live in an age when we can make thofe journies without - going out of our clofets. In Afia we have to confider, befide the empire of the Turks, which we have already mentioned, 1. The modern hiftory of Perfia.; _ : 2. The like hiftory of the Moguls, or empe- rors of Indoftan. 3. That of the kingdoms of Pegu, Ava, and Arracan, or of thofe countries which the ancients comprehended under the name of the Indies beyond the Ganges. 4. The hiftory of the kingdoms of Siam, Laos, and Tonquin. 5- That of the kingdom of Bengal, and its nabobs, 6. The modern hiftory of China. 7. The hiftory of Fapan. . $8. The hiftory of the kingdom of ava. _ g. That of Ceylon, formerly called Taprodane. 10. The hiftories of the other /arge iflands of the Indian and Oriental fea. XXIX. In Africa, we have alfo to learn, be- fide what is under the immediate dominion of the Ottoman empire, 1. The hiftory of Aby/finia. 2, That of Tunis and Tripoly. 3. That of Algiers. 4- That 186 Unrversat Erntprirron. 4. That of the kingdom of Morocco, under which are comprehended thofe of Fez, Taffilet, Tetuan, Sus, and others. 5. The hiftory of the other nations of Africa, as far as they can be, and are worthy to be known: XXX. In America, we have’ laftly to con- fider, 1. The hiftory of the Canary lands, - 2. The hiftory of the difcovery of America, and the progreffive: manner in which we have » become acquainted with all its various countries, as well iflands as continent. g: The hiftory of the partition of America among the European: porn 4 to which may. be added, 4. The hiftory of Memico, and 5. That of Peru and its Yncas, XXX) Such in general is the fyften of what Gs called the’ univerfal hiftory of the world; of the aneient and middle ages, and of miodern times. It mutt be confeffed that the labours of the learned have, in this fcienee, furpaffed all that we could expect, and all that the capacity ‘arid‘affiduity of-the human mind feemed capable of producing. There are now; in‘almoft all lan- guages, univerfal and particular'hiftories that are highly excellent; where the’ moft learned’ re- eaves are united with the mioftfagacious re- : fiections, MeccestasticaL Hrstrory. 187 fie€tions, and where a regular and confpicuous narration is ornamented with all thofe graces of which the hiftoric ftyle’ is fufceptible. There are itt the univerfities able profeffors, who make courfés in hiftory that are highly inftruétive’: and there are hiftorical bibliotheques which furnifh us with the knowledge of the beft authors in every fpecies of hiftory. They therefore who are defirous of applying to this {cience, cannot want for guides, or inftru€tions ; and we may add, that, in this age, the ufeful and the agree- able will be found united in’ the ftudy of hit fory. CHAP. VIII T H-£E EccoLestastTicab Hisrory OF ALL THE Principal Nations of the Earth. Ys, Hott of having treated’ on profane’ or 4 & civil hiftory, we naturally proceed to Sa- ered, or Ecclefaftical Hiftory. From the firtt hour that —e - a a 88 Universab EruDITION. that man comes into the world, he feeks after ~happinefs. The milk. which nature has given to the mother, renders the child content, and con- fequently happy : it defires nothing more. But as its age advances, and its ideas increafe, it feeks after fports, pleafures, and fortune. At -Iength man difcovers that there is a future exift- ence, and a Supreme Being, who is the creator and preferver of this. world, and the ~difpenfer of happinefs or mifery in the world that is to come. The firft human beings perceived there- fore that it was of importance to render the Divi- nity propitious to them; but to obtain that end, they made ufe of means that were as weak and imperfect as were their underftandings. Hav- ing nothing but fenfible objects before their eyes, they could form only corporeal ideas, and thefe ideas they applied to the Supreme Being, to whom nothing corporeal can belong. II. By groping continually in that darknefs, without the guidance of revelation or philofophy, after the tight way of obtaining the knowledge of God, and the manner in which he ought to be worfhipped, they could not but wander and deceive themfelves, as well with refpeét to the one as the other of thefe objeés. The know- ledge of God, and of the manner in which he is to be worfhipped, forms what we call religion. The defign of this chapter, therefore, is to in- $orm our readers what have been the principal religions, that men have invented and followed, from — ie. see ‘ ‘EccrestasticaL History: 189 from the creation of the world ; and the follow- ing chapter will contain the hiftory of Chrifti- anity, or of the church of Chrift in particular. III. Adam, and the firft patriarchs after him, followed, doubtlefs, the religion of nature; the lights of reafon, enforced by thofe which God had vouchfafed them in Paradife, and in the fuc- ceeding ages; as we find in the book of Genefis, wrote by Mofes. But this worfhip, fo pure in , itfelf, feems to have been fometimes corrupted by a propenfity to idolatry, which infected man- kind from the beginning of the world. The fa- ? crifices of animals, and even of innocent men, are not certainly according to the religion of na- ture, but have a near relation to paganifm. For all facrifices are diametrically repugnant to the religion of nature, as no man can poffibly prove, by the light of reafon, that the Supreme Being, all-wife and good, can find pleafure in the flaugh- ter of his creatures, and what is more, of man- kind; whom his wifdom has created, and whom his goodnefs fupports. The little houfhold gods of Laban, the father-in-law of Abraham, clearly prove that idolatry reigned in the firft ages of the world. Mofes purged the worfhip of the Hebrews entirely from it; it was he who, by the exprefs order of God, eftablifhed the true principles of religion among the chil- dren of Ifrael; their dogmas and their religious ceremonies. We are therefore here to con- fider : IV..(1.) eee © RS yee ev ie cae Pe ene tgo Univers ai Ervpirion. AV. (1.) Paganifm. We have already given an ample defcription of this religion in the fe- cond chapter, on mythology ; and we fhall only add here; that paganifm in general has at all tumes had various fects, and that even when it poffefied almoft the whole earth, each people had their different-gods, idols, and religious wor- fhip ; at leaft with regard to exterior matters, The pagan religion of the Egyptians, for ex- ample, was not the fame with that which was profefied by the Greeks, and theirs differed like- . wife from that.of the Romans, who multiplied their. demigods and temples to an endlefs num- ber. It ois a fingular circumftance, and well worthy of remark, that, even in modern. times, whenever a nation or troop ef mankind are dif- covered in any: part of the earthy they are always found to be pagans. . Whence comes. it. that mankind have naturally fo univerfal a propenfity to idolatry, and fo little to philofophy and the principles of Chriftianity ? Whencefoever that bey paganifm was deftroyed in the reign of Theodo- fius the Great, at the clofe of the fourth century of the Chriftian era; and the ruins of it which are to be found in Afia, Africa, and Americas are degenerated into an abfurd idolatry; and always attended by ferocity, ignorance, and bar- barity. That large work, of ‘‘ the religious ce- *‘ remonies and cuftoms of all nations, repre- *< fented by figures defigned by Bernard Picart, *< with ar. hiftoric explanation, &c.” and efpe- cially thofe volumes which treat of the idolatrous nations, a ‘ore - Pe 7 ‘i a = eS SO “Saray ek 7 + ald se 7 o : _ oEcenzstasticat History? ' ‘Fos nations, is very inftructive, and throws great light on thefe objects. V. (2.) Fhe ancient religion of the Chinefe: which is but little known to us. We know that they adored the heavens, under the name of Thien; and that they had in their devotion fome mixture of that of the Jews, though we know not from whence they -had ir. There is a very ancient tradition among the Orientals, that there are a great number of Jews in China, and that God having opened a paflage, they went thither in the time of Jofhua. However that be, it is certain that a large portion of idolatry, fome principles of natural religion, and of that of the Hebrews, formed the religion of the an- cient Chinefe. But about 550 years before the birth of Chrift, that is about the year of the world 3450, the renowned Confucius was born in the kingdom of Zz, which is the province that is now called Xantung. This philofopher was of an illuftrious family, that defcended from the emperor Ti-Ye, of the fecond race. He began by profefling philofophy, and ended by inventing a new fyftem of religion and politics. His reputation acquired him more than three thoufand difciples, among whom there were feventy-two that fignalized themfelves, and are ftill held in great veneration by the Chinefe, Confucius divided his doétrine into four parts, antl his difciples into a like number of clafles, The firft were thofe who applied themfelves to the x92 Universau Ervupitron. the ftudy of virtue: the fecond, fuch ‘as applied themielves to the arts of reafoning and elo- quence: the third, they who ftudied the art of — government, and the duties of magiftrates ; and the fourth, thofe who applied themfelves to the doétrines of morality. The tour books that are attributed to Confucius are confidered’ by the Chinefe, as of the higheft authority. ‘The firft is intitled Ta-Kio, or the grand fcience. There is only the firft chapter of that book that properly belongs to Confucius. The reft of it, as wellas the fecond, called Chung- Yung, or the medium of virtue; the third named Lungya, or the confer- ences; and the fourth which is a collection of converfations : all thefe books are the works of his: diiciples. Though it is: faid, in all thefe books, 1. That it is the heavens or virtue that holds the place of the Supreme Being, yet 2. They direct fuperftitious worfhipand facrifices to others than that Being, and 3. They promife no other recompence or happinefs than that of this life. In the modern religion of the Chinefe, which is founded on the doétrine and writings of Confucius, there are three fects, the Leowie the Idolaters, and the Sorcerers. The fir is that of the emperor and nobles, who {facrifice to the ftars : the fecond pay their adorations and build temples to idols; and both of them render a religious worfhip to Confucius, to philofophers, to kings and their anceftors. The third fect worfhip demons and practile magic. ‘The Chi- - nefe ee Se 0 - eee . 14 Eccresiasticay History, 193 nefe priefts are named Mandarins; and apply themfelves to religious affairs, to philofophy and government. ‘There are many temples and con- vents in all parts of China. The idols of the _ Chinefe are called Pagods or Chines. The latter are made in the fhape of figured pyramids , and are’ held in’ great awe by the vulgar... When they purchafea flave, they bring him before one of ‘thefe chines, and after making an offering of rice, ‘or other matter, they entreat the idol, that the flave, if he fhould fly from his mafter, may be devoured “by tigers and ferpents: and this the flaves fear to' fo great a degree, that they never dare to leave their mafters, whatever may be thes treatment they receive. Idolatry there- fore is very manifeft in the religion of the mo- _dern Chinefe, but Confucius is not to be blamed for this error ; for in the firft chapter of the book Ta Kio, which is the only one that he wrote, there is no trace of itto be found. All the reft is the work of his difciples, a clafs of men who con- ftantly enlarge, decorate; and disfigure the doc- trines of their mafters. Notwithftanding all the abfurdities which we difcover in the religion of the modern Chinefe, that people have lived, for 2002 years paft, in peace and tranquillity under its fhadow, and have derived from it an exterior es 5 se 9 VI. (3.) The Religion of the Magt. 'The'word Magus in the ancient Perfian is nearly fynony- mous with that of fage or wife man: and this Vor. ILL. N name 194 Universat Ervupirion. name was given to thofe philofophers who taught morality and natural theology, founded on the adoration and worfhip of a Divinity, as Arno- bius has remarked. | This natural religion, how- ever, was not either very pure or very rational ; for the magi laid down two imaginary principles, which were, that Aight was the fource of good, and darkne/s the origin of evil. Thefe philofo- phers, however, were in high eftimation with the kings of Perfia, who acknowledged their wifdom, and honoured them with the name of Sages; frequently confulted them in the affairs of go- vernment, and charged them. with all that re- garded the religion and policy of their kingdoms; fo that. they were at once priefts, politicians and philofophers.. It is eafy to conceive what im- portance this triple employ gave them in their country; and the more, as by the ftudy of na- tural philofophy thefe magi were enabled to pre- dict appearances in nature, and fometimes to per- form operations that appeared fupernatural to the people, and which thefe fubtle priefts caufed to pafs for conjurations, prodigies and miracles. When Cambyfes had determined to carry the war into Egypt, he appointed one of thefe, named Patizithes, governor in his abfcence. But that minifter attempting to place his brother Smerdis on the throne, in the room of the fon of Cyrus, whom Cambyfes had flain, the prin- cipal fatrapes or nobles, perceiving his fraduluent defign, maffacred, at once, him and all the reft of the magi. .From the time of this cataftrophe, the fect Ecerestastican History, 195 fet of the magi fell into difrepute; but, fome years after, they were reftored to authority, and at the fame time reformed by Zoroafter. They, who in fucceeding times made a profeffion. of forcery, took the name of magi, and trom thence a bad fignification was annexed to that ticle, and from thence alfo is derived the word magician. Thefe magi {pread themfelves over all the Eaft, and even in Egypt, where we find them in the time of Mofes. The priefts of the feét of magi in Perfia were all of the fame tribe; and they rarely communicated their f{cience to any but thofe of the royal family, who from thence were regarded as belonging to the facerdotal tribe. Thefe priefts were divided into three orders; the common clergy,» the fuperiors, and the archimagus, or head of their religion, _ The temples were in like manner of three orders, The archimagus held his refidence in the prin- cipal temple, and the whole fect thought them. felves obliged,’ once in their lives, to go thither ona pilgrimage. The. bufinefs of thee priefts was to read the offices of each day in their liturgy, and at certain fixed and folemn times to explain to the people different-parts of their facred books, There were no altars in thefe temples; but they preferved facred fires, in lamps, before which they performed their adorations, _ This people were in great dread of fpeétres or apparitions, VII. (4.,) Zoroafter, whom the Perfians called Zerbufbt, was, according to oriental writers, a oe great 196 Universat ErupitTion great philofopher, who lived at the time that Darius, the fon of Hyftafpes, filled the throne of Perfia. He was perfectly acquainted with all the oriental {ciences, and much verfed in the religion of the Jews. He did not found a new religion, but undertook to reform that of the. magi, which for many centuries had been the pre- vailing religion among the Medes and Perfians. He eftablifhed the doctrine of a firft principle, or Supreme Being. We taught that fire was the fymbol of the prefence of the Divinity, and that God had eftablifhed his throne in the fun. He fhut himfelf up, for along: time, in a cavern of Media, where he compofed the book of his Reve- Jations. A fhort time after, he went into Bactriana, and Petfia, and there caufed his doctrine to be received. From thence he paffed into India, in order to learn the fciences of the Brachmans ; and having acquired all they knew of phyfics and. metaphyfics, he returned into Perfia, and com- municated his knowledge to the magi; who from that time were held in high efteem. Zo- roafter, repairing to the court of Darius at Sufa, prefented that monarch the book he had compofed, bound in twelve volumes, each of which contained a hundred fkins reduced into vellum, on which it was the cuftom of the. Per- fians to write.’ This book was intitled Zenda- vefta, and by contraction Zend; a word that fignifies the frre lighter. The king, his courtiers, and the nobles of the land, embraced magianifm, thus ‘reformed by Zoroafter; maugre the - ana efforts Eccrestasticat History. ~ 197 efforts of the chiefs among the Sabeans: and this reli_ion continued to prevail in Perfia till the time it was fuperfeded by the doétrine of Maho- met. Its morality was pure, except that it per- mitted inceft. With regard to the worfhip of this religion, it was fimple : philofophy and policy appear to have been there artfully united. They fay that Zoroafter, who retired to Balch with the quality of archimagus, was there flain by Ar- gafp, king of the Scythians, and his temples de- molifhed. The difciples of Zoroafter, who ftill remain in Perfia, are called by the Mahometans Gaures or infidels, VIII. (5.) Fudaifm. Mofes who lived about the year of the world 2550, near 500 years be- fore Homer, and goo years before the philofo- pher Thales, was the firft who gave a form to the ~ geligion of the Jews, reduced it into a fyftem,. and prefcribed them a law as he had received it from God, This law is contained in the penta- teuch of Mofes, which comprehends the books — of Genefis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy, which are in the hands of all Chriftians in every part of the earth. Leviticus properly contains the Jaw, the facrifices and cere- monies of the Jews, and Duteronomy ferves as a recapitulation or abridgement of the law. The ten commandments form a kind of fummary of all the fundamental laws that God prefcribed by Mofes to the people of Ifrael. All thefe laws are either religious and doétrinal, and relate to the 198 Unitversat ERvupiITION, the dogmas or effence of the Jewifh religion; or ceremonial, and regard its rites and ceremo- nies ; or civil and political, and regulate the ' conftitution of the Judaic republic, or their po- lice, and prefcribe in a particular manner fuch rules as were proper to be obferved by that in- temperate and leperous people: or laftly moral, and ierved to regulate the manners and con- f{ciences of the Hebrews, by exciting them to virtue. Thefe Divine laws, however, they did not always practife; for, when we read their hif- tory, we find, that a more profligate, cruel, co- vetous and deceitful people fcarce ever exifted upon the earth. To all their other vices they joined a ftrong fuperftition. Their Talmud, which is a fort of dogmatic catechifm, or am- plification of the law of Mofes, is the quinteffence of abfurdity ; and the writings of their rabbies and cabalifts contain the moft complete collec- tion of infipid whims that it is poffibe for fana- ticifm to conceive. Since the promulgation of the Chriftian religion, the Jews have been difperfed over the face of the earth, and no where united in a national body. IX. (6.) Chriftianity arofe, about the year of the world 4000, out of Judaifin, at the time that it was become greatly corrupted: Jefus Chrift appeared upon the earth, taught a doétrine that is perfectly divine, and founded a church that has ipread itfelf into all the four parts of the : world , EccrestasticaL History. 199 world; and of which we fhall give a brief hif- tory in the following chapter. X. (7.) Mabometanifm. Mahomet, called the prophet, was an artful impoftor, and of his kind, perhaps the greateft man that ever appear- ed upon theearth. He was born the 5th of May in the year 570 of the Chriftian era. His father, who was an Arab and a Pagan, was called Abdalla, and his mother, who was a Jew,- was named Emina, and they were both of the dregs of the people. It would require a volume to fhow by what addrefs, what fubtle genius, what extenfive fchemes, what refources, by what a bold and daring fpirit, he became enabled to produce a new religion, and to eftablith it in Afia, Africa, and even in fome countries of Europe ; by bearing in one hand the Coran, and in the other the {word ; and by fucceeding equally well, as conqueror, legiflator and prophet. The Ma- hometans acknowledge that Judaifm and Chritt- ianity are true religions; but that they no longer contain any certain principles, becaufe their holy books have been corrupted. They fay that God eommunicated himfelf to his prophet Mahomet, by the angel Gabriel, for the fpace of twenty- three years; and gave him a certain number of written fheets, from whence he compofed the book called the Coran or Alcoran. M. du Ryer has tranflated this Alcoran into French, and M. Prideaux and count Boulainvilliers have each of them wrote the life of Mahomet. The principal 200 UNIVERSAL KRUDITION. principal dogmas of the Mahometan. religion are, the unity of God; that there is no other God but God, and that he is one: that Maho- met was -fent. from God, and was: his prophet, and that this laft trath has been confirmed by numberlefs miracles (which always appear ridi- culous to thofe that are not of the fame religion). The Mahometans have alfo their faints to whom they likewile attribute miracles, but inferior to thofe of: their prophet. They acknowledge, moreoyer, that there are angels, who are the mi- nifters of the commands of God: they believe in a general. refurrection of the dead; in a day of judgment; ina hell, and paradife, whofe delights are. painted -by the Coran in the moft pleafing figures, and with the moft glowing colours, | It is reprefented as a delicious garden, watered by fountains and rivers of milk, of wine and honey, and adorned with trees that are for ever green, and that’bear apples whofe kernels turn into wo- men, who conftantly preferve their youth, their beauty and virginity, and are of fo fweet a na- ture, that if one of them were to {pit into the océan, all its falt waters would become immedi- ately frefh. TheMuffulmans likewife believe in predeftination ; and fay that no good or evil arifes but by the ordinance of God: and if they are afked, why God has created the wicked? they reply, that it is not for us to fearch too curioufly into the fecrets of the Almighty ; that what°ap- pears good in the eyes of man, may be found ewil before God, and that good which we call | evil, ai i a OO OO Ee——EE————————— LL Ss hl !UmrmmUmt””t 7 - .. » Eeerestasticart History. 20% evil. They admit of polygamy, or a plurality of wives, and forbid the ufe of wine and other {trong liquors. They have adopted’ the Jewith cuftom of circumcifion. Their morality confitts in doing good and avoiding evil. They hope for the mercy of God, and the forgivenefs of fins, and recommend, in a particular manner, prayers, and ablutions or the ufe of baths, that is cor- poreal purity. Chriftian divines have frequently attributed to the Mahometans errors which they do not profefs : it muft be acknowledged, at the fame time, that the Coran, notwithftanding all that we there find, which is fagacious and even fublime, abounds with abfurdities and fuch idle tales as are offenfive to common fenfe. We ought not, however, always to attribute thefe to Mahomet, for they are frequently the produce of his commentators, and of the enthufiaftic {pi- rit of the oriental nations. XI. The Muffulmans are at this day divided into two principal fects, and who are even mortal enemies to each other. The Perfians glory in being the followers of Ali, and wear a red tur- ban. The Turks, on the contrary, hold the memory of Ali in contempt, following the feé& of Omar, and wear a white turban. There are many other fects among the Mahometans, of whom they count even fixty-feven. All thefe fects, however, occafion no {chifm, but agree jn their fundamental dogmas; pray, give alms, make 202 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION. make the pilgrimage to Mecca, and obferve the faft of Ramadan. XII. It remains to fpeak of certain religions, of which, though not generally received, ,but are or have been lefs diffufed among mankind than the preceding, we ought not to be ig- norant at leaft of the names, if we would at- tain a complete idea of the various worfhips and juperftitions that have reigned among the hu- man race from its firit exiftence. | Such are, (8.) Lhe Religion of the Bramins, or the inha- bitants of Tonquin, between China and India. Brama is their principal god, and adored by the followers of Confucius. They have likewife three other divinities, who are Raumu, Betolo, and Ramonu, and one goddefs, who is called Satibana. Befide which they facrifice to the feven planets as divinities. ‘The people, but efpecially the priefts of this fect, are named Bra- mens, Bramins, or Bramines, and thofe names are formed from the word Brachmanes, by which the Greeks and Latins denoted the Indian philo- fophers. ‘They believed in the immortality of the foul, but they added to that belief the metempfychofis, or tranfmigration of the foul from one body to another, (9.) The Religion of the People of Buradtolagh in Southern Tartary, in Afia, This kingdom is governed by two fovereigns. The firft, who is charged with the political government, is named Deva; the other, who lives retired, is not only adored EcciestastTicaL History. 203 adored by the inhabitants of the country as a divinity, but alfo by the other kings of Tartary, who fend him prefents. This falfe god is called Grand Lama, that is to fay, Great Prieft; or Lama of Lamas, Prieft of Priefts. He is be- heved to be eternal; and the other lamas ferve him, and repert his oracles. He is fhown ‘in a fecret apartment of his palace, illuminated with an infinite number of lamps; he appears covered with gold and diamonds, and is feated on an eminence adorned with rich tapeftry, and fits with his legs croffed. He is fo much refpected by the Tartars, that they, who by rich prefents can obtain a part of the excrements of the grand lama, efteem themfelves extremely happy, and carry them about their necks in a gold box, in the manner of a relick, XIII. (10.) The Bonzes are the minifters of the religion of the Japanefe. Thefe affect great continence, and a wonderful fobriety. They live in community, and have feveral uni- verfities, where they teach their theology and the myfteries of their fect. . Amang the Bonzes, there is one named Combadaxi, whom the Ja- panefe highly revere, and believe him to be im- mortal. The young women of Japan live alfo in a fort of convents. The name of bonzes is likewife given to fome other priefts among the idolatrous nations of India. (11.) The Druids were the priefts among the ancient Gauls, and they are thought to be the ¢ fame 204 Universat ErupDirTion. fame with the Eubages, of whom Ammianus Mar- cellinus fpeaks, and the Saronides that are men- tioned by Diodorus Siculus, They taught a re- ligion to the people, which they had probably learned from the Phoceans. They had an extra- ordinary veneration for the oak, becaufe that tree bore the miftletoe. For the reft, they applied themfelves to the contemplation of the works of nature, and regulated the religious ceremonies, being at once the theologians and philofophers of the ancient’ Gauls ; of whom the Bards were the poets, fcholars, and muficians, | XIV. (12.) The Religion of the Peruvians, or the Yncas. The firft king of Peru was, they fay, Ynca Manco Capac, and all his fucceflors have been called, from his name, Yncas.. The Peru- vians make their firft kings to be defcended from the fun, which they adens: as a god. Their other divinities, as the moon, the fifter and wife of the fun, which they named Quilla; the ftar Venus, that they call Chafca; the thunder and lighten- ing, to which they gave the common name of . Yllapa; the rainbow, that they named Cuychu; were divinities inferior to the fun. To all thefe, however, magnificent temples were erected. They facrificed all fort of animals to the fun, efpecially theep, but never men, as the Spaniards have falfely reported of them, They confecrated virgins in- deed to the fun, but that was in the: manner of devotees, or nuns. Thefe divinities, but efpe- cially the fun, had their folemn feafts, The Pe- ruvians, EocctesrasticaL History. 205 ravians, before the Spaniards entered their couns try, cultivated alfo philofophy, and efpecially a- ftronomy. It is not wonderful that thefe people, to whom the knowledge of the true God, and of the Chriftian religion could fearce be known, adored the firmament, and efpecially the fun, that benign planet, which appears to animate, ‘che- rifh and fupport all nature. They knew of: no- thing greater, nothing more worthy of adoration. This worfhip appears, moreover, lefs abfurd than that which the pagans offered to imaginary divinities, or to men whom they had themfelves deified. | xv. ‘Such is- nearly the general plan of all the religions that have amufed the minds of men from the creation of the world to the prefent day. The human mind is conftantly limited, and its limits are very contracted when it would extend itfelf toward the Supreme Being. ‘We cannot be furprifed therefore, that men of the moft fublime genius, and the moft profound phi- lofophy, when they have framed new religions, and have affumed the important title of leaders of feéts, have laid down falfe fyftems, and have frequently united grofs errors and fuperftitions with clear, philofophic truths, and dogmas ftrict- ly rational. But while we lament the weaknefs of the human underftanding, let us remember, that a religion, purely natural and philofophic, can never fubfift among any nation upon earth; for the bulk of every people cannot, and ought not, 206 UNIvekSAL ERUDITION. not, to apply themfelves to ratiocination; the ftate has too much need of their hands, to admit them to apply their heads to abftract fpecula- tions, It is therefore abfolutely neceffary for every founder of a religion, to prefcribe a uni- form, fixed and immutable ftandard, as well for the dogmas that the people are to believe, as for the morals they are to practife, and the ceremo- nies they are to obferve in their worfhip of the Divinity : and this is the more neceffary, as the principles of natural religion, if they were alone fufficient to operate the temporal and eternal happinefs of mankind, cannot be fo fixed, that men of a fubtle and philofophic fpirit may not, fooner or later, fet them in new lights, invent new feéts, and throw the whole ftate into confu- fion.» Let us remember, laftly, that the com- mon people conftantly require fomething mar- vellous in their religion, and that the marvellous is more difficult to invent than is “TRC imagined. CHAP, _, Ecerestasticat, History. 207 CHAP, IX. The HISTORY of the Cur IstT- taAN Church, of Herefies, of the Popes and Reformers. TROM amidft the thickeft darknefs a light fhone forth: Jefus Chrift, the Saviour of the world, was born at Bethlehem in Judea, on the 25th of December, about the year of the world 40003, in the 23d year of the reign of Auguftus, and-in the 37th of that of Herod. If Chrift had been nothing more than man, it muft be confefied that he would have been the greateft of men, the moft virtuous of the human race, the wifeft of philofophers, and the moft truly learned of all teachers. His doftrine would not have been lefs divine. He difcovered to mankind the true and the only principle of all virtue, by faying to them, Love. But as he is acknowledged by all Chriftians to be the real Son of God, who came upon the earth to fave mankind, and offered him- felf as a facrifice for the expiation of their fins, it is not in the power of language fully to exprefs that acknowledgment, that gratitude, veneration, and profound devotion which we owe unto him. His 208 Univirsat ErRvuvition. His doétrine, his wifdom, his aéts, and his mi- racles, foon diftinguifhed him from all thofe, who, about the time of his birth, fet up for teachers, and afiumed the title of King of the Jews, or Meffiah; as Theudas, who is mentioned in the Acts of the Apoftles, and many others. When he was twelve years old, Jefus was brought by his parents (Mary and Jofeph) to the temple of Jerufalem, at the time of the celebration of the feaft of Eafter: there he feated himfelf amidft the doétors, who were aftonifhed at his wifdom. From that time he is loft to our fight; he returns to Nazareth, and exercifes the profef- fion of a carpenter; with his fuppofed father, Jo- feph; earning his:bread by the fweat of his brow. When Jefus Chrifthad attained the age of twen- ty-fix years, John appeared in Judea, declared bimfelf the forerunner of the ‘true Meffiah, and baptized Jefus in Jordan, when he was thirty years of age, and was returned from Nazareth in Galilee. The following ‘year Jefus went up to Jerufalem, and there celebrated his firft feaft of Eafter: but hearing that John was imprifoned by Herod the Tetrarch, he left’ Judea, and re+ — turned to Galilee. At the age of 32 years, he went again up to Jerufalem, and there celebrated his fecond feaft of Eafter: he then felected his twelve apoftles, and afterward retired toward Cas ~~ pernaum: fome of his difciples left him, but the apoftles remained faithful. The year following, when our Saviour had attained his thirty-third year, he returned to Jerufalem to celebrate his third . -EcctesrasticaLt History. 209 third Eafter: he then inftituted the Holy Sup- per; was taken into cuftody by the Jews, was crucified, buried, defcended into Hell, role again, appeared to his difciples, afcended into Heaven, and feated himfelf on the sree of God the Father. II. They; who would make a regular courfe in the hiftory of the church, fhould begin, there- fore, by ftudying the life ot Jefus Chrift, as it is contained in the four evangelifts, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, and in the Ads of the Apoftles, and no where elfe. The cotemporary hiftorians make no mention of him: all the tra- ditions that are related are mere fables, without the leaft authority or appearance of truth; and we muft regard thele as every man of fenfe re- gards the portrait of our Saviour that is faid to have been painted by St. Luke, who was a phy- fician ; or thofe relicks of Chrift, and of the real crofs, of which there are many cart-loads in the world; as it would be very eafy to make appa- rent, did the bounds of this work admit. For the reft, each word that our Saviour pronounced, _each aét, each miracle that he performed, is a monument of his divine vocation, and which every Chriftian ought to know and revere. Ill. After the death of Chrift, his apoftles continued to preach his doétrine, and extended ' jt, by degrees, over all the then known world. Thefe twelve apoftles were called: 1. Peter, firit Vor. III. O named 210 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION. named Simon; 2. James, the fon of Zebedee; 3. John, the brother of James; 4. Andrew; 5. Philip; 6. Bartholomew; 7. Matthew; 8. Tho- mas; 9. James, the fon of Alpheus; 10. Jude, or Thades, the brother of James; 11. Simon of Canana; and 12. Matthias, elected by the other apoftles in the place of Judas Ifcariot, who, after he had betrayed our Saviour, hanged himfelf in defpair. Thefe apoftles performed great actions and miracles, which are related by St. Luke in the book called The As. The apottles chofe feven deacons, who were to difpenfe the alms,. and thefe were, 1. Stephen, a man full of the faith, who was ftoned to death; 2. Phillip; 3. Procor; 4. Nicanor; 5. Timon; 6. Parmenass; and 7. Nicholas, a profelyte of Antioch. There were, befide thefe, feventy-two difciples of Chrift, all of whofe names are not known tous. By the preaching of the apoftles they continually in- creafed, and in procefs of time the number of profelytes to Chriftianity, in all countries, was without bounds. Saul, a native of Tarfus in Ci- licia, and. in that quality a Roman citizen, was a man of diftinguifhed rank, and of great learn- ing. He at firft perfecuted the Chriftians, but was foon converted, embraced Chriftianity, was baptized, and took the name of Paul; he effi- cacioufly affifted the apoftles in their labours, cand became himfelf the apoftle of the Gentiles. His travels and. fuccefs are well known. He, and all the other apoftles, fuffered martyrdom in the firft age, except St. John, who died a natu- ral EFcciestasticat History. ort ral death. Such was the firft ftate of the Chrif- tian church after its foundation by Jefus Chrift: We ‘are likewife to examine, in this firft age, called Apoftolic, how, when; where, and by whom, the books of the New Teftament, that is, the Four Evangelifts, the Acts of the Apof- tles, the Epiftles or Letters of St. Paul and the other apoftles, and the Apocalypfe, were writ- ten; and by what methods the certainty of” their dates, and their authenticity, are eftablifhed., - TV. The firft ages of Chriftianity were im- brued with blood. We find every where accounts of the troubles, perfecutions and punifhments which they fuffered who embraced the Chriftian doétrine. Itfeems as if the fovereigns and rulers of the earth had combined to opprefs this reli- gion, and to exterminate its firft profeflors: but Providence was pleafed to confound the malice and cruelty of man, and even to make the church of Chrift flourifh by the blood of the martyrs 5 to become conftantly more victorious, and at laft triumphant, in the fourth century, under the emperor Conftantine the Great. We learn therefore, in the ecclefiaftical hiftory of the firlt three ages, that of the great perfecutions, which the emperors and pagan princes made the Chriftians undergo ; and that of the martyrs, who fealed the evangelic faith with their blood; and whofe names the church has collected in its martyrology. O 2 V. That 212 UNiversat ErvuDITION. V. That we may not confound all thofe: ob- jects which the ftudy of the general hiftory of the Chriftian church, from its origin to the prefent time, prefents to us, but preferve perfpicuity in our ideas of thefe matters, it feems convenient to make a fhort analyfis of them, by ranging them in the following order: we fhould therefore make, VI. (1.) The neceffary obfervations on the firft eftablifhment of bifhops, and on certain cut toms of the primitive church, The word bi- fhop comes from the Greek Emioxémes, and fig- nifies an overfeer or infpeétor: by which is meant a prieft, ecclefiaftic or facred prelate, who has the {fpiritual conduct of a diocefe, province or country. He receives his charge by ordination. We find that there were in the primitive church, immediately after the death of Chrift, fuch fort of fupervifors or bifhops for each particular church, whom St. John in his Apocalypfe names, in a figurative ftyle, Angels, as the Angel of Smyrna, the Angel of Laodicea, &c. But thefe bifhops had little refemblance to thofe of our time: they certainly bore neither mitre nor crofs; they did not enjoy the revenues of a prince, nor roll in luxurious pleafures: they lived in the greateft fimplicity, inftructed, preached, and pre- ferved order among their flocks, without pomp, — and without ambition. This part of ecclefiafti- cal hiftory fhews alfo, what were the deacons, dea- conefies, and other religious ; the prefbytery of bifhops, or the college compofed of priefts and | deacons ; Ecciesiasticat H.story. 213 deacons; what was the ftate of the ancient churches and their conftruction ; what is meant by the agapz, or feafts of charity, that were made - dn the affemblies of the faithful, during the time of the apoftles; the eu/ogies, which were {mall pieces of bread that were fanétified by folemn prayers, to be diftributed among the brethren in fign of communion of faith and charity: : the dip- tychs, or regifters of perfons of greateft confe- quence, who were to be publicly prayed for: the degrees of public penitence*: and laftly, the ~ Eucharift, or holy fupper, whofe very name and inftitution prove fufficiently, that it was a folemn fupper, which the faithful held among them in order to celebrate the memory of our Saviour; that they made it in their houfes, and amidft their families, and not in a church; that it was held at night, and not in the morning, which would have been abfurd; that it was never called a facrament, which is a Latin word, that-is not to be found either in the Old or New Tefta- ment, but is of modern invention ; that it was a repaft in which they did not pretend to include any thing myfterious, myftic or miraculous, any more than the Jews did in their pafchal lamb, in * We here difcover, in thefe early days, traces of human invention ; for we find not one word of all thefe matters in the holy feripture. So difficult is it for man to imitate the admirable fimplicity of his Divine Mafter, and to leave his doétrine unaltered, though ‘he has denounced the moft ter- rible imprecations againft thofe who fhall add or diminith one word of his gofpel, the 214 UNniversat ERvDITION, the place of which our Saviour inftituted the holy fupper, by making ufe of almoft the very phrafes, in bleffing the bread and wine, that the father of a Jewifh family made ufe of in bleffing the lamb and the wine of Eafter: in fhort, that it was a refpectable inftitution, but has been ftrangely disfigured. VII. (2.) The Hiftory of the Popes. Though it may appear extraordinary enough, when we form an idea of the prefent popes as heads of the Chriftian church and fecular princes, to find an uninterrupted fucceffion of thefe fovereign pon- tiffs, from the apoitle St. Peter to Clement XIII. a Venetian; it is, however, convenient and ufe- ful to follow this feries of the catholic hiftorians, as it produces great order in the hiftory of the church, and leaves no confiderable vacuities to be fupplied.. By diftinguifhing, therefore, the eighteen ages of the church, and the reigns of the popes in each century, and by learning the moft confiderable events, with regard to the church, that occurred under each pontificate, we are enabled to acquire a knowledge fufficiently complete of ecclefiaftical hiftory. We can here give their names only, in their proper order. VIIl. Firft Age. 1. St. Peter the apoftle. 2. St. Linus. 3.St, Cletus, a Roman, 4. St. Clement, a Roman. Second EcciestastTicaL History. 215 Second Age.. 5. St. Anaclet, an Athenian. 6. St. Evarif- tus. 7. St. Alexander, a Roman. 9g. St. The- lefphore, a Grecian. 10. St. Higin, an Athe- nian. 11. St. Pius of Aquila. 12. St. Anicetus, a Syrian. 13. St. Soter of Fondi. 14. St. Elu- therus, a Grecian. 15. St. Victor, an African. Third Age. 16. St. Zephrinus, 17. St. Calliftus, 18. St. Urban, 19. St. Pontianus, all Romans. 20. St. Anterus, a Grecian. 21. St. Fabian, 22. St. Cornelius, 23. St. Lucius I. 24. St. Stephen, Romans. 25. St. Sixtus]. 26. St. Denis, both Grecians. 27. St. Felix]. a Roman. 28. St. Eutichian, a Tufcan. 29. St. Cajus, a Dalma- tian. 30. St. Marcellinus, a Roman. * Fourth Age. 31. St. Marcellus, a Roman. 32. St. Eufe- bius, a Grecian. 33. St. Melchiades, an Afri- can. 34. St. Silvefter, 35. St. Mark,” 36. St. Julius, 37. St. Liberius, all Romans. 38. St. Damaticus, a Spaniard. 39. St. Siricus, 40. St. Anaftafius I. Romans, Fifth Age, | 41. St. Innocent I. of Albany. 42. St. Zozi- mus, aGrecian. 43. St. Boniface I. 44. St. Ce- leftin I. Romans. 45. St. Sixtus II. 46. St. Leo I. a Tufcan, furnamed the Great. 47. St. Flilary of Sardinia, 48. St. Simplicius of Tri- y voly, 216 UNIVERSAL Eruprrion, voly. 49. St. Felix I]. a Roman. 50. St. Gis lafiis, an African. 51. St. Anaftatius, a Roman. 52. St. Simmachus of Sardinia. Sixth Age. 53. St. Hormifdas, of the Campania of Rome, »64. St. John lL. of Tufcany. 55. St. Felix III. of Benevento. 56. St. Boniface II. 57. St, John Il. 58. St. Agapitus, all Romans. 49. St. Silverus of Campania. 60. St. Vigil. 61. St. Pelagus I. 62. St. John III. 63. St. Be- nedi&, 64. St. Pelagus II. 65. St. Gregory J. all Romans. Seventh Age. 66. St. Sabinian of Pifcany: 67. St. Boniface III. a Roman. 68. Boniface IV. of Valeria. 69. Deusdeditus, a Roman. 70. Boniface V. a Neapolitan. 71. Honorius I. of Campania. 72. Severinus, a Roman. 73. John IV of Dalma- tia. 74. Theodore of Jerufalem. 75. 8t. Mar- tin I. of Todi. 76. Eugenius I. 77.: Vitalian of Segni. 78. Adeodatus, 79. Domnus, Ro- mans. 80. St. Agathen, - 81. St. Leo IT. both of Sicilia. 82. St. Benedict II. a Roman. 83. St. John V. a Syrian, 84. St. Conon of Tarfus. 85. St. Sergius, a Syrian. Goa Highth Age.’ 86. John VI. 87. John VIL. both Grecians. 88. Sifinnius, 89. Conftantine, both Syrians. go, Gregory Il. a Roman. 91. Gregory IH. a Sy- rian. FeecrestastTicat Husrory. 217 rian, 92. St. Zachary, a Grecian. 93. St. Ste- phen II. 94. St. Stephen Ill. 95. Paul I. a Roman. 96. Stephen IV. a Sicilian. 97, Adrian I. 98. Leo III. Romans, | Ninth Age. | . gg- Stephen V. 100, Pafcal I. . ro1- Euge- nius II. 102. Valentianus. 103. Gregory IV. 104. Sergius II. 105, Leo IV.* 106. Bene- di& III. 107- Nicholas 1. called the Great, all Romans. 108- Adrian II- 109. John VIII. a Roman. 110. Martin II. a Tufcan. air. A- drian IJ. 112. Stephen VI. 113. Formofus. 114. Boniface VI. 115- Stephen VII, Tenth Age, 116. John IX. of Trivoli- 117. Benedi& IV. aRoman- 118- Leo V. of Ardea. 119. Chrif- topher, a Roman. 120. Sergius ITF. ef Tufcu- lum. 121- Anaftafius III. a Roman. 422. Lando Sabinus. 123- John X- 124. Leo VI. a Roman. 125, Stephen VIII. 126. John XI. of Tufculum. 127- Leo VII. a Roman. «128. Stephen IX- a German. 129- Martin III. a Roman. 130. Agapitus II. a Roman. 131, John XII. of Tufcany. 132. Benedict V. 133. John XIII. 134. Domnus II. 135. Benediét VJ. all Romans. 136. Benedict VII. 137. John XIV. of Pavia. 138- John XV. a Roman, * Between Leo IV. and Benedict Til, fome place pope ; or under. the title of John Vil. 139. Gre- a 218 Universat Ervupirron:. . 139. Gregory V..a German. — 140, Silvefter IT, a monk of Auvergne. Eleventh Age, 141- John XVI. 142. John XVII. - 143, Sergius Ii]. Romans. 144. Benedict VIII. 145. John XVIII. 146. Benedi&t IX. Tufcans. 147. Gregory VI. 148. Clement II. - 149. Damafus Hl. 150, Leo. IX, 151. Victor II. Germans. 152. Stephen X. of Lorrain. 1453. Nicholas II. a Savoyard- 154. Alexander IJ. of Lucca, 155, St. Gregory of Soana. 156. Viétor III. of Be- nevento. 157+ Urban II. a Frenchman. 158, Pafcal II. a Tufcan. — Twelfth Age. 159. Gelafus of Gaita. 160. Califtus II. of Bourgogne. 161. Honorius II. of Boulogne. 162. Innocent II,a Roman. 163. Celeftin II. a Tufcan. 164. Lucius II. of Boulogne. 165. Eugenius UI. of Pifa. 166. Anaftafius IV. 167. Adrian IV, an Englifhman. 168. Alexander III, of {Sienna. 169. Lucius II. of Lucca. 170, Urban III. of Milan. 171. Gregory VIII. of Benevento. 172. Clement III. a Roman. 173. Celeftin III. a Roman. 174. Innocent III. of Anagnia. Thirteenth Age- 175- Honorius III, a Roman. 176. Gregory IX. of Anagnia. 177. Celeftin IV. of Milan. 178, Innocent IV. of Genoa. 179. Alexander Ty. EcciestaSTICcAL History. 219 1V. of Anagniae 180. Urban IV. of Troja, 181. Clement IV. of gt. Giles’s. 182. Gregory X- of Plaifance. 183. Innocent V- of Lyons, 184- Adrian V. count of Lavagne. 185. John XIX. of Frefeati. 186- Nicholas III. of Rome. 187- Martin IV. of Brey. 188. Honorius IV. of Rome. 18g. Nicholas IV. of Afcoli. Igo. Celeftin V. of Ifernia- 191. Boniface VIII. of Anagnia. ) Fourteenth Age- 192, Benedict X. of Trevifa- 193. Clement V. of Bazas- 194. John XX- commonly called John XXII. of Cahors, 195. Benedict XI. of Foix. 196. Clement VI. of Limofin. 197. In- nocent VI. of Limofin. 198. Urban VI. of Manda. 199. Gregory XI. of Limofin. 200. Urban VI. a Neapolitan. 201- Boniface IX. Fifteenth Age. | 202. Innocent VII..of Sulmona. 203. Gre- gory XII. a Venetian. 204. Alexander V. of Candia. 205. John XXI. commonly called the XXIII. a Neapolitan. 206. Martin V. a Ro- man. 207. Eugenius 1V. a Venetian. 208. Nicholas V. of Lucca. 209. Califtus III. a Spaniard. 210. Pius II. of Sienna, 211. Paul © II. a Venetian. 212. Sixtus IV. of Savona, 213. Innocent VIII. of Genoa, 214. Alexander YI. a Spaniard, Sixteenth 220 UNIVERsaL ERUDITION. Sixteenth Age, 215. Pius IIL. of Sienna. 216. Julius II. of Savona, 217: Leo X. a Florentine. 218. Adri- an VI. of Utrecht, 21 g- Clement VII, a-Flo- fentine. 220. Paul III,a Roman, 221. Julius III. a Tufcan: 222, Marcellus II. 22 3. Paul IV. a Neapolitan. 224. Pius IV. of Milan, 225. Pius V. of Alexandria. 226. Gregory XIII. of Boulogne. 227. Sixtus V. of Ancona. 228, Urban VII. 229, Gregory XIV. of Milan. 230. Innocent IX. of Boulogna. 2 31. Clement VILL. of Florence. 7 Seventeenth Age. 232. Leo XI. of Medicis, a Florentin. «2 33. Paul V. a Borgefian. 234, Gregory XV. 235. Urban VIII. a Florentine. 236. Innocent X. a Roman. 237. Alexander VII. of Genoa. 2 38. Clement IX. of Piftonia. 239. Clement X. a Roman. 240. Innocent xj. of Milan, 241, Alexander VIII. of Rome. 242. Innocent XII. a Roman, | } Eighteenth Age. -243.Clement XI. of the dutchy of Urbano. 244. Innocent XIII. ‘a Roman. 245. Benedi&t XII. or XIII. by the reafon of the antipope Be- . nediét. 246. Clement XII. a Florentine. 247, Benidi&t XIV. and 248. Clement XIII. a Ve- netian. IX. How EcciesiasTicaL Husrory. 2248 IX. How happy, how glorious would it have beem for Chriftianity if all thefe heads of the vi- fible church, all thefe vicars of Chrift, had been animated with the fpirit of their Divine matter , if they had been fagacious, learned, wife and virtuous ; if they had all refembled Benedict XIV. and Clement XHI. But fuch was not the will of Providence, for the tiara has been frequently born by the moft criminal heads. It is not for us, however, to fcrutinize the counfels of the Su- preme Being, nor to be. diffatisfied with thofe inftruments of which he has thought proper to make ufe, in executing his eternal decrees. X. (3.) The Hiftory of the Schifms that have arofe in the Chriftian church, and efpecially that grand divifion by which it was divided into the Greek and Latin churches, This fchifm began about the year of Chrift 854. under the emperor Michael of Conftantinople, «Its origin and pro- grefs are to be found in all the hiftorians; but to form a juft judgment it is neceffary to read the authors of both parties. The empire of the Eaft has followed from that time the dogmas and rites of the Greek church, and the empire of the Weft the dogmas and rites of the Latin. The empire of the Eaft being now in the hands of the Mahomertans, it is only the Greeks in Eu- rope, in Afia Minor, and the iflands ; the Syrians, the Georgians, and the Ruffians, who form the Greek church, under the patriarchs of Conftan- tinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerufalem . and Ruffia, 222 UNniversart Ervpiriox. Ruffia. The patriarch of Conftantinople bears the title of Panagiotita fou, or his all-boline/s. There are in this church archimandrins or abbies, archbifhops, bifhops, fuffragans, bapas or curates; and the religious named caloyers, who wear a black habit, nearly the fame as that of the Be- nedictines. - Ecclefiaftic hiftory informs us what are the particular cireumftances that have at- tended the ancient church; the fucceffior of its patriarchs ; the councils it has held; and what are its dogmas, its rites and ceremonies. XI. The Hiftory of the Councils, during the eighteen centuries of the univerfal Chriftian church. Thefe councils have beén either cecu- menical, in which all Chriftianity is interrefteds or national, or provincial, or diocefian; and the conciliabules, held by fchifmatic. ecclefiaftics: They call the firft council that affembly of the apoftles held in Jerufalem, where Jofeph, Bar- fabas and Matthias, were propofed to fill the place of Judas the traitor, when the lot fell on Matthias. There have been fince that time many of thefe forts of affemblies of bifhops and prin- cipal ecclefiaftics, which may be compared to provincial councils, but have never borne. that title. The firft general council: was held at Nice, a city of Bithynia, in Afia Minor, in the year 325. ‘The cecumenical councils which have fucceeded that, are 2. That of Conftantinople, held in the year 381. . “ 3. That EcciestasTicaL History. 223 3. That of Ephefus, in the year 431. 4. That of Calcedonia, 451. 5. The fecond of Conftantinople, in 553. 6. The third of the fame city, 680. 7. The fecond of Nice, in the year 787. 8. The fourth of Conftantinople, in 869. g. That of the Lateran, held in 1123. 10. The fecond of the Lateran, in the year 1139. 11. The third of the fame place, in 1179. 12. The fourth of the fame place, in 1215, 13. That of Lyons, held in 1245. 14. The fecond of Lyons, in 1274. 15. That of Vienna, in 1311. 16. That of Conftance, in 1414. 17. That of Bafil, in 1431. 18. That of Florence, in 1439. 19. The fifth of the Lateran, in 1512, and laftly, 20. That of Trent, held in the year 1545. The decifions of thefe councils are named de- crees or canons, and are regarded as infallible, be- caufe they are fuppofed to have been immediately dictated by the Holy Spirit. ‘The Holy Spirit, however, has not been accuftomed to revoke and contradict its decrees, as thefe councils have publickly done. When the council of Trent was fitting, there were in the world certain wick- ed wits, who faid that the Holy Spirit arrived * at Trent every day in the cloak-bag of the poftil- lion who came from Verfailles. By read- ing with attention the hiftory, the debates, and decrees of all thefe councils, we may fee the ori- gin 224 Universan Eruoirron. gin and date of each article of faith, and each dogma, contained in the theory or dogmatic, and in the catechifms of modern Chriftians 5 as they have deduced them from the principles of the gofpel. XII. The Hiftory of the Herefies. Any doctrine that is contrary to the decifions of the catholic church is called a herefy: an herefiarch, therefore, is one who invents and maintains fuch doétrine, and from whom it takes its name ; and a heretic is he who embraces and follows that doétrine. According to this definition we cannot fay that there have been any heretics, properly fo called, fince the time of the apoftles, becaufe. the gene- ral fyftem of the catholic religion, as it is at this day, has been. formed by the fucceffive decifions of the councils only: for otherwife, a man who had advanced, in the fecond or third century, a point of doétrine that was not eftablifhed by any council till the tenth century, would have been a heretic. This is fo clear, that itis not likely any one will be hardy enough to deny it. But if we agree to call thofe heretics who have ad- vanced and maintained doétrines contrary to thofe received and taught by the Chriftian church at that very time, there have been certainly he- retics without number in all ages of the church; from Simon the Magician and Dofithea, who lived in the time of the apoftles, down to count Sintzendorff, leader of the Herrenhutters. Ec- clefiaftic hiftory informs us, from age to age, what _Eccuestastitar History? 4.28 what were theit names, their doctrines, the pro- fs that they made, and the obftacles they en- countered. It makes particular mention of one hamed Manes; who lived in the third century; about the year 277, ahd who was the founder of a feét called Manicheans: of one” Aftius; who appeared 1 in the fourth century, and became the Chief of the formidable fect of Arians: of one, Pelagius; who éftablifhed, at the begirining of the fifth century, thé celebrated fect of Pela- gians: of one Neftorius, who, about the year 430; founded the feét of Neftorians: of one Le-. lius Socinus, who formed, toward the middle of the fixteenth century, the fect of Socinians ; and of many other herefiarchs, who have made thent- felves very famous in the world. XIII: Bur it appears to be unjuft ro give the Odious appellation of herefiarch, or heretic, td Martin Luther, or John Calvin; who, far from attempting to introduce any new dogmas into the church, have not, in any mantief,; attacked the fundamental principles of the Chriftian religion; but have applied themfélyes folely to the re- eftablithment of thé pure and fimple doétrine of Jefus Chrift; and co the purging of the catholio feligion from divers points of faith and practice, . which time, the troubles of the church, its leaders and councils, had introduced, and which had rendered the doétrine of our Saviour quite differ- ent from that fimplicity and humility by which it was originally characterized. Their only in- Vou. IE, P tention all i. 226 Univirsat ErvuDITION. tention was to reform abufes, and not to intro+ duce new fyftems. Perhaps they wanted either difcernnient or courage, or. proper fupport, to retrench more of thofe dazzling fuperftitions. Be that as it may, ecclefiaftic hiftory inftructs us in, (6.) The Hiftory of the Reformation, in its full extent, as well as the moit remarkable events that have occurred in the two religions (the Cal- yinift and Lutheran) from the time that fome of the principal nations of Europe have embraced them, XIV. This hiftory likewife informs us, (7.) Of the different Seis which at this Day di- vide the three principal Chriftian Communities, who, though they follow in general the fundamental _ dogmas of their communion, and the rites of © their church, yet differ from it in fome. effential articles. Such are the Molinifts and Janfenifts ‘among the Catholics ; the Moravian brethren, or Herrenhutters, among the Lutherans; and the Armenians, Gomarifts, Coccigans, &c. among the Calvinifts. We here fee alfo the origin and hiftory ‘of the Mennonifts and the Quakers, and, in fhort, of all the fe&ts which now fubfilt in the Chriftian world. XV. (8.) The Hiftory of the Martyrs. Mankind: have been, in all ages, fo fenfelefs and inhuman as to perfecute their brethren for fecking a diffe- rent way by which they might arrive at eternal felicity, and have even casried their ba : ar . Ec cesrasticAt History. 227 far as to caufé them, fot that reafon only, to ex: pire in tortures : an abfurdity as great, a prac- tice as ehorioufly inhuman and wicked, as it would be to put them to the torture for going to Paris or Rome by a road different from that which is taken by the poft. The firft Chriftians, in particular, efidured inexpreffible, inconceiv- able perfecutions and torments. They whofe blood has been {pilt in the caule of religion are called Martyrs, and their names,\ as well as the hiftory of their lives and deaths, are recorded in thofe immortal books called Martyrologies. There ate fome of thefe that contain merely a lift of their names, and of the place and day of martyrdom Of each faint. Baronius gives to pope Clement I. the glory of having introduced the cuftom of collecting the acts of the martyrs. The martyrology of Eufebius of Cziarea; which is attributed to St. Jerom, is the moft ancient that is kriown tous. That of Beda was wrote in 730. The ninth century was very fruitful of works of this jort. There is alfo the fmall mar- tyrolopy that was fent by the pope to Aquila; thofe of Florus, Wandelbent, Raban, Notker, Adon, Uiuard, Neéveloh, Ditmar, &c. The martyrologies were preceded by the calendars. XVI. (9.) The Hiffory of the Religious Orders. By which is meant fuch focieties of religious people as monks and nuns, who live uncer the direction of a chicf, obierve the fame regu- lations, and wear the fame habic. Thefe reli- Sy gious 228 UniversaL ErRuDITION. cious orders may be reduced to five clafles, monks, canons, knights, mendicants, and regu- lar clerks. Many of the fathers of the church regard St. John the Baptift as the founder of a monattie life, and St Jerom calls him, on that account, monachorum princeps. But nothing is more ridiculous than fuch an opinion, What refemblance is there between St. John and @ monk ? Could St. John ever think of prohibit- ing that which God and religion, pofitive and natural, permit ; that is, the allowing of churche- men to marry, and provide inhabitants for the world, and fubjects for the fate? Be this how- ever as it may, we find in the hiftory of the church (efpecially in thofe that are wrote by ca~ tholic authors) a feries of all the religious or- ders that have been founded in Chriftianity dur- ing the eighteen centuries that it has fubfifted, with the regulations that each of theie orders have adopted and followed. Father Helyot, a penitent of the third order of St. Franeis, has. gormed a hiftory of the monaftic, religious and military orders, and of all the focieties of each fex: and there is, at the beginning of his firft ~volume,. a catalogue of fuch books as treat of thefe orders. XVII. (10.) The Series of the principal Authors of Sacred Hiftory. At the head of this laft divi- fion are naturally placed, 1. The facred authors of the New Teftament. @ur. Saviour has left us no part of his divine Eccrrstasticat History. 225 divine doétrine in writing. The whole of it was collected and digefted by the four evangelifts. Sr. Luke wrote the Aéts of the Apoftles, and St. John the Apocalypfe, The reftof the New Tefta- - ment confifts of epiftles or letters, which St. Paul, St. James, and St. Jude wrote, after the death of Chrift, to fome churches of the faithful, or to fome of their re- lations, 2. The fathers of the church. By this title is properly meant thofe ecclefiaftical writers who have preferved what is. called the tradition of the church.. Their writings are held in high veneration, and have an extraordinary authority in the ca- tholic church, and are in much efteem among the other communions. The ca- talogue of thefe is to be found in moft ecclefiaftic hiftories, but is too nume- rous to be inferted here. 3. The other catholic authors, who have wrote fince the beginning of the thir- teenth century, down to the prefent day, on matters of importance to religion, and who are called doétors. 4. The principal Lutheran authors, from Martin Luther, Phil. Melanchton, &c. to the prefent time. 5. The 230 UNiverRsaL ErvpiTiown. 5. The principal writers among the Cal- _ vinifts, from John Calvin, Zuinglius, Oecolampadus, &c. down to our own day. 6. The Socinian authors, who are alfo called Polonian brethren, whofe works have been collected ; as thofe of Socinus, Crel- lius, Walzogen, &c. | 7. The Janfenift and Molinift writers, &c, _ among the catholics: and laftly, 8. The writers among the various modern fects, as Quakers, Mennonifts, Herren- hutters, &c. * He, who fhall ftudy ecclefiaftical hiftory ac- cording to the plan we have here laid down, will acquire, we apprehend, a complete know- dedge of it, and at the fame time range in his _memory all its various matters, in a proper order. Hin? EHAP, ANTIQUITIES. 231 C H.A-P.. ..x. ANTIO DOUITIES. E fhould not confound in our ideas the different terms of Antiquities and An- tiques. By antiquities are meant all teftimonies or authentic accounts, that have come down to us, of ancient nations; and by antiques, thofe precious works in painting, architecture, fculp- ture, and graving, that were made from the time of Alexander the Great, to that of the emperor Phocas, and the devaftations of the barbarians ; that time has fpared and has committed to our care, and which are the ornaments of our cabi- nets and galleries, and fometimes of the gardens’ of princes. Antiques therefore make only a part of antiquities, and the latter form a very exten- five fcience, including “‘ an hiftorical knowledge of the edifices, magiftrates, offices, habiliments, manners, cuftoms, ceremonies, worfhip, and other objects worthy of curiofity, of all the prin- cipal ancient nations of the earth.” II. This fcience, therefore, is not a matter of mere curiofity, but is indifpenfable to the theo- logian ; ’ 23% Ontyrrsar Erupition, logian; who ought to be thoroughly acquainted with the antiquities of the Jews, to enable him properly to explain numberlefs paffages in the Old and New Teftament: to the lawyer ; who, without the knowledge of the antiquities of Greece and Rome, can never well underftand, and properly apply, the greateft part of the Ro- man laws: to the phyfician and the philofopher, that they may have a complete knowledge-of the hiftory and principles of the phyfic and philofo- phy of the ancients: to the critic, that he may be able to underftand and interpret ancient au- thors: to the orator and poet; who will be thereby enabled to ornament their writings with umberlefs images, allufions, comparifons, &c, all which | gave Mafenius occafion to fay : Qui- cunque ad aliquam inter Romanos eloquentie faculta- tem ad/pirat, hance veterem Romane urbis hiftoriam, originem, mores, infiituta hujus gentis, di i/ciplinam in toga fagoque ufitatam, tencre neceffe of. Neque enim citra banc cognitionem prifcos Romane eloquent tig affertores, Ciceronem, Livium, Plinium, Teren- tinm, aliofque, Satis quifquam vel legendo affequatyr, uel immitetut feribendo. Palaftr, Siyh Rom, L. III, ¢, 18. Til. Antiquities are divided into facred and profane, into public and private, univerfal and particular, &c. It is true that the antiquaries (efpecially fuch as are infe&ted with a fpirit of pedantiim, and. the number of thefe is great) fre- quently, carry their i inquirigs too far, and employ them- - ~~ ANTIQUITIES 233 elves in laborious refearches after learned trifles : but the abufe of a fcience ought never to make us neglect the applying 1 it to rational and ufeful purpofes. | IV, Many antiquaries alfo reftrain their learned labours to the ecclaitciflement of the antiquities of Greece and Rome: but this field is far too confined, and by no means contains the whole of this fcience, feeing it properly includes the antiquities of the Jews, Egyptians, . Perfians, Phenicians, Carthaginians, Hetrufcans, Germans, and, in general, all thofe principal nations whom we have mentioned in the sth chapter of ancient hiftory ; fo far as any accounts of them are come down to us, V. It will be eafily conceived, that it.is not poffible for us to enter here into the detail of all thefe matters : it is our bufinefs, however, to in- form our readers of what they ought to inquire after in the ftudy of the antiquities of each peo- ple, as far as the monuments or memoirs that are yet remaining can furnifh any lights ; and this is what remains to be done to complete this chapter. VI. The fcience of antiquities includes there- fore, 4. The origin of a people, and of the ame they bear, 2. The > 234. Universat Ervpition. --2. The local fituation of the country they inhabited. 3. The extent and bounds of their country. 4. The climate and its properties. 5. The genius and fpirit of the people. 6. Their manners. 7. The progrefs they have made in arts and fciences, in commerce, navigation, &c. 8. Their military capacity; their valour, dif- cipline, knowledge in fortification, &c. 9. The ‘geographic defcription of the coun- try its mountains, forefts, rivers, lakes, &c. to. The natural hiftory of the country ; its animals, plants, minerals, and other pro- ductions. 11. The account of its principal cities, and efpecially its capital. 12. Its bridges, gates, highways, and moft confiderable edifices, , 13. Its public places, 14. Its aqueducts, cifterns, fountains, 8c. 15. The palaces of its kings, princes, or fe- nate. 16. All its other public buildings, as arfe- nals, tribunals of juftice, public halls, &c. VII. And alfo, 17. The public libraries. 18. Public baths, | 19. Harbours and keys. ey 20. The- ANTIQUITIES. 238 20. Theatres, amphitheatres, circufes, places for public, combats, &c. 21, Subterraneous paflages for water, as com- mon fewers, &c. 22. Public magazines and granaries. 23. Public fciools. 24. The fields where the foldiery were exer- cifed. 25. The public mills. 26. The burfes, or places where the merchants affembled. 27. The houfes of private, perfons, as well in town as country. 28. Their carriages, cars, litters, &c. ecuries, &c, VIII. Embellifhments and ornaments in archi- ecture and ftatuary, as 29. Triumphal arches. 30. Columns, 31. Obcelifks, 32. Colofies. 33- Equeftrian and pedeftrian ftatues, groups, &c. | 34. Bafs-relieves, &c. To all which fhould be added inquiries into the mechanics of the ancients, or the machines of which they made ufe in their immenfe works, and the advancement they had made in this art, IX. Sacred #36 Universat Ervupitroy; IX. Sacred antiquities, comprehending, 35. Their temples, chapels, facred groves, —) &e. 36. The gods of each nation, their demigods, &c, 37. The general and particular worfhip -of _) each people, 38. Their idols, oracles, &c. 39- Their priefts, facrificers, augurs, flamens, and other perfons of both fexes employed in their facred offices. 40. Their folemn feafts, and particularly thofe inftituted in honour of each divinity, 41. The habiliments and ornaments of the priefts and ecclefiaftics. 42. The vafes, cenfers, altars, and utenfils that they employed in the facred fevice, 43. Their facrifices and viGtims. 44. Myfteries. 45. Sacred books. 46. Lares or domeftic gods. 47. Proceffions. And laftly, 48. The principal dogmas of the religion, and the precepts of morality of each people. X. In profarie aiitiquities, there are likewife to be inquired after, 49. The public fhews that were exhibited by the ancient nations in general. 50. Their tragedies, comedies, mimes, panto- mimes, &c. | 51. Their ANTIQUITIES 3% g1. Their games, as the olympic and capito- _ lian games: their fairs; 8c. 52. The combats of gladiators, wreftlers, wild beaits, &c. 53. Lhe races of men and horfes. §4. The mulic of the ancients, and the inftru- ments that were in ufe. among each people. This divifion likewife includes their triumphs, and the feveral crowns and dia- dems with which they ornamented the heads of their emperors, kings, conquer- ors, priefts, priefteffes, poets, and other il- luftrious perfonages, &c. XI. They next pafs to the examination of po- litical {ubjects, as 55. The form of government, 56. The divifion of a people into tribes. 57. The chiefs of each people, and their au- thority. 58. The heads of their tribes. 59. Their magiftrates. 60. Their manner of rendering juftice, and the method of procefs in their laws, 61. Their criminal juftice. 62. Fhe corporeal punifhments, and other po- litical pains, penalties, and ignominies which they inflicted. 63. The various claffes of the inhabitants ; as, among the Romans, the patriciens, knights, plebeians, fenators, the people in a body, : the: 238 Untversar Eruoprrion: the nobles, ignobles, the ingenui, the fréed= men and the /ertini. 64. Their flaves; the nature of flavery, fervi- tude, and of the peculium or property of flaves, 65. Their ambaffadors and their privileges, 66. ‘Their military officers of all ranks; the nature of their troops, théir duty, and of _ __ the art of war among then. 67. The civil laws of each people. 68. Their criminal laws. ' 69. The public conftitution of each nation. 70. The affemblies of the people, and their _ delibérations on the affairs of ftate: 71. The nature of the finances of the ancient nations, and of their contributions. 72. The induftry of the people, their manu: ‘fa€tures and commerce. 73. Their mines, and the manner of working’ them. 74. Their agriculture and rural economy. 75- Their weights arid meafures. 76. Their current coins, and their value. 77- Their medals, and their ufe. 78. The folemn forms which they obferved, » ~ as well in their public ‘acts, as in their con- tracts, wills, and other private affairs. XII. In the laft place, they examine into cer- tain ufages and cuftoms obferyed by ancient na- tions, in private life, as 79. Eheit ANTiQuiTigzS, 239 79. Their marriages. 80. Their burials, fepulchres, funeral urns, &c. 81. The ordinary drefs of the inhabitants of both fexes ; their manner of cloathing the head, body, and feet; and the ornaments of their drefs, &c. $2. Their different kinds of foods; and me- theds of preparing them. $2. Thet manner of fitting at table. 84. Their ordinary drink, and ftrong liquors. 85. Lheir beds, dormitories, furniture and utenfils. 86. Their chefts and cabinets. 87. The proper names of the ancients, and efpecially thofe of the Romans, who had feveral, as Marcus Tullius Cicero: and an infinity of other like matters, as, $8. The education they gave their children, &c. XIII. If to all thefe general fubjeéts we: add the particular ftudy of antiques, of the ftatues, bafi-relieves, and the precious relicks of architec- ture, painting, camaycus, medals, 8c. it is eafy to conceive that antiquities form a fcience very exteniive and very complicate, and which is alone fufficient to employ the whole lite of a man who is a laborious ftudent: and though a ftrong me- mory be the principal faculty that isrequired, yet great fagacity and attention are neceflary in com- paring the feveral objects, in drawing judicious” inferences, eK Sl Oe a4 hy te : >. ait ae a40 Universat Erubdirion: inferences, and in formirig from thence an inge- pious and rational fyftem. . It is manifeft; more- over, that the ftudy of aiitiquities muft be vaftly extenfive; when we confider that all the articles we have enumerated for one people; muft be ex- tended to all the nations of antiquity; and that we muit know them, as if, in a manner, we had lived among them; But this is 4 knowledge that it would have been impoffible for any one man whatever to have attained, if our predecef- fors had not prepared the way for us; if they had not left us fuch ineftimable works as: thofe of Gronovius; Grevius; Montfaucon, count Caylus, Winckelmann, the Hebraic antiquities, of D. Iken of Bremen, the Grecian antiquities of Brunings, the Roman antiquities of Nieupoort, and efpecially that work which is intitled Biblio- eraphia Antiquaria Joh. Alberti Fabricii, pro- feffor at Hamburg. XIV. Nor muft we here forget that very valuable work, with which Mr. Robert Wood, am Englifhman, has lately enriched this feience, and which is fo: well known, and fo juftly efteem-. ed: by all true connoiffeurs, under the title of the Ruins of Palmyra, and thofe of Balbeck. It is by this work that we are fully convinced of the grandeur and magnificence, the tafte and elegance of the buildings of the ancients. We here fee that the invention of thefe matters is not all owing to the Greeks, but that there were other nations who ferved them as models. For : thoveh Fe ANTIQUITIES | 24% though many of the edifices of Palmyra are to be attributed to the emperor Aurelian, and to Odenatus and his wife Zenobia, who reigned there about the year 264, yét there are found, at the fame place, ruins of buildings, that ap- pear to be of far greater antiquity, and that are not lefs beautiful. The ancient Perfepolis is fufficient to prove this affertion,. When we ferioufly reflect on all thefe matters, and efpecial- ly if we attempt to acquire any knowledgé of this. fcience, we fhall foon be PELE TE | that it but ill becomes a petit-maitre to laugh at | a learned antiquary. © XV. The knowledge of thefe monuments of the ancients, the works of {culpture, ftatuary, graving, painting, &c. which they call antiques, requires a ftrict attention; with regard to the matter itfelf on which the art has been exer- cifed ; as the wax, clay, wood, ivory, ftones of every kind, marble, flint, bronze, and every fort of metal, We fhould begin by learning on what matter each . ancient nation principally worked, and. in which of the fine arts they ex- celled. For the matter itfelf,. as the different forts of marble; compofitions of metals, and the fpecies of precious ftones, ferve frequently ta characterize the true antique, and to difcover the counterfeit. The connoiffeurs pretend alfo to know, by certain diftinct charatters in the defign and execution of a work of art, the age and nation where it was made. They find, more- Vou. If. Q over, I. ee, is ST Ne VS Pee, SS ce ae 242 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION. over, in the invention and execution, a degree of excellence, which modern artifts are not able to imitate. Now, though we ought to allow, in general, the great merit of the ancients in the polite arts, we fhould not, however, fuffer our admiration to lead us into a blind fuperftition. There are pieces of antiquity of every fort, which have come down to us, that are perfectly excel- lent, and there are others fo wretched, that the meaneft among modern artifts would not ac- knowledge them. The mixture of the good and bad has taken place in all fubjects, at all times, and in all nations. ‘ The misfortune is, that moft of our great antiquaries have been fo little fkilled in defigning, as fcarcely to know how to draw a circle with a pair of compafies. It is prejudice therefore, which frequently directs them to give the palm to the ancients, rather than a-judgement directed by a knowledge of the art. That charaéter of expreffion, which they find fo marvellous in the works of anti- quity, is often nothing more than a mete chi- mera, They pretend that the artifts of our days conftantly exaggerate their expreffions ; that a modern Bacchus has the appearance of aman diftraé&ted with intoxication; and that a Mercury feems to be animated with the fpirit Of a fury, and fo of the reft. But let them not » decide too haftily. Almoft all the antique fi- gures are totally void of all fpirit of expreffion ; ‘we are forced to guefs at their characters. Every artificial expreffion requires, moreover, ." to ANTIQUITIES. 243. to be fomewhat exaggerated. A ftatue or por- trait is an inanimate, a dead figure, and muft therefore have a very different effect from one,, which, being endowed with life, has the mufcles conftantly in play, and where the continual change of the features, the motion of the eyes, and the looks, more or lefs lively, eafily and clearly exprefs the paffions and _ fentiments, Whereas in a figure, that is the produce of art, the delicate touches, that fhould exprefs the paffions, are loft.to the eyes of ‘the fpeétators : they muft therefore be ftruck by ftrong, bold characters, which can affect them at the firft glance of the eye. A very moderate artift is fenfible, at the fame time, that he is not to give his figures extravagant expreflions, nor to place them in diftorted attitudes. XVI. We will finifh this chapter with one material obfervation. All the fciences, by which we can acquire any knowledge of antiquity, as, 1, That which we have here explained ; 2. that of medals and coins; 3. the diplomatic, and the explication of infcriptions, or what is called LEpigrammatographica, or res lapidaria; and 4, The knowledge of books, are comprifed under the common collective title of Literature. But by a caprice of the literati, they have in- cluded, under that denomination, the philofophic fciences and hiftory : though for fo doing, there can be no good reafon whatever, Why fhould we perplex the ideas of thofe who are defirous Q2 of a 244 Universaur ErupbiTion. of obtaining a knowledge of thefe matters, by confounding the fciences ? Ought we not much rather to endeavour carefully tomark their diftine& Jimits? But perhaps their intention is to: com- prehend, under the denomination of literature, ' the whole of Univerfal Erudition; and if that be. the cafe, we are not defirous of difputing with any one about words. SARRUAR.NH ARS AEA CHAP. XI. Of MeEpALs and Coins. I, "E fhall begin with coins, becaufe they are moft ancient, and of moft univer- fal ufe; money was current a long time before - they had invented the method of preferving the memory of illuftrious perfons, by thofe little monuments of metal, which imitate coins, and are eafily difperfed among mankind, and which are called Medals. The number that has been made of thefe medals is, befide, vaftly in- ferior to that of monies; and the coins of the ancients are, moreover, become our medals. The Mepats and Corns, 245 The learned comprehend thefe two objects, which form an important part of literature, under the denomination of Res Nummaria, or Numifimatica. II. It is certain, that in the moft ancient times, all commerce was carried on by barter. There was always a neceffity, however, for a fort of common meafure, by which they eftimat- ed the value of commodities. The firft inhabi- tants of the earth were almoft all fhepherds and hufbandmen: they therefore made that common meafure to confift of a certain portion of their flocks, which was confidered tanquam_ pretium eminens: and any commodity was faid to be worth fo many oxen, fheep, &c. as is confirmed by Gellius, Nodes Attica, 1. xi. c. 1. In procefs of time, they found it more expedient to exprefs the value of moft commodities, by bits of lea- ther, which by their marks fhowed the number of beafts they were worth, This was the firft money, and the origin of all coins. Hiftory fays pofitively, that Numa Pompilius caufed money to be made of wood and leather: and from hence came the Latin word pecunia. Caf- fiodorus fays likewife in exprefs terms: Pecunia enim a pecudis tergo nominate, Gallis auctoribus, fine aliquo adbuc figno ad metalla tranflata ef. Ue treats alfo de affibus fcorteis in the tenth book. ° _ JIL. Metals being found the moft incorruptible of all fubftances, they afterwards made ule of a | bits PY. ee ae ee i ty, tt Ne ee i il 246 Unitversat Erupition. bits of rough copper in the room of leather, which they called «s rude, and reckoned by their weight : thefe were after marked according to their weight, and laftly, with images, And we {till fee, on the moft ancient coins, the figures of animals, and efpecially of oxen and fwine, Numa, toward the end of his reign, began to caft money, and it was from him that came the word Nummus. They formed pieces of money of different weights, and marked on each, as we have juft faid, its weight, or its intrinfic value, It is time that perfects ail inventions, and it was time that taught the ancient mations (as it may one day teach the modern Swedes) that the precious metals were more commodious in the commerce of life, and that a lefs weight might exprefs, and be equal to, a greater value; and from difcovering this, they came to form money of filver and gold. IV. But, in the daily ufe of thefe pieces, it would be impoffible always to weigh them, and much fraud might arife by depending on their marks. To obviate this inconvenience, the fovereigns of each country took on them the exclufive office of making money; and that the public might be certain the weight was juftly marked, they ftamped them on one fide with their image, and on the other with their arms or cypher: which practice has continued to the prefent day: and it is manifeft, that the credit and glory of a prince is concerned in | having Mepvats and Corns, . e4y having the coin, which bears his image, contain the true value, both with regard ¢ to the prefent age, and to pofterity. V. Mankind have alfo contrived to preferve the memory of great events, and of RT perfonages, by coins which they call medals : term that is manifeftly derived from the a metal. Thefe precious monuments of antiquity do not, therefore, ferve merely to engage the curiofity of the fcholar and the connoiffeur, but are of ufe alfo in elucidating hiftory ; in fixing the chronology, and in throwing clear lights on ancient events: and as the current coins of antiquity cannot pafs among us, on account of the fmall number that is remainin of them, and of the difference i in value of gold and filver, thefe coins are now become the moft precious medals. a VI. The greateft part of antique coins and me- dals, efpecially the Greek and Roman, are fo finely ftruck, the defign and graving fo perfect, the in- vention fimple and fublime, and the tafte fo exqui- fite, that independent of their utility in hiftory, we ‘cannot fufficiently admire their intrinfic merit, and muft conftantly regard them as inconteftable proofs of the perfection of the arts in thofe diftant ages. It is not therefore wonderful, that fo many perfons of difcernment, tafte, and learn- ing, have employed themfelves in forming col- - Jeétions of the coins and medals of the ancients ; and 248 Universart Erupition. and that fo many learned men have wrote curious and inftructive treatifes concerning them ; and Jaftly, that the knowledge of thefe precious mo- numents is become a very extenfive branch of {cience, under the title of Numismatographia ; and which we fhall now endeayour briefly to explain, VII. Medals may be divided into different claffes, (1.) According to the time when they were ftruck: and in this refpeét they are either, y. Antiques; which are. thofe that were made from the moft ancient times of which we haye any account, down to the fixth or feyenth century of the Chriftian era. 2. Thofe of the middle age ; which 1 is from the feyenth century, or the death of Phocas and Heraclius, in 641, when Italy became a prey to the Barbarians; where thofe fine medals that are called Imperials end, and where begin thofe of the lower empire; and,of the Grecian empe- -sors, down to the taking of Conftantinople. The Gothics continue the feries from the Impe- rials, .They are fo called, becaufe they were made in the time of the Goths, during the decline of the two empires; and they refemble the ignorance of their age. The connoiffeurs pay but little regard to thee: they are, however, of. great importance in hiltory, in afcertaining the true chronology of events. Thefe come quite down to the fifteenth century. 3. The **Mevpars and Corns, ~ 249 3. The modern; which are thofe that have been ftruck in Europe, from the time that. the Goths were exterminated, and the art of engraving began again to flourifh. The firft of thefe is that of John Hufs, a famous heretic, which was ftruck in the year 1415. This art has rofe with great luftre from its afhes : there are now many excellent medallifts, and we have feen pieces executed by the celebrated Hedlin- ger, a Swede, which, prejudice apart, are nothing - inferior to the moft finifhed that Greece and ‘Rome have left us, VIE. (2.) According to the nature and qua- lity of the metal: and in this refpect they are either of . 1. Gold; whofe feries is the leaft nume- rous, and raltte exeeeds 1000 or 1200 in the imperials, | 2. Silver; the feries of which may amount to 3000, in the imperials alone. . Brafs; which are of three different fizes, ‘that are called the great, the middle, and fmall, and of which the feries‘ amounts to 6 or 7000, if not more, in the imperials. It is not, how- ever, either the metal or the magnitude that renders medals valuable, but the rarity of the head, the reverfe, or the legend. A medal may be common in gold that is very fcarce in brafs ; or very rare in filver, that is common in gold or brafs. A head may be common that has a very uncommon réverfe, and the contrary. There are 2950 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION. are alfo medals that are only fcarce in fome fe- ries, and very common in others, as in gold, filver, the great, middle, or {mall brafs. IX. (3.) According to their effential qua- lities, and the ufe to which they have been ap- plied: and in this refpect they are, r, Coins, that have anciently feryed in the: commerce of life, but which time has rendered — medals. 2. Real medals, ftruck in the form of coins, either in gold, filver or brafs, to prefecve to pofterity the image of illuftrious perfons, or the memory of fome important action. _ 3, Medallions; which are properly nothing more than medals uncommonly large; and which have been prefented by princes to thofe whom they have honoured with their efteem : or to ferve as public monuments. The Romans named them Miffilia, There is no feries to be formed of thefe, even if the different magni- tudes and metals be united: and there are not _ above four or five hundred of them to be found in the richeft cabinets. 2 X. (4.) According to the nation by whom they have been made: and in this cafe they are, | 1. Hebraic. The common opinion is, that there are no Hebrew medals, and that the Jews learned the knowledge of them from the Ro- ‘mans, when they invented the art of clipping them. Merpats and “Corns, 25% them. ‘But, as we have faid in the firft fection, the coins of the ancients are become our medals, and efpecially the Hebraic, which are alfo cal- Jed Samaritan, becaufe their legend is ufually in the Samaritan language, and there is reafon to believe that there was a mint in that city. There are twenty paffages in the Bible which prove that the Jews knew the ufe of money in the time of Solomon. In the cabinets of the cutious there are to be found thekels of copper or filver, and we are affured that there is a gold Hebraic medal in the cabinet of the king of Denmark: but this is the only one that is known, Father Soucier has wrate ia differtation on Hebraic or Samaritan medals, where he ac- curately diftinguifhes the true from the falfe; defcribes all the kinds of thofe that are true, and fhows that they were real Hebrew coins ftruck by the Jews, after the models of the an- cient monies, and that they were current before the captivity of Babylon. All thofe medals how- “ever, that we fee with the head of Mofes and “Jefus Chrift, are manifeftly falfe. It has been a pious or fuperftitious fraud, but ftill more commonly a thirft of gain that has fabricated thefe. Laftly, it is neceffary to obferve, that ‘the Jews counted by talents, thekels, bekas, zuzas or dracmons, and by geras. The gera was equal to fix fols of France, or three Englith pence. There were ‘thekels of gold and of filver the filver thekel is that which is commonly taken - for a penny, and of which the Jews gave thirty to —_ ee Tay ee ee ee ey pee * “7 4 252 UNIVERSAL ERuUDITION. to Judas as the price of his perfidy in betraying. our Saviour. It has on one fide the figure of Aaron’s rod, with this infcription, Jeroucha- Jaim Hakkedoucha, Jerufalem the holy ; and on the other the cup in which the manna was kept, that was preferved in the fanctuary, with thefe words round it, Chekel Ifchrael, or the money of Ifrael. After the Romans became matters of Paleftine, the Jews put the image of the emperors on their coins, as appears by the words of our Saviour himfelf, in chap. 20, of the gofpel of St. Luke. XI. There are likewife, 2. Egyptian medals, which are very rare. 3. Chinefe; but of which there are {carce any that are antique. 4. Syriac. 5. - Perfian. ‘6. Arabic. | 7. Greek; which are the moft beautiful of all: for the Greeks ftruck coins in all the three metals, with an art fo excellent, that the Ro- -mans were never able to equal them. The figures on the Greek medals have a defign, an attitude, a ftrength and delicacy, which expref- fes the mujfcles and the veins in a manner infi- _, nitely fuperior to thofe of the Romans. Thefe , are very {carce and extremely valuable. 8. The Roman; which are elegant, common, and authentic, and of which a feries may be formed Mepa rs and Corns. 253° - formed almoft without any interruption. We: fhall hereafter fpeak more fully of thefe. g. The Hetrufcan; of which it is pretended there are ftill fome to be found, but of this many learned men have a rational doubt. 10. The Punic or Carthaginian: thefe are not fcarce, efpecially in fmall brafs. They ‘are eafily diftinguifhed by their emblem, which is a crocodile refting againft a palm tree; and was the arms of the republic of Carthage. There are fome of them alfo that have a human figure on one fide holding a {pear in one hand, with this infcription Kart-hago; and on the > other the head of a horfe, in profile, and un- der, on the exergue is XI! rt. The Parthian. | | 12. The Gothic: thefe are ill thaped pieces, ‘and of which neither the characters nor emblems are explicable. The Goths, having made them- felves mafters of Italy, would imitate the em- perors, and caufed money to be immediately ftruck, with a form and charaéter of their own: but they fucceeded very badly; and in their gold coins there is not fometimes a fourth part that is pure. There are however fome medals of their kings, as Atalaric, Theodal, Witiges, Totilas, Attila, &c. which fhould be ranged after the laft emperors of the Weft. 13. The Spanifh; which were made in‘imi- . tation of the Punic, becaufe the Carthaginians were then mafters of Spain; and they had par- ticular Ss a CU 4 as UNIVERSAL ErRuDiTION. ticular charafters which no body now under- ftands. 14. The modern European. _ 15. The Mifcellaneous: thefe do not belong to any regular feries or fyftem; but have been ftruck by fome particular city. Thefe are met with by chance, and there is frequently much _ labour required to decypher and explain them. XIL. It would be to enter an immenfe laby- rinth, were we here to attempt to deferibe all the different coins and medals, and to point out. their echaracteriftics. We muft content ourfelves with explaining their general qualities. Every medal has two fides, which are called its face and reverfe. On each fide there is. the field, which is the middle of the medal; the rim or border; and the exergue, which is that part that is beneath the ground on which the figures ftand. On the two fides they diftinguifh the type, and infcription or legend. The type is the figures that are reprefented; and the infcrip- tion, or legend, is the writing, and principally © that which is on the rim. Though frequently in the Greek medals, and fometimes in the La- tin, the infcriptiom is on the field. That which is on the exergue is lefs commonly called in- {cription, becaufe it frequently confitts of initial letters only, the meaning of which is not under- ftood. Thofe which are counterfeits of the an- tique are called falfe medals: thofe which are in part effaced are named defaced medals: fuch as are ~~ “ Mepatcs and Corns, 255 _ @ré called reftored medals have the letters ref. on them; which fhow that they were reftored by the’ emperors, in order to render them perpetual ; thofe that were made of copper, and afterward covered with filver, are called, cafed medals: fuch as have only a very thin coat of filver over the copper, but which are fo dextroufly done that it cannot be perceived, without cutting them, ate faid to be plated: cleft medals are thofe that ate cracked on the edge by the force of the ftamp: thofe that are notched on the edge are called indented medals ; this is a proof of their value and antiquity: incufe medals are fuch as have no reverfe : counter-marked medals are fuch as have a ftamp either on the face or on the reverfe, and which fhows. that they have changed their value; the curious make much featch after thefe : caft medals are fuch as were not ftruck, but caft in a mould. XIII. To give our readers an idea of the me- thod of examining all forts of medals; and of making a juft and learned decifion concerning them, we fhall take, as an example, the coins and medals of the Romans, which may ferve as miodels in every refpect; and of which we have remaining the moft complete feries, They there- fore confider,. 1. The metal. Gold* medals are not liable to be injured by ruft; ahd the gold of which they are made is very pure, even finer than that of the Holland ducats. There is no great _ . . ' ee a Youre N° “ae 256 UNIVERSAL. Er upitrow! great number of their filver medals; and they are commonly very imall: of thefe there can be no remarkable clafs or divifion formed : filver is likewife not f{ubject to ruft. The medals of brafs, and the coins of copper, are, on the con- trary, fo numerous, that a regular and complete fyftem may be formed of them. They .are di- vided, as we have faid, into large, middle and fmall. The connoiffeurs pretend alfo that there are likewife fome of Corinthian metal. There is found on the copper an antique’ ruft, that refembles a varnifh, and is called patima : it is of a variable colour between green and black, and prevents the ruft from eating any further, This ruft the moderns have not hitherto been able to imitate. There are alfo medallions that are called 4ris moduli maximi, and ris maxiii and which are known by not having the ufual mark of the letters S.O. There are. alfo me- dals or coins of iron, tin, and even lead (plum- bei nummi.) XIV. 2. The time when they were ftruck, In the Roman medals they diftinguith two periods, The firft is of thofe that were made in the time of the republic, and are named Nummi confulares : and the fecond is of thofe that were ftruck un- der the emperors, and are named Nummi impera- torum, and Imperiales. ° | 3- The reprefentation of a medal: in which they examine, 1. on one fide the face, image or buft: 2. the reverfe, or iconologic reprefenta- _ tion ; 7) ee or >, Mepats and Corns, 259 tion: and here we muft obferve, that iconology is the art of reprefenting to the fight all forts of memorable events by images or fymbols, in which a corporeal figure reprefents a moral or ideal obje&t. The Greeks and Romans made frequent ufe of thefe in their medals. And 3. the infcription; in which the ancients employed particular abbreviations, that are neceflary to be known: thus S. F. fignified feculi felicitas : T. F. temporum felicitas: C. R. claritas reip: S. A. /pes Augufta, &c. Sometimes alfo the name of the city is feen, where the piece was made; or monograms, with the name of the mafter of the mint, and other like matters. XV. 4. The value of the coin, as it paffed in the community where it was made; fuch as the ’ denarii, affes, quinarit, feftertii, fefquitertii, lidel- la, fimbella, &c. Thefe values are commonly marked on the coins by figns. | 6. The fingularity or fcarcity of a medal, which forms its hypothetic value. Thus, in the Roman medals, thofe of Otho, Pertinax, Gordianus, Africanus, are of ineftimable worth, becaufe they are, fo to fay, fingular. In like manner when there are two bufts or heads toge- ther (capita jugata) &c. with other important or remarkable fingularities. 6. The preiervation of a medal; that is, whether it has been well pteferved, or effaced, diminifhed, or injured by ruft, or otherwife damaged ; which diminifhes its value. There Vor, Il. R are <4 Se eee 258 Universat Ervpitiown. are fometimes medals found fo fair and frefh, that they appear as if they were juft come out of the mint. The French name thefe a Fleur de éoin, and the Italians, Di tutta offervazione. 7. The beauty of the defign, and the per- fection of the engraving, as well as the relief, in which the ancients, and efpecially the Greeks, ex- celled. By this is meant the whole compofition ofa medal. To judge properly of thefe mat- ters; it is neceflary to underftand drawing, and engraving ; to be a connoiffeur in the polite arts; and, by feeing a great number of fuch as are ex- cellent, to form a refined tafte. 8. In the confular coins or medals, the Roman family to which they belong is alfo to be cons fidered. There are medals of 178 illuftrious . families of Rome. g. Laftly, in order to underftand well, and properly judge of antique coins, we fhould be verfed in hiftory and antiquities, and know the cuftoms, ceremonies and manners of ancient nations,. XVI; But as the medals of the ancients have been frequently counterfeited, and as’ it is of great confequence not to be deceived in this mat- ter, numifmatography points out to us the prin- cipal characteriftics of thefe counterfeits, and the marks by: which we may diftinguith the true from the falfe. Thele fititious medals are therefore divided into five claffes. 1. Such ag have been defigned and made, in modern times, pie . ip = «3 wm tl a te a Mepats and Corns. 25g in imitation of thofe of the antique. 2. Such as have been accurately copied after fome an- tique medal that really exilts. 3. Thofe that have been formed or caft in the mold of an - ancient medal. 4. Such as are compofed of two antique medals, by cementing or joining them together. 5. Thofe that are réally an- tique, but that have been altered and fophitti- cated, But notwithftanding all the precautions’ that numiimatography gives in full. detail, it -is ftill very difficult for the connoiffeur to avoid: thofe fnares that: are: continually laid ror him; and even nor co be frequently deceived. XVIIv With regard to the methods of which ‘the ancients made ufe in forming or coining’ their moneys and medals, we know bat litcle of the matte?. The opinions of ‘the learned con- cerning ‘it differ widely: Ostavio Ligorio, an Italian amiquary, imagines that they drew the defign on the medal itfelf; and afterward graved - it in relief? To conclude; the moft celebrated: writers on medals are, Antonius Auguftinus, bifhop: of Tarracon ,; Wolff, Lazius, Fulvius Urfinus, Hu- bertius Goltzius, Andrew Schot, «ycfuit, Lewis Non-- nius, aphyfician, neas Vicus, Oifelias; Seguin; Occo, Trifan; Sirmond, Vaillant, Charles Patin; Noris, Spanbeim, Hardoin, Morel, ‘Joubert, count’ Mezzabarba, M. Begher, &c. Father Bandouri has placed, at the head of his collection of me- dals, Bibliotheca mummaria, Siye auctorum yui dé numifmaribas feripferunt.’ ; R 2 CHAP. 260 UNIversat ERUDITION. C HAP. Re DIPLOMATICS. HIS fcience does not, nor can it, extend its refearches to antiquity ; but is confined to the middle age, and the firft centuries of mo- dern times. For though the ancients were ac- cuftomed to reduce their contracts and treaties into writing, yet they graved them on tables, or covered them over with wax, or brafs, cop- per, ftone or wood, &c. And all that in the firft ages were not traced on brafs or marble has perifhed by the length of time, and the number of deftructive events. Notwithftanding which, diplomatics muft not be regarded as a trifling {cience, or as of mere curiofity : on the contra- ry, it is ufeful, indifpenfable, and of the greateft importance to erudition in general, and to lite- rature in particular. II. As the objects which enter into diploma- tics, and on which it is exercifed, make it a — diftinét {cience, it is therefore only neceflary to know thofe objects and their denominations, as they have been defcribed by the learned of dif- ferent ages. We fhall begin by explaining the peculiar terms of t the art ; and we imagine that it DIPLOMATICS. 26y ‘it will be afterward eafy to explain the fyftem of the {cience itfelf. III. The word diploma fignifies, properly, a letter or epiftle, that is folded in the middle, and that is not open. But, in more modern times, the title has been given to all ancient epiftles, letters, literary monuments, and public docu- ments, and to all thofe pieces of writing which the ancients called Syngrapha, Chirographa, Codicilli, &c. In the middle age, and in the diplomas themfelves, thefe writings are called Littere, Pracepta, Placita, Chart indicula, Sigilla, and Bullz; as alfo Pancharte, Panto- charte, Tractoriz, Defcriptiones, &c. The ori- ginals of thefe pieces are named Examplaria, or Autographa, Charte authentice, Originalia, &c.° and the copies, Apographa, Copia, Parti- cule, and fo forth. The collections, that have been made of them, are called Chartaria and Chartulia. The place where thele papers and documents were kept, the ancients named Scri- nia, Tabularium, or /Erarium, words that were derived from the tables of brafs, and according to the Greek idiom, Archeium or Archivum. IV. In order to underftand the nature of thefe ancient papers, diplomas and manufcripts, and to diftinguifh the authentic from the counter- feit, it is neceflary to know that the paper of the ancients came from Egypt, and was form- ed 262 UNIVERSAL E.RupitTiow ed of thin leaves or membranes, . taken from. the branches of a tree, named Papyrus, or Biblum fEgypthiacum, and which were pafted one over the other with the fliime of the Nile, and were prefled and, polifhed with a pumice ftone. This paper was very fcarce, and. it was of va- rious qualities, forms and_ prices, ..which’, they diftinguithed by the names, of charta hieratica, luria, augufta, amphitheatrica, faitica, tanirica, emporetica,) &c. .. They cut this paper into {quare leaves, which they, pafted one) to: the other, in order to make rolls of them ; from whence an intire book was called ealumens from volvendo; and the leaves, of which it confifted, pagine. Sumetimes, -alfo, they patted the leaves altogether, by one.of their extremities, as is now practited in binding ; by. this method they formed the back of a book, and thefe the learn- ed call codices. They: rolled the volume round a ftick, which they named umbilicus, and the two -ends, that , came out beyond the paper, cornua,, The title, wrote on. parchment, ., in -purple: characters, was joined to the latt theet, and ferved it asa cover. They.made ufe.of all forts; of firings or ribbands, ‘and.even fome- times of locks, to clofe the book, and fometimes alfo it was put. into a cafe, But there is not now to be found, in any library or cabinet what- ever, any. one of thefe volumes. We have been affured, however, by a traveller, that he had feen feveral.of them in the ruins of Herculane- um, but fo damaged, the paper fo ftiff and brit- tle, DrpLroMaTics. 263 tle, by the length of time, that it was impoffible to unrol them, and confequently to make any ufe of them, for on the firft touch they fell into fhatters. We fhall fpeak hereafter of thofe books gi call codices. V. We are ignorant of the precife time when: our modern paper was invented, and when they. began to make ufe of pens in writing, inftead of the ftalks of reeds... The ink, that-the-an- Of Travets and Traverngrs. ef% gad all the regions of the eaft, in queit of thofe ious monuments of antiquity, which may on the knowledge of aricient hiftory. Thus the politician vifits every civilized nation, in or- det to learn their manners, their pohey, and form of government. And thus the man of curiofity flies to the moft diftant parts. of the earth, in fedrch of unknown nations, and to tify bis defire of making new difcoveries, i it therefore, to thefe five objects that we may reduce the defign of all travellers. Lik. It were to be withed, that all, who un- dertake long journeys from either of thefe mo- tives, would not only provide themfelves. with all, the neceffary preliminary knowledge, which could give them a well. grounded hope of fuc- cefs in their attempt, but alfo, that before they engage in fo difficult an enterprife, they would lay down a judicious plan for their journey, ‘and for all the objects that relate to. their inquiries. Ie were alfo to be withed, that they would com- municate their defign to the public, at leafta year before they fet off, by an advertifement-in all the licerary gazettes, that the learned might be induced to communicate their falutary. in- formations and advice, relative to the undertak- ing. Whoever has tread the inftructions that were drawn up by M. Baumgarten, profefior at Hall, for ‘the young batchelors of arts, whe were fent for to teach philology, in a celebrated Greek convent fituate on the promontory of | Athos, ides ot 2 a 282 Universart Ervprrion: Athos, and thofe which profeffor Michaélis of Gottingen gave to the learned men, who were Jately fent to the Holy Land, and other parts of Afia, by the king of Denmark, will clearly fee the importance, utility, and even indifpenfable neceffity of fuch informations. He, who does not know what it is he ought to inquire after, can never expect to find, except it be by chance, any thing remarkable that others have not found before him. It were to be wifhed, in the laft place, that no one would undertake fuch a journey, without the company of fome one fkillful in drawing, and even in geometry ; for there are a thoufand occafions where it will be neceffary to meafure altitudes and diftances, and a thoufand objects, of which adequate de- {criptions cannot be given, of which we cannot form a true idea, without the help'of figures. IV. During the courfe of his journey, the ‘traveller cannot be too much on his guard, as well againft his own credulity, as the {nares that will be laid for him by the inhabitants of the countries through which he fhall travel. All - rations of the earth, and efpecially thofe af the warm Climates, are full of ancient traditions and fables ; which, if he fhould believe, would carry him far diftant from the truth. Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and almoft all the ancient hiftorians, geographers, and travellers, have been the dupes of thefe relations. We cannot read, without difguft, the idle tales they recount, and Of Travers and Travetirrs. 283, and by which their wretched credulity is in- ceffantly fhown. We are inclined to fay to the travellers who relate fuch tales: Sir, if I had feen thefe things myfelf, I foould not bave beliewed ‘them, but I believe them becaufe you have feen them. ‘A traveller fhould examine all things with his own eyes, and fhould-write down all he fees on the fpot, in his protocol, or itinerary.” Idlenefs is incompatible with accuracy, and whoever is ‘fearful of inconvenience, fatigue and expence, muft never hope to produce a relation of his travels worthy of regard. V. A defire of recounting marvellous rela- tions is natural to all travellers ; but they fhould remember, that all that is marvellous appears conftantly fufpicious to a rational mind; and that it is even more prudent to fupprefs facts, which, though true, are incredible, than to ren- der their veracity doubtful by aftonifhing re- ports. Candor, fincerity, accuracy, and a judi- cious difcernment, fhould be conftantly confpi- cuous in* every’ relation, The ground work fhould be laid in truth, and the ornaments fhould be pleating and judicious: for it is by " jaft and pertinent reflections, that relations of this kind are prevented from becoming dry and difagreeable, — VI. There are but few good relations of tra- -yels made in Europe ; becaufe it has been very difficult, and even dangerous to {peak the truth. It 4 =. ee ees gd ee eee i ile ae coe te es a Bl ¢ va ad 2 I ae a st, ry 284 Universar Erupirron. It: fhould feem as if the people were afhamed of their countries, and the princes of their conduét, Such as have given true accounts have been. perfecuted for their veracity, The travels of Keifler, in Europe, are the moft ef- teemed, and the moft worthy of eftimation, There are fome made in other parts of the world, that are very valuable. The travels of Tavernier in Turkey, Perfia, Moguftan, &c, are much celebrated, but the ftri& truth does not always appear manifeft in them: the me- thod of valuing diamonds according to. their fize and weight, and the perfe&tion of the wa- ter, is the moft interefting article they contain, -The travels of Chardin in Perfia, of DuHalde in China, of Kempfer in Japan, of Shaw in Egypt, of Kolbu to the Cape of Good Hope, the relation which M. de la Condamine made to the academy of fciences on his return from América, the celebrated voyage of Lord Anfon round the world, &c. are mafter-pieces of this kind, and may ferve as models to all who fhall hereafter undertake fimilar enterprifes. VII. We owe to England’the firft idea of an admirable work, confifting of a vat collection of the beft relations of travels and voyages, and reduced~into a regular fyftem. This work firft appeared at London under the title of a Collection of voyages and travels, in folio; the firft‘ four volumes in 1704, and the fifth and fixth in 1732, and’ the feyenth and: eighth in . STAT Of Travers and Travenizrs; 28% 1747. This grand) work has been: tranflated into almoft all languages, but particularly into German, and French by abbé Prevot, un- der the title of A General Hiltory of Voy- ages and travels, in thirteen quarto volumes, Paris 1744, and at the Hague 1746. The French tranflation, but efpecially the German, is enriched with many notes that are inftruétive, and that reétify confiderable errors in the ori- ginal. Whoever has courage enough to attempt, and perfeverance enough to labour through thir- teen quarto volumes, may acquire a complete knowledge of all travels that have been under- taken, and of all the known countries in the four parts of the globe, without having fcarce any occafion to apply to other books of the kind. This work may however, at all times, be of ufe as adi€tionary, to be confulted occafionally con cerning any particular country of which we tay want information, VUI. In a kingdom that is furrounded by the the fea, and whofe power arifes from navigation, it appeared neceffary to render thefe accounts in- terefting to mariners. For which reafon there are many matters inierted which appear to be calculated merely for them, as accounts of foundings, of rocks, coaits, of the entrance of harbours, of trade and variable winds, &c. But évery reader who is noc ‘interefted in navigation, may calily pafs over thefe tedious articies. IX, We 886 UNniversaLt ErvpITIOWN: IX: We fhould be liable to be equally tediousy “were we to attempt to inform fuchas may un- dertake what is called a literary journey, of alt the objects that ought to attract their. curio- fity: of the moft celebrated among the literati, whofe acquaintance they fhould endeavour. to acquire : of the public and private libraries they fhould vifit, as well as the cabinets of natural hiftory, antiquities, medals, coins, paintings and other curiofities: the monuments of every kind they fhould examine: the obfervations they fhould make relative to the character, the genius, humanity, and politnefs of each:nation: on thé different forms of government: on the ftate of letters in each country, its univerfities, colleges; academies, and an infinity of like matters; as raré°manufcripts, remarkable infcriptions, &c. Some learned men have given inftructions in form relative to thefe matters, and among others M. Kohler, a celebrated profeffor at Got- tingen, to whom the world is indebted for many other valuable works. X. We fhall finifh this chapter with one re- mark. Credulity is the fource of moft errors, as doubt is the beginning of wifdom. Jt is ‘therefore allowable to entertain a rational pyr- ‘rhonifm concerning the relations of moft travel- lers, and it is of the laft importance to make ai judicious choice of fuch as we propofe to read: for the firft accounts of any country, or people, make GrocRAPHY: $87 make the ftrongeft impreffions on our minds, and if they: fhould be falfe or erroneous, it is almoft impoffible for us totally to eradicate fuch impreffions, but we fhall continue to enter- tain thefe falfe ideas during the remairider of our lives. It is highly neceffary, therefore, to be previoufly acquainted with the degree of re- putation each writer of travels bears, for ve- racity, and for a judicious relation of facts. FOCOK OCI GOOIIIOROK CHAP. XV. GEOGRAPHY. HE world fwarms with defcriptions . of the world: they appear as if they fprung from the earth like vegetables. There are to be found, in all languages, copious, complete, abridged, fyftematic and univerfal geographies ; elements, introductions, effays and dictionaries of geography; with numberlefs other like works, This fcience is taught in fchools, academies, univerfities, &c. Profeffors of geography travel the a — et ae ¢ 288 Universat Ernupition, the countries, and teach it to. the youth of each town or village through which they pafs. The printiellers fhops are loaded with maps, and the walls of each houfe, are covered with them, No branch of learning feems to be fo famliar to mankind as geography: and we fhould there- fore be inclined to fupprefs the analyfis of this {cience, if it did not form an effential article in the fyftem of univerfal erudition, and if we did not hope to mention fome matters relative to it that are not very commonly known. II. Geography is 4 fcience that teaches the knowledge of the terreftrial globe, or of the fur- face of the eafth; of the fituation of countries, cities, rivers, feas, &c. with the defcription of each of them. There are here fome preliminafy and effential diftinctions to be made. (1.) As our globe forms only a part of the univerfe, geography in like manner makes only a part of cofmography. (2.) It is the bufinefs of geography to inform’ us of the fituation and natural productions of the earth in each country or climate, which is alfo called phyfical geography. The civil and po- fitical arrangement of ftates or governments does not properly belong to it, that rather ap- pertains to ftatiftics; though many of the belt modern geographers have happily united thefe two branches, by cqHling the latter political geo graphy. (3.) Geography is cither mathematic or na- tural. The former confiders the earth in the fame oa GEOGRAPHY. 28g farhe manner it does the other celeftial bodies ; examines its dimenfions, its figure and fituation in the univerfe ; and, in a word, all that has any relation to the mathematics. As we have fuffi- ciently explained this part of geography in the forty- ninth chapter of the firft book, from fec- tion feventy-nine to eighty. fix, we fhall confine ourfelves here to natural and phyfical geography; having alfo explained what relates to the politi- cal ‘part in the chapter on ftatiftics in this volume. (4.) The knowledge of maps and charts, and. the manner of ufing them, makes alfo a part of geography. Ill. (5.) Bese 0 is likewife either facred or profane. The former furnifhes inftruétions relative to the perégrinations of the patriarchs, and the travels of the Iftaelites. It elucidates the predictions of the prophets againft certain kingdoms and nations ; the wars of the Jews ; the travels of St. Paul and the other apoftles ; the eftablifiimeit of the church in all parts of the known world, &c. Profane geography _ is divided into, (6.) The geography of the ancient and middle ages, and of nfodern times. Each of thefe parts comprehends a defcription of the earth and its various inhabitants, in their proper periods. By the labours of ancient geographers, and the mo- dern authors of thaps, we have now a complete atlas of the ftate of the ancient world. Vor, IIL. T (7.) The / 290 UNIvEeRSAL ERvUDITION. (7.) The defcription of any diftin& country or region is called chorography. (8.) Topography is a particular defeription of any place, in fo exact and minute a manner, that | no one circumftance relative to it is omitted. (9.) Hydrography is, laftly, the defcription of waters ; for there are charts that contain merely the plans of thofe feas, rivers, ftreams or lakes, by which a country is watered. IV. As the furface of our globe is divided into land and water, geography makes ufe of certain’ terms in defcribing each of thefe, of which it is neceffary to give here a brief expla- nation, in order to facilitate the underftanding of what we have further to fay on this fubject. A continent is a large portion of the earth, that contains feveral contiguous countries, and that is not furrounded by the fea. An ifland is a part of the earth that is fur- rounded by water. A peninfula, called in Greek cherfonefos, is a piece of land that is almoft furrounded by the fea. An ifthmus is a narrow neck of land that joins a peninfula to the continent, as the ifthmus of Corinth, Panama, &c. A defile is a narrow and difficult Pofinge be- tween mountains. A ftrand is a flat and fandy fhore, which the flux and reflux of the fea covers and leaves un- covered each tide. A GrocRaAPHY. 29° A-promontory is a high’ land that juts into the fea. A cape is a mountain that in like manner’ runs into the fea. A point, on the contrary, isa flat land whofe extremity is in the fea. Downs are fnall fand hills near the hore.” A beach is avhigh and fteep hill on the fhore, V. With regard to the terms that relate'to the water : | An archipelago is a portion of the fea in which there are many iflands. . A gulf, or bay, \is a part of the fea that runs in between lands. A ftrait is a neck of the fea inclofed by twa lands, and by which we may pais from one fea ‘to another; it is likewife called a bofphorus, channel, or arm of the fea. A road isa place proper for cafting the anchor, and where fhips can ride fecure from the wind. A conflux is that place where two or more rivers join each other. ‘The mouth of a river is that part where ic leaves its bed and runs into the fea, or a lake. A canal is an artificial river, like thofe of Ladoga, L. anguedoc, &c. A parage is a part of the fea under any given latitude. VL In continuing to treat of geography, there- ' fore, we are to be underftood to {peak of the na- tural and not the mathematical part, and we z>3 mention 292 UNIVERSAL ERUDITION. mention this once for all. This fcience begins’ by examining the properties of theatmofphere that furrounds this globe, the air that we breathe, and the clouds that pafs over our heads; the caufes of rain, fnow, dews, tempefts, but efpecially of the winds, as well thofe called variable, as the trade winds; as alfo of whirlwinds and other meteors. It fhows that an air charged with va- pours is heavier than aclear air*, and confe- quently more elaftic; that it prefles more, and that from thence arifes that agitation, that mo- tion in the air which is called wind: and that the fwifteft wind does not pafs over more than fifty feet in a fecond. It inquires likewife into the caufes of the variation of the weather, and: the different temperature of each. climate. | VII. Geography then’ proceeds to the cen-. templation of the earth itfelf. It examines its: mountains and vallies: it confiders that chain of mountains of 188 geographic leagues in length, which the Greek and Latin authors call the Alps, andwhich feparate Italy from Germany, and Swit-.. zerland from France;: thofe celebrated moun- tains in South America called the Cordeliers, the higheft in the known world, and of which the ~ ereateft, named Chimboraffo, is 19320 feet above the furface of the fea, It defcribes the vlocanos * The more gencral opinion is; that the drieft air is the heavieft; and the obfervations on the barometer feem to con- firm, this opinion. , of. GEOGRAPHY. 293 of Vefuvius, tna, Stromboli, of Hockla and ‘Krabla in Iceland, of their eruptions, their lava, and their effects. It treats likewife of the defarts of thofe uninhabited countries in northern Afia, which are called Steps; of the natural produc- tions of each climate and country, and of all that relates to the philofophical ftate of our globe. It then extends its inquiries to the in- habitants of the earth, and endeavours to deter- mine their number, and the principal alterations that attend it, by the aid of political arithmetic: and from thence it concludes, that this earth is capable of maintaining 3000 millions of inhabi- tants, but that there are not in fact more than 1000 mullions exifting. It generally allows thir- ty-three years to each generation: and on that fuppofition there are 1000 millions of mankind that are born and die within the {pace of thirty- three years; more than thirty millions each year, 82000 each day, 3400 each hour, 60 each mi- mute, and one each moment. The number of the two fexes is nearly equal, which proves that polygamy cannot contribute to the increafe of the human race, and that the celibacy of the clergy, the monks and nuns, is an unnatural and horrid practice. Mankind are diftinguifhed into white, black and mulattoes. VII. That part of geography which is called Hydrography, or more properly Hydrology, ex- amines, in an hiftorical manner, the nature and properties of the water; the fources from whence proceed 294 UNniversat Ervupition. proceed thofe ftreams that uniting form rivers, which, flowing with different rapidities, fometimes form cataracts, and at laft pour their waters into the fea: and it fhows that. the fea covers near two-thirds of the globe, and bears different names in different regions: the bed of the fea is only a continuation of the furface of the earth, and has like it various inequalities, heights and depths, mountains and vallies, rocks, &c. Hydrology confiders alfo the nature of the waters of the fea, which is more or lefs falt or bitter in different parts; the motions of its waves, its continual courfe from Eaft to Weft, its currents and. tides, its gulfs, whirlpools, and fathomlets depths. IX. After thefe general confiderations, .geo- gtaphy paffes to the examen of the four parts of the world. The earth is divided, 1. Into the old world, which comprehends the three parts that were known to the ancients, Afia, Africa and Europe; 2. The new world, that is America, and 3. The unknown world, as the Terra Auf- tralis, and other countries that have not hitherto been penetrated by travellers. The earth has been alfo divided according to the different tha- dows: thus the inhabitants of the frigid zoneg are called Perifcii,; thofe of the temperate zones, Heterofcii; of the torrid zone, Am- phifcii;. and they who have no fhadow at noon-day, the fun being direétly in their zenith, Afcii. We muft here obferve by the way, that geographers regard in their operations the north, GEOGRAPHY. 295 north, and that pole, as by that they determine the latitude of places: and the aftronomers ob- ferve the fouth, becaufe from thence they deter- mine the meridian height of the fun and ftars,; and it is in that part they obferve the courfe of the zodiac. Another divifion of the earth 1s that by climates : thus they make twenty-four climates of hours, begining at the equator, pro- ceeding by the degrees of latitude, and ending at fifty-fix degrees thirty-one minutes. They likewile diftinguith fix climates of days, towards the north, the firft of which begins at the fame degree of fixty-fix, and ends at the pole, where theday is of fix months continuance : thefe latter climates include countries inhabited and unin- habited. X. But the moft natural qn and that which is the moft eafy to be conceived and re- tained i in the memory, is that by which,the earth is divided into four parts. Each of thefe four parts is fubdivided into continent. and iflands, and geography, by ftill further extending thefe divifions, confiders the ftates or nations that in- habit the feveral parts of the continent and ifles. Thus, (1.) Europe comprehends I. toward the ont Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Lapland, Ruffia, including Livonia, Eftonia and Finland, Cour- land, Pruffia, and Poland with Lithuania: 2. toward the center, that is on the eaft and weft, France, Savoy, Switzerland, Flanders, Holland, ' Germany, 296 UNIVERSAL ERvUDITION. Germany, including Bohemia, Hungary, Tran- fylvania, Walachia, Moldavia, and part of Tarta- ry: 3. towards the fouth, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Ragula, Morea, and Turkey in Europe. The iflands that make part of Europe are, 1. in the ocean, Great Britain, including England and Scotland, with the Orcades, &c. Ireland, Ice- land, and the ifles of the Baltic Sea: 2. in the Mediterranean, Sicily, Sardinia, Corfu, Zante, Cefalonia, Candia, Corfica, Malta, Cerigo, and the iflands’i in the Archipelago, Majorca and Minorca. _ XI. (2.) Afia contains Turkey in Afia, Tar- tary, Siberia, the provinces of the Ruffian em- pire in Afia, China, India, Perfia, Arabia, and | _all the provinces and kingdoms that are com- prifed under thofe general denominations. The iflands that appertain to Afia are 1. in the ocean, the Maldives, Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Ormus, Celebes, the Molucca ifles, the Philippines, the Latrones, and the iflands of Ja- pan: 2. in the Mediterranean, Cyprus, Rhodes, and fome ifles of the Archipelago on the coaft : of Natolia, XII. (3-) Africa comprehends 1. on this fide the equator, Egypt, Barbary, Biledulgerig, the defarts of Zaara, Nigritia, Guinea and Nu- bia; 2. under the equator, Congo, Ethiopia, in which is Abyffinia; and 3. beydnd the equa- for, the ‘kingdom of Angola, Momemugi, Mo- nomotapa, GEOGRAPHY. 297 - momotapa, Cafraria, Mozambique, Zanguebar, the kingdom of Melinda, the country of the Hottentots, and the cape of Good Hope. The iflands that belong to Africa, and fituate in the ocean are, the Canaries, the ifles of Cape Verd, St. Thomas, the Afcenfion, St. Helena, and Ma- davafcar. ~ KITT. (4.) America contains in its continent, which is divided into north and fouth; 1. in the northern part, Nova Scotia, New England, New York, Pennfilvania, Maryland, Virginia, Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Canada; and. Mexi- co or New Spain; 2. in'South America are, Terra Firma, Peru, Chili, Patagonia and Pa- ragua, and Brazil. The Dutch have eftablifh- ments in America at Curacoa, Surinam, and St. Euftatia. The iflands of America are 1. in the eaft, the Azores or the Flemifh iflands, the An- tilles, Lucayas, and the Bermudas: 2. in the weft, California. XIV. (5.) The unknown world confifts. 1. under the Artic pole, of the country of Jerfo, New Denmark, New Wales, Labrador, Cum- berland’s Bay, Greenland, Spitzberg and Zem- bra or Zembla; 2. under the Antartic pole, Terra del Fuego, New Holland, Los Capous, New Guinea, the iflands of Solomon, la terre de Guis, New Zealand, and all that is included in the Terra Auftralis. XV, Geo- 2g9$ Universart Ervpbirion. XV. Geography then defcribés the ocean, and ‘affigns the proper names to the feveral feas that wath the coafts of the four quarters of the known and unknown parts of the earth; as alfo the ri-- vers that water each country, and the lakes that they contain. It recounts all the obfervations that have been made on thefe. feas by mariners; and by naturalifts ; the productions of each fea; and every other particular relative to them. XVI. After thefe general matters, geography pafiés to the analyfis of the feveral parts of the world: and here it examines their fituation and extent; their apparent number of inhabitants, with their figures, qualities, cuftoms and man- ners; the principal produétions of ‘each part of the world; and laftly, the countries and pro- vinces of which it is compofed. Each country alfo undergoes a particular and minute exami- Nation, with regard to its natural and political fituation, its frontiers and limits, its neighbours and form of government; its capital and other citiés, which are divided into great, middling, and {mall; its fea-ports, fortified places, re- markable towns, palaces, caftles, feats, and houfes of pleafure; its parks, forefts, mines, falt-pits; and, in a word, every object by which it is diftinguifhed or rendered remarkable. From all this it appears, that, to underftand geography, it is only neceflary to have a good fight, a clear difcernment, and a {trong memory. © XVII. As GEOGRAPHY. 299 _KVII.:As geography cannot be well underftood without having the-objects before oureyes, itis: apparent that good maps and;charts are indif- .penfably neceflary to this fcience; ‘and.as it.is neceffary to comprehend. and remember what we fee, it is therefore equally neceffiary to have com-. plete treatifes, as well as abridgments, ‘on this fubjeé&t. It is not. known who was the original inventor of the globe or fphere. John Albeft Fabricius has collected, in his Greek Bibliotheque, l. iv. c.14. the names of thofe authors who have treated on the globes; and D. Hauber, a German, has given the hiftory of maps. If it be true, that the two globes or balls, in'‘Solomon’s temple, were aftronomic. or geographic globes, they are doubtlefs the moft ‘ancient of which we have any account. According to Diodorus Siculus, Atlas, king of Mauritania, was the firft who invented a fphere ; which gave rife to the ftory that Atlas fupported the heavens on hig fhoulders, and was transformed into a moun- tain. Among the moderns we know of noné before thofe made by Martin Behaim of Nu- temberg and Jerome Fracaftor. Since. their time they have been made by de Hond, Bleau, Coronelli, Gerard Valck, de L’Ifle, Moll, Wei- gel, Beyer, Andrew, Doppelmayer, Pufchner, Lowits, and many other celebrated geographers. There have been fome globes conftruéted of full twelve feet in diameter, XVIII. With goo Universat Ervupition. XVIII. With regard to maps, which form what may be called plans of the earth’s furface, they reprefent 1. either the two hemifpheres of the globe; or 2. the four parts of the world; or 3. particular diftris; or 4, en- _ tire countries ; or 5. provinces ; or 6. cities and their environs. Charts, on the other hand, re- prefent the different feas, coatts, fand-banks, rocks, &c. They alfo mark the different depths of the feveral foundings, the currents, whirl- pools, trade and variable winds in each region ; the degrees of latitude and longitude, &c. A complete collection of thefe land and fea charts or maps is called an Atlas. The inventor of maps is no better known than that of globes. Eu- ftathius relates, that Sefoftris caufed a map to be made of all the countries-he traverfed; which mutt certainly be the moft ancient. ‘They were alfo in ufe among the Greeks and Romans, and Other ancient nations. Agathodaemon drew the maps for the geography of Ptolemy, which have come down tous; as well as the famous table of Peutinger that was difcovered by Conrad Celtis, — purchaied by Conrad Peutinger, a nobleman of Augfburg, explained by Beatus Rhenanus, and publifhed by Mark Velferus. After the re-eftablifhment of letters in the fixteenth cen- tury, they began again to make maps. Thole, which were found in the manufcript of- Pto- lomy’s geography, were the originals of all that have appeared fince. Sebaftian Munfter made them the models of thofe he defigned: others GEOGRAPHY. 369 others imitated him, and drew maps of particu- lar countries. Abraham Ortelius and Daniel Cellarius collected them, and Gerard Merca- tor reduced them into a regular fyftem. Wil- liam and John Bleau, and John Janfion. or Jan- fenius followed this fyftem. Sometime after, Sanfon defigned new maps: Francis de Witt and the younger Vifcher improved them, and the Germans copied them; but at length H. Moll, an Englifhman, and William de L’Ifle, a Frenchman, defigned and executed- maps that were fo correct and beautiful as to efface the merit of all that had been done before. There is a collection of forty two maps of M. de L’Ifle, that is beheld with admiration by all connoif- feurs. But as the arts are to be brought to per- fection by degrees only, Meff. Thomas Kitchin, and J. M. Hafc, have ftill corrected fome little inaccuracies in the maps of Meff. Moll and de’ L’Ifle. The cofmographical fociety of Nurem- berg, the academy of fciences of Berlin, the fueceffors of Homarin, Meff. Zurner, Scutter, © &c. in Germany, Meff. Anville, — Buache and Bellin in France, and many other able ge- ogtaphers, labour inceffantly, in giving to maps and charts the greateft degree of perfection poffible. XIX. The beft maps and charts (and per- haps fuch only as deferve to be called good) are thofe where the fituation of places and the limits of countries are determined by accurate aftronomieal goz- Universat ErvubdDITion. aftronomical. obfervations, and: are- laid ~ dowr's with the ftri€teft precifion. The planning and< executing of: maps requires great judgment, when they-are fo made:as to give a juft reprefen- tation of the terreftrial globe, in ally its various divifions. The Cofmographic: fociety fuppofe: that the horizontal or ftereographic projeétion.: is the moft eligible, as it bears the -greateft re- femblance to the globe itfelf. We are indebted” to .the celebrated Hubner, formerly reétor ‘of the college.at ,|Hamburg,. for the invention. of illuminating maps with different tranfparent co- lours,, by which the limits of ‘each country are © diftinguifhed, after a regular and fyftematic man- ners, ’ XX. We might here addithe: folution of -va-» rious problems, explain certain paradoxes, and - relate pmany. geographic -curiofities ; but thefe. particulars would, carry us» beyond our limits: . and befide,. they more» properly belong to the « ftudy of geography itfelf, and are likewife more curious than ufeful.. The. moft finifhed parti- cular,»map that we know, and. which may ferve as a patern for all others, .is that of Bohemia, by Muller, CHAP. C 303 ) CHAP. XVI. GENEALOGY. m3 ENEALOGY is the fcience_ of the, ori-. gin of illuftrious houfes, of noble. and. diftinguifhed families : or an enumeration of the anceftors of any perfon, together with a .fum-., mary relation, of their feveral alliances, as well: in a direét as collateral line, The term gene-, alogy is derived from the Greek, and is com- pofed of two words which fignify the one Genus... and the other Sermo: and from this. definition ., it appears, that this fcience has two objects, and. that a good genealogift ought to know, in the. firft place, the chronological fucceffion of thofe, fovereign and illuftrious houfes that are, fo to fay, at the head of nations; and fecondly, he fhould be able to form, from ancient documents} diplomas, and other authorities, genealogical plans of noble and illuftrious families ; or tables, in which are inferted, in a regular and_uninter- rupted feries, the generations of fuch diftin- guifhed perfons as have defcended from thofe families down to the prefent day, Il With go4 UNiversat ERuDITION: IJ. With regard to the firft object, genealdz gy draws its knowledge from the hiftory of na- tions themfelves:| for it is hiftory that furnifhes this fcience with the names of thofe illuftrious — perfonages that have adorned any country or nation; with the dates of their birth, marriage and death, their immediate pofterity, their alli2 ances, &c. John Hubner, ancient rector of the college of Hamburg, has publifhed, in four folio volumes, a Sale ion of genealogical tables, whereini he has exhibited, in a regular fyfterh, and with admirable order, the genealogy of all the illuftrious families, as well ancient as mo- dern, that have. exifted upon the earth, from ~ the days of the patriarchs down to the prefent — time. It is thus that genealogy reftores to hif- tory what it has borrowed from it; for it is fcarce poffible clearly to comprehend the latter, to have a diftinét idea of all the revolutions that have occurred among the various nations of the earth, without having tables of this fort before out eyes; without knowing the genealogy of thofe families that have governed or concurred in the government of each nation, III. It is not eafy to conceive ih the conftruc- tion of fuch tables, how great a knowledge of ~ hiftory in general is neceffary, how many par- ticular hiftories, memoirs, &c. an author, of this fort muft read or- confult, before he fits down to write, what difficulty he will find inf ~~ aeRO with propriety, the frequent contra- dictions + 7 dictions he will rencounter, in fupplying the vacuities, and in drawing the truth out of an abylfs of darknefs. We cannot fufficiently ad- tire the refolution, affiduity and perfeverance of thofe learned men who have undertaken thofe labours, and have executed them in the greateft degree of perfection of which they are fufcep- tible;’ We are obliged to refer our readers to the genealogical tables of M. Hubner themfelves, and to a fhort work which his fon has publifhed, . by way of dialogue, to facilitate the underitands ing them. - Thefe are books that can fcarce be confulted but~ as’ dictionaries; and which will be found neceffary, but of which it is impof- fible here to make an analyfis, or even to give an abftract. “With regard to the learning of gene- alogy in general, nothing is requifite but fight and memory. GENEALOGY. sU5 IV. The fecond objeé& of this fcience’ is thé knowledge of the names, the days of the births and ‘marriages, and the alliancés of the fove-: reigns, princes and other illuftrious perfonages, who at this time reign or govern in the world: an object alfo that may have great utility, but in which the underitanding has no fhare. This is the province of the memiory alone, and who- ever Cafries in his pocket an almanac, or fhort genealogical dictionary, is as learned on opening his book, as he that has thought fit to load his memory with thefeé matters, and which perhaps U mighg g0o6 UNIvERSAL ERUDITION, might have-been furnifhed with more important matters. V. The third and laft object of a genealogift by profeffion, -is to elucidate the defcent of noble and illuftrious families: to enumerate their pro- genitors, to range them in a regular feries, to draw up genealogic plans, to fupply deficien- cies, to difcover affinities from the refemblance. of names, and to convert conjectures into de- monftrations. It is neceflary. to make here a few obfervations. The order of fociety and welfare of mankind require, that the inhabitants of every country fhould be ranged. in different claffes; that there fhould be different ftates or conditions in life, and that each ftate fhould be honoured according to its rank. The nobles are naturally at the head of all the other ftates, and on that account ought to be treated with great refpect. But for any man to entertain a ridicu- lous prodigality on account of his origin ; to ima- gin himfelf formed of different materials from the reft of mankind, to reduce to the mere cir- cumftance of birth all that conftitutes diftinc- tion among men; to fuppofe there can be any merit in that which is owing entirely to chance, and cannot have any real effeét, and .to’ give ta this mere incident, that preference. which is due to the talents of the mind and the virtues of the heart, which have real and important. confe- . quences : : and on this illufive idea, the offspring of vanity and weaknefs, to imagine himfelf de- {cended Grnxarocy. 307 fcerided from monarchs, Heroes, or even gods, to deduce his race from Jupiter, or to place in his genealogical tables the names of Cafar, Pom- pey, Palzologus, Charlemagne, Rollo, Wit- tekind, &c. thefe are infatuations that are at once very common.and. highly ridiculous) VI. Hiftory haat all . thofe wip would pique themfelves on the antiquity of their race, that the origin of all particular families or houfes is loft in the darknefs of the middle age;) that during the fifth, fixth, feventh and eighth cen- turies, all Europe was. over-run by favage na- tions, who mixed with the natives of each coun- try: that the Moors and Infidels were a long time in Spain, and the remnants of the Goths, Vandals, Catti; Obotritces and many other like nations in Germany ; that in moft of the weitern countries. they could neither write nor. read, before Charlemagne; that there is not in the whole world any one document relative to any family that lived in the tenth century; that the nobility of Spain and Portugal are naturally de- fcended in part from the Moors and Infidels, and perhaps from the Jews, at leaft with fome mix- ture of thefe; that their tournaments and feats of chivalry were the invention of the Moors, as well as their romantic gallantry; that in ancient Germany the nobility were not near fo reipect- able as is commonly imagined; that many of thefe gentry made a profeffion of robbing on the high way, and had caftles to which they retreat- U 2 ed 308 Universanv ErvuDITION. ed with their booty: that travellers in their lita nies begged of God to preferve them from meet- ing with any of thefe nobility, and there are ftill ancient litanies remaining in which their particular names are mentioned; and this prac- tice continued till the fifteenth century ; that the magiftrates of the cities were then confidered as the firft rank of the people; and laftly, that no private gentleman muft expect to find his name, his origin and family in modern genealogies, and {till lefS in the hiftory of paft ages, when writing was fo rare, and before printing had fa+ cilitated the prefervation of fuch inconfiderable objecis. | VII. The laws, the conftitutions, and received euftoms require ‘however, that to be admitted into certain illuftrious chapters, or military and other orders, the candidate fhould be able to prove his quarters; by quarter in heraldry is meant a fheild or feutcheon; fixteen of thefe are neceffary to prove nobility by four defcents, in thofe focieties where fuch fort of nobles only are admitted, this term is derived from an an- cient cuftom of placing on the four corners of a tomb, the fcutcheon of the father, mother, grandfather and grandmether of the deceafed. There are in Flanders and Germany, tombs that have eight, fixteen, and thirty two quarters, The authenticity of the thirty two quarters is, however, always very difficult to be proved, and frequently liable to much fufpicion; the proof } bate GENEALOGY. 309 ef the fixteen quarters is abundantly more eafy, as they do not go back to thofe ages when writ- ing was. very uncommon. They may without {cruple of confcience affert upon oath, their no- bility of four defcents by fixteen. quarters, as is the cuftom; whereas, in the proofs by thirty two quarters, it is frequently neceflary to admit infcriptions, epitaphs, and other vouchers of a very equivocal nature. - VIII. The noblefs form genealogical plans or trees of their families, where the chief, the founder, or the firft of whom they have any knowledge, is placed at the bottom, as the trunck from whence all the branches fhoot that form the tree; atthe extremities of thefe branch- €s are painted the coats of arms of each anceftor in their natural colours, according to the rules of blazonry; fo that the youngeft or exifting branch of the family is at the top of the tree, We fometimes alfo fee, though but rarely, ge- nealogical columns, the fufts of which are in form of a genealogical tree, whofe branches that furround the column bear the arms, cyphers or medals of a family. . We think we ought not to fay more of fo dubious a fcience, and where there is fo little certainty of the truth, that it may be properly called the art of hazardous conjec- tures. IX. To conclude, the genealogic fyftems of dowerigy and illuftrious houfes, and the digni- fied “glo UNIveRsALt ErvpDiITIOn. fied families of modern Europe, are moving pictures, that births and deaths. ate inceffantly’ changing. The cuftom of ornamenting our al- ‘manacs with thefe, is highly ufeful. We have likewife in Germany genealogical tables’ (efpe- cially the manual of M. Schumann, which ap- pears every year at Leipzig) which, being care- fully made, ‘furnifh every neceflary inftruction relative to thefe matters. CH A*P, °XVIL Bih A! et Ot NOOR : ANY a fatirift has roundly afferted that blazonry and phyficbécome fciences mere- ly by virtue of their terminology ; and Defpreaux - fays, | Auffitot maint efprit fécond en réveries Inventa le Blafon avec les Armoiries. Soon : F 7 BLAZONRY. . 3Ir Soon after, man, fruitful in vanities, Did blazoning and armory devife. OLDHAM. - Others, on the contrary, have fet too high a value on this art, and pretend to find fomething mar- vellous in it. F. Bouhours, the Jefuit, feri- oufly afferts, that the-motto to a coat of arms is alone an abridgement of perfection; and Sco- hier affures us, that the ftudy of blazonry is an abyfs of knowledge, and that he who fhall ap- ply himfelf to it for thirty or forty years, will | {till find that he has fome thing to learn. F. Meneftrier, a Jefuit, has not only formed the beft treatife that we have on heraldry, but has alfo given an account of all the writers on this {cience, as well as on blazonry and genealogy, in different languages; and he makes their num- ber amount to 300. Every author is poffeffed with a good opinion of the fcience on which he treats, or elfe it is likely he would have chofen fome other: there are confequently three hund- red vouchers that blazonry is an important {ci- ence. But they who are difinterefted and im- partial take the mid way between thefe extremes, and fuppofe, that if blazonry even does not con- cur to the emolument of mankind,’ there are many other fciences that are in the fame circum- ftance, and that it is at leaft interefting to one or- der of inhabitants, the nobility 5 that the efta- blifhment of different ranks in fociety is necef- fay | ina ftate, and that the knowledge of the origin g12 Universar Erupirtti ow. origin and diftinguifhing marks of the fir(t rank among the people, is not a matter of mere in- difference: but at the fame time no {fcience fhould be eftimated beyond its real value ; and blazonry. is certainly inferior to. many. others, feeing it requires {carce any faculty of the mind, but memory, and is befide loaded with a number of barbarous, and frequently abfurd terms. II. Blazonry, or heraldry, in Latin heraldica, is therefore the fcience of diftinguifbing and. de- eyphering all forts of arms, and of explai-ing them in their proper and peculiar terms. The word blazon is derived from the German word blafen, which fignifies to found a horn or trumpet. Tournaments were anciently held in Germany every third year. The nobles or gentlemen who prefented themfelves at the lifts founded a horn, to give notice of their arrival. The heralds, after examining their claim to the title of gentlemen, founded their trumpets alfo to inform the marfhals, proclaiming with. a loud voice the titles, and defcribing the arms of thofe who prefented themfelves. After any getleman had appeared twice at the tournaments his rank was acknowledged, and they founded the trum- pet only, without making further. inquiry. From thence the word blafen was ufed to fig nity the practice of examining and defcribing fhields and arms in. general; of praifing or cenfuring knights, &c. and the word has fince remained attached to the fcienceitfelf Ill. By _BLAZONRY, 313 /Al1..By.the. word arms is;therefore meant cer- tain, marks of honour'exprefied by various figures and colours, by which the families of thofe that bear them are ciftinguifhed, or fuch as apper- tain to a whole nation, city or province. Thus the feveral. refpectable families among the Ple- beians and Patricians, cities and provinces, have their. peculiar arms; and thus fhips hoift their flags with the arms of Hemburg,. Bremen, Dantzick, &c. Coats of arms are the fame marks of honour-accompanied with devices or cyphers, and are peculiar to noble.and illuftrious families ; they are drawn in fcutcheons or on. banners, and were. ancjently. borne on the fhield, cuirafs, &c. as they are now on. ftandards, colours, &c. They generally reckon eight. different: kinds of arms, which are, 1. thofe of houfes er.families; 2. thofe of dignities or employments; 3. thofe of conceffion, adoption,.or aggregation ;, 4, thofe of patronage, as the cardinals take the arms of the popes who have raifed them to the-purple ; 5. thofe of pretenfion, or of fuch countries over which, the bearer pretends to have authority ; 6. thofe of fiefs, of domains and fubftitutions ; 7. thofe of communiti¢s, republics, cities, aca- demies, &c. 8. thofe of fucceffion, which are borne by heirs or legatees. Arms are likewife dif- tinguifhed into expreflive or arbitary. Blazonry is, as we have already faid, the method of de- cyphering and defcribing thefe coats of arms. IV. This 314 Unirversat ErvubiTion. IV. This fcience begins therefore by invefti- gating the origin of arms, and for this purpofe it afcends to the higheft antiquity: {feveral curious refearches of this nature are to be found in the works of Meneftrier and Varennius. There are fome learned men who pretend to difcover, even in the Old Teftament, traces of the firft ufe of arms. They fuppofe they were firft borne on the fhoe; and the form of the fhield or coat on which the arms are painted, by its refemblance to the leather of a fandal or fhoe, they fay con- firms this opinion. The authors who have wrote on this fcience have borrowed the _affift-- ance of the profane hiftorians of the three ages, and after fhowing that arms have at all times been ufed as reprefentations of the dignity of birth, the nobility, alliances, employments, and great atchievements of illuftrious men, they bring the hiftory of arms down to the prefent times, and fhow what are the coats of arms that are now borne by all the fovereign princes of Eu- rope, and even of all the known world: of illuf trious houfes, of noble families, of countries, provinces and cities, &c. And to a minute — defcription of thefe, they add their figures en- graved: according to the rules of blazonry. V. To acquire a juft knowledge of this. art, it, is neceflary to begin with the ftudy of ‘its ter- minology, -that is, we fhould learn the terms of blazonry, as well ancient as modern, the num- ber of which is fo great, that we might eafily compole ~ “ BLAZONRY. 315 compofe of them a confiderable vocabulary, or fhort dictionary ; and the more, as it is neceflary to add the fignification to each of thefe barba- rous terms: for this matter, therefore, we muft refer our readers to exprefs treatifes on blazonry, as thofe of Varennius, Meneftrier, Andrew Fa- vin, Spelman, Colombiere, Bara, Segoin, Geliot, Philip Moreau, Scohier, and efpecially to a work intituled; The Art of Blazonry, or the Science of Nobiity, &c. publifhed by Daniel de la Feuille, at Amfterdam, 1695. . They will there find the greateft part of the terms of this fcience clearly explained. . VI. In the next place it is neceffary to remark the diverfity of colours in the thield, which confit of two metals, four other colours, and two furs, The two metals are Or, and argent, or yellow and white: the four other colours are azure or blue, gules or red, fable or black, and vert or green, called finople, to which is fometimes added purple or violet. The two furs are ermin and vairy; to which are alfo added counter-ermin and counter-vairy. They fay in the etymo- logy of thefe denominations, that each of the colours exprefs fome celeftial or mundane virtue, as, for example, that red is called gules, becaufe all beafts by devouring their prey have the gule or throat boody, or of a red colour; and for this reafon gules in blazonry denotes valour, intrepidity, &c. It is evident, however, that the moft natural colours are exprefled by un- common — 7 - was ern 316 Universan ERvuDITION., common and fantaftic names, mérely to render them unintelligible, and by means. of quackery to make a fcience of thefe matters.. Thefe eolours are reprefented in drawings ,and en- gravings by points and ftrokes in different direc- tions, and fometimes crofling each other, as well as by diftinét figns and characters. . There are ftill two other colours in blazonry, which are the natural colours of fruit, animals or plants, and that of carnation or fiefh colour for feveral parts of the human body. VII. The figures that ufually compofe coats of arms are of three kinds, which are, natural, artificial and heraldic. The firft confifts of re- prefentations of all fort of animals, ftars, plants, &c. The fecond of all that art has produced, and that is of ufe in life, as habitable buildings, bridges, columns, furniture, dre{s, inftruments, tools, military weapons, &c. The heraldic are all thofe that fill the {cutcheons at equal and alternate diftances, of metal and colour,- or that havea particular fituation. allotted to fome part of the arms; and are, Firft, all the divifions of the fhield; as parti per crofs, per chief, pale, fefs, — bend dexter, bend finifter, chevron, &c.. Second, the chief, the bend, the pale, the bar, the chev- ron, the crofs, the, faltier, the orle, &c.. Third, the faced, © bended, barred, paled, traverfed, checkered, lozenged, &c. . Fourth, billets, frets, guirons, lozenges, mafcles, ruftres, &c. . It is proper to obferve here, that all thefe terms, this jargon BLAZONRY. 317 jatgon of blazonry, was in common ufe in the eleventh century, when that art began to be in vogue, for then the faltiers, fufils, guirons, ruf- tres, &c. were parts of the armour worn by knights : and. we find no author who has men- tioned this art before the year 1150, _ VIET. ‘With regard to the manner of ranging thefe figures and colours, the principal rule is, always to put metal upon colour, or colour upon metal; and if any example of the contrary is _ met with, it is from a particular caufe which is to be inquired into, The reafon they give for this rule is, that the ancient drefs was compofed of party-coloured ftuffs fewed together, or of cloth of gold or filver ; and that they put pieces of gold and filver on the colours, and ‘colours on the gold. Blazonary gives a great number of particular rules for the manner of arranging thefe figures; for quartering and diminifhing arms, &c. IX. Coats of arms have hkewife ornaments that may be called exterior, and are accompanied with marks of honour; fuch as crowns and co- ronets, colars of the orders of knighthood, en- figns of employment, fupporters, the helnret, creft, and mantle. Crowns dnd coronets have not been placed on fcutcheons till within two hundred years paft: they are the diftinguifhing marks of fovereings and of the nobility ; as pope, em- =a. gi8 UniversatrEruDITION. emperors, kings, dukes, marquifes, counts or earlsj and barons: thefe crowns or coronets are different foreach order of fovereigns or noblemen. The arms of a knight are furrounded by the collar of his order; and the marks of the military or- ders is a crofs with eight points, which is placed behind the fhield, the points only appearing. The marks of dignities and employments are, for example, the tiara or triple crown, with the keys, for the pope ; the crofs for a bifhop ; the baton for a marfhal; the mace, the mortar-piece, &c. The fupporters are thofe figures which are placed on the fides of the arms of fovereigns and the principal nobility. The helmet is. placed over the arms with the crown: the helmet is either open or fhut; or with bars, and is placed in froat, or in profile. ‘The creft is an ornament or figure that is placed on the top of the helmet; and in the fame part is likewife fometimes placed a plume of feathers. X. There is in the Jaft place, the pavilion, which covers and furrounds the arms of empe- rors, kings and fovereign princes, who depend on God alone for their inheritance : it .is compofed of a chapeau or coronet at the top, and a curtain which forms the mantle. Befides thefe, there is the banner that ferves as a creft; cyphers, mot- toes, and feveral other particular ornaments ; of which blazonry explains the origin, etymology, diverfity and intention. XI. We t¢ { a PHILOLOGY. 319 XI. We thall conclude this article with ob- ferving, that the fcience of blazonry alfo explains, by its rules and in its peculiar terms, the nature of the banners and colours. of fovereigns and ftates, and efpecially what relates to the flags of maritime nations. . Each nation has its peculiar flag, which is borne by all its veffels, except they be pirates, who make ufe of all colours to furprife thofe that are weaker, or to deceive fuch as are ftronger than themfelves. The two metals, and all the other colours, are ufed in the fame man- ner on the flag as on the fcutcheon. Blazonry therefore defcribes the colours and arms that belong to each nation, republic, or maritime city, as well in their armies as in their navies. . o SRR FRSA CHAP. XVIII Of PuHILoLoGy in General. MONG all the follies to which mankind are liable, there is no.one more futile or more difguftful, than a difpute about. words. Juft denominations, however, are very neceflary .if we ~ ‘ 320 Universau ErvubDition. we would convey clear ideas of what they are in- tended toexprefs; it is very effential therefore, ’ that the ‘name which is given to each-feience be fuch as precifely expreffes its nature, and gives it thofe characteriftics which diftinguifh it from all others. ‘This maxim does not feem to have been catefully obferved by thofe who comprehend, un- - der the term philology, univerfal literature, who extend it to all fciences, fo that each one may there include whatever he thinks proper; as grammar, rhetoric, poetry, antiquities, hiftory, criticifm, the interpretation of authors, &c. This feems to be not only making’ ftrange abufe of words, but creating confufion’ in thofe matters where too much regularity and ‘precifion cannot be obferved. The term philology will not ad- mit of an arbitéry and indeterminate ufe. It is compofed of the Greek words giro and aoyos, which imply a love or ftudy of languages. It appears therefore, magure all authorities that may be produced, and which in fact form no great argument on this occafion, that philology is nothing more than a general knowledge of languages, of the natural and figurative fignifi- - cation of their words and phrafes, and, in fhort, of all that ‘relates to expreffion in the-different dialeéts of nations, as well ancient as modern. II. We fhall not examine ‘here whether Eta- toftines, the librarian of Alexandria, who, accord- ing to Suetonius, was the firft that was called a philologift or: panees bore that name on account of f i PHILOLOGY.. 321 of his being aman of great learning, or becaufe he was highly fkilful in languages: or whether, in modern times, Juftus Lipfius, Angelus Po- litianus, Calus Rhodiginus, Muret and others, have obtained the title of philologifts by one or the other of thefe accomplifhments ; but asin our fyftem we underftand, by the term erudition, the univerfality of the {ciences, and by that of Jite- rature, all which relates to the knowledge of an- tiquities, fo we include, under the term philology, a critical knowledge of the languages. This fcience when juftly limited is fo extenfive, that we are obliged greatly to concenter its objects, in order to give the analyfis of it in a fuccinét from. ILI. As we have already treated, in the fecond book, on grammar, rhetoric, eloquence, poetry and verfification, we have there given thofe ge- neral rules which are applicable to all poffible languages; and as we fhall have occafion here- after, in the twenty-fourth chapter of this book, to explain the principal precepts of criticifm, we fhall here confine our obfervation to the lan- guages themfelves, and to thofe general ideas which philology offers, without leading our readers through all the paths of an immenfe labyrinth. IV. Language in general may be divided into, 1. Ancient languages, which are thofe that have become extinét with the people who fpoke them, or have been fo altered and disfigured, that they Vor. III. x no gzz Universat Ervbditiom no longer refemble the languages which were: {poke by thofe people. | 2. Oriental languages the ftudy of which is: neceffary in order to the underftanding of the text of thé holy fcriptures, efpecially the Old: Teftament. | 3. Learned languages, which are thofe that are indifpenfably. necefiary in the ftudy of erudition, and particularly literature; which, while there were people. in the world who made them their common language, were called living ; but as no. nation now makes ufe of them, they are called: dead languages, and are therefore to be learned from books or in {chools. , 4. Modern languages, in which are diftinguifh- ed, firft, the common languages of the European: nations, and fecondly, the languages of the people whe: inhabit. the three other parts of the: world.. | V. With regard’ to the languages that were {poken by the firft inhabitants of the world, tilP the deftruction of the tower of Babel, there are: not now the. leaft traces of them remaining 5 though fome zealous theologians pretend that it. was the Hebrew, as it is found in the Bible, or at leaft the ancient Chaldean ; but all this is mere conjecture ; and. it is) certain, on the contrary,. - that every veltige of thofe languages has been: totally deftroyed by time. ' The ancient langua- ees that that have been in ufe in the different parts of the world fince that period, and the i Pte _ know- * > PHILOLOGY. | 323. knowledge of which, more or lefs imperfect, hag i come down us, are, ; &. The Chaldean. 2. The Syriac and Eftrangetic. 3. The Arabic, . 4. Coptic or ancient Egyptian™. 5. Ancient Ethiopian. 6. Ancient Indian. _g. Ancient Phznician, which is alfo called the Ionic Phzenician. 8. Punic or Carthaginian. g. Scythian, and the Scythian of the Huns. 10, Cyrillian. 11. Glagolitic. 12. Braminian or Bracmanian. 13. Aolian or Holic. 14. Jacobitian. : 15. Celtic. 16. Saracen. | 17. Ancient Efclavonian. 18. Gothic. 19. Hetrufcan. 20. Mangiurian; of which the Maronites, Neftorians, and fomermics the yakab- ites made ufe. ‘21. Hieroglyphic. 22. Runic. | 23. Ancient Vandalidn, 4. Ancient Germanic. . ™ The late M. de la Crofe ea made a Reitianee and Diftionary of this language, which is in manulcrtpt in the Jibrary of, the univerfity of Leyden. X2 25. Gauli¢, 324 UniversaLt ERvDITION. ' 25. Gaulic. And perhaps fome others that may be known to philologifts. To thefe may be added, 26. The different alphabets, idioms, and me- thods of fpeaking and writing in the middle age. VI. Philology is therefore employed in ma- king learned refearches, not only into thefe lan- cuages, but into many others, which we fhall enumerate in the three following chapters. It prefcribes rules, lays down precepts, points out principles, furnifhes etymologies, and makes all the neceflary remarks for the underftanding and attainment of every known language. It fhows the ufe that may be made of each particular lan- guage ; in what country, and by what people, it has been fpoken ; and explains, as far as is pof- fible, all the obfcurities and ambiguities that at- tend the ftudy of each language. _ VII. When the’ alphabet of a language is once difcovered and well underftood, we may eafily attain, or at leaft with much lefs difficulty, the knowledge of the reft. Befide numberlefs phi- lological works, with which each library is crowded, we have, in Germany, a {mall treatile that is very curious and very inftructive, intitled, The new A. B..C. in a hundred languages : or, fundamental inftructions for teaching the young- eft fcholars not only German, Latin, F rench | s: and PHILOLOGY. 325 and Italian, but alfo the oriental and other lan- guages; as well as the pronunciation and Knowledge of thefe different languages : Leip- fic, publifhed by Gefner 1743. In this book are contained the alphabets and firft elements of a hundred different languages, as well ancient as modern. This work was reprinted in 1748, and very confiderably augmented, under the title of The matter of the oriental and occiden- tal languages. To this has been added the Lord’s prayer, in two hundred languages, an- ° cient and modern, in the chara¢ters proper to each, with the dialect or manner of pronoun- cing the prayer; which contributes greatly to facilitate the attaining an idea of thefe languages. The author of this equally curious and inftruc- tive book is M. John Frederic Frits; and he was affifted by the Danifh miffionary Schults of Hall. The fucceflors of Homann of Nuren- burg have alfo publifhed four geographico-phi- lological maps, defigned by Godfrey Henfel; which bear the following titles: 1. Europa po- lyglotta, linguarum genealogiam exhibens, una cum litteris, fcribendique modis omnium gen- tium: 2. Afia: 3. Africa; with the fame title: and 4. America cum fupplementis -po- lyglottis. The four parts of the world are en- graved and coloured on thefe maps; but in every country, inftead of the names of its cities and provinces, is feen the begin- ning of the Lord’s prayer, in the chara+ters ufed in that country; fo that with a fingle glance 26 Universat Ervupition. glance of the eye, we fee all the languages ‘that: are in ufe in all parts of the known: world. Thefe maps are highly curious, and have doubt- lefs coft the inventors immenfe labour. VIII. We have elfewhere remarked, that the books which teach the particular rules of a lan- guage are called grammars, rudiments, &c. and thofe that contain the words and phrafes, dictio- naries, lexicons, lexical manuals, vocabularies, &c. Philology thews the manner in which thefe books are to be made, and the precautions that are to be obferved to render them inftructive and agreeable: the method of treating fynony- mous terms; the gradations that. are among words feemingly fynonymous ; and many other like matters. . It fhews alfo. the reciprocal in- fluence which the genius and manners of a people have on their language; and their lan- guage on their general method of thinking; their. manners, urbanity and refinement. | 1X. But as it is impoffible to perceive all the force and'elegance of the various allufions, me- taphors and comparifons in.a language, efpeci- _ ally in an ancient language, if we are not pro- | perly inftructed in their manners, cuitoms, cere- monies, laws, arts, {ciences and profefiions, and other peculiarities of the nation by whom they have been ufed, and whofe natural idiom they formed, philology, in order to know the true origin, etymology, and fignification of the words, terms, PHILOLOGY. 327 iterms, and phrafes of a language, remounts to the moft diftant ages, and employing all the aids _ Gt can receive from literature, it makes ufe of antiquities, numifmatics, and diplomatics, in ix- ing the meaning of each term, and mode of ex- preffion, and by thefe means renders languages and authors intelligible, clear and agreeable. _X. Thofe languages, which are no longer in «common ufe, .can only be learned. by books or manuicripts. But as thefe-have come down to us by the means of copying, they have .confe- quently been frequently mutilated, altered, di- minifhed and disfigured, by thofe who -have copied them ; the text, -in general, or at leaft many paffages of thefe books and manufcripts, is unintelligible at the firft reading. From hence there has arofe in modern Europe a particular {cience, that is called the Criticifm of Languages, which makes a part of philology, .and is employ- ed, 1. inexamining the authenticity and truth of the text; 2. in difecovering and pointing out the means of correcting the text; 3. in reftoring fuch paffages .as have been altered, omitted, or mutilated; 4..in explaining the true fenfe of the text; and 5. in eftablithing a language by thefe means in its full primitive perfection, and mak- iing it perfectly intelligible to modern times. The celebrated .M. le Clerc has-given us an ad- mirable work on this fubjeét, intitled 4s Critica, in which he explains, with equal genius and fa- didity, the rules of found philological criticifm, AI. That 328 Universat ErupDitTion. XI. That which is of the greateft ufe in un- derftanding and interpreting an obfcure or imper- feé&t paffage, or an unintelligible word or phrafe, is confrontation. The beft confrontation is that which is made by comparing an author, book or manufcript with itfelf ; by examining if the fame word, matter or phrafe, is not repeated elfewhere, or in equivalent expreffions. This is the moft certain method, and produces an authentic inter- pretation. The fecond method is to confront a writer with his cotemporaries of the fame nation: and the third confifts in comparing him with other authors who have written at different times, but in the fame language. EKA OOO 30K ea 2 fee Mat hs 9G ORIENTAL LANGUAGES. H O’ moft of the languages we have enu- merated in the preceding chapter, and many of thofe we fhall mention in the twenty- firft, have been, or are ftill in ufe in the eaftern countries, ORIENTAL LANGUAGES. 329 countries, we here underftand, however, by the term oriental, thofe only which are effentially ne- ceflary to the underftanding, and interpreting, in an exegetic manner, the holy writings, efpecially thofe of the Old Teftament; and for this re- ftriction of the term we have the authority of ‘a great number of learned men, who by the orien- tal languages underftand only the Hebrew, Chal- dean, Syriac, Arabic and Coptic: to which we fhall add the Samaritan, Rabbinic and Talmudic. Thefe eight languages merit a more particular examen, as they ferve to eftablifh the foundations of the Chriftian religion, and make a confider- able part of the ftudy of a Theologian. II. The Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldean, re- fpectively claim the right of feniority, each of them has its advocates, and the point is not eafy to be decided. Moft zealous divines are in- clined to favour the Hebrew; and there are fome of them who pretend that it was the lan- guage in which God talked with Adam in Para- dife,. and that the faints will make ufe of it in heaven in thofe praifes which they will eternally offer to the Almighty. Thefe doétors feem to be as certain with regard to what is pafied as what is to come. Some philologifts give the priority to the Arabic, and others to the Chaldean. This difference is the more difficult to be reconciled, as Mofes was not born till 2464 years after the creation, and in Egypt; that is to fay, 700 years after the deftruction of the 330 Unrversat Ervorrron. the tower of Babel, when all. languages were mixed and confounded ; for we have no proof, nor even any account, that the Hebrew was ex- empted, .and preferved its purity amid the ge- meral confufion. . There is not, moreover, at this time, any one work of antiquity ‘exift- ing that is wrote in Hebrew, except the Old Teftament: and of that there are even fome parts in Chaldaic, and words of that and ether. lan- guages are to be found difperfed in different parts of it. III. There is one more remark we mutt here make. The firft time we find the word Hebrew in the Bible, is in the 13 verfe of the xiv. chap- ter of Genefis; and it is manifeft that Abraham and his defcendants took that name from the patriarch Heber, the fon of Salah, and third grandfather of Abraham : it is therefore evident, that in the time of Abraham this name-was that of a family,-and not of a people who had a feparate danguage.. We are therefore to fuppofe, that ‘Abraham, and the patriarchs after him, {poke the cuftomary language of the country where they lived; that this language changed by degrees, as all living languages have done and ever will do: that Jacob and his fons having pafled into Egypt, they :and their defcendants, under the name of the Children of. Ifrael, did not pres ierve the language of their fathers in all its purity; ‘but that they mixed with it many ex- preflions. borrowed from foreign languages, and elpecially - a aT in, A ae. Vee SOWA ae ees, eae eee ee OrienTat Lanycvaces. 331 efpecially from the Egyptian and Coptic: that Motes wrote in the Hebrew language, as the children of. Ifrael. then fpoke it: that the other books of the Old Teftament were wrote ftill later; and that it is almoft impoflible for this language to. have been preferved without any alteration. 1Vy Notwithftanding all this, as thetheologians are always very fure of what they fay, we thall be- lieve with them that the Hebrew was the firft ian- guage in the world, and thatit was delivered from God himfelf ; forthefe learned doctors tell us, that the Almighty taught it Adam as foon as he had created him, that he might be able to converfe with God; and that he gave him the power of calling all things by their names: in the fame manner as in after-time the gift of tongues was communicated to the apoftles on the day of pen- tecoft. Albertus in his Hebrew Dictionary finds in each word, in each roor, in its letters, and the manner of pronouncing it, the. fignification of that word. Looefcher, .in his treatife De caufis linguz Hebree, carries this matter flill further. V. Neverthelefs, as we have no Hebrew but what is contained in the Holy Bible, this lan- guage muft naturally be deficient of many words; not only becaule all the ancient languages, but efpecially thofe of the firft ages, were not fa copious as the modern; but there were in thofe times fewer objects to be named; and the facred 332, Universat ErvupitTron. facred authors moreover had not occafion te treat on all fubjec&ts. ~The Hebrew language however is fufceptible of all the ornaments of diction, and is very expreffive. Itis not, befide, fo difficult to learn as fome have imagined. The ftyle of the Pfalms, of the book of Job, and of all that is wrote in a poetic manner, is the moft difficult to underftand. That of Ifaiah is. noble and elegant, worthy of an author who was of the houfe of David, and the nephew and grandfon of a king. But, notwithftanding all the labours of the learned for fo many centuries, we are very far from having a perfect knowledge © of the Hebrew language: this inconvenience is the greater, as it gives occafion to many im- - perfect tranflations, which disfigure the true fenfe of the original text ; and, what is {till more, they have founded, on thefe paffages wrong inter- preted, a belief of events that have never ar- rived in the manner predicted; and even fome- times religious dogmas. It is to be wifhed that a fociety of men, the moft learned in thefe matters, were formed in order to perfect the knowledge of the oriental languages, and of the Hebrew in particular. VI. The Hebrew language had originally no vowels. They are marked in the mafforets by points under the confonants. This language is wrote and read from the left to the right : it has thirteen letters, which grammarians divide into gutteral,, palatic, dental, labial and gingival. They OrrenTAL LANGUAGES, 333 They now diftinguifh only five vowels in Heb- rew, which are the fame as ours, a, ¢, i, 0, u. ' But they divide each vowel into two or three ; as long, fhort, fhorteft. The articles, pronouns, _ &c. are placed after the fubftantive; and the fame word is fometimes fubftantive, adjective and verb. The punctuation and accent are the objects that require the greateft attention in the Hebrew language; they count near forty ac- cents, and there are many whofe ufe is ftill. un- known; they ferve in general to diftinguifh, 1. the period and its members, as the points do in other languages; 2. to determine the quan- tity of fyllables, and 3. to mark the tone that is to be obferved in chanting them. Nineteen of thefe accents are alfo called, by grammarians, diflinétivi or accentus regii, and the others conjunéi- vi, fervi or miniftri. There is, properly fpeaking, only one conjugation in this language, which is of itfelf fimple, but is varied in each verb by feven or eight different manners, that form in fact fo many different conjugations, and give a great number of expreffions, to reprefent by one word the various modifications of a verb, Thefe are the principal characteriftics of the Hebrew, as we find it in the Holy Scriptures; and which, taken all together, forms a very regular and analogous language. ) VII. The Chaldean is that which was fpoken in Chaldea. Some fay that it is a dialect derived from the Hebrew, and others that the Hebrew 1S 334 Universat’ Erupptren. is‘a diale&t of the Chaldean, This language has twenty five letters; the forms of which are very different from the Hebrew.’ It is in like manner wrote from the left to the right. The Syriac is alfo confidered as.a diale&t of the Hebrew. It has twenty two letters, which have the fame names with the Hebrew, ‘but are: of very different forms. The Arabic, or the language of the Arabians, is in like manner a dialect of.the Hebsew. It has twenty eight letters, the names of which have a good deal of refemblance to the Hebrew, but their characters are alfo very different. The Coptic is the ancient language of the E- gyptians, but mixed in procefs of time with much of the Greek. We have already, faid, in the preceding chapter, that the late M. de la Crofe has in a manner _re-eftablifhed this lan- guage, when we fcarce knew more than the name of it; and that he has compofed a Coptic gram- mar and dictionary. F. Kircher, it is true, had before publifhed a Coptic vocabulary and kind ef grammar, but veryincomplete., There are thirty two letters in its alphabet, but the characters are almoft entirely Greek. There has been no book found in this language but tranflations of the Holy Scriptures, or ecclefiaftic offices, &c, SRLOChe Scmatitan is another dialeciak uae ‘Hebrew. The Saniaritans. were Jews, and their city Samaria was in Judea. ‘They followed the law of Mofes with more rigour, more after the / letter te» » ew 9 —s - OrrentTat LAaAnGvuaGESs. 325; fetter than the Hebrews. There is a Sa- maritan copy of the Pentateuch, Wiich differs, indeed, but litle from that of the Jews in Heb- rew, but is wrote in different characters, that are commonly called Samaritan, and which Origen, St, Jerom,. and many other writets, as: well ancient as modern, fuppofe to be the firit letters of the Hebrews. There are alfo medals. that are called Samaritan; they have Hebrew infcriptions, in characters different from thofe ef our Hebrew bible; and which are called fqguare Hebrew. For a further account of the | Samaritan language, confult M. Simon in ‘his. cuftoms and ceremonies of the Jews, Eduardé: Bernhardi. Lexicon Samaritanum, F. Kircher,. M. Buxtorff, M. de Spanheim, F. Morin, M.. Walton, and a great number of other writers, IX. The Rabbinic, or the Hebrew of the Rab- bins, is the language of which they have made ufé in their works. The body of it is compofed of Hebrew and Chaldaic, with divers alterations. in the words of thofe two languages, whofe fig- nifications they have much extended. They have likewife borrowed greatly from the Ara- bic. The reft is compofed of words taken for the moft part from the Greek, with fome from the Latin, and others from various modern lan- guages, efpecially that of ‘the country in which each rabbin lived. For we fhould remember here, that after the return from the laft capti- ¥ity, they fpoke fearce any pure Hebrew at Je- rufalens 336 Universat ERvuDITION. rufalem and in Judea, but Greek mixed with fome Hebraic expreffions ; the Romans afterward en- tering Palaftine, and becoming conquerors of that country, fpoke their own language there: and at laft the Jewith nation was totaly difperfed. We hall only add, that the Rabbinic is a very copious language, and that there is’ fcarce any part of fcience of which the Rabbins have not treated, but always with an enthufiafm that is natural to them: there have been among them even poets and orators. X. The Zalmudic is another dialect or. par- ticular idiom of the Hebrew, in which the Tal- mud, or the book compofed by the Jews that contains all the explications of their law, is writ- ten. This language differs greatly from the pure Hebrew. M. Buxtorff has compofed a Chal- daic, Talmudic and Rabbinic di€tionary. We have alfo a work of the emperor Conftantine, intitled Clavis Talmudica; and one of Otto, called Vite doétorum Mifnicorum ; befide feve- ral others. XI: We fhall conclude this article with. fay- ing a few words concerning the Hebrew charac- ters in general. Thefe are the ancient Heb- rew, the modern Hebrew, the fquare and the Rabbinic Hebrew. The fquare Hebrew is fo called from the form of its letters, which are more regularly fquare, and have their angles better defined than the Hebrew of the Rabbins. The Dean Laneuacesi 344 The faireft characters in the fquare Hebrew, are fuch as refemble the characters of the Spanifh manufcriprs: thé next are thofe of the Talian manufcripts, and then thofe of the French and German, Many authors fay that the fquare Hebrew is not the true ancient character that the Jews wrote from the origin of their language to the captivity of Babylon; but an Affyrian or Chaldean character, which they adopted during their captiviey and have fince retained. The Rabbiaic is a character not imelegant, and is formed from the fquate Hebrew by cutting off che greateft part of its angles, eng j ) | CHAP. KX. Of thofe LANGvAGEs that are called dead; and of PaLzo- GR APHY.« . a =" - [| ANGUAGES in general, properly fpeak- ing, form no fcience that can enrich the mind with real knowledge, but are to be con- fidered as introductions to the fciences; as keys Wor. Il, ‘ Y that ‘a ‘. ¥ ee ee oe ee 4 , a - 2 a = 7\ oa chs) - A. ’ 5 the : ‘ } x * - a3 4 . : 938 Unrversat ErupitTion. > that open to us the fanctuaries of erudition. In order to attain the knowledge of ‘antiquity in- its full extent, the knowledge of thofe laneuages that were then in‘ufe is of great utility: and properly to judge of modern nations, it is al- . moft indifpenfably neceffary to be acquainted with the principal languages which are now ufed in the world,. There are ‘two languages however, which are called Jearned by way of eminence, and thofe -are the Greek and the Latin. The former of thefe not only enables us to read. the mafterlyproduétions of genius of ancient Greece, but alfo to forma true jude- ment of all its antiquities, and of its different ages, which form the moft entertaining and interefting | periods. for the, .fciences and polite arts of all ancient times. The latter affordsus _- the means of underftanding the original texts of — all the admirable works of the moft celebrated ‘ Latin authors, and of, becoming acquainted with the city, republic,- and monarchy of Rome, as _ if we had been prefent with them: and of form- ing a folid judgment. of thofe precious Roman antiquities of every kind, that are ol remaining among us. , Il. But that which has given the Latin an advantage even over the Greek itfelf, that has rendered it indifpenfable to every man of letters, and has made it,the bafis of erudition, is, that during the middle age, and in -general in all modern times, the learned of. all sick have 7* ~ . - : + Dz ab. LAN GUAG RB Sip, U «334 hiade i it their common;and. unjverfal -language fo chat the Latin forms, if. we may. ufe the ex- : preflion, the natural aah of the fciences, iit. All that is written i in Greek. cannot-b& properly. faid to be inthe tame languages for . we thould carefully diftinguith,. sng Comal (1.) Fhe ancient or literal Greek : anh. a rable language, 1 in which are. wrote the works of Xenophon, Thucidydes, Demotthenes, Platog _Arniftotle, Homer, Sophaciess 8c; works, rhat ‘have preferved_ this language in all its . purity, - and that will make it, with themielves, immortal, ‘There are, however, feveral idioms, or dialegs in this tongue, among \ ‘principal, and thefe are, 1, the Attic; which ig ‘the moft efteemed ; .2. the Tonic; 3. the Eolics | ‘did 4: the Doric ; which was a kind. ‘of. ruttic diale&t, and in which ate written, eclogu 5 ‘idyls, and other paftorals. | We muft obfeive — by the way, that all thefe four dialects are to be. ‘found in Homer, and produce an odd effect j in an heroic poem, notwithftanding the univerfal approbation that is given to this _poet. The Greek language is very copious in words, and its inflexions are as. various as they are. Gimple.in ~ ‘moft modern languages, It has three numbers, ‘the fingular, dual, and plural, and many, tenfes. in its verbs, which afford great. variety. of ex- preffion, The ule of. the participles of the aorift, and,of the preterit; and of compound words, which are very numerous in this lang Yo guages e which; rour are reckoned | 4 2 + g40 Universat Erubition. guage, give it force and brevity without, in the leaft, diminifhing its perfpicuity. Proper names have alfo a meaning in this, as in the Oriental languages, and the learned there find likewife the charaéter of their origin. The dialect itfelf, or the pronunciation, is fonorous, foft, harmo- nious and delightful: in a word, the Greek is the language of a polite nation, that had a tafte for il the arts’ and fciences. IV. (z) The Greek of the middle age. The ancient Greek ended at the time that Conftanti- nople became the capital of the Roman empire, though there were after that time feveral works, and fome by the fathers of the ‘church, which were wrote in Greek, and with fufficient purity: ‘but as theology, Jaw, civil and military policy, ‘the alteration of cuftoms and manners, &c. in- “troduced fucceffively a great number of words that were before unknown, thefe novelties by ‘degrees altered and corrupted the language—— ‘The natural elegance of the ancient Greek was no longer to be found. ‘Thole men of exalted genius, who conftantly give a true beauty to a Yafignage, were ho more. And what could be expected from a barbarous age, and from’authors ¢hat were even below a moderate capacity ° V. (3.) The modern or vulgar Greek. Te commenced at the taking of Conftantinople by the Turks, and is the language that is now _ commonly fpoke in Greece, without any regatd OP OO LO OT ae eS ee Ee OO —_— Deavd LANGVAGES. 341 ta improvement. The wretched flate to which the Greeks are reduced by the Turks, rénders them indolent, and, by a neceflary confequence, ignorant, The policy of the Otteman Porte does not permit its fubjects to apply themfelves to ftudy; and that fame {pirit, which has deftroyed the fineft monuments of antiquity, which has made, of columns of porphyry and granate, balls ° for their cannons, bas caufed the decadency and total deftruction of the {ciences.. The principal difference between the ancient and vulgar Greek confifts im the terminations of their nouns, pro- nouns, verbs, and other parts of fpeech. There ’ are alfo, in the modern, many words that are not to be found in the ancient Greek ; particles that appear to be expletives, and which cuftom alone has introduced to diftinguith certain tenfe¢ of ' their verbs ; names of employments and dignities * - unknown to the ancient Grecians; and a great number of words taken from modern tongues : which altogether form a fpurious language, a> kind of jargon. There is a gloffary of this’ language compofed by du Cange. VI. (4.) Fhe Greek of the New Teftament. The Greek of the Evangelifts and Apoftles is. very different fram that of Thucidydes, Xeno- phon, and Demofthenes, At the time of the birth of our Saviour, Greek was commonly {poke in Judea; for after the laft captivity, the people: no longer underftood Hebrew: their Greek, however, was corrupted, mixed with a great number 342 Universay Ervoitron. Aumber “of *Hebraifins ;) with words'eand terns © that related tothe worfhip,: to the laws, policy, manners, and ‘cultoms uf the’ ‘Jews’; -by which means it became ' a vulgar language, a provincial | and rude dialect, in“compariion ‘ofthe ancient _ or literal Greek. He that underftands ‘the ° New Teftament will’ not in’ confequence under- ftand ° Homer. It may appear furprifing, that Jofephus, the Jewith hiftorian, who ‘lived at the - time of the -deftruction . of. Jerufalem, about | forty years after the death of Chrift, fhould be abie to write Greek with fo much purity and elegance ; ; .obut he was: at once, a courtier, ‘a mi- ftudied the Ssreek Janguage, ani had {poke it at the court of. Vetpafien: in Rome. For the fame» S nifter,.a "general, « anda man of letters; had: t+ reafon, St. Paul alfo wrote -better ‘Greek than the Evangelitts ine other Apenere pacer. Ls Vil. men all that has beet fib itis appar- ent how much*utility attends the ftudy of. the Greek tongue, andshow much reafon the Englith have for applying themfelves:to it from their ¢ arly syouth.. There are, moreover, in modern lan- etiages, an infinity of terms in the: arts and {ciences,:as.moft of thofe in aftronomy, mathe- matics, phyfic, anatomy, botany, and the names of many: machines;. inftruments, and other,mo- dern ipventions, that. are either altogether Greek, or détived’ trom it, which ‘renders this language in a manner indifpeniable to a man of real ' Jearnine, ‘We caanot, laftly, determine, if mo- rie tall dern 9 ed ‘one * Ps ’ , ™ . bt Aes ‘ . ‘ d - Deav LANGUAGES: 343 7. dern, nations pronounce the Greek language in the manner that the ancient inhabitants of Greece: - did; but it is very probable, that if Demoft-: henés or Ariftides were now to come upon the» earth, they would be very far from underftand-. ing what our Jearned. men-fhould. fay to. pore in Greek. Si | % vu The Latin is the fecond of thofe lan-. guages that are called dead. It was firft fpoke: in Latium, afterwards at Rome, and by means: of the Latin church, and of the labours of the. learned, has. come down -to. us. » The Latins not. an original tongue, bur is formed ,of the Greek, and esis. 9 of the Eolian dialect, and, of many words taken from the languages. of the: Ofci, the Hetrurians, and feveral other ancient nations of Italy. It has had different | periods of improvement and decadency, which form its! different ages. \ The firft. age comprehenda the anole Latin : that was {poke in Latium, and caltivated at Rome, from its firft foundation, under the reigns of its kings, and: in the-firft ages of its republic. At the beginning, the: Latin tongue’ was, fo to fay, inclofed.within. the walls of Rome, : for the Romans. did not. commionly permit. the ufe of it to their neighbours, or the people they conquered: ;but when they»came to perceive how neceflary i it was for facilitating their. com-: merce, that the Latin tongue fhould be {poke every where, and that all nations, in fubjection to ' their — alia ail oe <— ee ~ a...” les ee Bi 5 a ee : " . Pen ge a a ee ee Se * = ery 4 "22> 2 ' \.o en i re 346 Universat Erupition. time the moft ignorant and futile mortals in the .world: » Under thefe times of -darknefs, we . mutt, therefore, rank that Latin, which is called lingua ecclefiaftica, and which we cannot read without difguft. : XII. The fifth and laft age of the Latin tongue is that which began with the fixteenth century,:and was that of Leo X, Charles V, Francis I, Henry VIII of England, &c. A happy period, and ever memorable for the re- - ftoration of letters, of arts and fciences, of man- ners; and of. the powers of the human mind, : which till then feemed to, have remained ina perpetual ftupor, It is -neceffary to remember here, that the art of printing was sot invented till about.the year 1441; and that the manu- {cripts of the ancient Greek and Latin authors. were become extremely fcarce.. and highly va-, juable; fo. that but few private perfons were able:to procure them, and to ftudy the Latin of the. Auguftan age. But-fince that time, we have had many Latin works, as well. in verfe as profe, in, a ftyle that.we cannot fufficiently ad- mire, and which, though not altogether fo pure aiid elegant. as thofe of the golden age, yet are: not much inferior. "XII, There are, however, i in the Latin, aa in all dead languages, two great inconveniences. which continually attend them, with regard to modern ages. The firft confifts. in the pronune: ciation, el + a - a eDeran \Lancvacrss 3497 giation!: “As ‘to;what concerns the Latin,. each nation “pronounces: its after’ the -manner of: its. own language, andseach, of them imagines their pronunciation tocbe the beft,. It: may be . prov- ed; however,. by. many:arguments, that no man now upon earth, pronounces’ Latin’ in thefame manner asidid Horace and\Cicero. The.fecond inconvenience ‘is: the deficiency. of .the Latin language with regard to us, th > (2.) From the German, or Allamana,. - . The modern German, which. fo little re- fembles the ancient, that it. is with diffi- culty we read.the authors of the fourteenth century. . The low Saxon or low German, . « The Dutch. . The Englith, in which almoft all the noun fubftantives are German, and many of the won oi NOrbs French, Latin, &c. and which is - enriched with the, fpoils of all: other lan- . guages... g. The Danifh. 10. The Norwegian. , 11. Swedifh, | ; : “12s Dalecarlian, 13. Laplandifh, oO ON ons (3.) From the Sclavonian, = =— 14. The Polonefe, with a mixture of the ans cient Sarmatian, a 15. The wy Se ee See $g2 Universat Exvnorrion ay. The Lithuanian. 16. Bohemian. 17. Hungarian, 18. Tranfylvanian. 19. Moravian. 20. The modern Vandalian, 48 it is fill fPoké in Liufatia, Pruffian Vandalia; &e: 21. The Croatian. 22. The Ruffian or Mufcovite. 23. The language of the Calmacs and Coffics. 24. Thirty-two different diale€&ts of nations who inhabit the north-eaftern parts of Fu- tope and Afia, and who are defcerided front ‘the ‘Tartars and Fiuno-Scythians. There are polyglott tables, which contain not only the alphabets, ‘but alo the prin- ‘cipal diftiné& Charatters “OE ‘all thefe Jan- 5 ates — a To all thefe ‘may ‘be added, | #8. The modern Greck, or that which is now -. fipeken in Greece. 26, The modern Hebrew, or vulgar language of the Jews, which is alfo called the 'Ger- man Hebrew, &c. And, 27. The jargon that is called Lingua Franca; III. The common languages of Afia are, 28. The Turkifh and,Tartarian, with their different dialeéts, 29. Fhe we - ee Mob ZERN LAN GUAGES. 353 89% The -Perfian;. 4) }5 204 go. TheGeorgian or Iberian. 31. The Colchic or Mingralian.,.. + G2. The Albanian or | Circaffian. 33. The Armenian. -| Thefe languages’ are {poke by the Greek ‘Chriftians in’ Afia, under the’ patriarcli of Conftantinople, >» 34. Thedanguage of the Jews in Petfa Me- _. dia,-and Babylon. . » 35. The:modern Indian. 36. posh army The Dartith ’ Tailtiod. 37: The Indolkanic. ges The Malabarian. 49. The Warugian. «|: - 40. The :Talmulic, } ».or Damulic: j “aries who go toTran- quebar, print books at Hall in thefe lan: guages. 41. The modern Arabic: 42: The Tangutian. 43: The Mungalic. 44: The language! of Balabandu; dnd the Nie » . \ogariari, or Akar Nigarian. 45. The Grufinic or'Grofinian. > > 46. The Chinefey o— 47. The Japonefe. We have enumerated here thofe AGatie lan- guages only, of which we have fome knowledge in Europe, and even alphabets, grammars, or other books that can givé us’ information con- cerning thems There «are “doubtlefs’ other tongues and dialects in thofe yaft regions and Vor. IIL z adjacent: . wren ee 354 UNIvEeRSAL ERUDITION. adjacent iflands, but of thefe we are not able to give any account. IV. The principal languages of Africa are, 48. The modern Egyptian. 49. The Fetuitic or the language of the king- dom of Fetu. 50. The Moroccan, and 61. The jargons.of thofe favage nations who inhabit the defart and burning regions. The people on the coaft of Barbary fpeak a kind of Turkifh. To thefe may be added the Chilhic language, otherwife called Tamazeght: the Negritian, and that of Guinea; the Abyffinian, and the language of the Hottentots. The languages of the American nations are but little known in Europe. Every one of thefe, though diftant but a few days journey from each other, have their particular language or rather jargon. The languages of the Mexicans and Peruvians feem to be the moft regular and po- lifhed. There is alfo one called Poconchi or Po- | comana, that is ufed in the bay of Honduras and toward Guntimal, the words and rules of which are moft known to us. The languages of North America are in general the Algonhic, ‘Apalachian, Mohogic, Savanahamic, Virginic, and Mexican: and, in South America, the Pe- ruvian, Caraibic, the language of Chili, the Cai- ric, the Tucumanian, and the languages ufed in Paraguay, Brafil, and Guiana. V. We i Moperw Lanovaces. 355 V. We have already faid, that it would -be a vain and fenfelefs undertaking for a man of let- ters to attempt the ftudy of all thefe languages, and to make his head an univerfal dictionary of languages ; but it would be ftill more abfurd in us to attempt the analyfis of them in this place: fome general reflections therefore mutt here fuf- fice. Among the modern languages of Europe, the French feems to merit the greateft attention, as it is elegant and pleafing in itfelf, as it is be- come the general language of courts, and even of public tranfactions, which are now commonly treated in French: with this tongue likewile we may travel from one end of Europe to the other, without fcarce having any occafion. for an interpreter: and in this language alfo are to be found excellent works of every kind, both in verfe and profe, ufeful and agreeable. The other nations of Europe, moreover, find great facility in learning it: the proteftant refugees of France of both fexes are difperfed over all Eu- rope; the late M. Regnard found fome of them even in the mines of Oftrabothnia. The French, moreover, are fond of travelling and of living in foreign countries, and the inhabitants of other nations are defirous of feeing France, which fo well deferves to be vifited : from whence arifes an ufeful communication between the French and other nations. We have, befides, grammars -and dictionaries of this language which give us every information concerning it, and very able mafters who teach it: efpecially fuch as come ine Z 2 from ta) it a a + ee 3566 Universav Ervpirion from thofe parts of France where it is fpoke cor- rectly ; for, with all its advantages, the French language has this inconvenience, thattit is pro- nounced fcarce any where purely but at Paris, and on the banks of the Loire. The language of the court, of the great world, and of men of letters, is, moreover, very different from that ‘of the common people: ‘and the French tongue, in general,’ is fubjeft to great alteration’ and ‘no- velty. What pity it is, that the ftyle of the great Corneille, and that of Moliere, fhould already be- ein to be obfolete, and that it will be but a little time before the ‘inimitable’ chefs d’ceuvres of thofe men of fublimé genius will be no longer feen onthe ftage! The moft modern ftyle of the French, moreover, does not feem to be the beft.. We are inclined to think, that too much. concifion, the epigrammatic point, the anti- thefis, the paradox, the fententious expreffion, &c. diminilh its force : and that by becoming, more polifhed and refined, it lofes much of its. energy. VI. The German, [talian and Englifh lan- . guages, merit likewife a particular application.. They have many real and great excellencies, and are not deftitute of natural graces. Authors of great ability daily labour in improving them, and what language would not become excellent were men of ‘exalted talents to make conftant. ufe of it in their works ? If we had in Iroquois, ‘books like thofe which we have in Italian, Englith and. Movern LanocuaGes: 357 and ‘German, : fhould we not be tempted to learn that lavguage? - How glad fhould we be to un- derftand.the Spanifh tongue; though it were only to read the Araucana of Don Alonzo D’Ercilia, Don Quixotte, fome dramatic pieces, and a fmall number of other Spanifh works, in the original: or the poem of Camoens in Portuguefe: The other languages of Europe have each their beauties and excellencies. Happy would he be that could know them: but how many other things are there more neceffary to be known than lan- guages ? ' VII. The greateft difficulty in all living lan- guages conftantly confifts in the pronunciation, which it is fcarcé poflible for any one to attain unlefs he be born or educated in the country where it is fpoke: and this is the only article for which a matter is neceflary, as it cannot be learned but by teaching, or by converfation: all the reft may be acquired by a good grammar and other books. . In all laguages whatever, the po- _ etic ftyle is more difficult than the profaic: in every language we fhould. endeavour to enrich our memories with great ftore of words (copia verborum) and to have them ready to produce on all occafions: in all languages it is difficult to extend our knowledge fo far as to be able to form a critical judgment of them. All living languages, are pronounced, rapidly, and without dwelling on’ the long fyllables. (which the gram- marians call moram): almoft all of them have b 358 Universat ERvuDITION. have articles which diftinguifh the genders: all the European. languages are wrote from the left to the right, and almoft all the Afiatic from the right to the left. | VIII. Thofe languages that are derived from the Latin have this further advantage, that they adopt without reftraint, and without offending the ear, Latin and Greek words and expreflions, and which, by the aid of a new terminations appear to be natives of the language. The privilege is forbid the Germans, who in their beft tranfla- tions dare not ule any foreign word, unlefs it be fome technical term in cafe of great ‘neceffity. Our moft {csupulous tranflators would gladly make ufe of the word menuet, if they were not fearful of appearing ridiculous. | 1X. To conclude ; philology is yet deficient of one very important invention; and that is, an univerfal language, or rather an univerfal charac- ter, which each nation may read and comprehend in their own language. After like manner, as all European nations underftand the figures and cal- culations of each other; and as the Chinefe and Ja- panefe exprefs their thoughts by the fame charac- ters, fo that thefe two nations can read each others writing, though their languages are very different. The late baron Leibnitz was fo far from believing this invention impoffible or impracticable, that he employed himlelf affiduoufly to the ftudy of it: and it is to be imagined that his death de- prived Europe of {fo 1 important a wear CHAP, CH A.P., SX," DIGRESSION ON EXERCISES. A bis principal intention of this work being to ferve as a guide to youth in the carreer of their ftudies, and efpecially to give them fome falu- tary advice for the employment of that preci- ous time which they devote to the academy and univerfity, the reader will not be furprifed to find, in this and the three following chapters, a very brief analyfis of thofe exercifes, arts and fciences, of which a man of letters ought at leaft to know the names and firft principles, though they do not direétly appertain to the fyf- tem of general erudition: of thofe arts, which may be even called frivolous, but which the wifeft legiflators have eftablifhed for the im- provement of mankind. II. How ufeful, how agreeable fo ever ftudy may be to the mind, it is very far from being equally falutary to the body. Every one ob- ferves, that the Creator has formed an intimate connexion between the body and the mind; a perpetual action and reaction, by which the bo- dy inftantly feels the diforders of the mind, and the 360 Universat Ervupirron. the mind thofe of the body. The delicaté {prings of our frail machines lofe their acti- vity, and become enervated, and the veffels are choked by obftructions when we totally defift from exercife, and the confequences ne- ceffarily affect- the-brain: a mere ftudious and fedentary life is therefore equally prejudicial to the body and the mind. The limbs likewife be- come ftiff; we contract an auwkard, conftrain- ed-manher; a certain difguftfal ait attends all our ‘actions, and) we dre. very near being as difagree- able to ourfelyes as. to others. An inclination to ftudy. is highly commendable; but. it ought not however to. infpire, us with. an’ averfion to fociety.... The’ natura] Jot ef;man is;‘to live among his fellows ; and whatever may \be' the condition of our birth, or our ‘fituaticn in life, there are a thoufand. occafions’ where a man muit naturally defire. to render himfelf agree- able ; to be active and adroit; to dance with . A graces to -command-the fiery fteed ; to de- fend, himéelf dgainft a, brutal enemy; to pre- ferve-his life by dexterity, as by leaping, {wim- ming, &c. Many rational caufes have there- fore given rife to the practice of particular ex- ercifes,, and: the ‘moit fagactous and: benevolent legiflators have inftituted, in their-academits and univerfities, proper. miethods of enabling: youth, who ‘devote themfelves to re to become eX- pant alfo 4 in laudable exercifes.: IIT. By the seeestcuecestets we tnderftand thofe arts in which a man cannot acquire the _ deaf * -_ ———— — ee On Expriersis.' / ig6e feat ability’ without the dexterity-ef the body ; and ‘confequently ‘they*are to be attained by _. only’ Such an s | ~99y,. Dancing. 2. Riding. 3. Fencing. aie beabingt © “be Wieltling, 6. Swimrhing, - 9. Shooting. $; Gameés® of addrets, Ben ‘To which may ; bé ‘added,® #20 g- The art of drawing and wae forifen. tions on the ground; that-of« eurningy ; of forming and polifhing optic glafies, IV. We fhall fee, ‘in the twenty- ‘fth peas’ of this‘book, that many fovereigns have found- ¢d’particular academies ‘where thefe exercifes are ‘taught, either folely to the young nobility and ‘gentty, of to the citizens in general: or that they have appointed mafters in the colleges for the fame purpofe: ~Thefe-arts cannot certainly Be learned “without mafters and it is no {mall ‘advantage to meet with fuch‘as proceed on clear and folid principles, Every oné who applies himfelf to the ftudy of the fciences, would do right well to fet apart fome hours in the day for ‘exercilé ; and ought not to regard thofe hours as loft, but as employed in ‘recreations that are V. The -eveb more uleful than agreeable. i ae, to g62 Unirversat Eruption. V. The laft method of expreffing our thoughts, the fentiments and paffions of the mind by means of the fight, is in the dance; fee vol. ii. page 419. Almoft from the firft ac- counts we have of mankind by hiftory, we are told of their dancing: we muft not imagine, however, that the dances of the firft inhabitants of the world, or all thofe of ancient nations, were like fuch as are practifed in our days: for we cannot fuppofe that when the king and prophet David’ danced before the ark, he did it in the ftep of a minuet or country-dance, as that would prefent a very ftrange idea, and not very compatible with our notions of the pro- priety of manners, We fhould not have a very high opinion of a king of Franée or Spain, for example, who fhould dance before the hoft in a religious proceffion, and in the face of all the people. The dance was, among the an- © cients, fometimes a religious ceremony ; and it is faid in Ecclefiaftes, that there is a time to dance. We have already remarked, in the chap- ter on declamation, that the Greeks ufed the word orchefis, and the Latins that of /altatio, in a much more extenfive fenfe than we do that of dancing ; and that the theatric declamation, ac- companied by artificial geftures, ‘and a determi- nate expreffion, was there included; as well as the art of mimics and pantomimes, &c. The tranflators meeting with the word orchefis, opxnoss, _and the verb x7, from whence alfo is derived the term orcheftra, and /altatio, faltare, or other » On Exercises. 363 other equivalent terms ; and finding themfelves embarrafled by the indigence of modern lan- guages, and the'diverfity of our cuftoms, have exprefied them by the words dance and danc- ing ; though thefe convey an idea far more con- fined. We may, moreover, very eafily con- ceive, that the theatric declamation, as weil for the voice as the gefture, might be expreffed by notes on a fcale, and that. after the manner of mufic they might prefcribe the elevation of the voice, or the motion of the hands, by the placing of thefe notes, and determine their duration by proper marks. Our modern chorographies (of which we fhall prefently fpeak) moreover con- firm this idea, VI. But without making further inquiry after matters that are now quite out of ufe, and con- fequently objects of mere curiofity, let us exa- mine the nature of modern dancing, by which we underftand ‘ the art of expreffing the fen- timents of the mind, or the paffions, by mea- ' fured fteps or bounds that are made in cadence, by regulated motions of the body, and by grace- ful geftures ; all performed to the found of mu- fical inftruments, or of the voice :” and which forms at once an exercife agreeable to the per- former, and pleafing to the {pectator. For we mutt not imagine with the vulgar, that dancing confifts of a jumble of freaks and gambols. The dances of people of education always ex- prefs fome idea: and it was faid of Mlle. — wit oo * ee oe 364 Universat Erupition. with more propriety, perhaps, than is common- ly imagined, that all her fteps were. Sentiments. Every minuet forms a kind of pantomime, which defcribes tothe eyes an amorous intrigue: Two lovers falute, they amouroufly regard each other, they give their hands, they féparate; they reproach, renew their love by prefenting their open arms, they at laft give their hands, and again ialute in token of réconciliation.” It is’the fame of all other noble-and graceful dances. There is in French a charming little treatife, known by the title’ of “* Charatters of ‘the dance and of the lovers,” where poetry, mufic, and the dance, very happily concur to exprefs ‘the va- rious characters and fentiments of thofe who are under the dominion of love, VII. Modern dancing is divided’ into that of the theatre and that of fociety. Theatric dan- cing confifts,' 1. of the performance of a fingle dancer? 2. of dances by two, three; four, &c. 3. of complete ‘ballets, where the chief dancers _ fometimes ‘perform alone, and fometimes with the chorus of figure dancers: 4. a dancé of two, three, &¢. with a pantomime ballet; by which is expreffed ‘fome fact in real or fabulédte hiftory ; ‘or fome other defign, by the dance and ‘by geftures. We’ have feen chefs d’euvres of this kind if the ballet of Pygmalion, ‘or the animateéd ftattie; in the ballet of the Rofe; in that of Boreas and Zephyrus, and in many other highly ingenious dances. The invention and Pere com- y :9 Om Exercises. . 365 compofition of thefe dances belong .ta the bal- lét-mafter, who fhould conftantly confult the poet in his, choice of. fubjeéts; for the. dances of an opera or other dramatic piece. It is -in- fufferable to a man of any tafte, to fee in the Italian operas, ballets that have fcarce ever the leaft relation to the mufical drama: the opera of Titus, for example, is terminated by a Chi- nefe ballet; a very grave and tragic ftory fhalt be interlarded with a dance of gay, fportful fhepherds.. This is to join contrarieties and to produce montfters, VIE. To exprefs the different characters of the perfons who compofe a ballet, or any other theatric dance whatever, the fubjeéts they are to reprefent, and the fentiments they are fuppofed to entertain, the mafter of the ballet makes ufe. of the different. modes or characters in mu- fic, and the fteps that are appropriated to each mode; as thofe of the faraband, courant, lou- vre, &c. for the grave and ferious, and thofe of the minuet, paffepié, chaconne, gavot, ri- gaudoon, jig, &c. for the gay, lively or co- mic. ~All: thefe are comprehended under. the name of the high dance, and are always accom- panied by a graceful motion of the arms. The art of adapting each of thefe fteps, fo as hap- pily to exprefs the various fentiments or emo- tions of the mind, forms thetalent of the bal let-matter, and is the greateft merit in the com- pofition of a dance, IX. For- $66 Universart Ervupirion: IX. Formerly there were fearce any dances exhibited on the theatre but the pavan, of which we fhall prefently fpeak, and thofe that do not rife from the ground in difplaying the natural graces, either by the manner of the ftep or in the attitude: the women efpecially danced only after this manner; but fince M. Durpré, Mlle. Camargo, and ‘their competitors, have fhown that the high dance, the noble and _ graceful, is fufceptible of leaps or bounds, and of entre- chats or capers of fix or eight, the entrechat en tournant, the ail de pigeon, the gargouillade, and many other high fteps (which muft be feen to be underftood) the theatric dance is become more lively and brilliant; and: the extraordi- nary abilities of modern dancers have afforded the mafters of the ballet opportunity of greatly varying their fubjects, of furprifing the fpec- tator to a greater degree, by conftantly. pre- ferving the graceful in the attitudes; and even in the moft difficult fteps. X. They always diftinguifh, however, in thea- tric dancing, the high and the low, the noble and graceful, and the ferious dance; the high, » the grand, and the low comic, the antic dance, the pantomime, &c: Every dancer fhould ap- ply himfelf to fome particular rank of dancing, and there endeavour to excel, according to the extent of his talents. But there are many who can never rife to any confiderable rank in their pe their utmoft abilities only enabling — them \ On Exercises. 367 them to figure in the chorus, from whence they are called figure dancers. The tumblers and rope dancers are not worthy to be mentiojied here, as there is no talent required in their per- formances, but merely the dint of practice. XI. With regard to the dance of fociety, the manner of it is greatly altered in Europe. For- merly, for example, they danced in France and elfewhere the pavan, a grave dance that came . from Spain; wherein the dancers made a ring by paffing one before the other, like peacocks with their long tails. The noblemen perform- ed this ferious dance with a cap of ftate and a fword; the judges in their long robes, the prin- ces in their mantles, and the ladies with the tails of their robes trailing behind them. This was what they called the grand ball. Such gra- vity would appear highly comic in our days, as all affectation is new laid afide, and nothing is called ferious but what is really fo: fuch mi-+ mickries of the majeftic, therefore, as thefe, would be regarded as childifh and treated with contempt. In the time of Lewis XIV. they ftill danced at court and at Paris, amiable vain- queurs, paflepiés, farabands, courants, &c. But all thefe grand matters have been difmiffed, and configned to the wardrobe of «ancient gal- lantry; from whence, however, they may be one day again brought forth, by inconftancy and by the love of novelty. The modern prac- tice of dancing is confined to the minuet and contre 368 Universat Erubition: contre dances or country dances either Frehcli or Englifhs In. Germany:.they ftill fometimés dance allernandes, fuabeans, polonefe;-:&c. XII. By Choregraphy- is meant the. aft. of noting on paper the fteps and figures of a dance, by means of certain characters invented for that purpofe, which.are peculiar. to, this art and are adopted» by moft) nations. The -underftanding of thefe requires anexprefs ftudy.. They call the defeription ofa dance, -whofe, fteps.. ate exé prefied with the notes of »mufic, orchefography. Thoinet Arbeaw printed, at Langres.inia 588; acurious treatife.on this. matter, .whichhe ins titled Orchefography ;_and:he was the firft who exprefied the fteps of the dances of his time by notes, in the fame manner that fongs. and airs are noted: He was followed by. the famous Beauchamp. We havereveral books of Englith ‘country dancesawhere:the choregraphy is placed under the :airsx Dancing:canibe. learned only by practice 5 -by:the aid of =a good mafter, and by imitating thofe‘excellent dancers»who. dre to be ‘met within the great world. They-who | would excel in dancing fhould take. particular care in their‘youth:not.to contract any bad ha- bits, any’ fteps ‘or attitudes that are awkward, conftrained or affected. In the laft place; dan- cing isa matter of agility, ‘an exercife that re- wirés “hatural talents, which are called forth and Cultivated ‘by an able matter; and-who, at the fame time thatthe teaches his art,. enables hig pupils Ow Exererses. 359 pupils to deport themftlves in fociery with grace, with €afe and dignity. XIII. Pantomimes ate reptefentations of thofe characters, manners, fentiments, actions and paf- fions of mankind, which may be mace the fubjeé of a comedy or other theatric performance; and thefe reprefentations are exhivited by aétors, who exprefs their meanings by looks and imi- tative geftures, wirhout the aid of words. ‘The word mime is Greek, and fignifies an imitator, and the word pan means all or all things; fo that the compound term pantomime implies an imitator of all things. This term is now ufed ‘for the reprefentations themfelves ; and the per- formers of thefe comedies, which are called mimes or pantomimes, have been named mi- mographilts. The ancient hiftorians, rhetors, gtammarians and critics, give marvellous ac- counts of the performances of thefe mimes and _ pantomimes, Caffiodorus calls them men whofe eloquent hands had, fo to fay, a tongue at the | end of each finger. But when they come to particulars, and give examples of their. perfor- mances, we {ee that they were little better than trifies. The following is an inftance recorded by Macrobius in his Saturnalia: ‘* Hilas, the fcholar and competitor of Pylades, who was the inventor of pantomimes, executed after his man- ner, before the Roman people, a monologue, which ended with thefe words, Agamemnon the great. Hilas, to exprefs thofe words, made the Vor, Il, Aa geftures 370 Universat ErvubDition — geftures of a man who would meafure another that was greater than himfelf. Pylades cries out to him from among the people, My friend, you jujfily make your Agamemnon to be @ man of great flature, but not a great man.” The people de- manded that Pylades fhould inftantly perform the fame part; and the people were obeyed. Pylades then reprefented by his attitude and gef- tures, the appearance of a man plunged in pro- found meditation, in order to exprefs the proper charaéter of a great man. ‘ As if a man of a‘mo- derate or even a low capacity was not fometimes rapt in profound meditation. ‘The people how- ever cried a miracle, and fhouted applaufe. What a pitiful example is this! Not that we imagine another actor could. have done better in this inftance than Hylas or Pylades, but we. think that matters like this, and {till lefs fcenes of fentiment, can never be well expreffed mere- ly by attitudes or oeftures ; and that it is a folly to attempt it, or to be pleafed with fo imperfect an expreffion. XIV. The Romans, however, were fo charm- ed with thefe performances, that the two great pantomime rivals, Pylades and Bathyllus, and their moft famous fucceffors, .were fometimes — well nigh diftracting the empire by the parties they occafioned among the people. “All thefe pan- tomime buffoons were at the fame time nothing better than miferable eunuchs, who, to make their performance {till more ridiculous, a¢ted with — On Exercises. 371. With a mak; and confequently could exprefs nothing of that continual alteration which arifes in the countenance. In procefs of time thefe geftures were accompanied by indecent expref- fions, witnefs the mimes of Laberius, which were licentious comedies, and which carried theft exhibitions to the heigth of extravagance. XV. A mah of genius in the prefent age, M: Rich of London, undertook to re-eftablifh thefe pantomimes of the ancients on his theatre; to fupply what was deficient, and to give them the utmoilt perfection of which they feemied capable. He made choice of happy fubjects for thefe re- prefentations ; he laid afide, with good reafon, the mafk; he collected the moft able aétors ; he fupported the reprefentation, from the be- ginning to the end, by an accompanyment of diverfified and very expreffive inftrumental mu- fic; to all this Hie added dances, the ftriking power of decorations, and the almoft mitacul- ous power of machinery. By the affiftance of all thefe refources he has at length made the pantomime an amufing entertainment. He has been -fince imitated by M. Nicolini an Italian, at Brunfwick. We have feen with great plea- fure, the birth of Harlequin; Harlequin in the mimes of Hartz; and many other charm- ing pieces of this kind: but as thefe performan- ces {peak more to the fenfes than to the under- ftanding, we cannot fee them very often not- withftanding their charming variety. Aa 2 XVI. In g72 Univirsat Erubitron. XVI In the lait place, there are fometimes. dances performed by miarionetts, which are puppets that are moved by fprings, and while they are in motion appear to be animated, Thefe Ste allo occafionally ufed by private and refpectable companies in the performing of fome farce, or other dramatic piece. Reprefentations of this fort are made on a:fmall theatre, agreeable to the fize of the marionetts. The operator who direéts their fprings is concealed behind the fcenes, fo that the wooden actors only appear, and who frequently imitate nature to a remarkable degree. This is an entertainment in fact trivial and imperfect enough, and where a certain per- fonage, known by the name of punchinello, is. the principal character; and who by his blun- ders, and fometimes by his droll fatires, con- tributes not a little to diffipate the f{pettators. fpleen; while the fublime dramas, efpecially thofe of the crying kind, plunge him into more melancholy. XVII. Though there are in all languages. _many excellent treatifes on the art of horfemans fein, as thofe of the duke of Newcaftle, baron. Hochberg, M..Pluvinel, de la Gueriniere, &c.. yet this exercife can never be well learned but. in the menage or riding {chool, under the di- _yeétion of an able mafter, and. by riding of ma- -naged horfes, as well in their natural as artificial: paces. To fit a horfe gracefully, to make him gonférm td all our defires, and to avoid all thofe: accidents, “On EXERCISES, , 373 accidents to which riding is liable, are the three principal points that are propofed by learning this art. 5 XVIII. The art of fencing is likewife to be learned from a mafter, and b exercifing i ina fchool; the mafter is Pe lifted by : a prevot or fub-mafter. It is under t is direétion that the fcholar learns, by the ufe ‘of files, the _ proper manner of holding the fword, and of making the various thrufts, as tierce, quart, fecond, &c. with ra idity and fecurity ; as well as the method of parrying all thrufts that can be made at him. To give, and not to receive is the motto of a fencing mafter. There is, in Italian, a treatife by M. Salvatore, of the theory and pra&ice of fencing; and a celebrated work in French, by M. Givald Thibault, intitled .zhe academy of the fword; as well as feyeral others that have appeared fince. XIX. Vaulting is anexercife by which we learn to perform all feats of the body with eafe and addrefs ; as leaping into the faddle, or difmount- ing a horfe in‘a hke manner, or afcendin fome great eminence with dexterity, &c, The mafters of this art make ufe of a wooden horfe ; ; of a long floping table, covered with rufhes or fuch like matter, and of fome other machinery, for the convenience of their {cholars, and for | preventing them from unlucky accidents; which might 374 UnNIrvErRsAL ERUDITION. might frequently happen in fo dangerous an exercife. XX. Wreftling is an encounter by two men without weapons, in order to try theit ftrength, and to endeavour to throw each other on the ground. This was a famous exercife amiong the ancients, and we ftill fee the cruel and difoutt- ful remains of it among the Englihh. But this exercife is fo violent, dangerous and repug- nant to humanity, that far from exhorting youth to the practice of it, we cannot but endeayour to infpire them with an averfion toit. A wreft- ler by profeffion, and a fpectator who 1s pleafed with fuch encounters, are commonly two per- fons equally defpicable. XXI. The art of /wimming; or the method of fuftaining the body on the water by the mo- tions of the arms and the legs, and by proper- ly holding the breath. This exercife is alfo very dangerous, but at the fame time very health- ful, feeing that it unites the advantages of a bath with thofe of exercife: it is, moreover, very ufeful as it may fometimes fave the life or ho- nour of aman. Pieces of cork or bladders may affift thole who are learning to fwim, but thefe are weak fecurities, and on which, therefore, much dependence ought not to be placed. A boat near at hand, and an able fwimmer by his fide, afford the learner of this exercife the beft fecurities, and the moft confidence where. there 1S On Exerérses. = 375 ig a natural timidity. ‘The greateft accomplith- _ ment in this art is to be able to dive, and to remain under the water, to fetch matters from _ the bed of a river or the fea, and to rife again with velocity to the furface of the water. M. Thevenot has publifhed a curious work, intit- led the art of fwimming, illuftrated by figures. Everard Digby, an Englifhman, and Nicolas ’ Wireman a Hollander, have alfo given pre- cepts relative to this art. | XXII. The art of fbocting, whether with ‘the fpring bow, the crofs bow, the mufquet, or fowling piece, &c. ata mark, at a wood- en bird, or in the chafe, is likewife not to be neglected. This is an exercife that may be of ‘the greateft utility in life, and depends much on a fharp fight, a fteady hand, and on practice, which gives a proficiency in all things. XXIII. The games of addrefs, as the dex- terity in running at the ring; in the combats of the Spanifh bulls; in winter upon the ice with fkates; at the mall, tennis, bowls, bil- liards, and numberlefs other games that are practifed in different parts of Europe, are not fo frivolous as they may tofomeappear. Thefe games conftantly afford a falutary exercife to the body, render a man active and adroit, and better difpofed for more ferious occupations, Great care, however, fhould be taken by youth not g76 Universat Ervupirtion. not to give themfelves up to thefe, and there-. by lofe that precious time of which every man of letters ought to be fo thrifty and even avari- tious. XXIV. In the laft place, the art.of draw- ing and raifing fortifications on the ground; that of turning wood, ivory, mother of pearl and eyen metals; that of polifhing glafies, and fetting them for optical inftruments, &c. all thefe and many other like matters, belong ra- ther to ufeful arts than exercifes. It is tfue, aman of fedentary life may apply himfelf to . them by way of relaxing his mind and exer- cifing his body, but thefe arts are to be learn- ed of thofe who make them their profeffion ; it is fufficient for us juft to mention theit mames and thereby recal them to the. readers memory. CHAR. ( 377.) CHAP. XXII, DIGRESSION on certain Anomarous Arts and Scr ENCES, or fuch as do not di- rectly appertain to Erudition. CCORDING to the general idea, and the definition we have given of Univer- fal Erudition, at the beginning of this work, the more extenfive any man’s knowledge is, the more Erudition he may be faid to have. We have already remarked, however, that there are feveral fciences which do not directly appertain to the fyftem of Erudition; and it is of thefe fci- ences and arts, that we here propole to fay.a few words; not fo much with a view of making their analyfis, and thereby confounding them with thofe that rightly belong to our fyftem, as to fhow, that though we have not forgot them, yet we think, that from their nature they ought to be excluded, and not confounded with thole that rightly appertain to Erudition, and thereby reduce our fyftem to a chaos. We'thall therefore bare ly mention them, and leave thofe who may have particular 378 Universat ERvupiTion. particular reafons for thinking them worthy of their ftudy, to apply to fome good treatife, or to the practice of them; and this we the rather do, as moft of thefe arts and fciences are not the fruits of genius, but merely employments of the judgment and the memory: are founded on experience, and conducted by the aid of the mathematics, or fome other {cience of which we have already treated, or elfe are fubordinate to, and make a part of politics. Il. (1.) Lhe condu& of a war requires the union of the theory of that art, with the practice, Now as that art is included in thofe which concur in the fcience of government, we have already mentioned, in the chapter on politics, the illuf- trious names of thofe great men -who have re- duced it to a fyftem, and have laboured in teaching it to the public. It is in thefe fchools that they who ate ambitious of fhining in the fields of Mars, are to feek for inftruction. He only, who joins to a fruitful genius, confummate experience, and a folid theory, deferves the name of a great general. Wil. (2.) The marine, taking that term in its full extent, and in the manner which a minifter of that department, or an admiral, ought to underftand it, is a fcience that comprehends, and fuppofes a mafterly knowledge of many other arts and f{ciences. It is divided into four gene* ral parts, which are,‘ 1. , thie knowledge of all | the ANOMALOUS: Arts and Sciences. 379 the ftores, arms, amunition, and other matters neceffary to a fhip; and with which the maga- zines and yards belonging to the admiralty ought to be provided. 2. Naval architecture ; which teaches the method of conftructing all forts of veffels or fhips. 3. Steerage, or the art of condutting a veffel on the fea. ‘And 4. The art of evolutions, which fhews the method of commanding a number of fhips together, as fquadrons or fleets. We do not know of any complete fyftem, that treats of all thefe four parts together, but there are a great number ‘that treat of them feparately. IV. (3.) Commerce, which comprehends vaft knowledge, and forms a fcience that is very intricate, and highly important. Many cele- brated authors have endeavoured to reduce it to a fyftem, and have wrote very inftructive trea- tifes relative to it. The grand hiftorical and political treafury of the flourifhing commerce of the Dutch is a very curious work; the firft chapter contains an interefting hiftory of the commerce of all Europe. The works of M. Savary, efpecially his great dictionary; the elements of commerce; the political effay on commerce, by the late M. Melon: and many other works which are daily appearing in the commercial ftates, will greatly facilitate the . knowledge of thefe matters. This fcience, however, makes no > part of Erudition, properly fo called, V. (4) Coiming, 380 Universat Eruparion. V. (4.) Coining, or the making of money, requires alfo various knowledge, the union of which forms a very complex art. The know- ledge of all metals, their intrinfic and numerary value, their nature, the degrees of their ductili- ty, the proportion they bear to the exchange, their allay, &c. form the preliminary {cience of a good matter of the mint, who is not fo com- mon a chara¢ter as fome may imagine. He mult likewife underftand the art of founding metals, of forming them into ingots or wedges, of reducing them into planchets, or picees fit to receive the ftamp, and the manner of givi them their proper impreffion, either by the hammer, or the mill. He fthould alfo infpect the refining, affaying, plating, graving of the . dyes, &c. There are but few good books ~ on this important fubject, or even on the feveral articles of which it is compofed. Vi. (5.) Mineralogy, or the art of working mines, whether of metals, ftones, foffils, &c. forms alfo an extenfiye fcience, and one that is daily improving by practice, and which prac- tice men of ability now endeavour to reduce into..a theoretic fyftem, by thofe difcoveries which they are inceflantly making of new prin- © ciples and new inyentions. There have been hitherto but few good books wrote on this fub- ieCt : however, the directors of mines, and miners themfelyes, of all the countries of Europe, readily communicate to each other their know- ledge Anomatots Arts aid Serintrs, 48% Yédge and their difcoveries. There is a termi: nology altogether peculiar to'this art, and which, being unintelligible to all but miners, requires a particular ftudy. VII. (6.) The venéry, which conyprehends not énly the art of hunting beafts and fowls, the » method of knowing their tracks, and fumets or dung, of defeating their artifices, and ot régue lating the attendants on the chace, ‘as the hunt& men, hounds, &c. but alfo the knowledge of woods and forefts, of what relates to their srowth and prefervation; the ufe of the feveral kinds of trées they produce, &c. There ate number- lefs authors in ail languages, who have wrote dn the venéry, at the head of whom ‘is the emperor Frederic Il. A peculiar terminolody fims alfo an efféntial article in this art. VIII. (7.) Political economy, as well ‘forthe city as the country, has béeh reduced for fore time paft, in Germany, into a particular {cience = a number of authors have wrote large works 6n ‘it, and, in forte univerfities, profeffors have been eftablifhed who make complete courfes in it, under the title of collegium atonomicum, ' urban & rufticum. It happens, however, unfoftunate- ly, that thefe profeffors are commonly men who ‘jn their ftudies difewfs thofe matters ina me- thodical manner, which the hufbandman, the fhepherd, and the fitherman, learn far better, though more flowly, by a daily practice: ‘tlie rules. 382 Universar ERvUDITION.: rules thefe profeffors give, are, moreover, fcarc¢ ever applicable out of their own neighbourhood ; for there are not under the fun, any two cli- mates and foils perfectly alike. 1X. (8.) Flora and Pomona concur to enrich and decorate our lands, and thefe .goddefies have produced among us the aré of gardening; which has two parts: the firft comprehends the theory and practice of pleafure gardens; and the other regards in like manner, fruit gardens, orchards, kitchen gardens, &c. There are very pleafing treatifes on this art, as thofe of Alexan- der Blond; M. de la Quintinie; the Solitary Gardener ; and. many others. The hortulan art was fo far improved during the reign of Lewis XIV, and under the direction of M. le Nautre, that we almoft defpair of ever fecing it carried to a greater degree of perfection. The German gardeners, however, have fhown, that in producing forward fruit, they have the prio- rity of all other nations, by the aid of their ingenious hot houfes: and England is daily decorated by new pleafure gardens, in a ftyle truly original.. The Englifh fuppofey that a garden ought to reprefent a beautiful landicape, . formed by nature, and ornamented by art: and not the decorations of a deffert precifely difpofed, and cut into fpruce figures by the fhears. On this principle they form their alleys, bafons, flopes, woods, groves, &c. as if nature had produced them; regardle{s of ftrict rea and Anomatous Arts and Sciences, 383 and this method has a marvellous effect, efpe-. cially in an extenfive plan. The dcfcriptions. and plans that have been lately publifhed of Chinefe gardens, exhibit alfo ideas that are new and grand in their kind. X. (9.) Who could have imagined that the preparation of food. for man fhould haye pro- duced fo complicated an art as is that of cookry? Thanks to the rapacious appetite and refined tafte of the ancient and modern Luculli, we have the celebrated treatife of Apicius, de re cu- linari, which informs us of the ftate of cookery among the Romans; and, for that of the mo- derns, we have Le parfait Cuifinier, Le Cuifinier royal et bourgeois; Le Cuifinier moderne, by M. Chapelle, and a great number of fimilar works, in almoft all languages. But. this art and thefe works belong to the univerfal erudi- tion of the glutton, the voluptuary, and the pa- rafite, who affert that a cook is a divine mortal ; and maintain by arguments plaufible enough, though falacious, that this art is more ufeful, and requires more wit and fagacity than meta- phyficy ; XI. (10.) Let us not here forget to mention an art worthy to be honoured by the whole lite- rary world ; an art of all others the moft pleafing and moft ufeful : and of which they make a very juft eulogy in Germany, by a folemn jublee in honour of its invention: in a word, the Art of Printing. — 984 Universan Ervvirron. Priating. ‘This art has never been placed on a rank with ticchanic profeflions ; afd the man-of fenfe ftill lauglis at the fuperftition and ignorance — of thofe priefts who would formerly have made the world believe, that typography was a dan- gerous art. It would require more than one volume to fhew how far this art was known, Jong fince, by the Chinefe: in what manner it was invented and improved in Europe by John Fauftus of Mentz, John Mentel of Strafburg, Guttemburg, Laurence Cofter of Harlem, Ni- eolas Janfon, Aldus Manucius, who invented the Italian charaéters; Elziver, Blaauw, Wef- téin, and an infinity of able printers of our own days: or if we wotild deferibe all the mechanifm of this art, thé various inftruments, materials, and workmen that are ettiployed, and the know- ledge and tafte that it requires. That relation which we have to letters will not permit us, however, to omit this opportunity of giving a public téftimony to the abilities of the celebrated M.Breitkopf of Leipzig, who, after having carried the typosraphic art to the utmoft degree of per- feétion of which it appears capable, has lately in- vented the art of printing, by the means of move- able characters or notes, all forts of mufic, and that with as much precifion as tafte and elegance. The mere infpedtion of this furprifing art is fuffi- cient to make every one admire the invention, . and be charmed with the execution, CHAP, . Vis 4 F385") ° CHAP, .XXIV. DIGRESSION on CHIME- RICAL ArTS and ScIENCES.» HEN meditating on the ambitious views of the human’ mind, we have frequently faid, Les écarts de raifoh, l’ignorance & I’ erreur, Sont de l’efprit humain l’ordinaire appanage. Tout mortel pour monter au rang du Créateur, Voudroit /aveir beaucoup, & pouvoir davantage, The deviations from reafon, ignorance and error, are the ordinary portion of the human-mind. Each mor- tal, to raife bimfelf to a rank with his Creator, would be able to know much, and to perform more. And in faét, the fource of all the chime- rical arts, and all the frivolous or pretended fciences, feems to be difcovered in thefe four lines. The defire of being highly learned, or at leaft of appearing fo, has given rife to the art of divi- nation, and to all thofe which are dependant on ir. The defire of being powerful and formidable, or — at leaft to appear fo, in order to feem to predié, has produced the magical art, and all thofe that ~ Vor, IIL. Bb attend F - 386 Universat Ervopirron. attend it. So much for the Origin of thofe mat- ters; we fhall now fee what hiftory relates con- cerning them. II. The ancient inhabitants of Afia, in gene- neral, partook of the ardor of their climate, and the Chaldeans, in particular, were the greateft vifionaries and the pooreft philofophers in the whole world. They faw that there was evil in the world, and they could tell how to afcribe it to the All-perfeé&t Being: for they did not per- ceive, that the terms, good and bad, convey ideas that are merely relative or comparative, like thofe of great and little; that there could be no fuch thing as good, if there were no evik by which it might be compared; and that this proceeds from the very effence of all beings whatfoever. They therefore fuppofed there were two’ primordial beings, one of which was the au- thor of all.good, and whom they named Oro- mafdes, Divinity or Gods; and. the other the au- thor of all evil, whom they called Arimanius, Demon or Devil. They did not perceive that it was a far greater offence to the Divinity to fuppofe an oppofite being, another creator and — producer befide him, than to fuppofe that he had produced an evil that was unavoidable and abfolutely neceffary, and an evil the idea of — which is alfo conftantly relative. IJ. When this Arimanius or devil, however, was once invented, they did not fail, according LO CHIMERICAL SCIENCES. 38% to the laudable cuftom of the firft ages, and of thofe warm climates, to give him a figure, and make him ferve their purpofes, This dogma was not fown in barrenland: All priefts (except thofe of the Chrifiian religion) have been at all times ambitious and felfinterefted. They have fought after great importance, great authority, and great riches; The belief of ademon became therefore to the Chaldean pagan priefts a real treafure; the foundation’ on which they built their principal authority; and the fource from whence they derived their greateft wealth. Without the aid-of their demon they would have been overthrown more than once; and for this reafon it is- that. they were conftantly fo jea- lous of this dogma, and. alfo drew from it fuch fubtle, lucrative and convenient confe-. quences. IV. All the eaft, and afterwards all the weft, and in fhort the whole earth, was foon poflefied withthisdogma. By conftantly purfuing earthly ideas, and human notions, the good being was naturally fuppofed to refide at one place, and the bad being at another, To the former they therefore affigned a heaven, which they fuppofed to be over their heads, and gave him a celeftial court: to the latter they gave a hell, which they imagined to be under their feet, and affigned him an infernal court, From hence arofe their gods and demi-gods, their devils, demons, and fpirits of every rank and every kind. Bb a2 V. But 388 Universat EruDiTion. V. But this was not all. This dogma would have been of little confequence if they had not fuppofed a direct, immediate and particular con- nexion between the infernal court and mankind who inhabit the earth. Now, as no mortal what- ever could perceive this connexion by the aid of his fenfes only, they made of it an occult fcience, which naturally remained in the hands of the priefts and priefteffes, the magi, the foothfayers, _ the augurs, the vifionaries, the priefts of the oracles, the falfe prophets, and other like pro- feffors, till the time of the coming of Jefus Chrift. The light of the gofpel, it is true, has diffipated much of this darknefs ; but it is more difficult, than is commonly conceived, to eradi- cate from the human mind a deep rooted fuper- ftition, even though the truth be fet in the ftrongeft light, efpecially when the error has been believed almoft from the orign of the world; fo we ftill find exifting among us the remains of this Pagan fuperftition, in the follow- ing chimeras, which enthuftaftic and defigning men have formed into arts and fciences: though it muft be owned, to the honour of the eigh- teenth century, that the pure doétrines of Chrift- ianity, and the fpirit of philofophy, which be- ' come, God be praifed, every day more diffufed, equally concur in banifhing thefe vifionary opi- nions. The vogue for thefe pretended fciences and arts, moreover, is paft, and they can. no longer be named without exciting ridicule in all fenfible people. By relating them here, there- | fore, - CHIMERICAL ScIENCES. 389 fore, and drawing them from their obfcurity, we only mean to fhow their futilty, and to mark thofe rocks againft which the human mind, with- out the affiftance of a pilot, might eafily run. VI. For the attaining of thefe fupernatural qualifications, there are {till exifting in the world the remains of, (1.) Affrology: a conjectural fcience which teaches to judge of the effects and influences of the ftars; and to predict future events by the fituation of the planets and their different afpects. It is divided into natural aftrology, or meteoro- logy, which is confined to the foretelling of na- tural effeéts, as the winds, rain, hail and fnow, — frofts and tempefts. In this confifts one branch of the art of our almanack makers, and by merely confronting thefe predictions in the calen- dar, with the weather each day produces, every aman of fenfe will fee what regard is to be paid to this part of aftrology. The other part, which. is called judicial aftrology, is ftill far more il- lufive and rafh than the former: and having. been at firft the wonderful art of vifionaries, it afterwards became that of impoftors; a very common fate with all thofe chimerical fciences, of which we fhall here fpeak. This art pre- tends to-teach the method of predicting all forts of events that fhall happen upon the earth, as well fuch as relate to the public, as to private perfons ; and that by the fame infpection of the the ftars and planets, and their different conftel- lations, g90 Universat Erubitrion. Jations. The cabala fignifies in like manner the knowledge of thing that are above the moon, as the celeftial bodies and their influences; and in this fenfe it is the fame with judicial aftrology, or makes a part of it. VII. (2.) Horofcopy, which may alfo be con- fidered as a part of aftrology, is the art by which they draw a figure, or celeitial-fcheme, contain- ing the twelve houfes, wherein they mark the dif- pofition of the heavens at a certain moment; for example, that at which a man is born, in order to fortel his fortune, or the incidents of his life. In aword, it is the difpofition of the {tars and planets at the moment of any perfon’s birth. But as there cannot be any probable or poffible re- Jation between the conftellations and the human race, all the principles they lay down, and the prophecies they draw from them, -are:chimerical, falle, abfurd, and a criminal impofition on man- kind. | VIII. (3.): The frivolous and pernicious art of Augury confited, among the ancient Romans, in obierying the flight, the finging and eating of birds, efpecially fuch as were held facred. (4.) The equally deceitful art of Haru/picy confitted, - ‘on the contrary, in the infpectiiea of the bowels of animals, but’ principally of vittims, and from thence predicting: grand incidents relative to the republic, and the good or bad events of its enterprifes. IX. (5.) Aere- CMIMERICAL SCIENCES. gor IX. (5.) eromancy was the art of divining by the air. This vain feience has alfo come to us from the Pagans =: but is rejected by reafon as well as Chriftianity, as falfe and abfurd. —(6.) Pyro- mancy is a divination made «by the infpection of a flame, either by obferving to which fide it turns, or by throwing into it fome combuttible matter; or a bladder filled with wine, or any thing elfe-from which they imagined they were able to predict. 7.) Hydromancy is the fuppofed art of divining by water. The Perfians, accord- cording to Varro, invented it; Pythagoras and Numa Pompilius made ufe of it; and we ftill admire like wonderful prognofticators. (8.) Geomancy was a divination made by obferving of cracks or clefts in the earth. It was alfo per- formed by points made on paper, or any other fubftance, at a venture; and they judged of fu- ture events from the figures that refulted from thence. This was certainly very ridiculous, but it is nothing lefs fo to pretend to predic future events by the infpection of the grounds of a difh of coffee, or by cards, and many other like mat- ters. Thus have defigning men made ufe of the four elements to deceive their credulous brethren. XK. (9.) Chiromancy, in the laft place, is the art which teaches to know, by infpecting the hand, not only the inclinations of a man, but his future deftiny alfo. The fools or impoftors, who prac- rife this art, pretend that the different parts, or the lines of the hand, have a relation to the in. ternal 392, Universart Ervupirtron. ternal parts of the body, as fome to the heart, others to the liver, fpleen, &c. On this falfe fuppofition, and on many others equally extra- vagant, the principles of chiromancy are found- ed: and on which, however, feveral authors, as Robert Flud, an Englifhman; Artemidorus ; M. de la Chambre; John of Indagina; and many others, have wrote large treatiles. Phy- Sicgnomy, or Phyfionomancy, is a {cience that pre- tends to teach the nature, the temperament, the underftanding, and the inclinations of men, by the infpection of their countenances, and 1s there- fore very little lefs frivolous. than chiromancy ; though Ariftotle, and a number of learned men after him, have wrote exprefs treatifes concern- ing it. | | XI. (10.) In the rank of pretended and dan- . gerous fciences, we may alfo place thofe fanatico- myftico-theologic doétrines; which ftill re. main in the world, and thofe books which {piri- tual vifionaries have wrote on thefe matters, and which others, equally weak, think they under- ftand. We have had a very renowned. genius of this kind, in Germany, named Jacob Bohem, and he has had, for fucceffors, fome authors not unworthy of him, and many dark. preachers. Thefe are conftantly a fet of impoftors, who cover the truth with’ impenetrable darknefs : who pretend to have fome particular lights, fecret and occult {ciences, on thofe fubjects that are CHIMERICAL ScIENCEs. 393 are fo holy and fo important, and which require the utmoft perfpicuity. _ A fpirit of enthufiafm is always concealed in thefe doétrines and writ-. ings, and it is afpirit that a wife legiflator fhould endeavour to fupprefs wherever it appears. For, to {peak plainly, all myftic theology, except that which is fanctified by the church, is an abfurd and frivolous {cience ; feeing it is equally repugnant to the wifdom of God, and to human reafon, to fay, that the facred writers, who were infpired by the Holy Spirit, have included in their doctrines, befide the true, rational, . clear, and inftructive fenfe, one that is myfterious, hidden, allegoric, and involved, which certain vifionaries alone can comprehend, which they alone can difcover, and which at the fame time is neither inftructive nor perfuafive: or that a book, diétated by the Supreme Being for the falvation of mankind, fhould contain enigmas, which a theologian alone has a right to ex- pound, 3 _ XII. In order to obtain a great and formida- ble power, and to be able to produce fuper- natural effects, mankind have alfo invented, (1.) Magic. This word was at firft taken in a good fenfe, and fignified the art of performing uncommon and marvellous aéts, by the aid of certain natural fecrets, or at leaft, fuch as were fo to the vulgar. The magicians of thofe days were men worthy of efteem, who endeavoured to penetrate the hidden powers of nature by lawful 394 Universar Ervupitron. lawful means. Magic was affociated with the mathematics, with phyfic, and theology. Mofes himfelf, Daniel, Apollonius, Tyaneus, Elymas who oppoied St. Paul, the fages of Egypt and Babylon, thofe of the eaft that came to feek the king of the Jews, who was juft born; and numberlefs other illuftrious perfonages of anti- quity, were all magicians, But in the fucceffion of time, thefe magi applied themfelves to aftro- logy, to divinations, to enchantments, and witchcraft; and by thofe means became oppro- brious, and their fcience contemptible, its pro- duétions being no longer regarded but as_ illu- fions, mere jugglers tricks. This art is at pre- fent in very little efteem, notwithftanding the diftinction that is made between natural and fupernatural magic, and all the books which have appeared, and ftill continue to appear under the former title; which generally contain fome pretended fecrets, and which would be even trifling and peurile, did experience eftablith their reality. The authors of thefe ought at leaft to publifh them under fome title lefs often- tatious, obnoxious, and contemptible. XIII. (2.) Necromancy, or Negromancy ; an art that would be deteftable if it were real, and is ri- diculous, becaufe it is chimerical: for by this is meant a communication with demons; the art of raifing the dead; and of performing many other miraculous facts by a diabolical power, and by enchantments. This was the pretended art of Merlin and Fauftus, and which no longer exifts. s ots ae CHIMERICAL Scrences. 395 exifts but on the ftage, or in childifh roman- . - ces. XIV. (3.) Sorcery, or witchcraft, is the third art that pretends to: borrow the aid and minif- try of the devil, and to perform miraculous operations by invoking demons, either in ob- feure retreats, or in the darknefs of the night, or in an affembly of wizards or witches, which they call afabbat. It would require a large vo- lume to relate all the influence which this chi- merical and abfurd art has had on the minds of weak men in all ages, from the creation of the world to the age which immediately preceded the prefent: to what degree credulous people have believed it: in how ferious and important a manner it has been treated. by -prieits, by princes and miagiftrates, and what horrible _cruelties they have been induced from thence to commit. Thefe magiftrates were certainly no conjurers: they no ways refembled them, but in wickednefs. Since philofophy has con- fined forcery to the wardrobe of ancient reve- ries; and fince wife legiflators have prohibited the tribunals from exercifing their powers againft it, and priefts from pretending to exorcifms ; there is no longer to be found in the world either demon, forcerer, witch, conjurer, or fabbat. XV. (4.) The fame feverity, however, has not been fhown to Alchymy, though it juftly merits 396 Universat ErvDItTion. merits as great a punifhment from the prince, and as much contempt from the philofopher. If alchymy were nothing more than the art of diffolving natural bodies, and of reducing them to their original principles ; of feparating the ufeful parts of each mixture from the ufelefs, fo far from deferving to be decryed, it would be an admirable art; but this is the bufinefs of the moft exalted chymiftry, and we fhould care- fully avoid confounding the arts and {fciences. Men have perceived in all ages that by the aid of gold the moft difficult matters. were to be achieved ; that if they poffeffed the art by which Jupiter rained gold, they fhould be: able to accomplifh the greateft enterprifes, and that they fhould not even findyany difficuity in ob- taining a Danae. A modern Prometheus, how- ever, in order to create gold, does not attempt to fteal that celeftial fire which is fo -necef- fary in the creating of all beings, but contents himfelf with a fire of coals, which he ftirs and blows till all the gold, which the inheritance or induftry of his, anceftors have given him, paf- fes with the fmoak up the chimney. The expe- rience of four or five thoufand years has not been fufficient to cure mankind of this frenzy; and what is more furprifing, is that thofe, who are reputed philofophers, countenance this prac- tice, by roundly afferting the poffibility of ma- king gold. Now, if the matter were really practicable, a good citizen ought not to affert it, becaufe of the {mall degree of probability there CHIMERICAL SCIENCES. 397 there is of ever difcovering the fecret, and thé certain ruin that would attend a great number of men who fhould attempt it, and the very trifling advantage the difcovery would be to fo- ciety ; for perhaps there is no fubftance, no metal more ufelefs than gold, confidered in its own nature. What a celebrated author, whofe memory we otherwife revere, has faid in his letters on the fciences, with the regard to the-phi- lofophers ftone in particular, fills us with afto- nifhment. Under a {pecious appearance nothing is lefs conclufive than his method of reafoning. For, 1. Wether all matter be homogeneous, . or 2. that all the parts of matter are reducible to a certain number of principles, which form the e- lements of all bodies, or 3. that all the parts of matter are as various in themfelves as all the dif- ferent bodies in nature; which ever of thefe be the cafe, it is of no importance with regard to the production and generation of compofite bodies; and the confequences which he draws from thence may be equally applicable to, the production of plants, animals, &c. The fource of this argument proceeds from a certain fyftem in philofophy applied to natural hiftory, in which they fuppofe that ftones and minerals are not produced by a regular generation, com- mon to all other material beings: a fyftem that we find very difficult to comprehend, and concerning which we have elfewhere ventured to propofe fome doubts. For what we might further fay here on the fubject of alchymy we refer go8 ~Universar Ervupitron. refer our readers to the chapter -on chymiftry in the firft book. This fcierice appears to us in. fo futile a light, that we cannot perfuade ourfelves to make a more ample analyfis: of it;*. * As we forefee that what is here faid will be liable to much objection, in order to avoid all difpute about words, we entreat thefe philofophers to refolve the following que~ ftions. 1. How can-we make gold, any more than filver,. cop- per, iron, lead, ftones, foffils, fhells, &c. 2. How can we make (produce or create). any fubftance whatever? . 3. Can they conceive that there is in nature two genera- tions, two different manners of engendering; and where« fore ? | 4. If there be two methods of generation, why fhould there not be more, 3, 4, 5,6, &c. 5. Why then do they reject equivocal generation, as a chimera ? 6. If there are different generations for {tones and metals, may there not be alfo for infects; and why from faw duft* mixed with urine may not fleas be generated? 7. Does it require lefs effort to create or produce a ftone, or a grain of gold, than to make a flea; lefs art to pros duce a flea than an elephant ? 8. The creating of that which is inanimate; or that . which appears to us as fuch, does it embarrafs them Jefs than the produétion of that which is animated ? g- The great or the little, the immenfe or the imper- ceptible, are they not equal in true phyfics? Is it ‘more. difficult to make a rhinoceros than a worm? Io. If they know how to make gold (that is, to create; or at leaft to change the effence of the elements of matter} they can no longer be furprifed at all the miracles which the Egyptian magicians performed before their king Pharoah ia the prefence of Mofes. (5-) The Cuimericant Sciences. 399 XVI. (5.) The panacea or univerfal remedy, the potable gold, and the quinteffences, are alfo chimeras that. ufually accompany the philofo, phers ftone, and of which. the difcovery is e- qually impoffible.. It is a circumftance fufficient- ly mortifying to the human mind, to fee fo many men (not confined ins a mad houfe) employ themfelves in fearch of thefe: to fee fo many impoftors run about the world, affuring man- kind. that they have difcovered them; and to fee fo many weak mortals believe them on their word, From whence can they derive any pre- cepts or rules for fuch, "inquiries? Who. can make the analyfis of arts like thefe? Senfelefs mortals! you would cure thoufands of difeafes by one remedy! you pretend to change the order of nature and the decrees of providence}! you would perform a perpetual miracle by pro- longing the natural duration of beings and the life of man!, And can you think that we wil} countenance fuch a chimera ? XVII. Men perceiving that they could no Jonger impofe on the credulity of their brethren by magic, forcery, necromancy, alchimy and the like, have endeavoured to perfuade them that they could, however, perform great mat- ters by /ympathy, and have therefore made of \ it a myfterious art. That appearance of the marvellous which this pretended fcience contains, has not failed to give it authority among man- kind, and efpecially among the vulgar. It ig true goo: Universat Ervupition. true, that we fee in nature many effects, the caufes of which the moft profound and fagaci- ous philofophy has not been able to difcover. All thefe have been ranged under the dominion of fympathy, and the vifionaries and mounte- banks have affumed full powers, where philo- fophers have prudently been filent. They have invented fympathetic cures for wounds and other diforders, fympathetic powders, &c. &c. They have deprived both men and horfes of all power of motion in the middle of achace; have cauf- ed convulfive or fwooning fits, and perform- ed a thoufand dike matters, at an immenfe diftance. “We will here affume an affirmative tone, without fear of being thought prefump- tuous. Reft affured, reader, that there is no fuch thing as fympathy, properly fo called, and in the manner thefe quacks underftand the term, No one body can ever act upon another, in any manner whatever, at a very g oreat diftance, and where all communication is’ interrupted by the air, or other intervening bodies. It is impof- fible to reduce into fyftem an art or {fcience, or rather a chimera that is founded on no one prin- ciple known to any mortal upon earth. We,, therefore, rank what Sir .Kenelm Digby, and many others before and after him, have wrote on this fubjeét, with the frivolous and pretends arts. XVIIL It fhould feem, that it is on fuch books as thefe, which treat on fictitious and dangerous _—— _ CHirmericaL Sciences: 402 dangerous arts, that the civil magiftrate ought to exercife his authority; on works that ferve: enly to fill the heads of mankind with chimeras, to entice them from their labours or ufeful: ftu- dies, and to engage them in ruinous enterprifes. Every book that contains reflections which are injurious to the majefty of God; opinions that are inconfiftent with the order of fociety; a- trocious libels on government, or calumnies on private characters, are worthy of the flames ; or what were ftill better, of confifcation. There are even fome ufeful and refpeétable prejudices in the world, which a wife man and a good citizen will never publicly expofe 5 . and if any one is rafh enough to attempt it, he is worthy of chaftifement, But that the magiftrates of a nation fhould be fuch pitiful reafoners, as to wilh to treat a harmlefs philofopher, who may err in the fearch of truth, as they formerly treated the poor pretended forcerers, and as they would have treated Galileo, is the moft confummate injuftice and abfurdity. . They feem to fay with a loud voice: Citizens, behold a pbilofo- phical work, which is wrote with fo much ftrength of argument, that no one can anfwer it, but fo dan- gerous that we are afraid you fhould know the truth, left it might be prejudicial to’ you. ' Here, hangman (what an expreffionin the free republic of letters) do your duty! The treating of errors in philo- fophy with too much rigour has impeded the progre{s of the human mind, more than is eafily imagined, by chécking:the {pirit of. liberty ever Ton. Il, Cec fince goz Universal ERrvupDItIon. fince the firft invention of printing. There is a religion in the world which produces fingular and very fatal effects of this nature, We will by no means name it, but let a book be wrote on any fubjeét whatever, we will engage to tell at any time, whether the author was edu- cated in that religion or not; for there are con- {tantly to be feen fome traces of conftraint, and efcertain prejudices imbibed in early days, ORO RIOR ORO AAR ARIAS CE A PR. Oa. DIGRESSION on ScHooLs, -‘CoLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, and ACADEMIES. HE man who confines himfelf to his clofet is but rarely .vifited by the fci- ences, the arts and belles lettres. To ac- quire their intimate acquaintance he mutt feek them in. thofe places where Minerva, Pallas, Apollo and the Mules, have fixed their refi- | "dence? Own Scuoors, &e, 403 dence. Emulation, that ftrong impulfe in thé eareer of all our purfuits, fliould conftaritly at- tend the nian of letters from’ his early youth to the laft period of his life; in’ the fchool, at college, at the wniverfity, in thofé employments to which his knowledge may léad him, or in thofe academies of {ciénicé fo whith hé may be admiit- ted. Emulation is an animating faculty that réfalts from fociety: and few there are to whort nature has given a genius fufficiently {trong to attain an extenfive erudition in ‘folitude; who are provided with wings that can bear thet, without guides, without models, without com- panions or fupports, to the lofty regions of the empyrean. Il. The moft fagacious and moft benign ke giflators have therefore eftablithed in their do- minions, fchools for the arts and {ciences, acades mies porticoes, Lyceums, another Athens; and judicioufly adapting inftruétion to thé agé and faculties of mankind, they have founded dif- ferent inftitutions for this grand defign. But far be from thefe venerable, thefe facred abodes, where the mitid is invigorated and enriched, where the heart is purified and formed to bene- volence, where focial man is prepared for thofe functions to which he appears to have been _ deftined by his Creator, is enabled to render what nature has made rude and barren, polifhed, fefined, and improved to the greateft degree poffible! far from thefe fanétuaries be all de- TT Cc2 famers 404 Universat Ervpirion. famers of the fciences! Let them deplore in the midft of defarts, or of uncultivated, favage na tions, the crime of having endeavoured, though in vain, to degrade the fciences, the arts, the laws and manners of mankind; let them there lament the misfortune of being poffefied with a paradoxical fpirit. In giving ’ a general idea of Erudition, we think therefore we fhould defcribe the outlines of all thofe ad- mirable foundations for the cultivation of the {cienees, which do fo much honour to huma- nity. _ JI. Schools are either public or private. efta- blifhments for the inftruétion of the youngeft pupils in the firft elements of. knowledge; in the rudiments of their native language, and fome- times in Latin; in the firft principles of reli gion, &c. In fome {chools of Germany the French language is likewife taught. Parents, to be free from the care of their children, fre- quently fend them to fchool while yet too young. They fhould remember, that at fo early an age the fprings of the. brain are too delicate to be continually ftretched by attention; and allthata child acquires by the faculty of his memory is at the expenfe of his genius, fpirit, judgment, and frequently even of his health. There is at Berlin a grand {chool which they call Real, where, +o the languages and the principles of religion, they join inftructions for drawing, the firft ele- ‘ments of hiftory, of the polite arts, mechanics, } and j On ScHoors, &c, 405 and of many ufeful employments. This is a very judicious eftablifhment; and has poiaces many excellent {cholars. IV. Colleges are likewife public inftitutions for the inftruction of youth ; and are moreover endowed with certain revenues. They there teach divine and human learning, in halls fet apart for that purpofe, and in what they call claffes ; where the fcholars are raifed, acccord- ing to their faculties, and the progrefs they make, from the loweft clafs to the higheft; which is called prima. All civilized nations, from the Jews and Egyptians down to thofe of the prefent day, have had their colleges. - They there teach not only the languages, but alfo ex- plain the principal claffic authors; the regent of each clafs pointing out to his pupils, at. the fame time, their various beauties and defeét. The firft elements of philofophy, and particu- larly of logic, are likewife there taught. Ina word, youth are there prepared for the univer- fity ; the foundation of that edifice of erudition, which a ftill more ferious ftudy is to raife, is there laid in their minds : for he who carries no- thing with him to the univerfity, will certainly bring no great matters from thence. An efta- blifhment of this kind is called in. Germany Gymnafium, but improperly: for among the Greeks that term was applied to a place fet apart for bodily exercifes, Vv. We 406 Universav Ervpifriown. V. We alfo fee with pleafure, many countries adorned with academies or colleges, founded by wife and generous fovereigns, for the inftruétion of the young nobility and gentry. In thefe illuftri- ous gymnafiums they are caught not only the fci- ences and belles lettres, but fuch exercifes alfo as are proper to their birth and rank, and for that ftation ig the world which they are one day intended to fill. Among all the eftablifhments of this kind there are in Europe, we know of none that appreaches nearer to perfeétion than the celebrated Carolinum of Brunfwick : the young gentleman there meets, at-once, the moft able profeffors of the fciences, the beft mafters for the languages and exercifes, and, by the fa- vour and indulgence of a very polite court, the moft efficacious means of attaining a knowledge of the world; at the fame time that he ac- quires every kind of erudition which he may hereafter want. The plan of the Carolinum - were well worthy to be here given, as the moft excellent model, if the bounds of this work would: admit of fuch particulars. Vi. Univesfities are foundations that have arofe from. the benevolence, the wifdom, and policy. of the beft of fovereigns, for the in- ftrudction of youth in the higher fciences. They are formed of communities of the different pro- feffors in philofophy, theology, jurifprudence, and phyfic; who each read lectures in public chairs; onthe principles of their feveral fciences, to | | fuch On Scuoors, &ci 407 fuch fcholars who attend as their difciples or auditors; and to whom they give, when they have finifhed their courfes, certificates of their qualifications, degrees, diplomas, and the doc- torial habit. Thefe profeffors, moreover, af- femble in their refpective faculties, to decide fuch cafes as may be prefented to them, and come under their proper jurifdiction : and laft- ly, they affemble in a body, and by uniting the four faculties, they form, under the ‘authority of curators, a chancellor, a rector of each faculty, and with the concurrence of a fyndic or fecre- tary, a treafurer, and other fubaltern officers, the fenate of the univerfity. The firft book of this work fhows what are the particular f{ciences that are taught in univerfities, and come pro- perly under their direction. But modern prac-- tice (and a very advantageous practice it is) has introduced at univerfities, proteffors of hiftory, of the principal fcienices that compofe the belles lettres, fome of the polite arts, exercifes, &c. So that a young man, who devotes himfelf to ftudy, will find at the univerfity the common fource of all the fciences ; a fource that flows in various ftreams, and from whence he may at once choofe that to which he propofes parti- cularly to apply himfelf;, and at the fame time drink as much as he thinks proper of all the reft. This affemblage of all the fciences affords thofe, who devote three or four years of their life to the acquifition of knowledge, the greateft facility, and the moft folid advantages. VII. The 408 Universat Ervuprtiov. ~») VIL. The univerfity of Paris-is, without doubt, the moft ancient in Europe. It may.be ' juftly dated from the time of Charlemagne. That truly great monarch, after having re-efta- blifhed the eaftern empire, endeavoured by every means to enlighten and civilize his people. Al- cuinus, Raban, Johannes and Claudius, difciples of the venerable Beda, were called to profefs the {ciences at Paris. This firft, eftablifhment was fucceflively improved ; and in proportion as the fcales fell from the eyes of the people, who were nearly reduced to the ftate of mere brutes, un- der the dominion of the barbarians, the youth of every country of Europe repaired to) the univerfity of Paris to learn the fciences. As the connexion between. nations was not. then formed in the manner it now is, ‘as neither pofts nor coaches, or other public carriages were yet invented, the univerfity maintained proper mef- fengers, who went once or twice every year into the different countries of Europe, carrying with them letters-or mefiages from the ftudents at Paris, and returning with anfwers from their re- lations. |The titles of thefe employments. {till remain in the univerfity, though their funétions have ceafed; and many perfons of rank. now - feek and obtain thefe pofls, in order to ac- quire thereby the right .of committimus, But fince Paris has been: crowded with nobility of the firft rank, courtiers, foldiers, lawyers, : finan- ciers, &c. fince it has abounded with public diverfions, and with thofe pleafures and diffipa- tlons On Scuoars, &c. 409 tions that are the natural confequences, it 1s be- come a refidence too noify, and too feducing for the mufes. Otter nations have,\moreover, im- proved on the plan of the univerfity of Paris. Of all the univerfities of Europe, thofe of Ox- ford and Cambridge in England appear at pre- fent to approach the neareft to perfection. The great men they produce are a better proof than any other argument. We could with always to fee an univerfity a real city of learning ; a place confecrated entirely to the mufes and their dif- ciples ; that the Greek and Latin languages were there predominant; and that every thing were banifhed from thence which could caufe the | leaft diffipation in thofe wha devote them{elves to letters, VIII. We fhall fay nothing here of public libraries, anatomical theatres, printing-houfes, and other like eftablifhments which ought to be found in an univerfity ; nor of the regulations and difcipline that are there to be obferved. We have treated on thefe matters in our Poli- tical Inftitutes, vol. i. chap. iv. the twelfth and following fections; to which we refer the reader. IX. Literary focieties are affemblies of men drawn together by the love of letters ; who are united in the cultivating of fome particular parts of fcience ; who make all their feveral la- bours tend to one determinate point; who are protected 410 Unrversar ERupitron. protected by the ftate, encouraged, and fome- times rewarded with honours and emoluments by the fovereign. Such are the Royal Society of London; that which is called Nature Curio- forum in Germany ; that in the fame country for the improvement of the language; and ma- ny others. Thefe focieties commonly fix their affemblies at fome determined place; chufe a prefident or director, a fecretary, &c, but at the fame time they admit learned foreigners :to be enrolled with them. Before the connexions between the European nations were folidly efta- blifhed, before the invention of pofts, gazettes, and literary journals, before navigation was fo much improved, and travelling fo much prac- tifed by learned men, -ere yet the art of printing was eftablifhed, and libraries were formed, in every country, it was permiffible to fuppofe that the mufes: favoured certain privileged places; and that. the arts and fciences were there cultiva- ted with an exclufive advantage. Bat fince thefe happy alterations have taken place, the learned, the men of genius, the artifts of Europe, and of the whole world, form but one republic, in which the inhabitants of the banks of the Ta- gus, the Seine, and the Neva, have an. equal right. Experience fhows that men are born every where with the fame organs, the fame fa- culties and difpofitions of the mind and» that there is no more difference. between their mental . abilities,. than between the oaks of. different countries. National’ diftinctions are, therefore, banifhed On Scuoors, &c. 41g banifhed from this common republic. Men of great and refined talents are every where fcarce. But to attribute to certain climates ah exclufive faculty of producing beautiful poems or paint- ings, is a capricious notion, repugnant to reafon, and daily contradicted by experience. Literary focieties a€t very wifely, therefore, in admitting men of ability, of every country, to be affociated with them. X. Academies, in the laft place, are learned communities, inftituted by fovereigns, to im- prove, encourage, and recompenfe thofe who have diftinguifhed themfelves in the republic of letters, and excel in the arts and fciences. Thefe eftabliihments are not intended--to inftruct the ignorant, but to improve the learned, to pro- mote the further advancement of letters, and of the arts ; and to reward thofe who therein excel, To be admitted to the honour of being a mem- ber of a renowned academy, is to be crowned with the lauréls of Apollo: it is to obtain the blue ribbon in the republic of letters. The royal academy of fciences at Paris, inftituted for the cultivation of natural philofophy, mathema- tics and chymiftry: the French academy for promoting the purity of that language: that of medals and infcriptions: the academies Del/a Crufca and Del Cimento at Florence: the royal academy of {ciences and belles lettres at Berlin, which was projected by the renowned Leibnitz, and founded and perfected by king Frederic , and 4t2 Universat ErRvupitiow: and many others; are immortal. inftitutions,' highly ufeful in promoting of human know- ledge, and infinitely glorious for their founders. To thefe academies alfo foreigners are admit- ted. XI. Were it our lot to poffefs powerful au- thority upon the earth, we would add to thefe brilliant eftablifhments yet one more inftitution ; and which, perhaps, would not be the leaft ufe- ful. We would found an encyclopedic academy for the promotion of univerfal erudition. It fhould be compofed of 3 Members for theology, 3 for law. 3 for phyfic. 3 for {peculative philofophy. 4 -—— for natural philofophy and ma- thematics. 4 ———-— for eloquence and poetry. 2:6 —- for the polite arts. 10, for hiftory, philology, and lite. =D rature in.general. scr fupernumerary members for uni- verfal erudition in thofe parts where. they might be ftill ne- ceflary. Thefe would make _ in all the number of 40 Academicians. To whom we would adda prefident, and two fecretaries: and we would endeavour to procure the moft able profeffors in every clafs. Thefe jlluftrious men, thefe lite- rat Own ScuooLs, &c. 413 rati of the firft order, fhould have before them a fyftem of univerfal erudition ; like that of which we have traced the outlines in this work. Each of the eight claffes fhould labour diftinétly in thofe matters that naturally belong to their depart- ment ; and the produce of their labours fhould be examined in the general affemblies, The de- fign of this inftitution would be to furnifh the world, at the end of a certain number of years, with a complete methodical treatife of all the arts and {ciences of every kind of human know- ledge. So that each reader would find full in- formation concerning univerfal erudition in ge- neral, and every part of it in particular, This work, of more importance than any that has hi- -therto appeared, might extend to twelve, or per- haps twenty volumes in quarto; and might be en- larged from time to time by fupplements, contain- ing either new difcoveries, or eclairciffements of what had been before given. The public would be thereby enriched with a treafure that would contain the effence of all the knowledge of the human mind, There would be only one book more: but how great would be the value of that book ! CHAP. _— [ 414 J CHAP. XXVE The History of the ScicENCES, H AVING thus finifhed the analyfis of all the fciences in the concifeft manner we found poffible, it will be neceffary, in order to render the fyftem of univerfal erudition complete, to add a few words here : r.'On the general and particular hiftory of afl the fciences, of their “_ and progrefs. 2. On thofe authors who have cultivated or enriched the fciencés, and who may be called the workmen: of erudition. And 3. On the principal means by which the know- ledge of thofe authors and their works are tobe attained, which are (1) by the criticifms that have been made on them, (2) by the literary. journals, and (3) by libraries, as well private as public. The confideration of thefé objeéts will be the bufinefs of the three following PGE and which will finifh this work, II. Laconia History of the Scrences. 415 II. Literary hiftory then informs us of the origin, progrefs, decadence, and re-eftablith- ment of all the arts and all the fciences, from the beginning of the world to the prefent day. It is either general, and confiders erudition in its univerfality ; or particular, and treats of each art or fcience feparately. Ill. Whenever we fpeak of mankind, we {peak of beings endowed with reafon, for where ever there are men, there are intellectual facul- ties. Thus it ever was from the beginning of the world, and thus it will be to the end. The firft operations of the-human mind relate to ob- jects that tend to the prefervation of each indi- vidual, and the next are thofe that ferve to fup- ply his wants. When thefe two objects are gra- aified, the mind begins to reafon,’ it becomes philofophic without knowing it, and without de- firing it; reafon and experience endow it, by infenfible degrees, with knowledge. The firft men were naturally occupied in defending them» felves againft the elements, againft favage beafts, and other men but little lefs ferocious ,\ and in procuring the mere neceffaries of life. For this reafon it is, that every favage and uncivi- lized nation, every people who are in continual wars, every people who are in want of thofe ob- jects that are effentially neceffary for their fub- fiftence, ever have been, and will be, ftupid) ignorant, and without arts or {ciences. IV. The 416 Universat ErvupitTion. IV. The firft men, of whom we have any account, were born in Afia, on that part of the globe which we call, in our fituation, the eaft. They were, doubtlefs, born with the fame facul- ties of the mind as all their defcendants. When they had obtained fecurity and fubfiftence, they naturally began to exercife their reafoning facul- ties. Neceffity itfelf made them foon induftri- ous. Wemutt confequently look for the origin of arts and fciences where the firft men dwelt, that is, inthe eaft. Hiftory confirms what rea- fon teaches us relative to this matter: it fhews what was the ftate of letters in ancient Arabia, in Egypt, Syria, Babylon, Perfia, and among the Pheenicians; the people to whom we owe the in- vention of writing, and from whom all the arts and feiences feem to have proceeded. It alfo fhews how far the powers of the human mind were extended, in thofe firft ages, by the other nations of the known earth. The monuments that are ftill remaining of thofe diftant times, as - for example, the famous ruins of Palmyra, a city of Syria, near to Arabia the Defart, plain- ly thew that this firft age of , the .arts and fciences ought not to be forgot or defpifed ; and that the moft pleafing inventions are. not owing to the Greeks, as the moft ancient people ex- celled in the arts, and it was with much difficulty that the Greeks attained an equal degree. of per- feétion; they could even never give that air of grandeur to their productions, which we difco- yer in the works of their predeceffors. It is to : be History of the Sereners! 417 be ithagined, moreover, ‘that nations who ex- celled in architecture, could not be quite ignorant of the other arts and feiences, though the length of time has prevented any montimehts of them from coming down to us. ° V. There is one material remark we muft here make: It is aftonifhing to fee, in thefe days, men of the greateft genius, and otherwife of the moft philofophic temper, poffefled with the notion of the influence of climates, and affign to certain regions, more or lefS torrid of temperate, an excliifive power of invention and execution in the polite arts of belles lettres. A belief in fpeétres, in fympathies, and a thoufand other chimeras that cannot be fupported by any argument, is equally rationale Whoever will take the trouble to refleét on what we have faid in the third and fourth feétions, can no longer entertain fo ridiculous esther We are told that the poetry, and all the other expreffions of the eaftern nations, breathe a warmth, a certain fire, an enthufiafin that is inimitable by the in- habitants of the cold regions of the weft. In the firft place, is there, in fact, any great merit in this enthufiafm? Thofe Hebraifins, thofe ori- ental exprefiions, lias sea hyperboles, forced comparifons, gigantic images, perpetual fictions, that tumid ftyle, does it all together produce fuch amazing beauty ? Tt fhould feem, on the contrary, that the more fagacity mankind * have acquired, the more they have quitted this Vor. Ul. Dd falfe ‘418 Universat ErvubDitTion. falfe fublime, ‘have abandoned the project of continual foaring among the clouds, have been content to remain upon the earth, and there imi- tate the operations of nature. VI. The ancient inhabitants of the eaft, and the Egyptians, were moreover accuftomed to exprefs themfelves by hieroglyphics, and by all kinds of images. It was a national tafte of which their ftyle partook, as well in profe as verfe. The pfalms of David, and the writings of the prophets are full of thefe images. Jt would per- haps be dangerous, and even injudicious to imi- tate them. Now, if this enthufiafm was the ef- fect of the climate, the modern inhabitants of thofe countries ought to be poffefied of it. But experience proves the reverfe, The Orientals of our days are cold ahd phlegmatic, and have pre- - — ferved nothing of the ancient warmth, but the faftuous titles of their monarchs. ‘The ancient Greeks were notable babblers, the modern are re- markable for taciturnity.. The ancient Romans were grave and thoughtful, warriors, politicians, philofophers ; the medern inhabitants of Rome, and of Italy, in general, are lively and {plendid, oreat and florid talkers, but weak in war, fubtle, refined, induftrious : characters totally oppofite. Have thefe climates chaniged : Bat: The epochs fatal to the arts and fciences arife from four principal caufes. The firft is war, A people that are continually in arms, and | | for History of the Sciences, 419 For ever amidft the buftle and din of war, have neither fufficient opportunity. nor refolution to apply themfelves to the ftady and the cultivation of the arts. While Afia was Conftantly in arms; after Philip, Alexander, and their fucceffors, were poftefied with the fancy of being conquerors, when the barbarotis and warlike nations entered and eftablithed themfelves in Europe, the miufes, fturined by the clamour of war, fell into a pro- found lethargy. The fecond caufe is poverty. A people that are furrounded by indigence, are too much occupied with their indifpenfable wants to bufy themfelves with ftudy ; and if there. are any men of uncommon genius, who make the moft happy advancements, they find in their country neither emulation, encouragement, or reward. In England and Holland, on the con- trary, we fee the arts and fciences flourith under the fhadow of opulence, in the midft of the greateft commerce. The third caufe is the abufe that is made of religion, by debafing it to fuperftition; to fanaticifm and tyranny; than which nothing is moze injurious to the progrefs of the human mind. Thoie thackles, which the clergy fometimesput on philofophy, prevent all advancement im learning, The hiftory of every age and every people fhew their: fatal ef- feéts. . All is loft when the church once enjoys this kind of triumph. The annals of the mid- dle age, and of the Grecian empire in the eaft, fafficiently prove this affertion. . The fourth and Ddg2 haft 420 Universat Ervupition. laft caufe is, when a fucceffion of ftupid, indo- lent, ignorant, trifling, and, at the fame time, defpotic foyereigns, who are enemies to the pro- auctions of the mind, reign over a nation for a long time together, The reafons are too ob- vious, and the examples too odious to be recited here. VIII. Place, on the contrary, a nation under whatever climate you pleafe; let them enjoy continual peace ; introduce wealth and plenty among them; confine the authority of the clergy within due bounds; place on the throne a dif- cerning prince ; or give them able and learned minifters and magiftrates, and you will foon fee arifé, as it were from the earth, men of the greateft genius, confummate mafters in every art and fcience. Thefe are the natural caufes of the improvement or decadence of the arts: the man of fenfe will find them without labour, without forming hypothefes, or having recourfe to illu- fions and occult caufes, or the different nature of climates. But let us ‘return to our fub- ject. * : IX. The fecond-age, or bright period of the arts and fciences, was the time that preceded the reign of Philip, that paffed under his reign, and during the firft years of that of Alexander: a . period at which there flourifhed, in Greece alone, fuch men of exalted genius as Plato, Arif se totle, History of the, Screnczs. 421 totle, Demofthenes, Pericles, Apelles, Phidias, and Praxiteles*. Ti, he third age was that of Cefar and Au guttus, whofe memory is rendered immortal by Lucretius, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, tans * Caefar, Varro, Vitruvius, &c. The fourth age was that of Charlemagne. This monarch, who re-eftablifhed the empire of the eaft, was at once the reftorer and father of letters: he was himfelf as learned as a man could be at that time; he compofed feveral books, and among others a. grammar of his own, ' language; he endeavoured to enlighten, not only his natural fubjeéts, but thofé’ nations alfo whom he conquered; he made aftronomical obfervations, and eftablifhed {fchools in all his dominions ; he enticed learned men into France, and, among others, Alcuinus from England; he reduced the laws and cuftoms of thofe countries that were fubje} [ 427°] c CoA Py SAVEL Of the Knowledge of AuTHORs, and of BIOGRAPHY. ite, *OLOMON faid, more than a thoufand years before the Chriftian era, That of mak- ing books there is no end. If we believe the Tal- mud, the ancient rabbins had innumerable li- braries'in Arabia. Every one knows that Pto- lemy Il. king of Egypt, amaffed more than two hundred thoufand volumes, of which he formed his library at Alexandria; and Demetrius Pha- laris, to whom he committed the care of it, pro- mifed him to make the number foon amount to five hundred thoufand. All thefe books are loft. There are, however, ftill remaining in the world fo immenfe a number, that the life of man would be {carce fufficient to read the cata- logue: and which would require the lives of many learned men to compofe. Whoever has read the work of John Albert Fabricius, door jn theology, and profeffor at Hamburg, intitled Bibliotheca 428 Universat ErvpitTion. Bibliotheca Graeca, in fourteen quarto volumes, which contains an account of fuch Greek authors only as have come down to us, and the Biblio- theca Latina of the fame author, will be eafily convinced on the one hand, that a knowledge of authors (Notitia Auctorum) is indifpenfable to a man of letters; and on the other, that the ftudy of this part of erudition is {o extenfive, that a work like this cannot. pretend to give any detail of it. II, We thall endeavour, however, to explain fome of its firft principles. The knowledge of authors and their works, forms, as we have faid, a partof literary hiftory. It is divided into univerfal and particular, facred and profane, &c. It diftinguifhes books and. authors, 1. Into thofe of the ancient, the middle, and modern ages ; with regard to the time in which the former have been wrote, and the latter have lived, 2. Into theologic, justice, medicinal, philo- fophic, thofe of literature, philology, &c. accord- img to the matter which each author has treated. 3. Into Hebrew, Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, German, French, and every other language, ancient or modern, in which any au- thor has wrote. 4. Into profaic or poetic, according to the na- ioe and {pecies of expreffion. 5. Into Pagan, Jewith, Mahometan, Chriftian, bec. ‘actording to the religion of each author, and the objects he has embraced. | 6. Into ee a Eee cJe* s Of AUTHORS. 429 6. Into facred, ecclefiaftic and profane. 7. Into works that are preferved, and fuch as are loft. ; 8. Into authentic writings, and thofe that are fpurious. g. Into complete works, and fach as are mu- tilated, or fragments. 10. Into books publifhed and unpublifhed. rt. Into printed books and manufcripts. And 12. Into authors that are called claffics, com- mon books, and bibliotheques, . If. With regard to the works themf€lves, it is neceffary (1.) to be well acquainted with their titles, (2.) not to miftake allegoricaP for natu- ral titles, (3.) when a book has two: titles, not to miftake it for two different works, (4.:) not to confound two authors that have the fame name, as Pliny the naturalift, and the younger Pliny, (5.) to know of how many parts or volumes a work confifts, (6.) clearly to under ftand the titles that are marked by abbreviations, (7.) to be acquainted with all the different editions of a book, and to know which of them . is the} beft, (8.) to know the place, the year and form of each edition, (9.) to know the fe- veral editors, (10.) to know if any particular edition be enriched with notes or comments, with a fummary, indéx, preface &c. (11.) if all thefe are good, indifferent or bad, (12.) to know who is the author of the notes, or if the work have been publifhed cam notis variorum, (13.) if 4g0 Universat Erupition. (13.) if the book be divided into chapters or paragraphs, (14.) if the edition be hand- fomely printed, with a good paper and letter, and be correct, (15.) if a work be. ornament- ed with plates of any kind, (16.) if it has been criticifed, and if the critics have attacked the matter, the ftyle, or the author perfonally, («7.) if the critics have been competent judges or ignorant, if they have been impartial or not, &c. IV. The title of clafic is properly given to thofe Latin books only whofe authors lived in the Auguftan age, and a little before or after it, that is, at the time the Latin tongue was in its greateft purity; and which began to , be corrupted after the reign of Tiberius: Thefe writers being read in the claffes at fchools, or colleges, are therefore called claffic authors ; and are regarded as of great authority. It is not, however, very clearly determined what aurhors ought to be raifed to this rank. Aulugelus, in his Attic Nights, makes the claffics to be Cicero, Cefar, Salluft, Virgil, Horace, &c. . There is, however, no determinate rule for this matter; but much depends on the order eftablifhed in each college for the different claffes. From the ac- count we have here given of this denomination, it is evident, that there are alfo Greek authors who’ merit, and who in fact have the title of claffic given them, fuch as Thucidydes,; Xenophon, De- mofthenes, Homer, Pindar, &c. For the fame 3 reafony Of AuTHORS, 431 reafon, they alfo call St. Thomas the mafter of fentences, St. Auguttine, &c. the claffic authors, whom they quote in the divinity fchools; Arif- totle in philofophy, and fo of the reft. It would be both juft and highly ufeful to make choice, in the principal modern languages, of a certain number of authors whofe merit is gene- rally acknowledged ; to introduce the read- ing of them tn the claffes, and to honour them with the ftyle of claffic authors; fuch for exam- ple, in the French language, as abbé Vertot, F. Daniel, Patru, Boileau, Racine, Moliere, Vol- taire, &c. The fame might be done in all other languages. And fince the fchools have been purged of the reveries of Ariftotle, what pre- vents our naming Locke, Leibnitz, Newton, and Wolff, as claffic authors in philofophy ? V. It is quite neceffary to remark here, that the knowledge of thofe ages and nations of the world which preceded the Greeks, is come down to us only by the informations of the Holy Scriptures, and by the Greek writers, Herodotus is the firft hiftorian whofe works we have. Of Sanchoniathon, or Sanjuniaton, for example, we have only fome fragments recorded by Eufebeus, The works of all thofe authors likewife, who are faid to have lived before Homer, as Orpheus, Mufzeus, Zoroafter, Linus, Hermes, Trifmegiftus, Horus, Afclepius, Dares the Phrygian, Dictys the Cretan, Hanno, the books of the Sibyls, and a number of others, are 432 Untvitrsart Ervoition. are entirely loft: what they now ‘producé as their works, are fpurious pieces, and fabri- cated very lately. It follows therefore, that all our aficient Erudition can begin only with the Greek authors. Thofe books which lead us to a Knowledge of the Greek writers, as well as the Latin, and thofe of modern authors of all na- tions, relative to the arts, the fciences, and doétrines,: are therefore the only guides, the only méans we can propofe to thofe who are defirous of applying themfelves to this part of erudition. The reft they muft learn by their daily ftadies; and the only advice we can here give them, is not to be prejudiced’ in favour of any author, ancient or modern; but to read them with circum |{pection, and endeavour to diftinguifh, in the writers of every age, the falfe {tone from the true brilliant. VI. Arowne an innumerable number of works that lead to the knowledge of books and their authors, we fhall cite only, 1. Diogenes Laertius, and Eunapius de vitis philofophorum; 2. Ge. fatd Jo. Voffius, de hiftoricis; item de poetis Grecis atque Latinis; 3. Martinus Hanikius, de feriptoribus rerum Romanarum _& Byzanti- natum; 4. Bluntit cenfura auctorum; 5. Jo- hannis Alberti Fabricii bibliotheca Greca; 6. ejufd. Bibliotheca Latina; 7. ejufd. Bibliogra- phia Antiquaria; 8. Wolffii bibl. Heebraica ; 9. the bibliotheque hiftorique of M. le Long; 10; the bibliotheque poetique of abbé Goujet. In a word, Thyoc, Of AuTHORS. 433 a word, every art, fcience, and language, has now its bibliotheque or catalogue of books that treat of fuch matters as relate to it; and F, Labbe, a Jefuit, has compofed a bibliotheque of bibliotheques, which contains merely a cata). logue of them, and of the authors of all nations -who-have made catalogues of books. It is manifeft, that a work like this mutt afford vaftly more inftruction on this fubject, than our limits’ can poffibly allow us to give. VII. It is not Jefs important to know thé - charaéter of an author, than to know his, works, » For this purpofe, it is proper to be acquainted with the hiftory of his life; 1. at what time he lived; 2. in what country he lived; 3. his rank by birth; 4. who were his relations; 5. what was his fortune, ftation, or employment; 6. if he can be fufpected of partiality, or is fuppofed to be difinterefted, with regard to the fubjeét on which he treats; 7. what were the principal incidents in his life; 8. what fect or religion he profeffed; 9. who were his matters, colleagues, or cotemporaries; 10. if he was a. married or fingle man; ry. if he travelled, and many other like particulars. | VIII. To the knowledge of books likewife belongs that of tranflations: as whether a work be rendered in a faithful, elegant, and agreeable manner or not; into what language each valuable book has been tranflated ;° what» Vor. IIL Ee are 434 Universat Ervupition. are the names of the moft celebrated tranflators, as Amiot, Du Ryer, Dacier, &c. in what con- fifts the merit or demerit of each tranflation, &c. The knowledge of all thefe matters is only to be acquired by much reading and reflection, and by frequenting the beft libraries. By thefe means alfo, we are enabled to judge of anony- mous works, and fometimes to difcover the name of an author who may have thought proper to conceal himfelf. IX. Prohibited books are commonly. very rare and coftly, and at the fame time are {carce ever worth the pains of looking after. We da not know three prohibited works that are worth reading: we fpeak of impious and _ irrational works, fuch as the famous book De tribus im- poftoribus, and the two that refemble it; or of certain fanatical works, which are at conftant variance with common fenfe: or of political treatifes that have attacked the government at particular periods, which being paft, they have loft all their fatire: or of lafcivious writings, which are calculated to corrupt the morals of man- kind; or fuch works as fill weak and credulous minds with all forts of chimeras, as the Clavicle of Solamon, &c. All works like thefe are at beft but matters of curiofity, and for the moft part excite the readers pity; fo that we are tempted to exclaim, is thunder and lightning neceffary to deftiroy fuch vermin as thefe? It is certain, how- ever, that an exorbitant power in the hands “i the Se * oo 2 Pie ee Of AUTHORS, 435 the clergy, and the rigour of the laws in certain countries, have profcribed many excellent works; to which pofterity will do juitice, and eagerly fearch after. X. The knowledge of manujcripts likewife appertains to that of authors. The critical art fhows the manner of diftinguifhing their agé and authenticity; of reading and explaining them, and the ufes to which they may be ap- plied. Morhoff, in his Polyphiftor, has an entire and very curious chapter on manufcripts ; and C. Arnot has publifhed a difcourfe De felec- tis doétorum virorum in manufcripta literaria meritis. The liberality with which the celebrat- ed Magliabechi communicates his own manu- fcripts, or thofe of others, and even renders them public, does him much honour, and has gained him great efteem among the learned. XI. Biography is a title given to thofe books in general, which contain the life, the hiftory, or actions of illuftrious men, who are not fove- reign princes; and particularly thofe of learned men and their works; and fometimes alfo of faints. This term is compofed of two Greek words, the firft of which fignifies vita, and the other /cribo: this term, however, is but little ufed by the French writers. The biographies of the moft celebrated men of letters ‘are of infinite ufe in attaining a knowledge of authors: they frequently contain anecdotes that are highly : ie 2 curious, ~ 436 Univiersau ERvuDITION., curious, and which cannot with any propriety be introduced in a regular hiftory. There have been many of thefe wrote and publifhed in England, which are equally replete with enter- tainment and inftruction. XII. How much is it to be wifhed, that the reading of thefe biographies, thefe lives of illuf- trious literati, might excite men of exalted ge- nius to exert all their powers in the career of fcience! But how unfortunate if they fhould there find motives for the contrary? If they fhould be influenced by the fate of a Tfchirn- haus, who fpent all his fortune in labouring, with the moft happy fuccefs, to enlighten man- kind, and to make his name revered by all — future ages ; who was the glory of his country, and caufed it to abound with riches.. The ava- rice of moft bookfellers is the principal caufe of the great fcarcity of excellent works: but ava- rice, ftill more than other crimes, carries its pro- per punifhment with it: the flender fortune of moft authors will not permit them to labour for glory alone, the laurels of Apollo will but badly fupport a numerous family: from hence proceeds that vaft number of unfinifhed works, paid by the fheet, which fill the bookfellers fhops, load the fhelves of each library, and in the end ruin the proprietors. And you, the arbiters of human fate, there are born in your dominions men of rare genius, of unbounded talents: while they live, you allow them a bare fubfiftence, * .& « er aa _— Diecresstons on Criticism, &c., 437 fubfiftence, or more frequently fuffer them to languifh in penury, and fometimes die for want. When they are dead you would fain recal them, you would render them immortal by public eulogies and ftatues. Mighty recompente ! Wonderful munificence ! But you are your own enemies: you deprive your ftate of its moft valuable fubjeéts, and you deprive yourfelves of your brighteft glory ! BRT ARS IA # FAR & FARO CHAP. XXVIII. DIiGR ES SITIONS 1. On Criticifm ; 2. On Literary Journals ; 3. On Libraries. I. O man has ever yet known the bare titles of all the books that have been written: ~ and. no one can ever pretend to have a difcern- ment fo ftriétly juft, and a knowledge fo uni- verfal, i. at ed “= _ 438 Universas Erxvoition. verfal, as to be able to form a true, infallible judgment on all fubjeéts, and on every author. It is therefore highly advantageous and neceffary that there fhould be in the world, learned, faborious and judicious men, who fhould make it their bufinefs to point out to the ftudious part of mankind, fuch books of each age and nation as deferve to be known; and bya clear, im- partial, and fkilfal examination, to fhow where-. in their merit confifts, This fort of learned men are called critics, and their labours, criti- cifms, or produétions of the critical art. This art requires, therefore, both difcernment and tafte, in order to form a juft judement of the “matter, and the ftyle of any work. Such was the fcience of Scaliger, Erafmus, Gefner, Juftus Lipfius, Cafaubon, Saumaife, &c. II. Sometimes by the term criticifm is alfo underftood a cenfure that is made of a work or an author; that malicious trouble which fome writers give themfelves to find out and publith the defeéts or inadvertencies of an author. This art is far inferior to the preceding, and in which men of very moderate talents are capable of excelling; by its nature, moreover, it has a {trong appearance of a depraved temper. A criticifm of this fort, when not ftritly juft, degenerates into infolence, and becomes at once dull and difguftful; for, as M. de St. Real ob- ferves, no critic fhould be. allowed to infult an author for an imaginary or dubious fault. We - Dicresstons on Criticism, &c. 439 . Wedo not remember ever to have read more than one good criticifm of this kind, which is that made by the French academy on the Cid of Corneille, and which for truth and difcernment, for that method and politenefs which is every where obferved, and thofe interefting and in- ftructive reflections with which it abounds, may juftly ferve as a model to all others. This is the manner in which thofe critics, who are defi- rous to cenfure, fhould proceed. But fuch fort of men have feldom any capacity for juft criti- ‘cifm. The occafions are, moreover, very rare, wherein it is allowable to fearch out, and expofe ~ to the public view, the faults of a truly valuable work ; and never fhould critics be permitted to extend their cenfures to the perfon of an author, for this is not making inftructive criticifms, but rancorous fatires, and deteftable libels. III. Jet us return to the former rank of fa- gacious critics. All books are confidered as old or new : by the former are meant fuch works as have appeared before our time; and by the Jatter thofe of the prefent day. A knowledge of the firft fort is to be attained from the criticifms _ that the literati, hiftorians, profeffors of arts and fciences, have made, and are ftill making, on them; or from bibliotheques. It is by the literary journals that we are to acquire a know- ledge of fuch works as are daily appearing in the republic of letters. IV. Mott 440 UNIVERSAL ErvpDiTIon: IV. Moft countries of Europe, where the arts are cultivated, abound in thefe days with lite- rary journals; but thefe are very far from bearing all thofe marks of merit which are necef- fary to render them inftructive, entertaining and valuable. Thefe journals are no longer wrote by the ancient authors of the Acta Eruditorum of Leipfig: there is now no Bayle, nor any one like him, concerned in writing them. The mo- dern journalifts are commonly men of little abi- lity, who, being unable to produce any work worth printing, let themfelves out to fome book- feller, and then fet up for dictators of Parnaffus; fummons all new authors to appear before their tribunal, praife or blame, and finally determine their merit, with a matchlefs effrontery. To what judges are the Montefquieus, Chefterfields, Voltaires, Wolffs, Bernoullis, Eulers, Hallers, and many other truly great men, obliged to fub- _ mit! M. Voltaire has given, in his mifcellanies of literature and philofophy, Advice to a Fournalif: which they ought every one of them to be able to repeat memoriter. They fhould well. remem- ber, that a literary gazette is like one of politics, in which we look for facts and events that hap- pen daily in the world, and not for the crude remarks of a gazetteer. The public alone has a right to judge of the fecret caufes of an event, and of the wifdom or folly, the equity or injuftice of the aétors, as well as of the value of a book, , and merit of its author; and does not require to have it pointed out by a journalift. V. But Dicressons on Crrricism, &c, 441 V. But the beft, and perhaps the only way of acquiring a true knowledge of a book, is to read it ourfelves. Books are to aman of letters what tools or inftruments -are to an artift. What is it that produces fo great a degree of perfection in the works of art and induftry in England and and France, but the goodnefs of their tools? What is there that concurs more to the perfec- tion of the works of the mind in all countries, than the abundance of valuable writings ? Even the moft ingenious poets would produce infipid and trifling verfes only, mere trafh, if found learning did not appear in their works, amidft all the brilliancy of expreffion, The dunce and coxcomb may therefore defpife books, but the man of fenfe is convinced, that there is no im- portant knowledge to be acquired without them: he knows at the fame time, however, that every thing in this world has its bounds, and that there are collections of books of neceflity, utility and oftentation, and that the latter are ridiculous. VI. Libraries are either public or private. The former are collected and fupported by fo- vereigns or ftates. Thefe cannot be too nume- rous; they form, fo to fay, the archives of the human mind of all ages ; and they fhould furnith every man of letters with all the inftructions for which he may have occafion, They concur very efficacioufly in the encouragement and improve- ment of the arts and fciences in each country : and wherever there is a good public library, the people 442. Universat Ervobditiown) people can fcarce poffibly be totally uncivilized. The mufes are fond of thofe places where they find the moft delicious nurture for the mind. We cannot therefore wonder to fee in the Va- tican, at Verfailles, Oxford, and fuch like cities, the moft numerous and excellent libraries that can poffibly be formed; and to find that the fovereigns and magiftrates permit them to be open to the vublic at certain feafons, and under the direction of learned and polite librarians, from whom each man of letters may alfo receive information relative to the authors he fhould confult on each fubjec&t. Nothing does more honour to a prince, or produces more advantage to a ftate, than eftablifhments of this kind. VII. With regard to private libraries, every man of fenfe will confult his own abilities in the extent of his library. We are not to ruin our- felves in the fervice of the mufes.' But as the fortunes of men are infinitely various, there is no tracing limits for each individual. Whenever we find a man pretend to learning and be. quite deftitute of books, we have reafon to queftion his pretenfions: and whenever we {ee a ftatef- man, a general, or financier, who has,but very little learning, have a numerous and fplendid li- brary, we have good reafon to fufpect him of oftentation. VIII. Whoever has read this work with atten- tion, will be able to form a complete fyftem of thofe fubjeéts which ought naturally to be found in . Dicressions on Criticism, &c, - 443 in an ‘univerfal library. The works of the cri- tics, and the bibliotheques, for every art and feience, will inform him of the names of all the celebrated authors who have wrote on each fub- ject. Every man of letters has commonly fome employment, fome ftation in fociety, or fome kind of ftudy to which he is particularly attach- ed. It is very natural for a principal part of his library to confift‘of books relative to his pro- feffion or his favourite ftudy, Thus a prince’s library fhould contain the beft authors on poli- tics; and that of 2 man of literature of the moft celebrated critics. For the reft, thofe books, whichcontain inftructions for forming a library are fo very common that we may fafely refer the read- er to them; barely adding, that the continual efforts of the learned to enrich the literary world with new productions, caufes daily alterations in thefe plans, fo that a bibliotheque,which appeared very complete at the beginning of this century, is very far from being fo now. Whoever would colleé&t a judicious and ufeful library, fhould cer- tainly confult the beft journalifts, and endeavour to felect fuch works as appear the moft excellent in the republic of letters, and confequently his library will increafe as long as he lives, IX. Thus have we finifhed our propofed plan; have completed our fketch of Univerfal Erudi- tion, that is, of all the knowledge the human mind has been hitherto capable of acquiring. When we confider the multiplicity and intricacy of 444 UNniversat ErubDition, of thefe objects, and when we reflect on the weaknefs of our own talents, we are ftill inclined to afe ourfelves, if we are really arrived at the end of our labour? There may be ftill fome f{eiences which we have not mentioned, or at leaft fome nominal fcience, though it may be al- ready comprifed in fome other part of Erudition: but we are attached to things and not to deno- minations, to real objects and not to frivolous diftinctions. Xi. Ye fiudious Youth, it is to you we confecrate our labours: fometimes perufe this abridgment. You will read a romance, ancient or modern, of a dozen volumes, and many frivolous and volu- minous works. Why therefore can you not read three volumes? But if you would attempt thoroughly to underftand all the arts and fciences we have here indicated, know, that neither the life of man, nor the limits of the human under- ftanding, are fufficient for fuch'a project. Ifyou - read this work, however, as you'read a romance, you will receive but little advantage : but if you fhall ferioufly ftudy it ; if by means of it you ac- quire a juft idea of Univerfal Erudition, and if from amidft this mafs of {ciences you fhall make: a judicious choice of thofe to which you will particularly apply yourfelves, you may become truly learned; and perhaps you will owe us fome obligation to your lateft hour. : FIN 1S, 4 aval ee sey ae i ee ids University of Toronto Library DO NOT REMOVE THE CARD FROM THIS POCKET Acme Library Card Pocket LOWE-MARTIN CO, LIMITED _ - —— BA) UOHEUUOU] AOUBIIS UIa|SIED FB Jes. doJpyoog ui ind jou op . $JE}S O} UNA « A1essa9au f! AJUuo ‘Adooojoud ‘ | JONNYD pue : Smug 40 peBelwep si Sunjon sins fi es