Neem Pe 20 re eR Rat ch pte yD bande, tatgte™ | ried; PR Sete Wi citale Pacha Rat he the NSE ge OR Thee ee AS See ee +o wee 5 Becta in ee ane ” a lh Ne igs te Tt * . shee Neiem tr aes . - tester tee oe) - ew) . - 1 . . ~% ar “ , ' . — — —_o * - - - eee LE TONS’ SCIENCE TEXT-BOOKS. ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY. APPLETONS’ SCIENCE TEXT-BOOKS. The following works of this new series will be im- mediately issued ; others are to follow: The Elements of Chemistry. By Pror. F. W. CLARKE, Chemist of the United States Geological Survey. The Essentials of _ Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. By ROGER S. TRACY, M.D., Author of ‘‘ Handbook of Sanitary Information for Householders,” Sanitary Inspector of the New York City Health Department. A Compend of Geology. By JOSEPH LE CONTE, Professor of Geology and Natural History in the University of California ; author of ‘* Elements of Geology,”’ etc. Elements of Zodlogy. By -C. F. HOLDER: Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences, Corresponding Member of the Linnzan Society, etc. ; AND J. B. HOLDER, M.D., Curator of Zodlogy of American Museum of Central Park, New York. Natural History, d}eM YSI1j skyyoyrea “bh -(10yem ysary) ‘(sxapunos sogvuy) yosed SurquiyyD “€ *(4ayeM yyes) snwyeyyYydoueg ‘z pue 1 *‘SHUSIY SNOIAIHdNY AO dnousy \ *aIaLgStgUoryy ui ‘ aVe aye NN Cee" ss, asa PS i scchet> SEA A Miers Gppletons’ Science Ceet-Hooks. ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY. ae 4 Fe “HOLDER, FELLOW OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE LINNAZAN SOCIETY, ETC., AND J: B? HOLDER, M.D., CURATOR OF ZOOLOGY, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, CENTRAL PARK, was ci 9 $ \2 aY OF C@wests Kot cervnicir, WES > NOV 2% 18840 7 Cy ~_e te a Fein Teed Sanaa OMS rer wasninsoor NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, I, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET. 1884. oe { i } " ’ COPYRIGHT, 1884,. By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. Peek PACE, In the present work, that is intended as a text- book for schools and academies of all grades, the design has been to present in concise and plain lan. _ guage, and in the light of the latest research and in- vestigation, the life-histories of the various groups that constitute the animal kingdom. Technical terms have only been employed where there was no simple equivalent, and the long tables of classi- fication and formule, that can only be understood after a complete mastery of biological knowledge, have been omitted, as tending to divert the atten- tion of the student from the real issue. Professor Huxley strikes the key-note of this question when he says: “ That the power of repeating a classifica- tion, with all its appropriate definitions, has any- thing to do with genuine knowledge, is one of the commonest and most mischievous delusions of both students and their examiners. The real business ot the learner is to gain a true and vivid conception of the characteristics of what may be termed the nat- vill PREFACE. necessary, and a carefully selected bibliography will be found following each principal group of ani- mals. In the matter of illustration, representations of about five hundred animals and their parts have been given. Many of the cuts are original, and were designed especially to illustrate the habits of the animals, their economic value, etc. Others are from Buckley, Huxley, and various accurate sources already acknowledged. The valuable assistance of S. U. Holder is cor- dially acknowledged, and thanks are returned to Mr. Ralph N. Monroe for photographs of the Flor- ida crocodile and for the loan of valuable specimens ; also to Professor E. L. Youmans and Professor A. S. Bickmore for pertinent suggestions and advice. Acknowledgments are also made to Dr. E. P. Wright, of the University of Dublin, for the meas- urements of the gigantic shark RAznodon ; and to W. Morey, Esq., of Colombo, Ceylon, for the original outline drawing. C. Bake NEw YoRK, Movember 1, 1884. Cen hEN-T S. y INTRODUCTION, Sas DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT. , : : : : aS | SE CELE. 5 : eM th 8 : F : : ‘ : gees SOME DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS : aE CLASSIFICATION. : < 3 : e - : See CHAPTER I. BRANCH I. PROTOZOA. , f : : ; : ‘ Bee: CHAPTER II. BRANCH II. SPONGES (PORIFERA) z . ‘ : : +4. ee > CHAPTER III. Brancu III. JELLY-FISHES, ETC. (CHLENTERATA) .. SES CHAPTER IV. BRANCH IV. CRINOIDS, STAR-FISHES, ETC. (ECHINODERMATA) 33 CHAPTER V. BRANCH V. WorMs (VERMES) . : : ; ae ar CHAPTER VI. Beancy Vi. SHELLS (MOLLUSCA) . .. Sale : - or re ee ee en Let wee pele ce ~Brancu IX. BACKBONED ANIMALS (VERTEBRATA) | CHAPTER Vil Brancu VII. CRUSTACEANS AND INSECTS (ARTHROPOI CHAPTER VIII. Brancu VIII. Sea-Squirts (TunicaTa) .. of : CHAPTER IX. moO 1 O°G Y. INTRODUCTION. Definition of the Subject.— The science that treats of organic nature, or living things, is termed Jv- ology. It is divided into otany, that treats of plants ; and Zodlogy, that relates to animals. The Cell.—All animals are made up of one or more cells, minute globules of a jelly-like substance called protoplasm, as a rule inclosed in a delicate covering or membrane. The protoplasm of genuine cells generally contains minute moving granules, and a round transpar- ent body termed the nucleus, that contains a dark ob- ject, called the nucleolus. The lowest animals are single cells, and are termed unicellular, but in the higher forms the cells separate by self-division, and form two layers: outer (ectoderm), inner (endoderm), while a middle layer is called mesoderm. From these cell-layers bone and muscular tissue are formed, and the animals are said to be many-celled. Difference between Animals and Plants.—lIt is not difficult to distinguish between the higher forms of animals and plants. The trees are sightless, have no locomotive organs, and, as a rule, live upon inorganic substances; yet there are curious points of resemblance. I i SS me 2 INTRODUCTION. We know that a bird eats, moves, and breathes, and that its blood circulates; but plants also eat, respire through their leaves, have a circulation of sap, and some are endowed with locomotive powers. When we descend to the lower forms of animal and vegetable life, the points of similarity become almost identical; the swift-movy- ing diatom so resembling some of the lowest animal forms that it is well-nigh impossible to distinguish be- tween them. The plants, however, have no nervous sys- tem, no special organs of circulation or digestion that characterize the majority of animal forms, so that an ani- mal differs mainly from a plant in possessing, as a rule, a nervous system and special organs of circulation and digestion. Classification.—The animal kingdom, that is esti- mated to contain one fourth of a million species, is sepa- rated into two primary divisions: the Protozoa, or single- celled animals, and the J/ez/azoa, or those composed of — many cells. The latter are separated into eight branch- es: Portfera, Coelenterata, Echinodermata, Vermes, Mollus- ca, Arthropoda, Tunicata, Vertebrata. These are in turn divided until the varied forms are grouped, like with hike. This end is attained by comparison, and the result is termed classification. Thus the dog, as distinguished from a plant, is placed primarily in the animal kingdom. Possessing a backbone, it is placed in the dranch of vertebrate animals. It differs from the fishes, reptiles, and birds, by giving milk; hence it is placed in the class of mammals, Continuing our comparisons, we find that, with the lions, tigers, and cats, it is a flesh-eater, and so is placed in the order carnivora. From its gen- eral appearance and form, it is associated with others in the family of dogs. With others that have a similar structure, it is given the generic name canis; then, to distinguish what kind of a dog it is, wild or domestic, it is given a specific or specifying name, as the common Milk-givers, Mammalia. _Flesh-eaters, Carnivora. ly: Dogs, Canide, a2 Dog, Canis, s: Canis vulgaris. CHAPTER £ FIRST BRANCH OF ANIMALS. PROTOZOANS (frst Animals). General Characteristics.—The Protozoans are one-celled animals, in this differing from all others. The lowest forms resemble microscopic bits of the white of an egg. They have no definite shape, and move by a bulging out of the body-mass into root-like projections called pseu- dopodia, or false feet. In the interior are minute granules that move about (circulate), and in all, except the lowest protozoans, is seen a central oval body called the zucleus, and a hollow, transparent space, that contracts and en- larges with some regularity, called the “contractile vesi- cle.” The higher forms have silicious or calcareous shells ‘and permanent organs. Class I.—MONERsS. These are shapeless bits of transparent matter (Fig. 1) containing merely circulating granules. By extending the body into pseudopodia, or false feet, and contracting them, — they glide slowly along. Their prey is seized by sur- rounding it with the false feet, which fuse about it, and the victim is absorbed into the body-mass. They repro- duce by simple division, or as in Fig. 1. The Moner as- sumes a thick covering (becomes encysted), a, divides into spheres, 4, that burst out, ¢, d, e, and soon assume the parent form, f RAIZOPODA. 5 oping into monad-like young. ~ Fic. 1.—frotomyxa aurantiaca. /, eating; a and 4, encysting; c, devel- | | Class Il—RHIZOPODA (Animals with Root-like Feet). General Characteristics—Animals resembling the mo- ners, but with a distinct outer and inner portion, the latter containing, as well as granules, several nuclei 6 PROTOZOANS. and contractile vesicles. They are either naked or shelled. Order I. Foraminifera (ole- Bearers) —In the sim- plest form, the Amba (Fig. 2), the body is divided into a transparent outer covering, and an interior portion containing the nuclei,and circulating gran- ules that appear to be kept in motion by the pulsation of the ) contracting vesicle. It moves Fic. 2.—@, Amebathrowingout along by throwing out pseudo- psevdopodia ; 4, encysted. podia, or false feet, and ingulfs its food—desmids, diatoms, and other minute forms—as does the moner. The Ameba reproduces by simple division. Shelled Amcebzx.—These forms (Fig. 3) secrete rich calcareous or horny chambered shells, from which are thrown out the false feet, extending in every direc- tion in search of prey, and fusing about it without the shell. They are generally minute, but one found off Borneo measures two inch- es across. They reproduce in different ways; in one, the young resemble monads (Fig. 6), finally assuming the parent form. Fic. 3.—Rotalia, with extended pseu- Order II. Radiolaria eo (Rayed Animals).—In these animals (Fig. 4) the false feet are generally pointed, and the shells, which are formed of silica, not lime, are richly ornamented with spicules, or rays, and perforated with - openings for the pseudopodia, that secure their food, as we have seen in the Poraminifera. They reproduce by di- GREGARINIDA.—INFUSORIA. 7 vision within the-shell, the young at first resembling little oval bodies, with hair- like tails. Seaeen VALUE.—The shells of the ma- a eececetn rine forms fall in a shower upon easeece 0 the bottom, and form chalk-beds, ine S re ‘i as the Dover cliffs, in England, PERE thus adding to the land of the , EEK . globe. The stone of the Pyramids ¢ \ is made up of fossil Foraminifera. Sp ecimens for Study. — FIG. 4.—Flint-shelied Radiolarian The Amebe can be found (epeypneray. on leaves in fresh-water ponds. Foraminifera can be caught with a fine net in the ocean, or found in pools at low tide. The shells can be ground and mounted for the microscope. Class III].—GREGARINIDA. General Characteristics—These (Fig. 5) are minute forms that take up their abode in lobsters, crabs, beetles, cockroaches, worms, and other animals, and lead a parasitic life, existing upon the juices of the animals they inhabit. They resemble minute worms; one, found in the European lobster, half an inch in length, is called Gregarina gi- gantea, being the largest single-celled oo animal known. They undergo several emertes Gessert- ? ensis, showingnu- CUrilous changes before reaching mature cleusand granules. growth. @lass LV .._INFUSORIA. General Characterisiics.—Animals of permanent forms with cilia, or hair-like organs, for locomotion and procur- ing food. They are either free or stalked. 8 PROTOZOANS. Order I. Flagellata (dJ7onads).—If standing water is examined with a microscope, it will be found fairly alive with numbers of minute pear- and oval-shaped creatures, having, at the place <> where the stem would ge be, alash, thatvibrates and whirls about as the animal moves along. One of. the Monads, the VoctiZu- ca (Fig. 6), a giant of its kind, lives in the ocean, and in appear- ance resembles a cur- rant about the size of a small pin-head. On one side there is a groove, from which Fic. 6.—Giant monad WVoctcluca. e, gastric issues a single whip, vacuole ; g, radiating filaments. or cilium, that is a lo- comotive organ, and near where this joins the body is the mouth. The outer surface of the animal is a firm membrane, beneath which is the jelly-like mass containing numerous granules, from which rises a regular network of fibers that lead over the entire body. The young are produced by a mere break- ing off of a portion of the parent. Sy 4 Note.—As many as thirty thousand of these forms have been seen in the ocean in a cubic inch, moving about with great rapidity, and producing a most wonderful phosphorescent light. Other monads are compound (several joined together), as the Uvella, while others are fixed, attached to the bottom by a slender stalk, as the Codostga. Here the little hair- like organ is used to throw food into the mouth. Others of this order have their delicate forms protected by a hard INF USORTA. 9 shell, have one or several whips, or lashes, and a row of cilia, with which they lash themselves along with great velocity. Order II. Suctoria.—This order is represented by the Aciente (Fig. 7), beautiful, trumpet-like animals re- sembling the purest glass. From the body project numerous slender tufts that are not cilia, but hol- low tentacles (arms), hav- ing in some a sucker at their ends. Their prey is grasped by the arms, that contract, each at the Fic. 7.—Aciente. F, attached by stalk; same time sinking into G, encysted. the body of the victim, pumping or sucking out its juices. They multiply by self- division, while some species have free-swimming young. Order III. Ciliata.—These are the true Infusorians, easily observed with a common microscope, a drop of standing water furnishing myriads. They are either free and covered with cilia, or stalked, with the cilia about the head. They have a mouth, a digestive cavity, or stomach, and multiply by self-division or budding. Among the free swimmers, the Paramecium (Fig. 8) are the giants, and easily observed if a little carmine is intro- duced into the drop. As they dart about, we see that they are oblong, narrowing at the head, the back rising into quite an elevation, beneath which, upon the under side, is the mouth. From the head and on all sides are minute prolongations of the body, or cilia, arranged in rows, organs of locomotion. The Vorticelle (Fig. 9), or bell animalcules, are bell-shaped, and held by a long, slender, glass-like stalk, by which they contract. A colony of them presents a curious sight ; the bells are continually contracting, as if jerked from behind, the stalk forming a neat oy ~ Ae Cen es el hi a me ae ee ee ee ee ae 10 PROTOZOANS. perfect screw in the operation. They multiply by a sim- ple division (Fig. 9, c) or by budding (¢, 2). Fic. 8.— Paramecium bursaria, showing Fic. 9.— Vorttcelle. a, extended; cilia. c, contractile 6, coiled; c, division; d@,d, free- vacuole ; d, food. swimming buds. Works on Protozoans for further reference. “The Atlantic, and Depths of the Sea,” Sir Wyville Thomson; Carpenter “‘On the Microscope”; “ Mind in Nature,” H. J. Clark; Leidy’s ‘‘ Fresh-Water Rhizopods” ; Pritchard’s “ Infusoria” ; “ Man- ual of Invertebrates,” T. H. Huxley ; “Challenger Reports” ; “ Even- ings at the Microscope,” Gosse ; Thompson’s “ Monthly Microscopical Journal” ; “The Quarterly Microscopical Journal” ; Bastian’s “ Ori- gin of Lowest Organisms, and Beginnings of Life” ; “ Notices of Pro- tozoa,” by Professor Leidy, in “ Proceedings of Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences” ; “Water turned to Blood by Red Infusoria,” in “ Popular Science Monthly,” vol. iv, p. 202. CHAPTER II. SECOND BRANCH OF ANIMALS. SPONGES (Porzfera, pore-bearing). General Characteristics.—The sponges were for many years considered plants, but now they are known to be many-celled animals. In the Ascctta (Fig. 10), we have a vase-shaped cylinder, 7, composed of cells arranged in three layers. In the second or middle layer is developed a network of ob- jects of silex or lime, called spicules (Fig. 11), that form the skeleton, and sup- port the cellular, jel- ly-like mass. The walls of the vase are everywhere perfo- rated with pores, :A, through which water passes, carrying food. Ma The cells of the in- ER \ ner layer are pro- RL ree [° vided with a cilium, FIG. 11.—Spicules of flint-sponges, highly or lash, ///, and, magnified. taken individually, resemble monads. As food floats by, each cilium throws the minute bits against its cell; the soft portion is absorbed, the harder parts being rejected, and, wafted along by the cilia, find egress at the single large opening, O. In this 12 SPONGES. Ny If, ; WHE VI 7 Aa <4 se A’ FINS UATE TOY Fic. 10.—Ascetta primordialis. 1. 0, exhalent opening ; Z, inhalent pores ; £, Ova. Star-like spicules are seen on the outside. II. Section showing pores (f), with cilia of the cells extending into them. III. Cell show- ing lash, or cilium. IV. Same, with lash retracted. V. Embryo of dAs- cetta mirabilis, VI. Section of embryo. : a LIME-SPONGES.—CARNEOSPONGLZ. 13 way the Ascetfa feeds. Other sponges differ from it in having a shapeless form, many large outlets instead of one, and numerous sacs lined with ciliated cells. Development.—The young are at first free swimmers, being produced from eggs, escaping into the water as oblong little creatures, with numerous cilia, V. They soon become attached to the bottom, spicules appear, and they gradually assume the parent form. Order I. Lime-Spon- ges (Calcispongia).—In these, the spicules are made of lime, and the canals lined with ciliated cells. They are few in number, and may be represented by the little -. white sponge, Sycon ciliatum, common in the sea-weed of the Eastern Shore. Order II. Carneo- spongiz.— The spicules of these forms are either fibrous and horny, or sili- cious, and the ciliated cells are only found in little Cavities, or stomachs. To this order belong a host of beautiful forms: the com- mon sponges of commerce, the fresh-water Spongzlla, the wondrous /oltenia, and flower-basket (Fig. 12). VFA) SERFS Fic. 12.—Skeleton of Auslectella SPectosa. the Euplectella, or Venus’s IA SPONGES. VALUE OF SPONGES.—There are six species of sponges valued in commerce ; three are found in America, in Key West and the Baha- mas, the others coming from the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Nearly all the flints are the remains of ancient sponges. Specimens for Study.—Sponges are difficult to keep in the aquarium. In our Northern fresh-water ponds, the Siphydora is common, and, in streams, the Spongzlla, while various kinds can be found along the coast. In default of living specimens, the common toilet-sponge should be used, and sections made with a razor for examination under the microscope. Works on Sponges for further reference. “The Glass Sponges,” by Rev. Samuel Lockwood, in “ Popular Science Monthly,” vol. iii, p. 529 ; “ The Common Fresh-Water Sponge, Spongilla,” by Professor W. C. Williamson, in “ Popular Science Re- view,” January, 1868; ‘“‘ North American Poriferz,” by A. Hyatt, in “Memoirs of Boston Society of Natural History”; ‘ Life Histories of Animals,” by A. S. Packard, Jr.;-“ The Atlantic, and Depths of the Sea,” Sir Wyville Thomson. A Syrian sponger. CHAPTER III. THIRD BRANCH OF ANIMALS. HYDROIDS, ETc. (Celenterata, hollow intestine). General Characteristics—A simple sac, as the Hydra, composed of two-cell layers, possessing a stomach, or di- gestive cavity. The mouth is encircled by tentacles, which are hollow, and connect with the stomach. lass: |.—_HyDROZOA. Order I. Hydroids.—One of the commonest animals of the aquarium, if the water is taken from the brook or stream, is the Hydra (Fig. 13)—a simple, elongated stomach one quarter of an inch in length, end- ing in a mouth that is surrounded by from five to eight tentacles that are extensions of the body, hollow, and connecting with it. If examined closely, myriads of small cells will be seen, many of which contain deli- Fic. 13.—Fresh-water Hydra viridis. 1. Long-armed Hydra feeding on small ani- mals, a. 2. Aydra fusca throwing off young Hydra-buds. cate threads or darts, called lassoes, that are thrown out as weapons of defense (Fig. 14). By cutting a Hydra 16 LIME-SECRETING HYVDROIDS. into sections, each will soon produce a crown of tentacles, and grow into a perfect animal. The Hydra can be turned inside out, and within an hour recover its natural Fic. 14.—Lasso-cells of Hydra. 1. Arm of Hydra, containing cells. 2. Cell magnified. 3. Cell after bursting open. position; more marvelous yet, if when so treated it is spit- ted with a pin or needle so that it can not turn, it will eat and reproduce its kind as if nothing had occurred. Some are solitary, while others live in colonies. ‘They repro- duce by budding (Fig. 13, 4, 4) and by eggs. Lime-secreting Hydroids (J/lefora).—Some of the Hydroids secrete lime. They resemble true corals in appearance, and were long considered as such. Under the microscope, it will be seen that the lime secreted is tunneled by numerous canals which in life are filled by the animal. The polyps are of two kinds, and, in a millepore found at Tahiti, they are in groups, the largest being stout polyps, with four tentacles, a stomach, and mouth; but the polyps about it, rising from the smaller pores, have no mouth or stomach, but many tentacles, whose duty is to capture food for the short, thick-set polyp between them. | Some of the Hydroids, instead of bearing young like them- ; selves, produce perfect jelly-fishes (A7edus@) ; such is the 3 Campanularia (Fig. 15), that throws off, by budding, a free jelly-fish (3), that in turn produces eggs that become, not jelly-fishes, but fixed Hydroids (1). This is called alternate | generation. The free-swimming young are often brilliant- ly luminous, presenting a wondrous appearance on dark nights. DISCOPHORA. 17 The Monocaulus is a gigantic Hydroid, seven feet high, and nine inches across the expanded tentacles, living in the Atlantic at a depth of four miles below the surface. Many of the so-called mosses that are common on the - shore, and are pressed as sea-weed, are in reality compound Hydroids enclosed in horny cells, as the Sertularia. Fic. 15.—Campanularia. 1. Natural size. 2. Animal magnified: S, sac containing jelly-bell; aa, animal feeding. 3. Free-swimming young, magnified. 3', natural size of jelly-bell. Order II. Discophora.—We now come to _jelly- fishes that are developed directly from eggs, as Pelagia campanella, or, as in Aurelia, produced from a Hydra form (Fig. 17, 1). They vary in size, from the little Lucernaria that attaches itself to weeds by a sucking disk, to the gigantic Cyaea, that is from two to seven feet in diameter, with tentacles over one hundred feet in length. 18 HYDROIDS, ETC. These jellies are disk-shaped, the tentacles in Cya- nea hanging in eight distinct bunches from the margin, and armed with darts or lasso-cells, that form terrible A Me es 50K y SS a a —— (eI 2 BD a | CON SSS 3 y ca) Nx WN 4 \ r MN \( | ia INN Os = s! ‘ Le Yo TE HW) i WN Ss UN Woe S y i J i \ NS iB sp) Fic. 16,—Adult Aurelia, showing the water-vascular canals. weapons of defense. Around the fringed margin are eight protected eyes. The mouth-opening is square, leading into a large stomach, from which radiate four branching tubes (Fig. 16) called water-vascular canals. They form a network at the edge, and connect with a tube that encircles the margin of the disk. Through these branches digested food and water circulates, or finds its way over the body. A some- what similar arrangement is found in all jelly-fishes. In swimming, the disk contracts Fic. 17.—Development of Au- relia. 1. Early stage. 2. Jelly-fish ready to break off. and expands in regular time, averaging twelve or fifteen times a minute. FRESH-WATER JELLY-FISHES. 19 NoTE.—In specimens of Aurelia, 95.84 per cent of the animal is water; the solid matter in any jelly-fish is rarely over five per cent of the whole. Fresh-Water Jelly-Fishes.—These have recently. been discovered in England. They are one third of an Fic. 18.—A jelly-fish swimming (/e/agza). inch in diameter, and probably come from some warm climate, as they are only active when the temperature of the water is about 85°. 20 COMPOUND HYDROIDS. Development of Discophore.—They multiply by eggs that are deposited in the autumn, and are at first spheri- cal, quickly changing to a pear-shape, and attaching them- FIG. 19.—Portuguese man-o’-war, Physalia Arethusa. selves to rocks or weed. Now, tentacles appear (Fig. 17, 1), varying in number from eight to twenty-four, and after eight- een months the pear divides off into disks until we have a pile of scalloped saucers one upon another (2). The high- est one dies, while all the rest break off and swim away, lit- tle jelly-fishes, that in time grow into the gigantic Cyanea or others, as the case may be. VALUE.—They form the food of some whales and fishes. NotTe.—The gigantic Cyanca af- fords a home under its curtains for numbers of fishes and several crus- taceans, while in its mouth-folds lives a long, tapering sea-anemone (Bicidium parasiticum), that in many cases mimics in color that of its protector. Order III. Siphonopho- ra.—These are the most beau- tiful of the Hydroids, and are rarely seen in the North. They are free-swimming colo- nies. The Portuguese man- o’-war, or Physalia (Fig. 19), is a mere bubble, seemingly of the finest satin, that floats upon the surface. From the upper portion rises at will a fluted membrane, colored with delicate tints of pink, that is used as a sail; from the low- SEA-ANEMONES AND CORAL POLYPS. 21 er portion extends a mass of tentacles of the richest blue, and, from their armament of lasso-cells, of the most dan- gerous character. They are called Zodéids, and are of four kinds. Some aid in locomotion, some are reproduc- tive, while others are feeders for the entire colony. The tentacles are dragged from twenty to one hundred feet or more behind. The beautiful filaments form tempting baits when lowered, and in this way the Physalia feeds. The man-o’-war generally has several tenders, little fishes of the genus Scombride, of the exact color of the death- dealing tentacles, that live under and among them, a won- derful case of mimicry.* Allied to the Physalia are the FPorpita and Velella. The latter also floats upon the surface, a raft bearing a silvery sail, while beneath is the same rich coloring of the Physalia. Works on Hydroids for further reference. “ Acalephs (Jelly-Fishes) of North America, with Pictures of most of the Species in Catalogue of Museum of Comparative Zodlogy,” by A. Agassiz; L. Agassiz, ‘‘ Contributions to the Natural History of the United States,” vol. iv; ‘‘Sea-side Studies in Natural History,” Agassiz - “Sertularian Zo6dphytes of the Coast of England,” T. Hincks; ‘‘ Popular Science Review,” 1878, p. 223; Huxley’s ‘‘ Man- ual of Invertebrates’”’ ; ‘‘ Challenger Reports.” Class I].—SEA-ANEMONES AND CORAL POLYPS (Actinozoa). General Characteristics.—These are well represented by the sea-anemone, or Actinia (Fig. 20). In appearance * The author once swam over the tentacles of a Physalia with an almost fatal result; the blue marks were plainly visible six or eight months after. These fishes not only mimic the color of the tentacles, but assume vertical positions, so that they seem actually a part of them. I have often iifted the man-o’-war, which can be safely done by the “sail,” and the fishes that were previously unnoticed would dart about in the greatest alarm. A more remarkable case of protective mimicry is not known. ae HYDROIDS, ETC. they resemble cylinders attached to the bottom, the oppo- site end containing the mouth, which is surrounded by numbers of hollow tentacles, armed with lasso-cells (Fig. 21), while near the base of the tentacles are the minute Fic. 20.—Anemone with ten- tacles expanded, attached by sucking disc to the bot- FIG. 22.—Cross-section of anem- tom. one, showing septa. eye-spots. If a dead anemone that has become somewhat hardened is cut open vertically, we first notice the stom- ach, that, divided into mouth and stomach proper, seems suspended in the body, held in place by six partitions (Mesenteries) (Fig. 22), that divide it into as many sec- tions, which are again divided by others. Each of the six principal partitions is perforated with an opening, and the chambers connect with the tentacles, so that water, and food captured by the tentacles, is taken in at the mouth, and penetrates, by the opening at the bottom of the stomach, to every part of the animal. The anemones vary greatly in size, from delicate un- attached forms that live up among the folds of the great jelly-fish Cyanea to enormous ones two feet across. The CORAL-MAKING POLYPS. 23 Cerianthus of the Philippine Islands, with its thread-cells, builds a sheath or leathery tube one foot four inches in length, that is sunk into the mud. Development.—Anemones multiply by budding, or, if pieces of the disk are cut or torn off, they will grow into anemones. ‘They also deposit eggs, the young being at first free swimmers, by means of cilia, finally becoming _ fixed upon the bottom, and assuming the adult form. Note.—In their habits they are remarkable. One observed by Dr. Collingwood in the China Sea was two feet in diameter, giving shelter in its stomach to a little fish, that, when danger approached, rushed into its protector, whose tentacles closed up like a door. A fish, known as Premnas biaculeatus, also lives within the stomach of the anemone, Acétinia crassicornis. Some live a roving life, like the Adamsia, that is often found upon the back of the hermit-crab, that, upon leaving its shell, obliges its friend, the anemone, to change also. The Urticina is luminous. VALUE.—The anemones are great purifiers, and are eaten in vari- ous parts of the world. Coral-making Polyps.—The coral animal may be considered an anemone that has the power of secreting lime. In the star-coral (Astrea), the young is seen at the end of June—a little oblong-shaped body, swimming about by its cilia, or oars. It soon attaches itself to the bottom, and, if in a few days it should be removed, there would be found a little platform with radiating partitions of lime alternating with the soft ones that we have seen in the anemone. If allowed to grow, tentacles soon appear; other small partitions are now secreted, that extend to the outer wall, which is also being secreted ; and, finally, we have a coral polyp, from which others branch, until large blocks are formed of many individuals, but all con- nected. So it will be seen that the coral is not an insect, neither does it erect or build its house any more than a man builds his skeleton, but is a lime-secreting animal, pure and simple. 24 DEEP-WATER CORALS. The corals that we are familiar with have been bleached, but when taken from the water they are of various shades of olive and brown. Single-Polyp Corals.—The /ungzz, or Mushroom- Coral, often attains a length of twelve inches, and is a sin- gle polyp, in which the radiating septa are plainly seen. They are the commonest forms of the greater depths; ten genera live in water a mile deep, four at nearly two miles, while the Fungia symmetrica has been found in from one hundred and eighty feet to three and a half miles of water. The Caryophyllia is a common form in the Mediterranean. Some are luminous. Branch-Coral (Madreporide).—The Branch or Tree Coral of Florida (Fig. 23) is a familiar example, and the Fic. 23.—Madrepore. Dead and living branch. sides of deep channels in the reef bristle with it, the coral growing in perpendicular walls and covering the reef in vast patches, affording protection to myriads of animals. The Leaf-Coral spreads out in great leaves several feet in width. The Branch-Corals grow seven or eight inches a year, contrary to general belief. Porites.—These polyps are extremely minute, having twelve short tentacles, and form large oval heads, weigh- ing many thousand pounds. Many die in the center, and become hollowed out like gigantic vases, and are pene- trated with worms, that, when expanded, resemble flowers BRAIN-CORALS.—STAR-CORALS. 25 Brain-Corals (J/eandrina).*—These corals form in great heads twelve to fifteen feet in diameter. The polyps are arranged in trenches resembling the convolutions of the brain. They grow rapidly. Fig. 24 shows a head of Meandrina convexa that doubled its diameter in a year, or grew at the rate of one inch a year under unfavorable Fic. 24.—MWeandrina convexa, Tortugas, Florida, growth of which was watched by Dr. J. B. Holder and the author. circumstances, being kept by the author in an aquarium, or inclosure, of dead-coral rock, through which the tide rose and fell. . Star-Corals (Astrea).—In the Astreas the polyps are very large, some having a diameter of two inches, almost as large as some anemones. The tentacles are of various shades—green, purple, gray, and blue tints. They attain a. weight of several tons. * Meandrina spongiosa, common on the Florida reef, floats upon the surface when deprived of the animal matter, and is known as floating coral. 2 . 26 CORAL REEFS. Northern Coral (As¢rangia).—This beautiful coral may be found in Long Island Sound, near New Haven, and on the New Jersey shore. The polyps are pure white, ae Fic. 25.—Astrea paliiaa (living). standing high above the cells. The tentacles are covered with lasso-cells, each about 735 of an inch in length. It thrives well in the aquarium. Coral Reefs.—These are banks or shoals of dead or living coral at or below the surface. The tops of sub- merged hills and elevations gradually approach the surface by the accumulation of organic matter, principally from the continuous falling* of shells of RAzzopoda and Fora- minifera (Fig. 3), and other forms, until finally a platform of limestone is built that reaches within forty or fifty feet of the surface. Now, the reef-making corals, Madrepores, etc., that do not flourish in deeper water, become fixed, grow, and accumulate, with Gorgonias and other forms, until they reach the surface. Seeds, perhaps of the man- grove, now obtain a footing, and the reef in time becomes a coral key or island. * Tt has been estimated by Murray that, if lime-secreting organisms are as numerous down to a depth of six hundred feet as they are near the surface, there would be more than sixteen tons of calcareous shells or carbonate of lime in the uppermost one hundred fathoms of every square mile of the ocean. ‘. | BARRIER REEFS.—ATOLLS. 27 Barrier Reefs.—This name is given to reefs formed as above, but distant from the shore, and separated from it by deep water, as the reef, one thousand miles long and thirty miles from shore, on the Australian coast. Fringing Reefs.—These are formed near the shore, generally in smooth water, having no great depth between them and the adjacent land. Atolls.—When a reef reaches the surface, the waves from the side of the prevailing winds grind up the dead coral, and wash it over in the form of mud and sand, where it settles in smooth water. Here branching corals, that give shelter to innumerable animals, flourish, as well as lime-secreting alge,* all continually growing and being ground up by fishes and worms, and disintegrated by the solvent action of the carbonic acid in the water, until finally a shallow lagoon or flat is formed, wholly or partly * This is one of the most important factors of lagoon and key making. The keys of Tortugas, especially Sand Key, are made up almost entirely of these limy plates, as well as broken shells. 28 HVDROIDS, ETC. surrounded by the reef (Fig. 26), and cut up by currents into deep channels. Such is the atoll forming at Tortu- gas, Florida, where the lagoon is fast filling up, and will eventually become dry land. The shape of atolls is due to the foundation upon which they are formed, currents, winds, etc. Note.—An important factor in mud-making is the Holothurian. Those at St. Solomon Islands have been found to eject two fifths of a pound of mud a day, so that sixteen animals would grind up a tona year ; and asin some places the bottom is fairly covered with them, the amount of work of this kind done by a single animal can be imagined. Works on Actinozoans for further reference. Dana’s “ Corals and Coral Islands” ; “ Our Sea-Anemones,” by A. E. Verrill ; ‘‘ American Naturalist,” vol. ii, p. 251; “ Sea-Anemones,” “Popular Science Monthly,” vol. vii, p. 1; “ Arachnactis Brachiolata, a Floating Actinia,” A. Agassiz, “‘ Boston Journal of Natural History,” vol. vii, p. 525 ; “‘ Animal Life,” Semper ; “ Sea-Side Studies,” Agassiz ; “Smithsonian Reports” ; “‘ Challenger Reports”; “ The Atlantic, and Depths of the Sea,” Sir Wyville Thomson; Darwin’s “ Structure of Coral Reefs”; ‘“ Fauna Americana,” J. B. Holder; “ Transactions American Academy,” vol. xi, 1883, Agassiz; “ Proceedings of Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1879-’80,” Murray. VALUE OF Srony CoRALS.—The stony corals form islands. The fossil coral, Havosites, is polished and much used in jewelry. Fossil coral found in Cuba is much used in building. Calcined coral is used as a dentifrice and as an antacid. Order II. Alcyonarians.—The animals that secrete a horny or calcareous stock without true dividing parti- tions or septa, are called Alcyonarians. Such are the sea- fans (Gorgonias), yellow, lilac, and black, sea-pens, the red coral of commerce, and many others. Red Coral.—lIn the red coral, Corallium rubrum (Fig. 27), the axis # is calcareous, and composed of fused spicules, varying in color. When alive, the polyps, II, 8, B, which are pure white, are connected by a series of com- plicated tubes, f. The tentacles are eight in number, and * ee Ee CU lh Ce —— —— == RED CORAL. 20 when spread out are extremely beautiful. The young are at first free swimming (III and IV). Another curious form is the organ-pipe coral, formed of upright tubes. FIG. 27.—Red coral (C. rubrum). I. Branch showing polyps closed and ex- panded: 2, mouth. II. Section of branch: 4, mouth; m, stomach; J, canals; 4, irregular canals; P, hard axis. III and IV. Free-swim- ming embryo, showirg the cilia, or oars. 30 - GORGONTAS. VALUE.—Eighty thousand pounds have been collected in one year, In 1873 Algeria alone employed 311 vessels and 3,150 men, realizing $565,000. The entire yearly collection is valued at over $1,000,000. Sea-Fans (Gorgonias).—The Gorgonias (Fig. 28) grow in the shape of fans or plumes, branching like trees and shrubs. ‘The stock secreted is either horny or calcareous. Those of the Florida reef are often three feet high and two wide, while the P7zmnoa, found on the Banks of New- Fic. 28.—Sea-fan. foundland, grows to a height of over five feet, the branches or stem being as thick as a boy’s arm. ‘Their surfaces are network, through which are delicate canals connect- ing the animals. On the Gorgonia flubellum lives a shell of the same color—a curious case of mimicry. VALUE.—They are made into whips, canes, etc. sea-Pens (Pexnatulidz).—The sea-pens are fixed or free-swimming polyps. A gigantic one (Umbellularia), four feet high, lives in the Arctic regions, a mile and a half from the surface; another, ten inches long (Verezil- - —— CU ee a ee a eh ee COMB-BEARERS. 31 lum), is found off the coast of Spain, and noted, as are all the Alcyonarians, for its luminous properties.* Class I[]—CoMB-BEARERS (Cfenophora). These are jelly-like animals, having, as organs of loco- motion, vertical rows of comb-like paddles, that move up and down in exact measure as they travel along, glistening with rain- \\ Ww bow-like hues. So vast are their ‘i Ww numbers that in the North they ‘ often color the sea. They are not \S only iridescent but luminous, their \N very eggs and embryos giving out \ \\ light. The Bolina, Beroé, Idyia, \ N Cestum, and Pleurobrachia (Fig. \ 29), are all common on our New England shores. ‘The eggs are de- posited singly, as in Pleurobrachia, or in strings, as in Golina, in the autumn or last of summer, the young passing through no changes, and resembling the parent as soon as hatched. Fic. z9.—Pleurobrachia. Specimens for Study.—The Hy- dra can be found in any pond during the summer months, and the salt-water forms from old piles and rocks along the shore. Jelly-fish can be preserved in alcohol by grad- ttle: \ ites | ) * All the Alcyonarians dredged by the Challenger were wonder- fully luminous, and the bottom of the sea is undoubtedly lighted to a more or less degree in this way. Great patches of light have been seen sixty feet below the surface, while the small forms in shoaler water vie with those of the greater depths. Professor Moscley exam- ined the light of three Alcyonarians with the spectroscope, and found it to consist of red, yellow, and green rays only. A glass containing numbers of the Vevetz//um has given out light sufficient to read by, and was distinguishable for some distance. 22 HY DROIDS, ETC ually adding it to the water they are in. Small jellies should be treated to a weak solution of osmic acid, one tenth per cent water; this hardens their tissues. To pre- vent animals from closing up, kill in chromic acid (one and one half per cent), and place in alcohol. Living coral (Astrangia) can be dredged in Long Island Sound. Specimens can be hardened for sectional examination in osmic acid. | A ship sailing at night through phosphorescent animals, as noctiluca (Fig. 6), jelly-fishes, ascidians, etc. CHAPTER IV. FOURTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, Etc. (Echinodermata). _ General Characteristics —Marine radiate animals, hav- ing a calcareous skeleton made up of many plates. They possess a nervous system, and are distinguished, especially from the former groups, in having a tube-like digestive canal, distinct and separate from the cavity of the body. Skeleton.—By making a vertical section of the common star-fish (Fig. 30), we find that the skeleton is made up eae é Fic. 30.—Section of one ray of star-fish. 4, central body; S, stomach; m, mouth ; 4, madreporic plate; 7, ring about the mouth; #, ray; sf, spines set in leathery coat ; c, pedicellarie ; ¢, eye; 7,7, tubular feet ; v, v, vesicles for supplying feet with water ; z, liver. of calcareous plates, connected by a leathery integument, and covered by the skin, having spaces between them to allow the ingress of water. The plates increase by addi- tions to their edges; thus their shape is preserved. The svines, or defensive organs, sp (Fig. 30), work on a ball- and-socket plan, and among them occur worm-like append- 34 STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. ages called fedicellariz, c, having three calcareous jaws. Between the arms, on the upper surface, is a hard, flat, pinkish body, perforated with holes, called “the madre- poric plate,” % The under surface of the rays is chan- neled, the plates being pierced with four rows of minute holes. Internal Organs.—The mouth, m, is on the under sur- face, and leads into the stomach, s, which is seen ex- tending into the rays, ending in a short intestine, to which is attached the green, branching liver, 7. About the mouth extends a ring, that throws off a delicate nerve to the eye, ¢, at the tip .of each aay; other cords also extend to each sucker, ¢¢, this constituting the nero- ous system. Circulation.—There is a system of blood-vessels, but Fic. 31.—fentacrinus caput meduse. what is called the water-vascular system is most impor- tant, aiding in both locomotion and respiration. Water is taken in at the sieve-like madreporic plate %, flows down a tube, called the “stone canal,” into the circular canal, ——- STAR-FISHES. 35 ry, that encircles the mouth ; here it flows into tubes that branch into each rav, then into numerous sacs, or am- pull, vv, that have long extensions provided with suck- ers. By the contraction of the sacs, water fills the exten- | sions that penetrate the four rows of holes, and they ap- pear as feet, suckers, or locomotive organs, ¢7. Class I.—CRINOIDS (Lily-form). Eight living genera of these forms are known. One of the most beautiful, the Pentacrinus, is found in deep water off the West In- dia Islands. They may be described as inverted star-fishes growing on stems. Some are always fastened to the bottom (Fig. 31), while others break off when attaining a mature growth and lead a wandering life, FS as the Antedon. In the. wat Pentacrinus the stem is about a foot long, resem- oe bling pentagonal but- tons piled one upon another, sending off at intervals short whorls of branches that are jointed ina similar way. The stem is rooted in the mud, while the animal is cup-shaped, presenting the appearance of a bunch of rich, waving plumes. These are the arms, arranged about the mouth, closing over it, or spreading out at will. The Crinoid (Axtedon) is found in the Gulf of Maine. They multiply by eggs, that pass through several complex changes before assuming the parent form. Fic. 32.—and-star. 36 STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. Class I1.—STAR-FISHES (As¢terotdea). The star-fishes assume the most varied and curious shapes. In Sand-stars (Fig. 32), the body is a mere flat- tened disk, the arms branching out suddenly, often round and snake-like, while the feet have no suckers, and appear from the sides of the rays instead of the bottom. The Ophiacantha spinulosa is not merely a star in shape, but is highly luminous. Some, as the Ophiothela, divide them-. selves spontaneously, the body looking as if it had been chopped in two; the two halves become separate indi- viduals, new arms growing from the severed parts. In one of the brittle stars, known as the basket-fish, the arms are divided into many branches of twos—bifurcating, as it — is called—and resemble, when coiled, a bail of snakes. They live in the coral reefs of the South, and are often found off the New England coast. Development.—The young are produced from eggs, some, as Ophiocoma vivipara, appearing at once in adult form, Fic. 33.—Development of common star-fish. A, free-swimming form ; A’, later stage settling on the bottom; B, same assuming star- shape. while others (Fig. 33) are at first minute sacs swimming by aid of cilia, undergoing many changes, finally in two or three years assuming the adult shape. The common star-fish (Fig. 34) preys upon the oyster. . STAR-FISHES. 37 Fic. 34.—The star-fish at home (Asterias- Forbsiz), showing upper and under sides. Note.—Not all star-fishes have five rays. The Srisinga has from nine to twenty, the So/aster, found on the New England coast, eleven; while others have thirteen or fourteen. The great star-fish Asterias discoida is often inhabited by a living fish (Oxydeles luméri- coides). 38 STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. Class II1].—SEA-URCHINS (Echznozdea). General Characteristics—T he egg-shaped skeleton (Fig. 35) is made up of about six hundred hard, six-sided plates in double rows, containing perhaps 3,720 pores for the emis- sion of the tube-like feet. The star-fish is a sucker, but the Echinus a biter, having five long calcareous teeth that meet at a point, m (Fig. 35), and are renewed as they wear away. ‘They are moved by a complicated system of mus- cles, and held in place by a leathery skin. The body is \| {ao eae Fic. 35.—Skeleton of sea-urchin without spines. m, mouth; J, foot-holes; wh, madre- poric plate; e, eyes; s, sock- ets of large spines. covered with about 4,000 spines, each of which is made gg es sé Peden up of hollow tubes, and works Highly magnified. on a ball-and-socket plan, s. | Among these spines are over 2,000 suckers, or feet, of three different kinds : 1, suckers proper ; 2, and most frequently found near the mouth, pedicellariz (Fig. 36), whose calca- reous jaws are continually opening and shutting in loco- motion and defense; and 3, stalked button-like bodies called spheridia, probably organs of taste. The same SEA-CUCUMBERS. 39 madreporic plate, w Z, and a similar circulatory system are found as in the star-fishes. Development.—They are produced from eggs, the free- swimming young passing through many changes (Fig. 37). In some Echini the young are pro- duced without changes. The /er- muaster holds its young in a regular sac, while the eggs and young in others are held in place by the spines that fold about them like so many protective arms. Class IV.— SEA-CUCUMBERS (Holothurotdea). In these animals (Fig. 38) the body is long and worm-like, and resembles a rough-skinned cucum- ber. Looking down upon the mouth, that is surrounded by ten- tacle-like gills, their radiate char- acter is seen, and by laying open the body a similar disposition of muscles may be noticed. The madreporic plate or strainer is in- ternal. The feet are in five se- ries, each consisting of five rows, by which they move slowly along. \\\ iy ‘ REI A MN Neat en! Fic. 37.-—Development of sea-urchin. A, free- swimming young ; @, a, lime rods; 4, urchin forming within. B, later form, showing spines. The skin of Holothurians is leathery, and contains num- bers of curious bodies resembling dumb-bells, wheels, and anchors (Fig. 39). The Holothuria Floridiana is in- habited by a fish, the Pzerasfer.* In the Holothuria sca- * In many observed by the author on the Florida reef they invariably died as soon as taken from the Holothurians; but in the aquarium at Naples they have been seen to leave their home and return tail first, the action of the Holothurian in taking in water helping them in. 4O STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. bra of Zamboanga lives an entirely different fish (Zuchely- ophis vermicularis). — EE —— ee eS Oe os Fic. 38.—Sea-cucumber (Holothuria lutea), showing tentacle-like gills. the tentacle-like gills resembling mosses of various kinds. In some species they look like toadstools ; others resemble broad leaves or short, delicate shrubs, and, when concealed in the sand, these mimicking mouth-parts are thrust up, and wave to and fro in the current, deceiv- ing the shrewdest of their enemies. 1 Note.—The common /evtactes of the North lies buried in the sand, | 1 ! Development.—The young are devel- | oped much as in the star-fishes ; some | are at first free swimmers by means of cilia, and pass through change of forms as curious and distinct as in many in- sects (Fig. 40), while others appear at FIG. 39.—Anchor- : plate in Synap- _ first in the adult form, and are protect- ta, magnified. ed in nurseries called marsupiums. VALUE.—Over 1,000 vessels are engaged in the trepang-fisheries — of the East. The yearly shipment of them from Macassar alone amounts SEA-CUCUMBERS. 4l to $600,000. Spines of certain Echini are used as slate-pencils in some countries. Fic. 40.—Development of sea-cucumber. A, jelly-like animal swimming ; a, sea-cucumber forming within. B, later form, showing tentacles and feet. Specimens for Study.—Living crinoids are not generally . obtainable, but the fossil stems are to be found in various localities (see “ Geology”). The stomachs of cod and other fishes often yield brittle stars not found near shore. The anchors, dumb-bells, etc., of Holothurians can be seen by treating the skin to a solution of potash, and should be mounted for the microscope. Works on Echinoderins for further reference. “Challenger Reports”; ‘“‘ Depths of the Sea,” Sir Wyville Thom- son; ‘‘Smithsonian Reports”; Moseley’s “ Notes of a Naturalist” ; “Natural History of the Star-Fish,” A. Agassiz, in ‘‘ Memoirs of Mu- seum of Comparative Zodlogy” ; “ Echinoderms of New England,” A. E. Verrill, in ‘‘ Boston Journal of Natural History,” vol. x; “ In- vertebrata of Vineyard Sound,” Verrill ; “Seaside Studies in Natural History,” Agassiz; “ Homologies of the Pedicellariz,” ‘“ American Naturalist,” vol. vii, Agassiz ; “ Reports of the United States Com- missioner of Fishcries.” CHAPTER =, FIFTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. THE WORMS (Vermes). General Characteristics.—Animals that as a rule have a head, tail, upper and lower surfaces (dorsal and ventral), and generally made up of an indefinite number of joints or segments. An idea of the internal structure can be obtained from the section of a leech (Fig. 48). The di- gestive organ is tubular, extending from the mouth to the vent. The heart is a small pulsating organ above it, anda system of vessels containing a clear red or green fluid lead into the respiratory organs when present ; many worms, however, breathe through the body-wall. The nervous system consists of a white double chain of ganglia extend- ing along the ventral surface. The brain is small, and situated in the upper part of the head. In some, the eyes are in different parts of the body—the head, tail, etc. ; in others, they are absent. In the leech, they are confined to the first three segments. In some, as the worms of the first class, two branching tubes are found that constitute a water vascular system similar to that of the Echinoderms. All the worms are developed from eggs, and many pass through remarkable changes before assuming the adult form. The worms include many animals that, though varying greatly in appearance, all possess certain charac- teristics in common. - FLAT-WORMS, ETC. 43 Class |—FLAT-WORMsS, etc. (Platyhelminthes). The Planarian worms are the common forms of brooks and streams, found clinging to the floating twigs and leaves, resem- bling slugs. Some are brown, with from two to thirty black eye-spots. The marine forms at- tain a large size. Many are cov- ered with delicate cilia and pro- tective bristles, either spiral or straight rods held in cells and shot out like so many arrows as _ a defense. They multiply in sev- eral ways, that of self-division be- FIG. 41.— Liver-fluke of sheep twice the natural ing the most curious : if divided Sa ee ae into several pieces, each one be- tive tube; ¢, abdominal comes a perfect worm. The flat- sucker. worms are remarkable for their changes during growth, some passing through as many as seven. Many are parasitic, infesting other animals, as the liver-fluke of the sheep (Fig. 41). The metamorphosis of an allied form, A/onostomum mu- tabile, is as follows: When the embryo escapes from the egg, it is a ciliated form (Fig. 42, A). It swims about, soon entering the body of some animal—in the case of Fig. 41, the snail (Zimax agrestis). It now produces a sac- like larva called the nurse; later, this is called the Reda, then having a tadpole-shape, C, in which are seen germs, a. The animal grows until it assumes the appearance of D, when the young burst out as tadpole-like creatures called Cercariz, E. They now leave their host, swim about, are swallowed by some animal, as the sheep, and make their way to the liver. Here the tail is lost, and they become encysted, in time appearing as a perfect a THE WORMS. fluke-worm, F, that finally escapes through the intestine, and lays eggs in pools or ponds, thus completing the trans- formation, that varies in different genera. The tape-worm that comes from pork belongs in this class. Fic. 42.—A, Monostomum mutabile. A, the ciliated embryo; a, the nurse; 6, nurse free; C, Redia of Distoma pacificum, containing germs of other Rediz; D, Redia containing Cercarie (a); FE, Cercaria; F, Dis- toma, which results from the metamorphosis of the Cercarza. (After Steenstrup.) | Class. 1]. —- ROUND ee THREAD-WORM (WVema- telminthes). The pin-worm and Trichina are examples. The Z7zchina spiralis (Fig. 43), one twelfth of an inch long, is the most dangerous, becoming encysted in the human muscles. The eggs are eaten by rats, that in turn are perhaps eaten by pigs, : so finding their way into the Fic. 43.—Trichina. human system. The Gordius WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. 45 aguaticus is the thread-worm, common in many insects and in pools. They are the so-called horse-hairs that do not turn to snakes. Class I1]— WHEEL-ANIMALCULES (Roézfers). The Rotifers (Fig. 44) are microscopic worms, some being only ;%> of an inch in length, having a membranous covering. Upon the anterior por- tion they have one or two disks, surrounded by cilia (Fig. 44, A), whose constant motion creates the optical illusion of wheels re- volving. They abound in the ocean, and in standing fresh wa- ter, and are so tenacious of life that they recover after having been dried for years, their sud- den appearance after continued droughts being attributed to what is called spontaneous generation. Under the microscope they as- sume remarkable shapes: now oval, caused by the upper and lower segments shutting togeth- er; then leech-like, moving along seemingly by suckers, or darting off swiftly, propelled by cilia. Fic. 44.—A Rotifer, highly They are oviparous, and Ehren- EIS 2 fa). A, cilia; @, anus; berg found that one species pro- icanicanecrecicle= c- duced 16,000,000 young in twelve water-vessels ; ¢, ovary; days. J, ganglion. Class I1V.—Moss ANIMALS (Polyzoa). These animals form a moss or coral-like growth, com- posed of cells (Fig. 45), each of which contains a minute, 46 THE WORMS. worm-like polyzoan. They are the commonest objects of the sea-shore, and are often pressed under the name of sea-mosses. Some occur in fresh water. They multiply by budding and by summer and winter eggs, the young of the latter being at first free swimmers. FIG. 45.—A moss animal (Plumatella repens), Fic. 46.—Brachiopod zodids expanded and retracted. showing arms. Class V.—LAMP SHELLS (Lrachiopoda). The Brachiopods (Fig. 46) are worms that secrete enequivalved shells with or without hinges. The arms are on one side of the mouth, and in some appear in spirals supported by loops. By the motion of the fringes of the arms, food is thrown into the mouth ; they are also re- spiratory organs. The ZLingula (Fig. 47) is an example Fic. 47.—Lingula anatina. common in the sand south of Cape Charles, where they make sand-tubes about their peduncles or stems. The young are at first free swimmers by means of cilia. Allied | . ~~ ———44{-. PS RS SE TC eee ‘ LEECHES, EARTH AND SEA WORMS. 47 to them are the Nemertian worms, acorn-tongue, and star- worms, that form Classes VI, VII, and VIII. Note.—Lingule, quite similar to those of to-day, are found in the Trenton limestone; 2,090 species are known, of which 2,000 are extinct. Class 1X.—LEECHES, EARTH AND SEA-W ORMS (Aznulata). The leech (Fig. 48) is a common form of the higher worms. The body is flat and divided by numerous seg- ments ; the head small, with ten small and simple eyes; the mouth bears three teeth, arranged so that the wounds they inflict ap- pear as gashes radiating from the center. Some swim readily, while oth- ers move by the use of their suckers, that are . one or two in number. Fic. 49.— The eggs are laid in sacs css in the fish-leech, Clepséne, Tec: and when hatched the young cling to the mother; others are laid in small oval sacs (Fig. 49), and deposited upon the stems and leaves of water-plants. Notre.—Land-leeches are greatly dreaded in the forests of India (Fig. 50), and in the East India islands they exist in such vast numbers that Semper, the naturalist, was driven from the woods at Luzon by them, the animals falling upon him like dew from the Fic. 48.—Section of a leech. @, anterior sucker; 8, posterior sucker; c, anus; @, ad, d, stomach; @, cesophagus ; 2, intes- tine; s,s, glands of the skin. 48 _ THE WORMS. shrubs and trees. According to the same authority, during the Sikh rebellion an entire English regiment was forced to retreat before the myriads of — blood- suckers. VALUE.—Leeches, from their extreme sensitiveness to at- mospheric changes, are sometimes used as barometers, but their principal value is in medicine. In Fic. 50.—Land-leeches of India, racing to attack one year 7,000,000 some animal, were used in London, at $10 per I,000. Earth-Worms.—The earth or angle-worms (Fig. 51) are cylindrical, and composed of numerous joints or seg- ments, each divided by a thin muscular partition. Upon examination, the lower portion of the segments will be Fic. 51.—Earth-worm (Lumbricus terrestrts). found perforated with four rows of minute holes, through which extend bristles that are really the feet. These curve backward, and, by extending the head and throwing them out, the remainder of the body is pulled along, a fresh hold taken, and so on. They muitiply by eggs that are protected by capsules, those of some kinds containing fifty eggs. | VALUE. — Eaten by the Indians, and valuable as preparing the earth for the reception of seeds.* * The amount of vegetable mold thus brought to the surface in a single year by worms amounts, according to Darwin, in some places to ten tons in a single acre; they rarely go below six feet, and it has : MARINE WORMS. 49 Marine Worms.—A common form on the sea-shore is Wereis (Fig. 52) ; the body is composed of from one to two hundred joints, each of which bears a pair of paddles ; upon the head are four eyes, while the mouth is armed with a powerful proboscis and two large cimeter-like teeth. \ UT s44444 TIN ye BIT LOTITY hy OR Fic. 52.—Sea-worm (/Verezs). They live in holes in the sand, lined with a fluid secretion. They multiply by eggs. The Czrratulus also lives in a tube. In the South some of these forms arrange a leaf of sea- weed in the structure so that it falls over the mouth, form- ing a door, and giving the entire tube the appearance of sea-weed. The Serpule (Fig. 53), that build stony houses, have radiating coronets, dashed with rich coloring, for breathing organs. The Pectinaria bears upon its head a pair of combs of burnished gold, while with very few exceptions all the worms are luminous— green, blue, white, and yellow lights marking their movements under the sea. been estimated that they average about 100,000 to the acre. In New Zealand 348,480 have been found in an acre of rich ground ; so it will be seen that the upper crust is continually being eaten and ejected by them, their myriads of holes conveying water to the interior , as well as air. The worms also drag vast masses of leaves under ground, that enrich the soil. They cover up seeds, undermine rocks, burying them up, and to their work is due the preservation of many ruins and ancient works of art. Some of their casts found in India are over a foot in length. In England, numbers of ancient Roman villas have been discovered beneath the ground, their entombment, accord- ing to Darwin, undoubtedly caused by the worms that undermined them and deposited their casts upon the floors, until finally, aided by other causes, they disappeared from sight. 3 Fic. 53.—Fixed tube-making marine worms (Serful@). VALUE.—Food and bait. NoTE.—The most brilliant light-givers are found in the families Polynoide, Syllide, Chetopteride,and Polycirrus. If the first named is watched in the aquarium, gleams of greenish light will be seen at the - attachment of each scale, and the separate organ glistens with pulsa- tions of light at the ruptured surface. In the second worm the under surfaces of the feet are the only luminous spots. In the third the light is confined to the dorsum of the tenth segment or joint, while the Poly- cirrus is phosphorescent over its entire surface, emitting a vivid pale bluish light. Works on Worms for further reference. Verrill, ‘‘ Invertebrata of Vineyard Sound,” in “ Report of United States Commissioner of Fisheries,” 1874; Verrill, ‘“‘ Parasites of Man and Domestic Animals”; “ Planarize of our Pondsand Streams,” E. R. Lankester, in ‘‘ Popular Science Review,” October, 1867 ; “‘ Alternate Generation and Embryology of Aztolytus cornutus,” A. Agassiz, “ Bos- tcn Journal of Natural History,” vol. vii; ‘‘ North American Fresh- Water Leeches,” A. E. Verrill, in “ American Journal of Science,” 1872, vol. iii, page 126; “Animal Parasites and Messmates,” Van Beneden ; ‘ Formation of Vegetable Mold,” Darwin. CHAPTER VI. SIXTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. MOLLUSCA. General Characteristics—Mollusks are soft, unjointed animals enveloped by a muscular cloak or mantle, generally protected by a shell. They have a well-defined nervous system, a heart, arteries, and veins through which passes colorless blood, a foot for locomotion, and eyes more or less developed ; 20,000 living species are known, and 19,000 fossil. ‘Those with two valves, as the oyster, are called bivalves, and those with one, as the snail, univalves. The former are called Lamellibranchs, from the folded plate- like appearance of their gills. Class I—OvsTERS, etc. (Lamellibranchiata). General Characteristics—Tur SHELL.—The shell (Fig. 54) is formed of carbonate of lime, secreted by the edges of the mantle, which is divided into two halves on the right and left sides, each one secreting a valve. The part of the shell where growth commences is called the beak (Fig. 54, a); that where the shell opens, the base, &. The portion indicated by the direction of the beaks is the ante- rior side ; the opposite, the posterior. Near the beaks 1s the hinge J, and here the valves join by teeth, ¢, dd, that fit into cavities on the opposite valve. A horny ligament, h, connects the valves, always tending to throw them apart ; thus, dead clams are always found open. In the interior 32 MOLLUSCA. of dead shells several scars are seen, some oval and others mere lines ; the former are the marks of the adductor mus- cles, é,¢, that move the valves, opening and shutting them. Near by are smaller scars, showing the position of the pedal muscles that moved the foot. The line running par- allel with the margin of the shell is called the pallial line, f, and shows where the mantle was attached to the shell. FIG. 55.—Mollusk, without siphon. SS, shell; 2, lower half of man- tle; #2’, a piece of the upper half; g, breathing-gills; 4, heart; 7v, Fic. 54.—Bivalve shell. a@, beak; 2, liver; Zf, lips; 0, opening of base ; 4, 6, hinges; c, @, d, principal mouth ; @, anus, where refuse is : teeth; 4, ligament; e¢, e, adductor thrown out; ms, muscle hold- muscles ; /, lines of growth; 7, pal- ing shells together; c¢, elastic lial line. cushion forcing them apart. Internal Organs.—Opening the valves, we note the two leaves of the mantle, or body-wall, whose function is to secrete and repair the shell. Removing these, we see the gills (Fig. 55,2) or branchize that are open in front and joined at the back. They appear made up of minute rods covered by a maze of veins, and are provided with cilia. The siphon (Fig. 56, s), or so-called blackhead, when present, projects through the mantle, and in the clam is capable of great distention. It is divided into OYSTERS, ETC. 53 two parts, either double or single, and the orifices are surrounded by tentacles. Circulation.—The blood is purified (aérated) and food obtained by the same action. Water is drawn into the © siphon opening farthest from the valve (Fig. 56, zz), and, wafted along by the cilia, is thus brought in contact with the gills. The food-particles in the water are carried along to the toothless mouth (Fig. 55, 0), that, guarded by two pairs of sense organs (palpi), is placed at the end of the shell opposite the siphon. They then pass into the stom- ach and intestine that winds about and passing through Fic. 56.—Bivalve with siphon, showing the foot. /, ligament; F, foot; m, mantle; s, siphon; ex., excurrent orifice ; 2z., incurrent orifice. Except the siphon and the large foot, the arrangement of organs is similar to that of the oyster. the heart finally connects with the siphon nearest the valve (Fig. 56, ex.), out of which all vesectementa passes. Extend- ing through the body is a glass-like rod, that is possibly a brace or support. ‘The heart lies near the hinge (Fig. 55, h), and is composed of one ventricle and one auricle in the oyster. In other species the heart is three-chambered, or there may be two hearts of two chambers each. Arte- ries lead from the ventricle over the body, and veins carry blood to the gills g, where it is purified by the air in the water—then passing back to the auricle. The nervous system consists of three pairs of ganglia—cerebral, pedal, and a pair that send nerves to the internal organs, gills, 54 MOLLUSCA. etc. The eyes, when present, are in the borders of the mantle, and often resemble gems. The foot is a muscular organ that projects from the mantle nearly opposite the siphon, by which the animal leaps, moves, or glues itself to the rock, as the case may be. ‘The ear is in the foot—a transparent sac containing a clear fluid in which floats a glassy globule. BIVALVES WITHOUT SIPHONS. Oysters (Ostre‘dz).—The oyster is found in great beds upon the coasts of many countries. About 425 different living species are known, and over 1,400 fossil, some of the latter being of gigantic size. A single oyster will de- posit during July and September over 1,000,000 yellow eggs. At first they remain in the gills, but finally leave the parent, and, after swimming about for a while by means of cilia, during which their numbers are greatly dimin- ished, they finally settle upon the bottom, and in five or six weeks are as large as a grain of corn, three years, how- ever, being required to attain full growth. They generally lie upon their sides, and are often inhabited by one or more small crabs (Pinnotheres). VALUE.—Seven hundred and sixty-five million oysters are handled yearly in New York alone, representing a capital of $1,577,000, the industry giving employment to thousands. Comb Shells (Pectens).—The Pectens are generally round, with radiating ribs from the valves, and are noted for their loco- motive powers, and the luster and brilliancy of their gem-like eyes that dot the mantle. They FIG. 57.—Pecten swimming, by violently have also numbers of opening and closing its valves. filaments that extend WING SHELLS. 55 from the shell—in the Zzma /ians to more than its entire length—and, by a vigorous opening and shutting of its valves, this sheli flies through the water, its long, golden- red tentacles streaming behind. It also constructs a nest. by covering itself with stones, shells, etc., connected by its byssus. The common Pecten is called the dancing- scallop (Fig. 57), from its curious movements, darting through the water and above it with the greatest ease. VALUE.—Indian ornaments and articles of food. Wing Shells (4Avculide).—The Meleagrina or pearl- oysters have obtained great prominence from their pearl- bearing properties. They come from Madagascar, Ceylon, Panama, etc. The pearls are formed of a pearly matter called nacre, secreted by the animal. Ifa grain of sand falls into the shell, the oyster envelops it with a pearly coating to smooth off the edges, and layer by layer the pearl grows. Imperfect pearls grow upon the sides of the valves, and are generally the attempts of the oyster to re- pel the advance of some boring parasite. NoTE.—One fishery in Ceylon recently produced $80,000 worth of pearls, to obtain which 17,000,000 oysters were brought ashore. The fisheries are under the government control. Mother-of-pearl is the pearly shell of certain oysters, and valued in decoration. In one year twenty tons of silver-tipped shells have been received at Liverpool from the Society Islands, thirty tons of black-tipped from Manila, and 340 tons of a smaller kind from Panama. Pinna.— These shells, common on many shores, are wedge-shaped and horny, the hinge delicate, the beaks forming a sharp peak. The foot is long and grooved. Over thirty species are known, and are found buried in the sand off shore. They attain a length of two feet. VALUE.—The Pinna has long been noted for its silk, which is the cable or byssus by which the shell attaches itself to the bottom. Gloves and stockings of Pinna-silk can be seen in the British Museum. Gloves so made cost $1.50 a pair, and stockings $2.75. 56 MOLLUSCA. Mussels (AZjt/ide2).—The black mussels with their silvery interiors are the common forms on the rocks of the Eastern Shore. They are covered with a thick leathery skin, the hinge being without teeth. They are remarkable for their climbing powers (Fig. 58, 47). By means of their foot, 7, they fasten a silken cord to the rocks, then another, and by continually stretching out cables ahead or upward, vo AN by >» ® aN WEF CATING, A\\ Tani icy WAR = <> | SN Fic. 58.—Group of headless mollusks. c, cardium springing; J/, mytilus; s, pecten; #, razor-fish, solen; /, foot; ¢, anchoring-threads; sd, breathing-siphons ; é, eyes of scallop. and lifting and breaking off those below, they climb or warp themselves along very much as does a ship on a lee- shore ; 217 living and 350 fossil species are known. VALUE.—The edible-mussel fisheries afford employment to many persons in Europe. Fresh-Water Mussels (Uwonide).— These are pond, river, and lake mussels, resembling in appearance the edible mussel, black withuut and pearly within, tinted with iridescent hues. About 550 living species are known throughout the world, and 60 fossil. The sexes are dis- tinct. The young are held in the gills of the mother in IVrALVES WITH SIPHONS. 57 the winter and early spring. They live for ten or fifteen years. VALUE.—Unios produce pearls, and in St. Clair County, Illinois, and Rutherford County, Tennessee, their collection is a profitable: business. In Scotland, $50,000 worth of fresh-water pearls have been taken from unios during the summer. A pearl was taken from a unio near Salem, New Jersey, a few years ago, that sold in Paris for $2,000. BIVAEVES WITH SIPHONS. Tridacna (77idacnide).—In the Tridacna gigas (Fig. 59), the largest living bivalve, the shells are often five feet SCALE IN FEET. Fic. 59.—Giant clam (7r¢dacna gigas). long ; each valve weighing over 250 pounds, the animal itself frequently 30 pounds, one serving as a meal for fifty men. The shell is trigonal, with deep radiations. They are common in the Torres Straits, where they are sunk FIs. 60.—Bivalve, with siphons. 2, to the coral rock, present- excurrent ; 4, incurrent ; c, foot. ing the appearance of huge elongatedsea-anemones, the mantle being of brilliant blue and green. So securely are they imbedded that they have to be quarried out at low 2 58 MOLLUSCA. tide with axe and chisel. According to Moseley, they attain an age of one hundred years. NoTE.—So powerful are they that large sharks and rays that have accidentally crossed them have been seized and held. The Tridacna always harbors within its shell several crabs. The byssus is so large that it can only be cut with a hatchet. Eight species are known. VALUE.—The Tridacne are often used as denetiers for holding holy water. The natives cut the shell up into knives. Razor-Shells (Solenide).—This shell (Fig. 58, 2) is long, thin, and slightly curved, with two or three teeth in each valve. They have a powerful club-shaped foot, do not secrete a byssus, but lie concealed upright in the sand. When placed upon the sand, they use the foot like an au- ger, and rapidly disappear ; 60 or more living species are known, and 350 fossil. Fic. 61.—Pholas imbedded in a block of granite, showing section. Boring Shells (P/oladide).—These have a thin, brit- tle, and very hard shell, open at both ends, and armed with file-like markings. The siphons are very long, and united 5d a os = BIVALVES WITH SIPHONS. 59 except at the tips. They are found in nearly all oceans, about 80 living species and 50 fossil being known. They are noted for their boring powers (Fig. 61), making their way into the hardest rock. Note.—The shells contain aragonite in their composition, and are supposed by continual friction to wear away the hardest rock. Having entered a block of gneiss, they grow and enlarge their hole, and so im- prison themselves. The pillars of the temple of Serapis, in Italy, are pierced by them, showing that the land was submerged long enough for them to obtain a foot-hold. The Pholas emits a bluish-white light when dead or alive, and they may be compared to miners with their lamps. A single one placed in seven ounces of milk has been used as _a lamp; faces near it were illumined, and the milk appeared trans- parent. Another, placed in honey, retained its lignt over a year. Ship-W orm ( Z¢redo).—The shell is composed of two curved equal valves, open at both ends (Fig. 62). The animal is worm-like, and not entirely covered by the shell. Fic. 62.—Ship-Worm (Zeredo navalis). They bore into wood, incasing the tunnel with a limy ceiling. The siphons are long, and where they separate are protected with small calcareous bodies, called palettes, which close the mouth of the tube. The foot forms a sucker. The common teredo is at first free swimming, passing through several changes before it assumes the adult form. The Zeredo givantea, found at Sumatra buried in the mud, is from four to six feet in length, the tube three to four inches in diameter, and when covered with other shells is extremely bulky and heavy. NoTe.—The destruction they cause seems incredible. A large portion of a wreck stranded on the Florida reef, and examined by the . 60 MOLLUSCA. auther twenty years ago, has now disappeared, having crumbled away under their tunneling. Hulls that appear solid may be crushed by the hand—completely honey-combed. In 1731 they nearly destroyed the piles in Holland, threatening the country with destruction. They attack floating wood, and so are carried all over the world. Docks at Tortugas, Fla., were rendered unsafe in twelve months. Palmetto is the most successful resistant. . Watering-pot Shells (4sfcrgcl/um).—In these shells the two valves are imbedded in the lower part of the tube, the beaks only being visible externally. The tube which incloses the siphon ends in at the other or anterior end it is club-shaped, and cov- ered by a disk like the nose or sprinkler of a-watering- pot, and perforated with numerous holes in exactly the same way. They are found in tropical countries, buried in the mud or sand, the ruffled end containing the siphon exposed. SINGLE-SHELLED MOL- LUSKS: Fic. 63.—The interior of a univalve Class II.—SNAILS, ChE (Periwinkle). 7, foot; m, muscle (Gasteropoda, belly- for drawing back into the shell; f a £, spittle glands; the glands for oote ). iving out slime are near the anus Rie ee, : General Characteristics. tube; 7, throat leading to s, stomach ; 7, tooth-bearer rolled —Mollusks that secrete a up; 4r, branchie or breathing- single shell. They have gills, which, ees the mantle IS ears and eyes upon a dis- folded back in its place, lie over : : the throat ; @, anus; 9, Ovary car- tinct head. The foot is rying eggs. now a flat, creeping disk shelly expansions or ruffles ;- ————————— el SINGLE-SHELLED MOLLUSKS. 61 (Fig. 63, #). They also have an odontophore or tooth- bearer, and the shell is often closed by a plate or door called the operculum ; 22,000 species are known, 7,000 of which are extinct or fossil. | Sea Wood-Lice (Czitonide).—In these (Fig. 64) the shell is composed of eight transverse plates. The young Fic. 64.—A gasteropod (C/zton). I. Adult, showing plates. II. Chiton dissected: 0, mouth; g, nervous ring; ao, great artery from the heart, aorta; c, ventricle; c’, an auricle; 47, left branchiz ; od, oviducts. III, IV, V. Development of free-swimming young. (Fig. 64, III) at first have no shells, swimming about by the aid of minute cilia; 250 living species are known, and 125 fossil. In the West Indies they are eaten by the natives. Ear-Shells (alotide)—The Haliotis is a pearly ear- shaped shell, with the outer lip perforated with holes; Ge MOLLUSCA. they have no operculum. They are found in many seas, 196 living and 150 fossil species being known. VALUE.—In California they are eaten. In 1880, 6,372 sacks of Al- balones, or Haliotis, valued at $46,179, were shipped from that State, and probably as many more by rail. They find a market in New York and Boston, where they are either cut or powdered and made into but- tons, etc. Violet Snails (anthinide).—These shells (Fig. 6s, I) float upon the surface of Southern waters, and are tinted with purple and violet, the animal when pressed emitting SS > ee ——— ; SS Stu ik SOY ys Ut wore wT ‘We ES —— FAS “i I — Fic. 65.—I, Janzthina, the ocean-snail: 7, foot; 7, raft of air-bubbles, with egg-bags hanging down. C, Carinaria: f, foot; s, shell covering the breathing-gills, g. Both these forms float upside down. P, Pteropod, a rich purple indelible ink. They secrete by their foot a curious raft, composed seemingly of bubbles of air in transparent sacs. This buoys them up, and is also a nur- sery, the eggs being attached to the under portion, the entire family being at the mercy of the wind. SINGLE-SHELLED MOLLUSKS. 63 Cowries, or Egg-Shells (Cyprzade).—The Cowries (Fig. 66, C), called in Florida micramocs, have richly enam- eled and marked shells ; the spire is not seen, and the opening is small, When living they throw out a coating that completely covers the shell, protecting it from damage. ' \ . ——— eee =o fh i yeG ir \ Fic. 66.—Flesh-feeding mollusks. W, whelk; E, whelk-eggs; C, cowry; 0, operculum ; z, notch in shell; sz, siphon; /, foot; s, head. VALUE.—The Cyfrea moneta is used as money in some parts of Africa. In 1848 60 tons of this money was sent out. | MIELE EEE LS 242273 = < 3 aeeeiese= z = YL IELIA EELELE 25 [————— Zz % Z FIG. 67.—Toothed tongue of Buccinum undatum. B, one of the transverse rows enlarged; /, lateral teeth. Whelks (Succinide). — Nearly 1,100 living species have been found ; many are common on our shores. The shell has few whorls, and the operculum is long or ovate (Fig. 66, W, 0). In some the tongue is long and contains 64 MOLLUSCA. roo rows of teeth (Fig. 67). Some bore into shells, and all are scavengers. VALUE.—Many of the whelks afford a rich crimson dye, which in 1684 was used in Ireland for dyeing linen. NoTE.—Some of the Southern species, as A/agz/us, burrow into coral, throwing out a tunnel as fast as the coral surrounds them, and filling it up with shelly matter. Diverse-footed Mollusks (/eteropoda).—These Gas- teropods are all marine, and float upon the sea in trans- parent shells of delicate and glass-like construction. In some the foot forms in part a curious fin-likeorgan. The eggs are deposited in long threads, the young passing through many changes. The Carinaria (Fig. 65, C) and Atalanta are the best known. Gasteropods with Exposed Gills ( Opisthobranchi- ata).—We now come to the shelled or shell-less mollusks that have gills more or less upon the outside. - Sea-Pigeons (4//ystadz).—These are also called sea- slugs and hares. One, common on the Florida reef, is as large as the closed fist, and somewhat resembles a plucked pigeon. They are green or olive in color, and when touched throw out as a defense a cloud of rich pur- ple ink that completely surrounds them. ‘They are found crawling among the sea-weed, not in the coral. The skin appears to cover the body in two folds lapping over the back, and when the animal is lifted from the bottom is vigorously flapped. Sea-Slugs (Zolis, Doris, etc.).—These curiously formed mollusks are found on sea-weed and in other localities. In many the gills resemble plumes and leaves, so that the ani- mals are almost perfect mimics of the weed, even in color. Such is the luminous Scy//ea pelagica. The gills of the Doris (Fig. 68, 7) resemble a plant; the Eolis (Fig. 68, e) seems covered with grass ; while the Glaucus resembles a lizard with three branching feet on each side. They are AIR-BREATHING GASTEROPODS. 65 shell-less except when very young. Eolis and Tritonia have been heard to make audible sounds. The eggs of Doris F Ic. 68.—Naked-gilled mollusca, commonly called sea-slugs. D, Dorzs pilosa; E, Holts coronata; *, foot; g, breathing-gills ; z, tentacles. are incased in a ribbon and rolled up like a watch-spring ; 360,000 young are often produced, that are at first free swimmers. AIR-BREATHING GASTEROPODS (Pulmonata). General Characteristics.—Mollusks possessing a single lung, a chamber on the right side of the body near the head, lined with a membrane containing blood-vessels. The cavity is closed byavalve. The shell, when present, is gen- erally thin and deli- cate, and often highly colored. Pond-Snails Tg . Th Fic. 69.—a@, egg capsule of a fresh-water ( imnaide). rae ese snail; 4,c, eggs, highly magnified, show- are the common pond- ing the young snail. i u 1 a a) c 66 MOLLUSCA. snails, interesting from the great variations of the shell. The eggs are laid in capsules (Fig. 69), in a jelly-like mass, late in the spring. In the winter they hibernate in the mud ; 320 species are known. Land-Snails (Ae/cide).—Three thousand three hun- dred and thirty-two species of these are known in various I * We x 4 fi aid ty fil? ARTIS Fic. 70.—Air-breathing gasteropods: Snails and slugs. A, garden snail (Helzx) ; B, B, slug Zestace/la—one disappearing into the ground, and only the tail showing ; C, the great gray slug (Zzmax) ; s, shell; 7, ten- tacles ; e, eyes; 4, breathing-hole. : parts of the world. They are easily kept in a fernery and their habits watched. Many of the snails (Fig. 70, A) de- posit large white or yellow eggs with a calcareous covering. The Bulimus (Fig. 71), an ally, rolls two leaves together and fastens the eggs between. Some of their eggs are as large as a pigeon’s. AIR-BREATHING GASTEROPODS. 67 A GROUP OF UNIVALVES. t. Land mollusk of Philippines (Rhysota AntonzzZ). 2. Eulima, that lives in Holothurians. 3. Chlor@a. 4. Lymnea. 5. Chlorea. 6. Cochlo- Styla stabilis. 7. Planorbis. 8. Succinea. 9. Amphidromous (Malay). to. Xesta. 11. Physa. 12. Cochlostyla (Philippines). 68 MOLLUSCA. VALUE.—Cultivated for food—an important industry in France. Note.—Most of the snails hibernate in the cold seasons, and will live for years without food. The largest are the agate shells of Africa, eight inches across; the eggs an inch in length, with a hard covering. The Hefcarion gutta of the Philippine Islands, ac-~ cording to Semper, when caught by the tail, throws it off and so- escapes, the tail in time growing again. This is also the case with a West Indian snail (Stenopus). Helix hortensis, common in New England, was introduced years ago from England. Aelix fidelis is. an albino, found in Washington Territory. Fic. 71.—Bulimus rosaceus. Land-Slugs (Zimcide).—These slugs (Fig. 70, C), of which 116 different species are known, are common in every garden, and their bright- yellow eggs found under old boards or buried in the ground. They have, asarule, arudimentary scale-like shell (Fig. 70, S), long tentacles, and are carnivorous, eating worms and other animals. They have a curious secre- tion by which they lower themselves from twigs and leaves. It is also a defense, and when applied to many animals, as moles, is often fatal. Limax noctiluca, from Fic. 72.—Onchidium tonganum, a mollusk with dorsal eyes ; natural Teneriffe, has a luminous size. SCAPHOPODA. 69 Fic. 73.—Section of dorsal or back eye of Onchidium ver- ruculatum. f, fibrous layer of retina; s, layer of rods and cones inclosed in retina. pore on the mantle, while the eggs of Arzon are luminous for the first fifteen days. Marine Pulmonata.— The Peronia frequents the sea- coast. The most remarkable form is the Onchidium (Fig. 42), that, according to Sem- per, has numerous eyes upon its back (Fig. 73) in addition to the usual pair upon the head. They form the princi- pal food of a fish, the Perzop- thalmus, that leaves the water and hops along the shore to obtain them. VALUE.—AIl slugs are scaven- gers. Several kinds are dried and eaten by the Indians. Class II.—ScaPHOPODA. Tooth-Shells (Dentaliadez).—These headless mol- lusks have a tooth- or tusk-shaped shell (Fig. 74), open Fic. 74.—1, Dentalium entalzs, natural size; 2, shell magnified, and broken to show animal within; 3, animal projecting from the shell; 4, animal from below, magnified; 6, same from above; 5, same, showing internal structure. 70 MOLLUSCA. at both ends, with a foot greatly elongated and adapted for boring in the sand, in which they live in from 60 to 600 feet of water on the sea-coast. The sexes are dis- tinct. The young pass through several changes before assuming the adult form. The shells form the wampum of the Indians. Class II1I.—SqQuIbs, etc. (Cephalopoda, head-footed). General Characteristics. —'The Cephalopods are the highest forms of mollusks. They are marine, and either swim or crawl; have long arms or tentacles arranged about the mouth, armed with suckers or hooks, two par- rot-like beaks, and a toothed tongue. They generally possess ink-bags; have highly developed eyes, and a large brain protected by a cartilaginous covering, ees: to mind the cranium of vertebrates. Wing -footed Cephalopods (/zropfoda). — These, the lowest and perhaps degenerate Cephalopods, are free- swimmers, moving by two broad fins or wings upon each side of the neck (Fig.65, P). In Northern waters they are found in vast swarms. The Cleodora emits a soft, clear, phosphorescent light that gleams through the delicate shell. The Cio, in swimming, almost touches its fins above and below. It has a wonderful arrangement for seizing prey. Each tentacle bears about 3,o00 transparent cylinders, each containing twenty stalked suckers ; and, as there are six tentacles, the C/o can grasp its prey with 360,000 hands. They have also a pair of many-toothed jaws, and a tongue armed with recurved teeth—a terrible array for so small a creature. They are eaten by whales. The young pass through several changes. Order I. Four-gilled Cephalopods ( Zetrabranchi- ata); Nautilus (Vauvtilide).—Of 1,500 species that have lived in past ages, only two are extant. The shell (Fig. 75) is pearly, and divided into cells or rooms that are formed SOUIDS, ETC. 71 as the animal grows, the last one occupied aiways being walled up or divided off by a partition called a seffa. The center of all the divisions is penetrated by a tube; so, though living in the last chamber, the ani- mal is still connected with the first by a long, delicate, fleshy pedicle that extends through it. The different air-cham- bers are filled with gas, and by them the spe- cific gravity of the ani- mal may be increased or diminished. Beneath the mouth is a siphon through which water is ejected, thus forcing them along. On the Fic. 75.—Section of Nautilus pompilirs, ; showing the chambers and connecting bottom they crawl with tube containing the fleshy pedicle. the shell upward. "Phey have zo ink-bag, and in the female the tentacles or arms number ninety-four. The great fossil Ammonites, three feet across, are extinct relatives of the nautilus. VALUE.—Shell in ornamental work. Note.—The eye of the nautilus is remarkable in having no diop- tric apparatus, being merely an elevation bearing a minute hole that leads into the globe of the eye, which during life is filled with sea- water, and thus, according to Hensen, in place of a refracting lense and cornea, there is an arrangement for forming an image on the prin- ciple of the pin-hole camera. Order Il. Two-gilled Cephalopeds (Dibranchiata) ;s Spirula (.Sprulidz)—These small Cephalopods resemble squids, but contain within their bodies a delicate cham- bered pearly shell with separate whorls, the various rooms ie: MOLLUSCA. or cells all connected by a tube or siphuncle, as in the nau- tilus. The animal is rarely seen alive, though, after a storm, the keys of the outer Florida reef are often lined with their empty shells. Ten-armed Cephalopods.—Small squids (Fig. 76) are common in nearly all waters, but within a few years specimens have been discov- ered of gigantic size in the fiords of Newfoundland and other parts of the world. The largest found was fifty-five feet long, the body from the tip of the tail to the beak twenty feet, and the long tentacles thirty-five feet. The body is bag-shaped, terminating in an arrow-shaped tail; the head is distinct from the body, with large, staring eyes ; about the mouth are eight short and two long arms, the former with suckers on their entire length, the latter having them princi- pally at the ends. Beneath the mouth is the siphon through which they eject water and ink —the latter when alarmed. The long arms are used to secure FIG. 76.—A, squid (Sepza off- ; ; sr cinalis); B, horny ring of prey, drawing it within the reach sucker, ° show: siete of the smaller ones and the edge. a beaks, that resemble those of a parrot, with the exception that the upper fits into the lower. The body is supported internally by a long and extremely delicate pen. They are carnivorous, living on fish. The Loligo pallida is common on our coast. The Cranchia has been seen to emit a faint phosphorescent | light. The large squids are extremely powerful, often SeUlDS, EITC. 73 weighing 2,000 pounds or more, and have been known to attack boats. Each egg of the Sepza is inclosed in a thick envelope figo in rows in a tough jelly, and glued to the bottom in strings. | VALUE.—As codfish-bait. The sepia of the artist comes from their ink-bags, and the cuttle-fish bone of commerce is the pen of a certain species. ‘The pen of Sepia officinalis (Fig. 77) is made into pounce, dentifrice, and polishing-powder. | Eight-footed Cephalopods (Octopo- por en da*).—These, as well as the squids, are cinalis, commonly called devil-fishes. They live Fic. 78.—Octopus punctatus, showing the relative size,and the position when ‘crawling on the bottom. From the Emerton model at Yale College. * A small one, spéared by the author, lifted over twenty pounds of coral when hauled in, throwing out ink that permeated the water in all directions. In 1877 an Indian woman is said to have been drowned by one at Vancouver Island. At Sitka the Octopus punctatus (Fig. 78} is caught having, according to Dall, a total radial spread of nearly twenty-eight feet. 4 resembling India-rubber ; those of the Zo- . 74 MOLLUSCA. upon the bottom among the rocks. The body (Fig. 78) is a simple sac, from which radiate eight sucker-lined arms. ‘They are very powerful, and when enraged waves of color pass over the skin in rapid succession. When attacked they eject a cloud of ink, and under its cover crawl away, passing through incredibly small holes, and so mimicking the colors of the bottom that an experi- enced eye is necessary to detect them. They feed upon crabs and other animals, and are mainly bottom animals, though some species have web-like membranes between their eight arms enabling them to swim. Each egg of the octopus is inclosed in a thin, transparent, oval case, and attached by a stalk with several hundred others to the bottom ; sixty species are known. VALUE.—The fisheries are important to the Chinese. Argonaut (Argonautide)—The Cephalopods of this family are often incorrectly figured with sails raised in the air. ‘The shell is symmetrical and of great delicacy and beauty. The animal rests in it, the two upper or dorsal pairs of arms being developed at their tips into membranes that are thrown back over the shell (Fig. 79), holding the Fic. 79.—Argonaut swimming, showing the broad tentacles holding the ani- mal in, instead of being used as sails, as sometimes incorrectly pictured. Argonaut in. The broad tentacles also contain the shell- secreting glands. The shell is likewise the nursery, the eggs being attached within it and carried about. The male secretes no shell, and is extremely small. They are deep-water animals, and crawl about upon the bottom SOUTDS, ETC. 78 (Fig. 80), but are occasionally cast ashore on the New Jersey and New England coasts ; four species are known. Fic. 80.—A, showing position of Argonaut when crawling on the bottom. #, Argonaut without the shell. Works on Mollusca for further reference. “Challenger Reports”; ‘‘Smithsonian Reports” ; ‘‘Semper’s Ani- mal Life” ; Binney and Gould’s “ Shells of Massachusetts” ; “ Inverte- brates of Vineyard Sound,” Verrill ; “‘ Terrestrial Air-breathing Mol- lusks of the United States,” W. G. Binney; “ Bulletin of Museum of Comparative Zoology,” vol. iv., 1878; “ Fresh-water Mollusks,” E. S. Morse, ‘‘ Popular Science Monthly,” vol. vii, p. 563; ‘‘ Natural His- tory of the Oyster,” “‘ Popular Science Monthly,” vol. vi; ‘‘ The Teredo and its Depredations,” ‘“‘ Popular Science Monthly,” vol. xiii; ‘“‘ De- velopment of the Pond-Snail,” E. R. Lankester, “ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,” 1874 ; Woodward’s ‘‘ Manual”; “ Colossal Cephalopods of the North Atlantic,” A. E. Verrill, ‘‘ Report of United States Fish Commission, 1882 ;” “ Discovery of an Octopus inhabiting the Coast of New England,” ‘‘ American Naturalist,” vol. vii ; ‘‘ Em- bryology of Fossil Cephalopods,” A. Hyat, “ Bulletin of Museum of Comparative Zoology,” vol. iii, No. 5; “ Mollusca,” ninth edition, “Encyclopzdia Britannica,” E. Ray Lankester. CHAPTER Vil EIGHTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. CRABS AND INSECTS (4rvthropoda). General Characteristics—Animals having jointed feel- ers, jaws, and legs, arranged in pairs ; skin hard, and body made up of rings or segments. The Arthropods are di- vided into two classes : first, crustaceans, crabs, etc. ; sec- ond, insects. Class I—CRaBs, etc. (Crustaceans). General Characteristics—Arthropods that breathe by means of gills attached to the feet, or in some cases respir- ing through the body-walls, as in the Extomostraca, The — body is covered with a hard skin, composed principally of carbonate and phosphate of lime. This forms an external skeleton, protecting the soft body parts within. | Skeleton. —Taking the fresh-water craw-fish as an ex- ample (Fig. 81), the body is seen to be divided into two general regions: the cephalo-thorax (head and thorax) and the abdomen, and asa rule made up of twenty dis- tinct rings or segments often difficult to define. Upon these the organs of locomotion are arranged in pairs, be- ing modified for various purposes, as cutting and crushing claws, paddles, stalked eyes, antennz, swimmerets, etc. To the first segment of the head the movable and stalked eyes are attached (Fig. 65, ¢). The next segment bears the small and large antenne or feelers ; then follow six CRABS, ETC. Va pairs of jointed organs, fitting closely together, their office being to take the food from the claws and prepare it for the stomach. The first pair are the jaws proper, or mandibles, Cephalo-thorax. Abdomen. oe SS 4 (ee ee, aD aw, Foe —_— par ae Small ~ Sy > = r antenna eis = Large antenna ---- === =e X fT CL OD aa ar a Mazille : = Se ee > : seo, i, Se gs wZ Mazillipedes) 2 =, ee ae : Fic. 81.—Cray-fish seen from the side, with that portion of the carapace re- moved which covers the branchiz, or gills. The appendages of the left - side only shown. s, region of stomach ; 4, abdominal appendages; B, bases of the four small legs; C, base of largeclaw; “7 “‘ gill-bailer,” or flabellum, attached to the second maxilliped ; ¢, eye. (After Morse.) that cut and grind the food; the next two pairs, 1 and 2, are assistant jaws, or maxille. Below these are three pairs of appendages called foot-jaws, or maxillipedes. These be- long to the thorax, while the mandibles and pairs of max- dle belong to the head proper. The segments of the ab- domen fit loosely together, so that the “ tail’ can be bent beneath the body, and by flapping it vigorously the craw- fish swims, the five flattened appendages (Fig. 82) at the end serving as fins. From the under portion of the cephalo- thorax extend five pairs of legs : the first pair are the large claws prominent in the lobster, where one is a crusher 78 CRABS AND INSECTS. and the other a cutter; the other four pairs (Fig. 81, B) are long and slender, the first two ending in nippers, the hinder ones being provided with points or claws; these are the true organs of locomotion on the bottom. Each segment of the abdomen except the last bears a pair of flat appendages or swimmerets (Fig. 81, 2), by which the craw- fish can swim ahead, and to these the eggs are attached. Digestion —The digestive organs, seen in Fig. 83, con- sist of the mouth, surrounded by the mandibles, that leads Fic. 82.—Tail of a cray-fish, Fic. 83.—Ideal section of prawn, showing flattened append- showing : s, stomach, below this ages for swimming. the mouth ; /, liver; 2, intestine; h, heart ; g, chain of ganglia or nerve-masses ; 4g, head-ganglia. by the cesophagus into the large stomach s ; the latter is provided with crushing teeth, by which food is still further masticated, then passing through a strainer at the posterior end, and so into the intestine z, that leads into the telson. The liver 7 is very large and of a dark-green hue. Respiration.—The higher crustaceans breathe by gills, the plume-like object in Fig. 81. They are attached to the base of the legs, and are protected by the carapace or shelly covering of the cephalo-thorax. Water containing air reaches the gills by flowing under the edge of the car- apace back of the great claws. In the oyster (Fig. 55), we saw that cilia kept up a current over the gills, but here there is a curious appendage attached to the base of the second pair of maxillipeds (Fig. 81, 7), called the “ gill- CRABS, ETC. 79 bailer,” that moves back and forth, creating a current over the gills that finds its way out through an opening near the mouth. The colorless blood is pumped by the heart (Fig. 83, 2) to the gills, where it takes up oxygen, returning to the heart by numerous venous channels. Nervous System.—The brain or head ganglia is seen in Fig. 83, 4g. Nerves pass to each eye, and others to the four antennz, while a chain of nerve-masses extend through the body (Fig. 83, g), having branches to the principal parts. | Organs of Touch, Hearing, etc—The ears are at the base of the smaller or first antenne (Fig. 81), and are little sacs in the upper side, containing a thick fluid, in which float grains of sand. On a ridge projecting into the interior of the sac are numerous hairs, not over +5 of an inch in length, that are connected by nerves with the brain. The sound-wave sets the sand-grains in motion, the vibra- tion in turn affects the hairs, and the sound is carried to the brain. == !(I'!!/I)! Fic. 84.—Stages of casting in the carapace of the freshwater cray-fish, from Braun. I. First stage: @, the two old cuticular layers; 4, the layer of casting hairs; c, the epidermis cells. II. Second stage: a, 4, c, asin 1; between 4 and c the new cuticle @ has intervened. The organs of touch are the delicate hairs about the mouth-parts and legs. The organs of smell are supposed to be on the under side of the outer branch of the small antennz. Crustaceans moult or cast their shell at differ- , ent periods. The old shell is pushed up by what are called 80 CRABS AND INSECTS. — e “casting hairs” (Fig. 84). The soft-shelled crab is a re- sult of the casting. They also have the faculty of throw- ing off their limbs and renewing them again. | Development.— The young of most crustaceans pass through many changes before assuming the parent form.* The eggs resemble at first minute currants (Fig. 86), that attach themselves by glutinous threads to the appendages * The Australian Dvomia is an exception, the young leaving the egg in the adult form, and clinging to the mother. A similar case is seen in the fresh-water cray-fish (Fig. 85), Astacus fluviatilts ; the young of some crustaceans (Balanus) appear at first in the Nauplius form, with three pairs of legs. Fic. 85.—Astacus fluviatilis. A, two recently hatched cray-fish attached to one of the swimmerets of the mother; ec, ruptured egg-cases; B, chela of a recently hatched cray-fish, x Io. —_—- CRABS, ETC. 8I of the abdomen (Fig. 85), and are carried about by the mother. When first hatched they are generally in the zowa stage. The eyes of the zoza (Fig. 87, a) are large and black. From the carapace extends upward a long horn, an- other projecting downward like a tusk. They moult several times, gradually chang- ing to the megalops form (Fig. 87, 4), and finally, after successive moults, seek the FIG. 86.—A few bottom and assume the adult shape (Fig. es 87, c). enlarged. Order I. Barnacles (Cirrifcda).—The barnacles are fixed crustaceans, and partly from this cir- cumstance were long considered mollusks. The adult Fic. 87.—Metamorphosis of the crab (Carcinus menas). A, zowa stage; £, megalops stage ; C, ready to seek the bottom. Balanus (Fig. 88) is round, with a broad base, and at- taches itself to shells or rocks. The newly hatched young are free-swimmers (Fig. 89, 4), but soon acquire a bivalve shell, 2, and attach themselves to the bottom by their 82 CRABS AND INSECTS. antenne, that secrete a glutinous substance for the pur- pose. C, D, & show the successive stages to the adult form, in which the shell is mul- tivalve, the animal anchored by its head, and its feet modified into cirri, that waft food into the shelland mouth. Goose barna- cles are connected with the bot- tom or floating objects by long, leathery pedicles. They have no gills, breathing through their skin. NotTe.—Barnacles grow on whales, turtles, and floating objects of all kinds. Goose-barnacles have been found six inches long growing in the mouth of a large sun-fish (mo/a), and a barnacle is found on the feathers of penguins in the South Atlantic. Fic, 88.—Upper part of adult barnacle, showing appear- Order II. Water- Fleas ance of cirri under the mi- ( Htomostraca).—A common ex- Ee ample is seen in the Cyclops, found in fresh water, that may be distinguished by its sin- gle eye and egg-sacs. It is just visible to the naked eye. Most of this order are parasites upon fishes. The Zer- neans (Fig. 90) live upon the gills of various fishes; the Caligus preys upon halibut, rays, etc., the Avgudus upon the alewife, the Pexe//a upon the sword-fish and sun-fish, while the Vogatus preys upon the man-eater shark. They have no gills, breathing through the body-walls or skin. Order III. Leaf-footed Crustaceans (Aranchiopo- da).—These animals breathe by broad, leaf-like gills upon their feet, and secrete a bivalve shell. The Artemia,* or * Artemia salina (Fig. 91, 6) has been made to acquire the charac- teristics of Branchipus (Fig. 91, a) by gradually diluting the water until it was fresh. CRABS, ETC: 83 Fic. 89.—Early stages of a barnacle. A, shortly after leaving the egg; é, eyes. B, having acquired a bivalve shell, and just before becom- ing attached, represented upside down. C, appearance after becoming attached—side-view. D, top-view of still later stage, with the shell forming around it. Z, side-view of later stage, showing appendages protruded. (The little marks at the sides of the figures indicate the natural size of the object. 4, 2, highly magnified ; all of these views are magnified, and, with the exception of D, are reduced from figures of C. Spence Bate.) Fic. 90.—A Lernean (7rachelastes) of a fresh-water fish (Cyfr7ze). 1, larva, as it leaves the egg. 2, larva, more advanced. 3, adult female, showing the egg-sacs. (Nordmann.) 84 CRABS AND “INSECT S. brine-shrimp (Fig. 91), live in the brine-vats of various coun- tries, the amount of salt sometimes determining the form Fic. 91.—Brine-shrimps. @, Branchi- FIG. 92.—Fresh - water pus stagnalis. 6, Artemia salina crustacean, with bi- whose form depends upon the salt- valve shell. , eye. ness of the water. of the animal. They multiply by budding and by eggs. The Zstheria (Fig. 92) secretes a bivalve shell, microscopic rings upon it indicating the various moults, the cast-off coat being ce- mented to the new shell which forms beneath. Sz- da and Daphnia are called water-fleas from their ac- tivity. The latter carries its eggs upon its back. The apus (Fig. 93) is an interesting form, having forty-seven segments and as many as sixty pairs of limbs. They withstand remarkable extremes of FIG. 93.—Apus. heat and cold, the eggs hatching in snow- water after being frozen for two weeks. The JVedalia, repre- senting Order IV, PAyllocardia, has leaf-like feet, and CAABS, ETC: 85 passes through no metamorphosis. The body is com- pressed, the rostrum distinct from the carapace. Order V. Fourteen-footed Crustaceans ( 7etra- decapoda). In this order are the beach-fleas (Fig. 94), so common among the weeds ; the pill-bugs and others living in salt and fresh water. The J/dotea phosphorea has an acute tail-piece, and mimics the eel-grass and fucus with its green, gray, and yellow col- ors, at night gleaming with vivid phosphorescence. They live under stones and rock- weed, and when touched curl into a ball. The eggs are held in a little brooding cavity un- der the thorax between the legs. Many species of Podo- cerus and others build curious nests in which they take shel- ter. A gigantic amphipod has ~ FIG. 94.—Sand-hopper (7alitrus FIG. 95.—Mantis shrimp saltator). (Sguzlla mantis). two enormous faceted eyes that entirely cover the head. The Arcturus, from Arctic seas, mimics sea-weed with its long antennz, and carries its young about on its back or feelers. The Syuz//a, or mantis shrimp (Fig. 95), repre- senting Order VI, Stomapoda, is an interesting form; the gills are attached to the base of the under abdominal feet. They burrow in the sand below tide-water. | 86 CRABS AND INSECTS. Order VII. Ten-footed Crustaceans (Decapoda) ; Long-tailed Crustaceans (J/acrura).— The shrimps (Fig. 96) are common on nearly all shores. Some possess Fic. 96.—Prawn (Palemon jamaicensts), about $ natural size. A, female. B, fifth thoracic appendage of male. (After Huxley.) the faculty of mimicry to a wonderful degree. The chame- leon shrimp changes to green and brown, even becoming transparent under certain conditions. Deep-red-colored ones have been found in the Atlantic, and others from great depths have remarkably developed eyes. Cray-fish in the -Mammoth Cave are blind, and the eyes of Willemesza, from the deep Atlantic, are rudimentary. Lobsters (Fig. 98) that are familiar on Northern coasts are in Florida re- placed by the whip-lobster (Fig. 99), that “has long whips instead of the large claws.” aa aad CRABS, ETC. Fic. 97.—The Norway lobster (WVephrops norvegicus}, (After Huxley.) 1 2 natural size. CRABS AND INSECTS. 88 i HN} poe AMMA vubsLbssvduumeuastoers hue savy (Homarus vulgaris), = natural size. FIG. 98. —The common lobster CRASS, IC 89 FIG. 99.—Marine cray-fish (Palinurus vulgaris), about ¢ natural size. NoTEe.—On the Florida reef nearly every coral head or branch affords protection to one or more cray-fishes, as they are there called. The animals partly undermine them, thus serving the coral by pre- venting the fatal inroads of sand and mud. go CRABS AND. INSECTS. Fic. 100.—Hermit out of the shell, showing soft abdomen. 7, hardened ridge which bears against the inner edge of the aperture of the shell; a, a, appendages to which the eggs are attached. (After Morse.) Fic. 101.—Hermit-crab in the shell of a sea-snail. (After Emerton.) CRABS, ETC. QI Hermit -Crabs.—In the Hermits, that are either marine or terrestrial, the abdomen is soft (Fig. roo), and to protect it they take possession of empty univalve shells (Fig. 101), or even old tobacco-pipes thrown overboard by sailors,* while others bore into wood, sand, or sponges, the Fic. 102.—The English edible crab (Cancer pagurus), } natural size. A, dorsal view, with the abdomen extended. B, front view of ‘‘face”: as, antennary sternum; or, orbit; 7, rostrum; 1, eyestalk; 2, antennule ; 3, base of antenna; 3’, free portion of antenna. (After Huxley.) * The author kept a land hermit for several months that had taken up its quarters in an old clay pipe. It crawled up a tabie daily to drink from a saucer of water placed there for the purpose. Q2 CRABS AND INSECTS. large claw closing the entrance like an operculum. The claws are often brilliantly colored blue, purple, and red. - NoTEe.—On Bush Key, Tortugas group, the author has often ob- served land-hermits and a Gecarcinus climbing bay cedars and rob- bing young noddies of their food, despite their vigorous protests. The largest ally of the Hermit is the Bzrgos /atro, found in the Spice Islands and various parts of the Indian Ocean. The abdomen is protected by hard plates ; consequently, they do not need a shell. They attain a length of three feet. Professor Van Beneden states that one lifted a goat from the ground by its ears. They subsist upon cocoanuts, breaking the shells by hammering them with their claws. They visit the water daily, but breathe air, the gills having all the attributes of true lungs. Short-tailed Crabs (Brachyura).—The short-tailed crabs (Fig. 102) differ from the Hermits in having well- developed hind-feet, an abdo- men capable of being bent un- der the body, and a broad and flat carapace. Marine Crabs.—The larg- est of these is the Macrochetra of Japan, that often measures twenty-two feet between the large ee ty ee biting claws, each of which is ten a “i the last two claws and a half feet long. The body adapted for swimming. is small, and resembles a moss- covered rock. The claws are adapted for crawling. The Zwfea (Fig.-103) has the last two claws adapted for swimming. NotTe.—Some of the spider-crabs of our coast purposely plant sea- weed upon their backs, where it grows, affording them effectual pro- tection. A crab deprived of this growth will recover its carapace immediately. Cancer fulgens, according to Sir Joseph Banks, is lumi- nous. The most remarkable luminous crustacean, according to N6r- CRABS, ETC. 93 denskiold, is the little Wetvidia armata, that exists in such quantities in the snow on the shores of the Arctic Ocean that persons and ani- mals appear to be walking in fire, the splashes of light presenting a wonderful spectacle. The light is of a bluish-white tint, which in the spectroscope gives a one-colored Labrador-blue spectrum. Oyster-Crabs (P2nnotheres).—These are the delicate forms commonly found in oysters and various bivalve shells, as well as the water- lung of Holothurians (Fig. 104). While the oyster-crabs find protection in other ani- Fic. 104.—A, Pinnotheres, living in a Holothurian (Pinnotheres holo- thuria). B, the zoea stage of the young of 4, highly magnified. mals, and the hermits steal shells to cover themselves, a number of curious forms shown in Fig. 105 take up their position upon a branch of coral, as Szd@eropora palmata, and Fic. 105.—Crabs that form galls on corals. a@, Cryftochirus (male); 2. Coralliodytes (female); c, Hapalocarcinus marsupialis (female), that carries its young in a sac or marsupium. finally produce a gall, or are covered by the coral and live so imprisoned, obtaining their food through a small hole or 94 CRABS AND INSECTS. 7 window. One of these crabs (c, Fig. 105) is remarkable in having a pouch in which the female carries her young ; the sac is formed by a prolongation of the lateral plates of the abdomen. Land-Crabs.— Land-crabs are common on all shores, many, as _ the Ocypoda (Fig. 106), living in holes, hiber- nating in the winter, and Fic. 106.—Ocypfoda, a marine crab that mimicking the sand in lives on land. their absence of color. In the South the land- crabs, Gecarcinus (Fig. 107), that live in the bushes, are of various tints, equally protective among the leaves of the dead bay cedars and the fruit of the prickly-pear, about which they cling. They are all swift runners, and in Ceylon, a large land-crab is chased on horseback. FIG. 107.—Gecarcinus rusticola, a land-crab. Notre.—At St. Paul’s rocks Professor Moseley observed the richly colored Grapsus, a land and water crab, carrying off young birds; and at Ascension Island the large land-crabs even steal young rabbits from their holes and devour them. CHALS, ETC 95 Order VIII. Merostomata.—The king or horseshoe crabs (Fig. 108) attain a length of two feet, and have a wide geographical range. The last segment of the ab- Fic. 108.—Horseshoe crab. A, Limulus Moluccanus, dorsal view. B, Limulus rotundicauda, ventral view (after Milne-Edwards): a, ante- rior; 4, middle division of the body; ¢, telson; @, subfrontal area; e, antennules; 7, antennz; ¢, operculum; /, breathing appendages. domen forms a long, sharp spine. The cephalo-thorax is broad, shaped like a horse’s foot; the feet are arranged about the mouth. The abdomen bears six pairs of broad swimming feet, the second pair having upon their under side a set of about one hundred respiratory leaves or plates. The young resemble the extinct trilobites, to which they are allied. Some of the extinct forms, as Fig. 109, attained a length of nine feet. VALUE OF CRUSTACEANS.—They are all valuable scavengers. The crab, lobster, and shrimp fisheries give employment to thousands of persons. The cocoanut-husks that the great Birgos tears up to line its nest are used by the Malays in basket and mat making. Concretions 96 CRABS: AND SNSECES, from the stomach of the fresh-water cray-fish are used as an antacid. The horseshoe is valued as guano. ih y l] / SS N FIG. 109.—Gigantic extinct crustacean (Pferygotus), nine feet long, swim- ming among Crinoids. (After Buckley.) Specimens for Study.—In dissecting a crab, cray-fish, or other specimen, the carapace should be carefully re- moved with knife or scissors, the gills examined, the mouth- parts removed and compared with cut No. 81, and the difference between the parts noted. The claws should also be compared, and their various offices thoroughly un- derstood.. The brain, stomach, and muscles can be stud- ied by cutting away the red membranous hypodermis. By injecting carmine into the arteries through the heart, the arterial system can be traced. The eggs, eyes, etc., can be hardened in alcohol, and cut in sections for micro- INSECTS. 97 scopic examination. The ear and other organs should re- ceive particular attention. The smaller crustaceans found in ponds, etc., should be examined alive under the micro- scope. Barnacles can be found on oyster-shells at any restaurant, and when placed in water show their cirri. Works on Crustaceans for further reference. “Challenger Reports”; ‘‘ A Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica,” Gosse ; ‘“‘ Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedition,” J. D. Dana ; “‘ North American Astacidze” (Fresh-water lobsters), H. A. Hagen, in “ Memoirs of Museum of Comparative Zoology,” vol. ii, No. 3, 1871; “ Habits of certain Cray-fish,” C. C. Abbott, ‘‘ American Naturalist,” vol. ix, p. 80; ‘‘ Descriptions of the North American Phyl- lopoda,” A. S. Packard, Jr. ; ‘“‘ Report of Hayden’s Survey,” 1873, p. 613; ‘‘ Report of Peabody Academy of Sciences,” 1873 ; ‘‘ Report of United States Commissioner of Fisheries,” 1874 ; ‘‘ Crustacea,” S. J. Smith ; “The Lobster and Lobster-Fishing,” W. W. Wheildon, ‘ Pro- ceedings of American Association for the Advancement of Science,” vol. xxiii, 1874; ‘‘ Early Stages of the Lobster,” ‘‘ Popular Science Monthly,” vol. iii, 1872, p.4o1; “ Barnacles,” J. S. Kingsley, ‘‘ Ameri- can Naturalist,” vol. xi, p. 102; “The Cray-fish,” Huxley. Class II.—INsEcts ({usecta). General Characteristics —Arthropoda, with the head, thorax, and abdomen distinct ; breathing by air-tubes or trachez ; the young passing through changes called a met- amorphosts. : ; Skeleton—The skeleton (Fig. 110) is external, and composed of a horny substance called chztine. As in the crustaceans, the body is made up of segments, numbering in the winged forms generally four in the head, three in the thorax, and ten or eleven in the abdomen. The mouth- parts of insects consist, as a rule, of four separate divi- sions ; namely, the upper lip, or /abrum ; a pair of crushing or cutting jaws (mandibles) ; and a smaller pair (maxi//e), to which small jointed feelers called maxillary palpi are attached. The lower lip, or /adzum, is in reality a pair of jaws, and to it are attached another pair of jointed feelers 5 98 CRABS AND INSECTS. known as Jabial palpi. Near the compound eyes rise the sense-organs, or antenne. The thorax is separated into three segments: the first, prothorax, bearing the first pair of legs ; the second segment, or mesothorax, bears the elytra or first pair of wings—in the beetles, hard, chitinous store- house for the wings proper (here is also attached the sec- 955 Soe Mouth-parts Mandible. -----------------------------~ GL A H Labrum. ------------------------------- Ss TS ee eee ees : Antenna. -------------------------.-- q y, $ a retemn nnn nw nnn enn nnn nen nnn enn en Head. ——/ Elytron, or first : < wing, = ‘wenn en == ---- Ue 4 eae chats See Mesothoraz. a Second leg, =—--- === san saaes — ‘ = % - —_ — — Second wing. -+ Third leg,------------------------ BE ea ABDOMEN. Fic. 110.—Skeleton of common beetle. (After Morse.) ond pair of legs) ; the third segment, or metathorax, bears the third pair of legs and the second pair of wings, that are elastic membranes stretched over a framework of tubes. The abdomen bears the sting, ovipositor, or spin- nerets, as the case may be. The legs are generally com- posed of from six to nine joints, and usually terminate in two hooks, with perhaps pads or suckers (Fig. 111). Digestion—The mouth-parts (Fig. 112, a) are modified in different insects for sucking, biting, stinging, etc. The INSECTS. oh M3) S\N AK Bee x! AY SN pin aye Fic. 111.—Foot of house-fly, show- ing the pads by which it clings. food passes by the cesopha- gus, 4, into a membranous stomach called the crop, ¢, and thence, in the biting in- Fic. 112.—Longitudinal and _ verti- cal section of a female cockroach (Blatta). 1 to XX, somnites of the body; 1 to 11, somnites of the abdomen; 4, antenna; 2, labrum; @, mouth; 6, cesopha- gus; ¢, crop; @, proventriculus, or second stomach ; 4, intestine ; z, rectum ; /, salivary gland; 4, salivary receptacle. By an error, the duct is made to terminate above instead of beneath the lingua. HH, position of heart; m, cerebral ganglia; JV, thoracic ganglia; 7, chyle stomach. (Af- ter Huxley.) G9 FIG. I12. Ei (OD g aN Es / | -4—xu Ay i | |} I—av 100 CRABS AND INSECTS: sects, into a second stomach, or gizzard, d, that is provided with muscular walls and chitinous plates. From here it passes to the true stomach /, and finally to the intestine 4. Circulation.—The heart, , is tubular in shape, ex- tending along the back, and composed of numerous sacs, separated by valves that allow the blood to flow toward the head, where it branches out, re- turning through the tissues, there being no true veins or arteries. FIG. 113.—S, spiracle or breathing-plate, with the slit in the center which opens to take in air. 7Z, part of a breathing-tube, showing the spiral thread which keeps it in its round shape. . Utz cs Fic. 114.—Insect showing the spiracles, or open- ings in the sides of the body which commu- nicate with the air-tubes within the body: w, showing where the wings were attached ; FIG, 115.—Tracheal or 4 and m, where hind and middle legs were air-tube system of attached ; s, spiracle on thorax; 7, tym- a larval dragon-fly. panum. (After Morse.) Trachez are shaded. Respiration.—The insects all breathe by a system of air-channels or tubes, and some, as the spiders, by lungs as well. The air-tubes are called vacheg, and are wound with a minute thread (Fig. 113) that seems to preserve their INSECTS. IOI shape. The tracheze connect with the exterior at various — parts of the sides of the body, the openings (Fig. 114) being called spiracles, stigmata, or breathing-holes. The tubes extend over a greater part of the body (Fig. 115), bringing fresh air in contact with the blood in the tissues. This is even accomplished in the wings, so that they serve as lungs as well as organs of flight. Breathing seems to be accomplished by a contraction and expansion of the ab- dominal segments. Nervous System —The nervous system of insects is made up of a chain of ganglia that is connected by a double nervous cord, and occupies the ventral portion of the body. ‘The portion above the csophagus is called the cerebral gangha. Fig. 112, m, shows the brain; and from here nerves pass to the various sense-organs. ‘The ganglia below is called ¢horacic (Fig. 112, VV), and sends nerves to the wings, legs, and _ other parts. Development. — = Most insects are Fic. 116.—Larve of insects. produced by eggs, while some appear directly in the adult form. The changes through which the former pass are called metamorphoses. The butter- flies, beetles, etc., pass through three changes from the egg to the perfect imsect. . The: first ee “ees Saket —. FL ee coon, containing the Se ecg ranean larva—grub, mag- rare got, or caterpillar (Fig. 116). In this form it is worm-like, has numbers of feet, eats voraciously, changes its skin (moults) frequent- | ly, and finally in many instances spins a silken case or 102 CRABS AND INSECTS. cocoon about itself (Fig. 117). The skin is now cast again, and the insect appears a short, seemingly lifeless pupa or chrysalis (Fig. 118), in which state it remains a greater or less time, finally shedding its skin and appearing a perfect insect or zmago. This is known as a com- plete change. Others, as crickets, dragon-flies, grasshoppers (Fig. 119), i pass through a partial Fic. 119.—Exampleof Change. Insectsare found j Ie incomplete change everywhere ; far out at or metamorphosis. sea, as the Aalopates| Bigs Young = grasshop- eae eet per: m, wing just. 248), in deep caves, in let Chrysalides. appearing. springs, and on the high- est glaciers, as the gla- cier-flea (Fig. 133). The bees and ants live seven years, some locusts thirteen or seventeen years, while the May- flies are born and die within twenty-four hours. In all, about 19,000 species: of insects are known. Sub-Class I.—MALACOPODA. Peripatus (Peripatide).—The Peripatus is one of the simplest insects, having a long, soft, and cylindrical body, bearing from twenty-eight to sixty-six feet. Upon the head is a pair of jointed extensible antenne ; the feet are soft, and supplied with two claws. When alarmed, it in- stantaneously ejects a secretion that seems to crystallize in the air, forming a complete web in front. It is found in the West Indies, Panama, and Cape of Good Hope. - Sup-Ciass II.—CeEntTIPeDES (/yriapoda). General Characteristics —Head free ; head and thorax continuous ; joints cylindrical, and often numbering two hundred, each bearing a pair of locomotive organs. INSECTS. 103 Order I. Chilognatha.—In the Millepedes (Fig. 120), the body is cylindrical, each segment bearing a pair of Compound eye. . \ Antennad....... Fic. 120.—A common millepede. The line underneath the figure represents the length of the specimen from which the drawing was made. 4, a magnified view of the head of the milleped represented above. #, a magnified view of the left jaw. (After Morse.) legs. ‘They are vegetable feeders, and harmless. The eggs are laid in the earth, and the. larva at first has only three pairs of legs (Fig. 121). Spz- rostrephon, from the Mammoth Cave, is covered with hair. Order II. Pauropoda.— The Pauropus has only six segments be- sides the head. The young have three pairs of feet. Fic. 121.—Highly magni- Order III. Chilopoda.—The — . oes Centipedes (Fig. 122) attain alength = we Phin a of ten or twelve inches, and have a the egg. flattened body composed of from 30 to 200 joints or segments. In some the eyes are sim- ple ocelli; in others they are compound. The Scolopen- ara heros is extremely poisonous, the glands being in the two large fangs (Fig. 123). Cermatia forceps, of the Mid- dle and Southern States, is also said to be poisonous. 104 CRABS AND INSECTS. NotTEe.—Scolopendra electra isa luminous species, and is common in England, Belgium, and France. It is 14 inch long, and has 140 legs. According to Phipson, the luminosity, like that of some min- erals, is only evident after the insect has been exposed to the sun. Another luminous species is found in Asia. IPCC LIL) ) SS >< 98 (66 =) Fic. 122.—Centipede. Fic. 123.—Scolopendra Hofer. Under surface of head, showing poison-fangs. Sub-Class III.—Sprpers AND Scorpions (Arachnida). General Characteristics.—The body is in two sections, cephalo-thorax, and abdomen ; four pairs of legs, simple eyes, and no antenne. Fic. 124.—Hydrachna geographica, a marine mite, and young enlarged. Order I. Mites (Acarina).—The mites are mostly par- asitic, as the cattle-tick ; others are the cheese and sugar mites. The body is oval, and the thorax not separated INSECTS. 105 from the abdomen. Some are marine (Fig. 124). The lowest forms are parasitic in the lungs and liver of man, and in the horse and sheep. Order II. Scorpions (Pedipa/pi).—In the scorpions the body is plainly segmented and large, the tail long and slender, ending in a curved sting (Fig. 125) that con- tains two poison-glands. They have crab-like claws, and breathe by lungs as well as trachezee. In Ceylon they at- tain a length of twelve inches, in Florida four. In striking, the tail is raised over the back and then struck down.* Fic, 125.—Scorpion with cricket in its claws. s, carapace; zc, mouth- claws; #, mouth; d, poison-sting. The young are born alive, and cling to the mother. False or book scorpions (C%e/ifer) occur in books, under stones, and in the bark of trees. They have no poison- gland, and cast their skins in a delicate web, in which they * At Loggerhead Key, the extremity of the Florida reef, it is inter- esting to note that the scorpions have obtained a foothold and are very common, living in board-piles, coming out at night, frequently being found and killed in the house, the effect of the sting resembling that of the wasp. The so-termed suicide of the scorpion is similar to the action of a man tearing his hair or biting his tongue in agony, and self-destruction is an accidental result. 100 CRABS AND INSECTS. hibernate. In the whip-scor- pions the abdomen ends in a long whip or lash. The “Daddy Longlegs” belongs ++ to this order, and, according to Phipson, some are lumi- nous. Fic. 126.—Spinnerets of a spi- Order III. Spiders (Ara- der. 7, one of the tubular 5 3 hairs from the spinnerets, ?”@). General Changqens magnified, tics.—Insects having an unseg- mented abdomen connected with the thorax by a delicate Fic. 127.—Zarantula turricula (Treat) and its tower-nest. pedicel, and bearing several pairs of silk-producing or- gans—spinnerets (Fig. 126). They breathe by lungs and trachee. The young pass through no metamorphosis ; 600 or 800 species occur in North America. | Tarantula.—The Taran- tula (Zycosa) is a large, hairy INSECTS. 107 spider, hving under rocks and in holes in the ground, which they often excavate to a depth of nearly a foot, lining the _sides with silk, and covering the opening with a scaffold- ing of mud and wood cemented together. The Zarantula. nidifex erects a tower over its tube, the foundation-pieces of wood selected being generally the exact shape of the hole. ‘These are piled one upon another precisely as the woodsman builds his log-cabin, until a regular chimney is the result. Z. turricula (Treat) (Fig. 127) erects a some- what similar tower; the female carries the young on her back. Crab-Spiders (1/4- gale).—These often meas- Urensix sor Seven inches across, including the legs. They are covered with Fic. 128.—Poison-fang of a spider thick, reddish, hair, and (Clubzona), highly magnified. possess terrible fangs (Fig. 128). They have four lung-sacs and two pairs of spin- nerets. They prey upon birds (Fig. 129) and various small animals. | Mygale Henzii is common on our western plains and in Utah. Some are called trap-door spiders, from the fact that after their well-like nest is excavated they cover the entrance with a circular door that works on a perfect hinge. The dwelling is generally formed in gravelly ground, and material moved piece by piece, until finally a well is sunk perhaps a foot deep. ‘To prevent the sides from caving in, the spider now covers them with a coat- ing of silk, so that the interior presents a perfectly smooth surface. The door is formed of various material, all wound about with silk in a firm, flat, oval mass, the spider whirling itself about in the operation, finally producing a door attached to one side by a silken hinge that fits ex- actly, even keeping out water, and is so adjusted that it is CRABS: AND “INSECTS. 108 se _ — . — = ’ a on - eee alain ba —_— a ea Se rr ve humming- ring a he entrance bird. ise t isgu Upon the top, leaves or mosses are often dently to d i —The bird-spider (%ygale avicularta) captu ev > 129. FIc. self-closing. placed INSECTS. 109 NoTE.—Bates, the naturalist, found a tarantula eating a finch, while near at hand was another finch entangled in a dense white web that was stretched across a hole in a tree. The author once found one, the only living creature, upon a dismantled wreck floating in the Gulf Stream off the northwestern coast of Cuba. When placed in a saucer, its legs extended beyond the edges. Some of this genus are trap-door spiders. Trap-door Spiders.— The spiders of the genus Creniza and /Vemesia are remarkable for their nest-building habits. The burrows differ greatly in different species. Generally they are cylindrical shafts sunk into the ground, lined with silk, and covered by a trap-door with a silken hinge, that fits so closely that the opening is never sus- pected from without. Some plant mosses, etc., upon their doors to mislead enemies, and employ many devices. Note.—On the Island of Timos:a Cvexiza comes out at night, fast- ens the trap-door open by threads of silk, and spins a web about six inches long. In the morn- ing it is taken down, the trap closed, and every ves- tige of the nocturnal net removed. The Garden Spiders construct rich geometrical webs (Fig. 130), so deli- cately arranged that the slightest touch is noticed by the in- mate. The spinner- ets (Fig. 126) are generally four or six projections pierced y wire ring reduced, from a photograph. with numberless (After Wilder.) holes, through which a glutinous secretion is drawn that, upon exposure to the Lid CRABS AND INSECTS: air, hardens and forms a silken thread (Fig. 131, s) that is seemingly inexhaustible. Fic. 131.—Parts of a spider. 1, Under part of a spider’s body: ¢, thorax, or chest, from which the eight legs spring, and to which the head is united in one piece; %, fangs; /, palpi, or feelers, attached to the jaws; a, ab- domen; 3, breathing-slits; s, six spinnerets with thread coming from them. 2, Front of spider’s head: e¢, eyes; Z, palpi; 7, front legs; 4, hasp of fangs; 4, poison-fangs; 7, outer jaws. Nore.—Professor Wilder wound several miles of silk from the Southern WVephila plumipes, the largest spider in the United States FIG. 132.—Spiders’ nests of different kinds, containing eggs. 4 and C arecommon nests in sheds and barns; #& was found under a board in the field—the part containing the eggs stands upon a stalk. (After Morse). (Fig. 130). In the Pacific islands an Zfezra spins a web strong enough to catch birds. Professor Moseley found a finch entangled in one of their webs. Some spiders spin a web that bears them away through the air like a balloon. The Dolomedes builds a raft of leaves and silk, and launches it in search of food. Many mimic their surroundings, while others communicate so rapid a movement to their webs as to become invisible. The Sadticus leaps through the air after INSECTS. Ill its prey; the Azgyronetra aquatica lives in air-bubbles under water; and the Aztus volans of Australia has flaps or wing-like extensions of the abdomen, that it elevates or depresses during leaps from plant to plant. The egg-sacs (Fig. 132, @) are sometimes attached to the webs, carried about by the mother, or affixed to stalks (Fig. 132, 4), and re- semble small plants. VALUE.—Spiders are useful in destroying other noxious insects. The silk is of value to opticians as cross-lines in optical instruments, also as a mechanical styptic. The silk of certain spiders has been woven. One of the kings of France possessed a coat made of this silk. In Bermuda the silk of Vephz/a has been used as sewing-silk. Works on Spiders for further reference. “Structure and Habits of Spiders,” J. H. Emerton ; “ Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders,” J. T. Moggridge; ‘‘ The Triangle Spi- der,’ B. G. Wilder, ‘“‘ Popular Science Monthly,” 1875 ; ‘“ Practical Use of Spider-Silk,” B. G. Wilder, the “ Galaxy,” July, 1869; ‘‘ Pedi- palpi of North America,” H. C. Wood, Jr., ‘‘ Journal of Philadelphia . Academy of Natural Science,” vol. v ; ‘‘ Mites, Ticks, and other Aca- ri,’ “Popular Science Monthly,” vol. xiv; ‘“‘Termayer’s Rescarches on Spiders’ Silk,” ‘‘ Proceedings of Essex Institute,” vol. v; ‘“ Pha- langerz of the United States,” H.C. Wood, Jr., “‘ Proceedings of Essex Institute,” vol. vi; “ Harper’s Monthly,” vol. lx, Treat. Packard’s “* Guide to the Study of Insects.” Sub-Class IV.—S1x-Leccep Insects (exapeda). General Characteristics —The Hexapods have antennz and two pairs of jaws or maxille. Fic. 133.—Glacier-flea (Desorza glacialzs). Thysanura).—The spring- at possess a forked spring, Order I. Spring-Tails tails are minute wingless forms, 7 112 CRABS AND AINSECT S. held in place by a hook, that when released sends them high into the air. A single Po- dura will deposit 1,360 eggs. The glacier-flea (Fig. 133), found upon the glaciers of Europe and on snow-banks of North America and Europe, belongs to the order. Some species have bristles instead of springs, as the Cam- podea, found under stones and old wood. Order II. Lace-Winged Insects ((Veu- roptera).— General Characteristics. — Insects having four fine net-veined wings, generally FIG. 134-— a long, slender abdomen, and mouth adapted Larva of cee Ephemera. for biting. . May-Flies (Zphemera)—These remark- able insects are of a greenish-brown color, with gauze-like unequal wings dotted with brown spots. The larva (Fig. 134) is about an inch long, its sides bearing several plume- like gills by which it breathes in the water. VALUE.—In some countries they occur in such numbers that they are used as guano. The Central Africans make bread of them. Dragon-Flies (Zidellulide).—The darning-needles (Fig. 135) are adorned with lustrous metallic tints and iace-like wings. The abdomen is long and bears no sting ; the eyes are compound and accompanied by three ocelli. The eggs are deposited in the water, and are hatched into flattened larve (Fig. 135, a) that lead an aquatic life for about two years. They secure their prey with a proboscis with hooks and joint that when at rest folds over the face and is called the mask, m. ‘The pupa, J, finally creeps up the stem of a plant, bursts from its old skin, and ap- pears a perfect insect, c.* * In Lombok, Malay Archipelago, the natives catch the large species and eat them. ‘The American species are voracious ; the larve catch young fish, and the adult has been seen to take minnows from a pond. INSECTS. 113 Caddis-Flies (Phryganea).—The caddis-flies often - have antennz twice as long as the body. The eggs are Fic. 135.—Life of the drag: the water; 7, mask or long lower lip with which it seizes its prey; 4, dragon- fly creeping out of its last grub-skin; c¢, perfect dragon-fly on the wing. carried about by the female, attached to her abdomen, and finally deposited upon some water-plant where they hatch, the larvz seeking the bottom, where they build coverings Fic. 136.—Caddis-worm, with its (Fig. 136) of wood, stone, case, made of sticks. shell, or sand. When about to change into a pupa they close the mouth of the case, finally biting their way out, and crawling to the surface a perfect insect. 114 CRABS AND INSECTS. Ant-Lion (J/yrmelcon).—The ant-lion in its complete state resembles a small dragon-fly. The eggs are laid in dry, sandy places, the young larve when hatched excavat- ing a pitfall by whirling their bodies about, and throwing the sand out (Fig. 137). The pit complete, the ant-lion Fic, 137.—Ant-lion. Adult, and larve, the forceps of one showing at the bottom of the pitfall. conceals itself at the bottom, only its forceps appearing, ready to grasp the ants that tumble in. This hunting life is led for two years, when it envelops itself in a round ball of sand and silk, and in three weeks breaks out a per- feet insect. Notre.—The aphis-lion (Chvysopa) lays eggs that mimic delicate plants or fungi. They appear growing from the ground attached to stalks, and are placed near food adapted to the young. White-Ants (Zermitide).—These insects in North America are generally of four kinds: winged kings and queens, and soldiers and workers that are wingless. The workers are the smallest and youngest, and build the nest, attend the queen, young, etc. The soldiers are those that have undergone the first metamorphosis.* They have large * Packard considers the soldiers and workers specialized forms. — INSECTS. 115 heads and powerful jaws. The African termites * build immense nests (Fig. 138), and the queen is often 40,000 times larger than the workers. VALUE.—Eaten in Central Africa, and the nests used as fuel. Fic. 138.—White ants, showing enormous queen, male, worker, and soldier, and section of nest, showing the queen’s cell. * Their hills have been seen twelve feet high and nearly one hun- dred feet in circumference. They are divided into various apartments, the semi-egg-shaped cell in the center containing the imprisoned queen who grows sometimes to a length of six inches. The workers attend the royal chamber, removing the eggs that are laid by millions, and placing them in nurseries or cemented cells made forthe purpose. The workers do great damage, and in the Isle of France a new building was ruined in a few months by them. In Colombo, Ceylon, a large house fell completely in pieces, the result of their ravages. CRABS AND INSECTS. 116 Works on Neuroptera for further reference. “ Synopsis of described Neuroptera of North America,” H. A. Hagen, ‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,” vol. iv, No. 1, 1862 ; “Transformations and Anatomy of Corydalus Cornutus,” Holdeman and Leidy, ‘“‘ Memoirs American Academy,” vol. iv; ‘‘ Immature State of the Odonata,” L. Cabot, “ Catalogue of Museum Comparative Zo- ology,” No. 5, 1872; ‘‘Caddis-Worms and their Metamorphoses,” 18638. July, ”? ’ “Popular Science Review ae. yy, 4, 4, Vy) Fic. 139.—Praying mantis. Order III. Straight-Winged Insects (Orthopiera). —General Characteristics—Insects having four straight, narrow, net-veined wings ; metamorphosis complete 5,000 species are known. about ? INSECTS. 117 Mantis (antidz).—These insects (Fig. 139) have elongated bodies, with the fore-legs toothed and adapted for grasping their prey, and are remarkable for their curious postures, that, with their coloring, is protective. They are voracious, attacking their fellows and other in- sects. Mantis argentina, from South America, according to Burmeister, catches small birds. The eggs are deposited in oblong clusters on fences, assuming the general color of the surroundings. Note.—From the supplicating position of the fore-legs (Fig. 139), they are called the praying mantis, and in Africa certain natives vene- rate them. “ Larval Habits of the Blister-Bee- tles, and Remarks on oth- er Species of the Family Meloidz,”. C. WW. Kiley, “Transactions of St. Louis Academy,” vol. iii, No. 4; “Colorado Potato Beetles,” C. V. Riley, ’ “Popular Science Monthly,’ relles,” 1869-70. Order VI. Two-Winged In- sects (Dipiera).— General Charac- teristics. —T wo-winged insects with mouths formed for sucking or lap- ping, composed of from two to six needle-like bristles forming a pro- boscis encircled ina sheath ; meta- morphosis complete. Flies (A7usca).—The common fly hibernates in winter. The eggs are deposited in offal about sta- bles, remaining in the pupa state vol, vii; ‘‘ Annales des Sciences Natu- Fic. 156.— Blue-bottle fly (Musca vomitoria), larva and pupa. INSECTS. 127 Fic, 158.—Showing compound and sim- ple eyes of fly. A, head, enlarged 8 times: c, com- pound eye; s, sim- ple eyes. J, por- tion of the surface of acompoundeye, i highly magnified. | Fic. 157.—Tongue of blow-fly. (Fig. 156) about fourteen days. ee MEH I The proboscis of the fly (Fig. I 157) is a fleshy, tongue-like organ bent under the head when at rest. In flying, the wings describe a figure 8 in the air, making 19,800 revolu- tions in a minute, or 9,400 simple oscillations. The eyes (Fig. 158) are both compound and simple. The feet (Fig. 111) have delicate pads for clinging upon smooth surfaces. Fleas (Pulicide).— The fleas (Fig. 160) are wingless, have a compressed body, and Fic. 159.—Spiracle of a fly. 128 CRABS AND INSECTS. Fic. 169.—Metamorphosis of the flea (Pulex trritans). NA | Fic. 161.—Lancets of the fe- male gnat : a, labium ; J, 0, mandibles; c, c, maxille ; d, tongue; ¢, labrum. _two simple eyes. The eggs of the cat-flea are eight or ten in number, oval, and #; of an inch long. The larva resembles a minute caterpillar, and has four long hairs on the side of each joint. In twelve days in sum- mer, in which time the larve at- tain their full growth, they in- close themselves in a small silken cocoon, remaining in this condi- tion from eleven to sixteen days, finally appearing in the pupa form. : Note.—If a man could jump as high in proportion as a flea, a leap over the Capitol at Washington would be an easy feat. A flea can draw one hundred times its weight, and so easily tamed are these minute creatures that a trained compa- ny of them was exhibited in New York afew yearsago. Through a magnifying- glass they could be seen standing erect, drawing carriages in which were seated INSECTS. 129 other fleas; others marched to and fro armed with spears and hauling cannon, while others still, as prisoners, dragged about chains and balls. Mosquitoes (Cwlicide).—The gnats and mosquitoes have long and slender mouth-parts, the sucker consisting Fic. 162.—Metamorphosis of mosquito. Eggs, larva, later stage on the raft, and adult. of six bristles (Fig. 161) folded together in a gutter-like case. Their legs are long, and body elongated and slen- der, antenne fringed (Fig. 163). The eggs (Fig. 162) are 130 CRABS AND INSECTS. deposited on the water, and the larve breathe by a star- shaped organ at the hinder extremity, through which air passes to the trachez. They finally shed their skins and \ \ | uf Wy WW x ease DASE Fic. 163.—Antenna of mos- quito, magnified. cK = SSC a ’ appear as pupee, in which state they breathe through two tubes in the thorax. In a few days the skin breaks between the breathing-tubes and the insect emerges, and, after floating about for a while on the old skin as a raft, it flies away a perfect insect. NoTr.—In the small town of Elizabethport, Russia, in the month of June, 1830, 30 horses, 40 foals, 70 oxen, 90 calves, 150 hogs, and 400 sheep were killed by mosquitoes alone. The females generally do the most damage. Works on Diptera for further reference. “ Transformations of the Common House-Fly, with Notes on Allied Forms,” A. S. Packard, Jr., ‘‘ Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,” vol. xv; ‘‘Catalogue of Described Diptera of North America,” R. Osten-Sacken, in “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,” vol. ili, No. 1, 1862; ‘‘ Animai Parasites and Messmates,” Van Beneden. Order VII. Butterflies and Moths (Lepidopter a).—General Characteristics.—Small-headed in- sects with four wings, which with the body are covered with scales; the tongue consisting of two tubular or hollow threads adapted for suction, and coiled when not in use; meta- morphosis complete, the larve or caterpillars having abdominal legs. FIG. 164.—Head of Sphinx- moth, showing feathered antenna, coiled tongue, and pollen-masses at- tached to the eyes that have been taken from some fiower. INSECTS. 131 Moths.— General Characteristics—The moths are, as a rule, nocturnal or night-fliers, and are distinguished from the butterflies by their feathered antenne (Fig. 164). Dwarf-Moths (Tinetde).—The common __ clothes- moth deposits its eggs in woolens, the white larvz creat- ing much damage in making their co- coons. Silk-Worm Moths (Zombycide).— These large moths have heavy, thick bod- ies, small heads, the tongue short and almost useless. The eggs are deposited upon the mulberry (Fig. 166) and other leaves, the young worms eating for about a month, and then forming a yellow or : ae 1 ' 1 ' ' é@ - Fic. 165.—Canker-worm moth, eggs, and worms. a, female canker-worm moth laying her eggs, 4; c, top-view, and d, side-view, of an egg, magni- fied ; e, canker-worm eating its way out of the egg, magnified; “4, magnified view of canker- worm; g, natural size of canker-worm after leav- ing the egg ; 2, male canker-worm moth. Fic. 167.—Swing- ing cocoon of a South Ameri- can moth. 132 CRABS AND INSECTS. white cocoon. They now change to a chrysalis, and in eight or nine months escape, a perfect insect. A South American member of this family has a swinging, basket- like cocoon (Fig. 167). Fic. 166.—The siik-worm, moth, and cccoon, on a mutberry branch. With view of silk works, illustrating the economic value of the worm. INSECTS. 138 3 Notr.—In France and Italy four days are required to form the cocoon, while in England and certain parts of India forty-six days are necessary for its completion ; 360 of these cocoons weigh 14 pound. In the United States the Zelia polyphemus is valued for its silk. Little windows have been cut in their cocoons and mica inserted, so that the growth of the chrysalis might be observed. VALUE.—The silk goods produced yearly in the United States alone are valued at $27,000,000. Fic. 168.—Death’s-head moth. Hawk-Moths (Spiingide).— The hawk-moths are large, swift-flying insects, with stout, spindle-shaped bodies, the tongue remarkable forits length. The curious death’s- head moth (Fig. 168) belongs to this family. VALUE.—The moths fertilize flowers, carrying pollen from one to another, often attached to their eyes (Fig. 164). 134 CRABS AND INSECTS: Butterflies (Papilionide).—General Characteristics.— The butterflies are day-flying Lepidoptera, and distin- guished from the moths by their knobbed antenne. Vanessa.—In this genus (Fig. 169) the wings are richly marked. The larva is cylindrical, and covered with stout, long-branching spines. The V. antiopfa is one of the com- monest forms, and famous for its habits of hibernation. Fic. 169. Metamorphosis of the peacock butterfly (Vazessa Jo). Sulphur-Butterflies (Co/as).*—In this family the wings are rounded, and form a gutter for the reception of the abdomen. They are the commonest butterflies we have. * In some countries they flock upon certain trees, completely covering them, so that in the sun they appear to have a golden hue. Darwin met a vast cloud of them, ten miles at sea, off the Bay of San Blas, and as far as could be seen the swarm extended. Sir Emerson Tennent observed a flock in India that was several days in passing a given point at a high rate of speed. Sir Robert Schomburgh observed a cloud of another genus crossing the Essequibo River, South America, that was nine miles wide, and was nine hours in passing the stream. _—. WN SECTS. 135 Leaf-Butterflies (Xad/ima).—When on the wing the East Indian Ka/iima paralekia presents a brilliant purple color, but when it alights it seems to disappear from view, Fic. 170.—The protective resemblance of the leaf-butterfly (Kadima). (Af- ter Wallace.) Wi so exactly resembling a leaf (Fig. 170) that persons fail to see it when within a few inches. The tail of the hind- i 136 CRABS: AND INSECTS. wings is pressed against the limb, forming the stem and. completing the deception. NoTe.—A butterfly observed by Wallace in the Malay Archipelago, when pursued by birds, imitated the flight of a poisonous butterfly so effectually that the pursuers gave up the chase. Kallima Hugel, of India, when not in flight, mimics dry oak-leaves, and can hardly be dis- tinguished from a dead leaf. The Indian butterfly AZe/anitis mimics various species of fungi, utterly disappearing from sight when it alights a few feet away among the dry spikes of pine-leaves, etc. ; while in the Indian Kaliima machis no two species are alike, all resembling dead leaves, even the minute fungi growing upon them being imitated in various ways. Works on Butterflies and Moths for further reference. “ List of Butterflies of North America,” H. S. Scudder, ‘‘ Buffalo Academy of Science,” vol. viii; ‘“‘ North American Silk-Worms,” L. Trouvelot, ‘‘ American Naturalist,” vol. i; ‘ Silk-Worms and_ Silk- Culture,” in ‘‘ Popular Science Monthly,” vol. iii; “ Monograph of the Geometrid Moths of North America,” A. S. Packard, Jr., “ Memoir of Hayden’s Survey,” vol. x; “‘ List of Noctuidz of Nerth America,” A. R. Grote, ‘‘ Bulletin of the Buffalo Academy of Natural Science,” vol. ii, 1874. Order VIII. Membrane-Winged Insects ee noplera).—General Characteristics —Insects having trans- parent wings with few veins. The mouth-parts adapted for lapping, biting, or cutting. The females of some have a sting or piercer. Metamorphosis complete. Horn-Tails (Uroceride)—The males have a long horn on the abdomen. The saw of the female is attached to the middle of the abdomen, extending far beyond it. Gall-Flies (Cyzipide).—To hese in- sects (Fig. 171) are due most of the ex-. crescences called galls, found upon oaks and other plants. They have short, broad heads, the thorax oval and thick, the ab- domen compressed and attached to the thorax by a short, delicate peduncle. The females puncture a leaf or branch INSECTS: 137 with their ovipositors; the blades of the latter divide, and the egg is forced through this channel into the wound, An abnormal growth of wood is formed about it, ‘from which in time the perfect insect escapes. VALUE.—A decoction of certain galls, with sulphate of iron, forms the principal ingredient of ink. Ichneumon-Flies (Lchneumonide).— These ‘insects (Fig. 172) are re- markable for depositing ‘their eggs in other in- sects, using for the pur- pose a long ovipositor that is protected by = I'1c. 172.—Ichneumon-fly, showing sheath composed of four mechanism of ovipositor. ‘stylets. Rhyssa persuaso- _ria bores into solid wood in search of its prey. The larva, a soft, footless grub, feeds upon its host, and when : about to become a pupa | spins a cocoon, from which it escapes in the adult form. Ants (Formicaric). —The ants, in the opin- ion of Sir John Lub- bock, stand next to man in point of intelligence. They erect wonderful dwellings, store up food, Fic. 173.—Ant's head and foot. Head: are agriculturists, keep é,€, eyes; @,@, antenne; m,m,man- and tend their cattle ain: AA bees fionewe FO: (aphid), seem to pos ey sess a sign-language, go to war in organized bod- ies, and in 2 many ways show remarkable intelligence. The Sy: 138 CRABS AND INSECTS. head (Fig. 173) is generally triangular, the antennz are slen- | der, and the eyes of two kinds—compound and ocelli; the i I \ | TACT ESN TECH TE id i it il | il i } ee ae all nN) ——SSS== —— == ‘ Fic. 174.—Foraging ants returning with slaves and captives after a bat- _ tle (magnified). INSECTS. 139 former consist of many facets differing in different spe- cies. They live in communities of often 500,000. Both males and females are winged, while a third and wing- less kind are called workers. These have the care of the young, and are builders. In some ants the neuters or workers have powerful jaws and are called soldiers, defending the family.. During the summer the males and females leave the nest and fly away, soon losing their wings. The females are taken by workers to form new nests and become queens. They live seven or eight years. Foraging Ants.—In South America the Zectons are greatly dreaded. They march against other ants, and car- ry away their larve (Fig. 174) and pupe to bring them up as slaves. In the @codoma the nest is of enormous dimen- sions, extending one hundred feet or more beneath the ground. ‘They cut leaves from trees to thatch their nests. The leaves are also used to encourage the growth of fungi F > = —— > = AGF i SSS SSS Fic. 175.—Living bottles—honey-ants expanded with honey. upon which the young are fed. They tunnel under rivers, as the broad Paraiba of Brazil, a fact proved by forcing smoke through the tunnel. Agricultural Ants.—The agricultural ants of Texas 140 CRABS AND INSECTS. have regular farms on which ie seem to cultivate the plant Aristida stricta. Honey-Ants.—In the Myre melliger of Tex- as, certain individuals are selected as storehouses by the rest, filled with honey (Fig. 175), and suspended in special apartments as living bottles. They are cared for and tended by the others, and made to give up their honey when it is needed. VALUE.—The honey-ants are eaten as a delicacy in Mexico. For- mic acid is obtained from the bodies of others. All are scavengers. FIG. 177.—Showing a wasp’s nest of four cells cut open. @, representing a cell with the egg at the bottom, and the re- maining space filled with spiders; 4, the larva full-grown, after having con- sumed all the spiders; c, the pupa; and d, the imago, or perfect mud-wasp, ready to come out. Fic. 176.—Mud-dauber wasp building nest. Mud-Wasps.— These large wasps (Fig. 177,@) paralyze insects with their sting, storing them up in a benumbed condition in the egg- cells as food for the ~ future young (Fig. 177). Fic. 178.—Mud-cells of a South American The nests are either wasp attached to a branch. INSECTS. 141 built in the sand or gravel. Those of other species are attached to various objects (Fig. 178). The sand, wood, and paper wasps are other familiar forms. NotTEe.—The wasps live in temporary societies composed of males, females, and neuters or workers. The sting of the latter is poisonous. The males die at the approach of winter, the females hibernating. In spring their nests, composed of ground vegetable matter or sand, are formed, and the young reared. The first brood are neuters, and assist in building a nest for the others ; finally, in the autumn, a third genera- tion is produced, composed of males and females, the nest now contain- ing perhaps one hundred cells. Carpenter-Bees.— Among the bees, which constitute the highest forms of the Hymenoptera, the carpenter-bees (Xjlocopa) are the giants. They bore tunnels in solid wood at the rate of one quarter to one half an inch a day. In the Virginia carpen- ter-bee the entrance is at first against, then follows the grain of the wood, the tunnel often being from one to one and a half feet inlength. This is divided off into cells (Fig. 179), each provided with its pollen and egg; the par- titions in the tunnel being formed of the powdered dust formed in cutting the tunnel. The larve feed upon the pollen. Fic. 179.—Carpenter-bee, showing Honey-Bees ( A [pia- eggs, pollen-heaps, and partitions. vi@).—These insects (Fig. 180) are of three kinds—queens, workers, and males. They live in communities of sometimes 20,000 individuals. The cells are formed of wax secreted by the workers, and 142 CRABS AND INSECTS. a queen is created by feeding a larva upon ‘royal food.” The eggs are oblong white objects, the larvee first resem- bling maggots. They are fed by the workers, inclosed in F en Ei SNC NN NI " Ws) Wi SS ———S=sasS o=— \ y SX \\ NS 7) K te \ Sut T ce \ i Wsy \ Yh SSS AN! > SS WP WTANAINS AXES ( \l * AS \ ON SS Fic, 186.—Pyrosoma gigas, a luminous compound ascidian, object open at one end. Here the circulation of water aids in locomotion. ‘The mouths, or the inhalent openings, are upon the outside of the pyrosoma, and the exhalent upon the inside. Each individual of the colony is con- tinually engaged in drawing in water, sifting out the parti- cles of food, and ejecting it from the interior opening, all these little currents finding their way out of the single large opening, the combined volume forcing the entire colony along. Notr.—The pyrosoma is one of the most wonderful animals of the sea in its illuminating properties. In the southern seas they resemble bodies heated to a white heat, illuminating the greater depths, so that the forms of sharks, porpoises, and other larger animals are seen dis- tinctly far below ; and when at the surface light up the sails, masts, and 148 SEA-SQUIRTS. rigging of vessels, as if by magic. Bebra, the naturalist, wrote a de- scription of one in his cabin by its own light, and read by their phos- phorescence from his cabin-window. Professor Moseley wrote his name upon one with his finger as it lay upon deck; each letter seemed to ignite, increasing in brilliancy, spreading over the entire animal until it seemed at a white heat. They are found in nearly all the southern seas, and are important factors in the illumination of the submarine world. Salpz.—These are minute pelagic, free-swimming as- cidians. There are solitary and chain Sa/ée@ ; the former (Fig. 187) are barrel-shaped, even the hoops being repre- Eg Fic. 187.—Dolzolum, an ascidian allied to the salpa. a, nerve; @, mouth ; £, cesophagus ; z, stomach; /, intestine; ~, heart; ¢ ¢, muscles. sented by circular bands or muscles. In both, the open- ings are at each end, and locomotion is produced by a regular contraction and expansion of the mantle. The salpa in its development affords another example of alter- nate generations. The solitary asexual salpa, by bud- ding, produces a family of chained salpz; these in turn produce, not buds, but fertilized eggs, that, after pass- ing through several changes, assume the solitary asexual salpa form. NotTe.—They are brilliantly luminous, the chains stretching away for great distances, resembling luminous snakes winding their way over the sea. Their light in the darkest night rivals that of the moon upon the water. SEA-SQUIRTS. 149 Appendiculariz.—These (Fig. 188) are the simplest forms of the class, minute pelagic creatures with tadpole- like tails. Fic. 188.—Appendicularia flabellum. 1. The entire animal, with the ‘‘tail”’ in its ordinary position, or turned forward. II. Side view of the body, with the ‘‘tail” forcibly bent backward. A, the body; 2, the tail; a, oral aperture; 4, the pharynx; ¢, an atrial opening; d, the cor- responding stigma, with its cilia; 7 rectum ; £, cesophagus; 4%, z, stom- ach ; Z, urochord ; ™, cellular patch at the side of the oral end of the body ; Z, ganglion; g, ciliated sac; 7, ear; s, posterior nerve with its ganglia, 7; ez, endcderm; ec, ectoderm. (After Huxley.) Works on Tunicates for further reference. “ Ascidians of the Coast of New England,” A. E. Verrill, in “ Ameri- can Journal of Science,” vol. i, 1871 ; “ Structure and Affinities of the Sea-Squirts (Tunicata),” J. C. Galton, “‘ Popular Science Review,” July, 1868 ; “Invertebrata of Vineyard Sound,” Verrill ; ‘“ Development of Salpa,” Brooks, “ Builetin of Comparative Zodlogy,” Cambridge, 1876. CHAPTER IX. NINTH BRANCH OF ANIMALS. BACKBONED ANIMALS (Vertebrata). General Characteristics—The Vertebrates are distin- guished by the possession of a backbone, or vertebra, but Lower tube or cavity, containing lungs, heart, stomach, etc. Fic. 189.—A vertebra and a pair of ribs, from a cat. C.S, upper cavity, con- taining cerebro-spinal cord ; and low- er, containing lungs, etc. the fundamental dis- tinction between them and the preceding forms lies in the fact that the body is divided into two tubes (Fig. 189)—the upper, CS, containing the nervous cord, and the lower the heart, di- gestive organs, etc. The eyes, ears, and nostrils are two in number, and are placed in the same relative position in all. The eyes have movable lids; the mouth opens transversely ; the lower jaw is on the under part of the head, and moves up and down, instead of opening sidewise, as in the insects and crustaceans. The jaws are armed with teeth. The blood, except in the lancelet, is red. LEPTOCARDII. IS] Skeleton —The skeleton, that in the preceding forms has been upon the outside, is now internal. In the sharks, sturgeons, etc., it is soft, and composed of cartilage, while in others it is of bone. The backbone is composed of a- row of bones, called vertebrz, that extend from the head to the tail, known collectively as the vertebral column. In the upper portion of each vertebra, except those in the tail, will be found a hole or arch (Fig. 189, C.S), through which extends a long, white cord, connected with the brain, called the cerebro-spinal cord, that is thus protected from injury. The various bones of the head, that are extensions of the backbone, form a box or covering for the brain, known as the cranium or skull. The limbs never exceed two pairs, and are fundamentally the same in all Verte- brates, merely being adapted to the habits of the animal in flying, leaping, swimming, digging, clinging, or walking. These are features that characterize all Vertebrates, except the lowest forms. The peculiarities of structure that dis- tinguish the different divisions will be treated under the following heads, that represent the different classes of the backboned animals: 1. The lancelet ; 2. The lamprey; 3. The true fishes; 4. Amphibians; 5. Reptiles; 6. Birds ; and 7. Mamrnals. Class 1=—LEPFOCARDII, The Lancelet (Amphioxus).—This worm-like creature (Fig. 190) is the lowest animal in which we find a notochord in the adult. The body is lance-shaped, having no skele- ton, brain, cranium, or paired fins; yet it has a backbone, represented by a cartilaginous string, called the notochord (Fig. 190, 7), with a nerve-cord, zv, over it. The heart is long and simple, and the blood colorless. The mouth, m, is oval, surrounded by delicate tentacles ; and the eyes are mere specks, ¢. The young pass through a metamor- phosis, being at first oval, ciliated bodies; later, resem- roe BACKBONED ANIMALS. bling a larval ascidian. They breathe by taking in water at the mouth, m, that passes through the gill-slits, g, oxy- genating the blood, then passing out through an opening, 7 721: 7 f SETEUEQTE UI UE PU MM EL) Did NOEOMONN A EY PLOY EET i | v Uy g Fic. 190.—The lancelet. 2, mouth; e, eye-spot; 7 fin; 7, rod or noto- chord, the first faint indication of a backbone; 2 v, nerve-cord; g, gills; Z, hole out of which water passes from the gills; v, vent for refuse of food. i h. Compare this with the respiration of ascidians (page 146). The common lancelet lives in the sand in the shallow water of our coast, from Virginia to southern Florida. An Australian lancelet has a high dorsal fin, and about Zamboanga one is found living in a sea-cucumber (.Scabra). Class I—PoucH-GILLED VERTEBRATES (Jarsipo- branchit). General Characteristics. —The animals of this class are worm-like in appearance. They have no jaws, the mouth being adapted for sucking. The respiratory organs (Fig. 191) are pouch-like cells or cavities, which open externally by seven small holes in the lamprey, and internally con- nect with the mouth and a cavity beneath the cesophagus. — The nasal aperture that, in the higher Vertebrates, is paired, is here single, in the hag connecting with a sac that leads to the mouth; but in the lamprey there is no such connection. Hag (JZyxine).—The hag is about a foot in length. The eyes are minute and under the skin. They are gen- POUCH-GILLED VERTEBRATES. 153 erally found in deep water, where they are parasitic on various fishes. The teeth are represented by two comb- like rows on the tongue. There is also a single median or middle tooth (Fig. 191, a). They secrete an enormous quantity of slime, and a single hag has so filled four cubic feet of water that the mass could be lifted out with a stick, forming, according to Couch, a continuous sheet. The eggs are large, and covered with horny cases, having short filaments that wind about sea-weed. a By Bx cel Fic. 191.—Organs of respiration in the Myxine. a, single hooked tooth; 6666, double rows of lingual teeth; c, branchial cells; ddd d, tentac ula; ¢, mucous glands. Lamprey (7etromyzon).—The lamprey eel (Fig. 192) lives in both salt and fresh water, and attains a length of three feet. When young they are blind and toothless, and were long considered separate animals (Ammocetes), (Fig. 192). The adults have sunken eyes, and teeth on the car- tilage supporting the lips. The mouth is a sucker, the tongue acting as a piston, and during the breeding-season they use it to advantage in building their nests. They follow the shad up rivers in the spring, deposit their eggs, and return to the ocean in the autumn. They are eaten in England. NotTe.—The nests are formed of piles of rocks weighing several pounds, which are brought from up-stream by successively lifting them from the bottom, allowing the tide to carry them along. Some of the nests are three feet high and four in circumference, and in some cases the eggs are deposited in mere hollows in thesand. The young remain in their castles until able to protect themselves, and do not assume the 154 BACKBONED ANIMALS. parent form for three years. For an illustrated account of nest-building fishes see the article on the subject by the author in “ Harper’s Month- ly,” Christmas number, 1883. FIG. 192.—Figure of a full-grown lamprey and of the young lamprey, for- merly called Ammocetes, showing the seven holes through which it takes in water to breathe. Class II].—TuHE TRUE FISHES (Psces). General Characteristics—Aquatic Vertebrates with a cartilaginous skeleton, as in the shark, or a bony one, as in the perch; asa rule, scaled, and breathing by means of gills; limbs represented by fins. Skeleton.—At first glance, the skeleton of a bony fish (Fig. 193) seems to have two backbones ; the lower, how- ever, is the vertebra, that extends from the head to the tail. The upper series, f and c, are median or middle fins, supported by interspinous bones. The backbone is com- posed of sometimes two hundred vertebre in bony fishes, BITE TROE FISHES. 155 and over three hundred and fifty in cartilaginous ones, that in the former are hollow upon each side, the inclosure so formed containing a glutinous substance. The verte- bre are all connected at their edges by ligaments, that allow more or less lateral motion. To the central or ab- dominal portion of the backbone the ribs are attached, their lower ends hanging free in the muscles. The head LZ Ze os LX ‘ Fic. 193.—Skeleton of the perch (Perca fluviatilis). Shows the jointed na- ture of the vertebral column, and the facilities afforded for lateral motion, particularly in the tail (@), dorsal (e, 7), ventral (6, c), and pectoral (a) fins, which are principaliy engaged in swimming. is made up of a complicated arrangement of bones ; the jaws armed with many rows of teeth, in some cases being movable. The lmbs or fins are formed of bony or carti- laginous rays ; those in pairs corresponding to the limbs of man. Thus, the pectoral fins (Fig. 193, a) correspond ‘to the arms. A pectoral arch, scapula, clavicle, and cora- coid bones are found, and generally the ulna, radius, and carpus. The lower portion of the fish is termed ventral, and the ventral fins (Fig. 193, 4) that are attached to the pelvic arch represent the hind-limbs, though the bones of these limbs are not present. The single fin (Fig. 193, ¢) is a lower middle fin, that is supported by inter- spinous bones, that in turn are connected with the verte- bra by ligaments. The tail or caudal fin (Fig. 193, 2) is formed of a number of spreading rays, and is of two 156 BACKBONED ANIMALS. distinct types: heterocercal, in which the lobes are un- equal, as in the shark (Fig. 198), and homocercal, where they are equal, as in the perch (Fig. 193). Digestion—The teeth that rudely prepare the food for digestion are loosely attached to the bones of the Fic. 194.—Internal structure of the minnow, ribs removed, and the living fish. A, 7, nose-pit; e, eye-nerve; ea, ear-nerve; g, gills; 2, heart; 7, food-tube ; s, stomach; 4, kidney; v, vent; @ a, dorsal artery; a, air- bladder; 4, backbone ; zv, nerve-cord or spinal cord. B, ~, nose; gc, gill-cover; @/, arm-fin; 77%, leg-fins; s 7, single fins; ms, mucous scales. mouth, and even the tongue, not being confined to the jaws alone. Food passes into the food-tube (Fig. 194, #), and thence into the stomach, s, the rejected portions being expelled at v. The liver is generally large. The position of the kidneys is shown in Fig. 194, &. Circulation.—The heart (Fig. 194, 2), as a rule, consists THE TRUE FISHES. 157 of two chambers—an auricle and ventricle. The former receives the impure blood and pumps it into the latter. From here it is sent into a chamber or arterial bulb that divides into five pairs of branches, one leading into each gill. The blood enters the gills, is purified, then by the branchial veins passes into the dorsal artery (Fig. 194, da), so finding its way slowly over the body and back to the ‘auricle. So slowly is this circulation accomplished that the blood rarely attains a temperature above that of the surrounding water.* Hence the fishes are said to be cold- blooded. _ Respiration.—Lifting up the gill-cover (Fig. 194, B, gc). we see the gills, A, g, by which the bony fishes breathe. They are blood-red, membranous leaflets, supported by cartilaginous arches separated by shts, the entire arrange- ment placed on each side of the head in what are called branchial chambers. Water is taken in at the mouth, passes between the arches and over the gills, supplying oxygen to the blood that has been pumped there by the heart for the purpose, passing out again under the gill- cover (Fig. 194, B, gc), so that there is a continuous cur- rent of water flowing in at the mouth and out at the gills. Most fishes have an air-bladder (Fig. 194, A, a) that con- tains gases, principally nitrogen, that enable them to main- tain a certain specific gravity. In some fishes it has the attribute of a lung. Nervous System, etc.—The nervous system of fishes con- sists of a small brain and spinal cord (Fig. 194, A, 77), that throws off delicate threads to the various parts, the fins, the eye, A, ¢, the ear, A, ee, and the nose-pit, z. The na- sal organs, except in the lung fishes and myxinoids, do not connect with the mouth. They are represented by cov- ered pits lined with nerves. Water laden with odors flows * In the active fishes (Scombride) the respiratory process is so ener- getic that the temperature of the blood is often higher than that of the surrounding medium. 158 BACKBONED ANIMALS. in, and the news is telegraphed to the brain, just as the impression of an object seen is carried by the optic nerve e. The ears, A, ea, are little cavities placed on each side of the head, containing a liquid, in which float two otoliths, or ear-stones. G@ NCA W\ Covering. — Fishes are ( @ (GEE T\LTCNN covered with scales (Fig. (( (& (ESSE NX \ 195), that overlap each Ler 7 other like shingles on a RES roof, and grow, totally un- like those of reptiles, out = of littie pockets in the skin, FIG. 195.—Scale of a flounder, highly being kept soft and slimy magnified. a, natural size. bya secretion under them, but principally from that which exudes from about the mucous scales (Fig. 194, B, ms). Development.—Most fishes deposit eggs or roe. Some are ovoviviparous, while others, as the Zoarces, Ditrema, etc., are viviparous, or produce their young alive. ES EcoNoMIc VALUE.—As nearly all fishes are valuable as food, refer- ence to their economic value has not been given in every case. The reports of the United States Fish Commission show the value of this class of vertebrates toman. Artificial fish-hatching establishments have been organized in nearly all the States. American fish-eggs are sent to Europe, and others received in return, and the arrangements for the prevention of the depletion of fisheries are becoming more complete every year. Sub-Class I. STRApP-GILLED Fisues (Zlasmobranchit). General Characteristics—In this class, we first meet Vertebrates having paired fins and a genuine lower jaw. The skeleton is made up of cartilage ; the ribs are small and often rudimentary. The skull is a simple cartilagi- nous box, and the jaws, and in fact all the parts, are Pee FROEAITSIES. 159 easily bent or cut with a knife. The bones that protect the gill-openings in bony fishes are wanting, the gills being mere slits,“ from five to seven pairs, with intervening straps. ‘The lobes of the tail are generally unequal. Fic. 196.—A, egg of a shark, showing the anchor filaments. B, embryo shark, showing the external gills (47). Order I. Plagiostomi. Nurse-Sharks (Scymuide). —The nurse or sleeper is a sluggish shark found upon the eastern coast of North America, occasionally attaining a length of twenty feet. A nurse-shark of southern Florida is extremely dark in color. The latter frequent the sandy shoals in droves, and can always be seen asleep or quiet upon the bottom. NotTe.—Dr. Bennett discovered in Australian seas a small shark (Sgualus fulgens), probably allied to this family, that was luminous * In embryo sharks (Fig. 196, B) the gills are external, as in the tadpole, etc. 160 BACKBONED ANIMALS. over its entire surface except a girdle about the throat; it emitted a light of great brilliancy. Dog-Fishes (Spinacide).—The Sgualus Americanus is a common American variety. They have a sharp spine in front of each dorsal fin, capable of inflicting a danger- ous wound. The young are born alive. Note.—In August, 1883, the effect of their arrival upon the Maine coast was disastrous to many fishermen. Their vast numbers com- pletely destroyed the fishing. They attacked oars, even biting at the sails when hanging over, and several cases are known where in former years they attacked swimmers and persons who had fallen overboard. The fishermen gave up cod- and hake-fishing, and with wire-hooked trawls captured thousands of the dog-fish, selling their livers to be made into oil, while the bodies were carted upon farms and used as guano. FIG. 197.—Hammer-headed shark. Hammer-Head Shark (.S¢/yrnide).—The sharks of this family (Fig. 197) have the head in the shape of a hammer, the eyes being placed at the ends of the curious prolongations. They attain a length of twelve feet, and — Pee WT ROL: FISHES. 161 are found on both sides of the Atlantic, and from Brazil to Cape Cod. They are very ferocious. Allied is the thresher shark (Fig. 198). The tail is fully a ' third of the en- tire length, and forms a terrible weapon when swung about by the powerful fish. They attain a length of twenty feet. Man-Eater Shark (ZLamnide).—The great Carcha- Fic, 1¢8.—Thresher shark. rodon has been known to attack boats. Their enormous ° mouths contain six or eight rows of serrated teeth. They have a wide geographical range, are mainly pelagic, living in the open sea. One species (C. gangeticus) lives in an in- closed lake in the Feejee Islands, breeding above the falls. It has also been found at Bagdad, three hundred and fifty miles from salt water. A shark is also found in Lake Nicaragua. The largest shark of this family ever caught was thirty-six and a half feet long, from Australian waters. Note.—In repeated observations of these and allied sharks attack- ing objects on the surface and on the bottom, on the outer Florida reef, in no case did they turn on'their backs. In attacking a cow they ran their snouts out of the water, and bit as do ordinary fishes, tearing and shaking the body likeadog. One, caught after a struggle of two hours, during which it towed the boat a long distance, contained among other curiosities the hoofs of an ox, a mass of old rope, a tin can, and other . material obtained near aslaughter-house. They never attacked human beings in this locality, though bathing and swimming from key to key was often indulged in, where twelve and fourteen foot sharks were observed only a few moments before. Basking Shark (Cetorhinide).—Bone-shark, sail-fish, and many other titles are applied to these sharks, that are the largest of all fishes. One, captured by the schooner oo 7 ‘yy3uea, ul jeezy AyUaAes usuIIOeds & jo 9azIS SALTO BY} SuIMoYs ‘“(yIIWIS ‘sx27zg~hz uopousyy) yXeYS peyods—'66r “oIy BACKBONED ANIMALS. 162 THE TRUE FISHES. 163 Virgin, off Biock Island, was about seventy feet in length. They are harmless, living upon small pelagic animals that are strained into the throat through a series of hard, elastic, whalebone-like fringes, that are arranged comb-like along | the large gill-openings. The teeth are small and compara- tively useless. The A/Acnodon (Fig. 199) is a similar form of East African waters, and attains a length of sixty or seventy feet. ‘The mouth opens on a level with the snout. When struck, they have been known to carry large boats beneath the surface. VALUE OF SHARKS.—They are all scavengers. The skin of dog- fish and others is used as leather and shagreen. The oil of nearly all the species is valuable, and the bodies as guano. The teeth of sharks are used as weapons by the Pacific islanders. In China the shark-fin trade is an important one, they being used as food. Saw-Fishes (/7ristide).— These remarkable fishes (Fig. 200) attain a length of fifteen feet, and are common on the North American coast from Cape Cod southward. Fic. 200,—Saw-fish. The snout is prolonged into a sword, the edges being armed with sharp, bony teeth. A species of saw-fish lives in a fresh-water lake in the Philippine Islands. The saw is used as a weapon by some tribes. They are vivipa- rous, Skates (Raiaide).—These fishes are all notable for the development of the side or pectoral fins that in some species appear like wings. Their teeth are grinding plates, adapted for crushing mollusks and crabs. Their eggs are deposited in a dark, rectangular, parchment-like case, hav- 164 _ BACKBONED ANIMALS. ing four filaments that twine about the sea-weed, prevent- ing them from washing ashore. Torpedoes ( Zorpedinide).—The fishes of this family are electricians, and are common on the New England coast. The electric ap- og eek paratus (Fig. 201) is situ- We ii YESS \ ated between the head INN \ and the bases of the pec- toral fins, and is composed of numerous hexagonal membranous tubes placed side by side at right an- gles with the surface of the body, and so close to it that their ends are often visible above and below. The cells contain mucus, and are traversed by nerves that proceed from the eighth pair. So powerful is this battery that fishermen have been knocked over as if with Fic. 201.—The torpedo, with its ele- 2 4X€, the shocks also trical apparatus displayed. 4, bran- passing up the harpoon- chi ; Cy brain; @, aoe organ ; rope, or the knife used in g, cranium; #é, spinal cord; z, om : nerves to the pectoral fins; z J, cutting them. Allied are nerves going to the electric organ; sting-rays (F rygon), COW- By SVe- >. nosed Tays,* "enera a maaame great devil-fish (Fig. 202), that has curious prolongations or claspers at the head, attains a width of twenty-seven feet. They have been known to tow large vessels against the wind for long distances by fouling the anchor. The Japanese use the skeletons of rays in the imitation of tortoise- shell. ATS se THE TRUE FISHES. 165 Fic. 202.—Devil-fish (Cephalopterus diabolus). Order II. Holocephali.—The Crimera (Fig. 203) is | a northern representative of this group, while the curious |) Callorhynchus is found in Antarctic regions. The gill- i openings are protected by a membranous covering, sug- i) gesting the gill-covers of bony fishes. The teeth are curi- | ously arranged, there being four in the upper and only two ] Fic, 203.—The Chimera. in the lower jaw. The air-bladder is absent. The male Chimeera has a curious, comb-like, cartilaginous appendage armed with hooklets on the top of the head, that is either erect or hidden in a hook-armed groove. 166 BACKBONED ANIMALS. NotTe.—The eggs of the Chzmezra are deposited in thick, leathery cases, and those of Callorhynchus are remarkable for their mimicry or protective resemblance, resembling the leaf of the fucus or sea-weed to which they are attached. They form a long, depressed ellipse, with a plicated and fringed margin, and, swaying in the current, their true nature would never be suspected. Sub-Class II. BRIGHT-SCALED FisHes (Ganoidei). General Characteristics—The Ganoids have hard, glis- tening scales, cartilaginous or ossified skeletons, and one pair of gill-openings, protected by opercular bones. FIG. 204.—Sharp-nosed sturgeon (4. oxyrhynchus). Order I. Chondroganoidei. The Sturgeons (4c- penseride).—The sturgeons (Fig. 204) have cartilaginous skeletons, the skin being armed with bony bucklers or plates, arranged in longitudinal rows. The mouth is toothless and under the snout, and is adapted for sucking in soft food (Fig. 205). The sharp- nosed sturgeon attains a length of eight feet. It breeds, as do Fic. 205.—The sturgeon’s the entire family, in fresh water, coat een Peo: the female depositing millions of showing the tube-like mouth and the fourbar- eggs. The shovel-nosed stur- bels or feelers. geon and the curious spoonbill (Polyodon folium) are found in the Mississippi. Glue, cement, court-plaster, isinglass, . etc., are made from the air-bladders of sturgeons. Note.—The Acipenser huso attains a length of twenty-five feet. The fisheries at Ruibinsk, on the Volga, Russia, give employment, ac- cording to Duncan, to one hundred thousand persons, and the fish have Pee TRUE FISHES. 167 been seen so packing a river three hundred and sixty feet wide and twenty-nine feet deep, that the backs of the upper ones were out of the water. Order II. Lung-Fishes (D2f70/)—The lung-fishes are eel-shaped, and covered with large scales. Some, as the Lefizdostren, have two perfect lungs, as well as gills, When left dry in pools, they form cases in the mud, which they line with a mucus, and lie dormant until the return of the water. The Ceradotus of Australia (Fig. 206), discov- An _—————— —$—<———S : : = ie — ——= = = ————— ae —=SSaeaeanaesSSSSSSSSESEDHLLSSEEEEEES=—= — : =e Fic. 206.—The Ceradotus of Queensland, Australia, an air-breathing and water-breathing mud-fish of the ancient type, with paddle-fins. ered in 1870, attains a length of six feet. When under water the heart pumps the blood to the gills, but when they are deprived of it the gases from the air-chamber are expelled with a loud noise, and fresh air taken in, the blood being now carried the other way, or toward the chambered, lung-like air-bladder, to become freshened. Note.—The Protopterus, a lung-fish of Africa, has plume-like fins, and is also noted for its burrowing habits, forming burrows a foot from the surface. One, sent to England in its earthen case, came to life months after, when soaked in water. Some remain in their dry nests for several seasons. Many of the family have the faculty of reproduc- ing lost fleshy parts of their fins, etc. Order III. Branchioganoidei.—This order is repre- sented by the Polypterus of the Nile. The dorsal fin is broken up into numerous points, each being supported by RE NE BEATE sun inenttdautemnpecasihipnppaisticereenadiinaeanitrcememsacomrn re eS 168 BACKBONED ANIMALS. a ray and spine (Fig. 207). The young have external gills (Fig. 207, br). Order IV. Garpikes (yoga- FIG. 207.—Young of the Nile Polypterus, show- Moidet).—The garpikes (Fig. 208) ing external gills, 67. have beak-like jaws with sharp teeth ; the scales are large and re- semble white enameled plates. The air-bladder is lung- like, and the fishes are often seen at the surface inhaling air. They occur in the Western and Southern rivers and Great Lakes. The eggs are hatched the last of May. The scales are used as arrow-tips by some Indians. FIG. 208.—Garpike (Lepzdosteus osseus). Sub-Class III. Bony Fisues ( Ze/eostet). General Characteristics—In these fishes (Figs. 193, 194) bone takes the place of cartilage. The skull is com- posed of many bones; the optic nerves cross each other ; the gills generally number four pairs, and have several opercular or protective bones. Eels (Afodes)—The eels are without ventral fins. The Anguilla is common in the United States, living in fresh-water streams, but depositing its eggs, often 8,000,- ooo to a single fish, in the ocean, the young ascending the rivers. The sexes are difficult to distinguish ; the females have the highest dorsal fin, smaller eyes, and a lighter color than the males, while the snout is generally broader at the tip than in the male. The conger-eel attains a large size, and ranges from Newfoundland to the West Indies. In —————e OS —— = il E>. Mp TRUE. FISHES: 169 Southern waters the ferocious and snake-like J7urena is found, attaining a length of three feet. Note.—In a pond near Wells, on the Maine coast, the eels inva- | riably go down into salt water at night, and, as the stream is narrow, the sight is remarkable, thousands filling the channel, leaving the water when alarmed and passing over the dry rocks to the ocean. The sound, asingle note, frequently uttered by the eel, is, according to Abbott, more distinctly musical than those made by other fishes, and has a metallic resonance. Order III. Thread-jawed Fishes (Wematognatnz). Cat-Fishes (Sv/urid2).—The cat-fishes may be recog- nized by the curious barbels or threads that hang from their jaws. They have no scales, the skin being in some species protected by bony plates. Some are marine, but the majority live in fresh water. A blind cat-fish (Grondas) inhabits a subterranean stream in Pennsylvania. The yo Arius, of South America, carries its eggs in its mouth, and even the young fish. In a species of Avzus, in Panama, the mother first carries them about in a fold of the skin, and later the male receives them in its capacious mouth. The female Aspredo carries its eggs about attached to dang- ling capsules, that cover the fins and ventral surface of the body, disappearing after the breeding season. ‘The com- FIG. 209.—An electric cat-fish (Walapterus electricus). mon cat-fish carefully guards its young, while the South American Doras and Callichthys build nests of leaves in which the young are placed. These fishes also leave ponds 8 \ 170 BACKBONED ANIMALS. that dry up, and crawl overland (see frontispiece) in great numbers in search of water, during this time breathing air directly. The Arges are almost blind forms, living in sub- terranean streams. A cat-fish from the Nile, Malapterus electricus (Fig. 209), is electric, the cells forming a layer ep over the entire body except the head and fins. The South re a ; es American Lau-Lau, is the largest of the family, and pro- tects its young in its mouth. - The Cordetis fossilis (Fig. 210) FIG. 210.—Cof betis JSosstlts. It swallows air-bubbles which pass through the intestine, where the mucous membrane takes up the oxygen for respiration, breathes air directly as well as taking it from the water. The fourth order of fishes, Scyphophori, is represented by the Nile Gymuarchus. Order V. Perfect-headed Fishes ( 7e/eocephal ).— General Characteristics —T his order embraces most of our Fic. 211.—Electric eel (Gymnotus electricus). one of the lowest of the TZeleosts. common fishes. The skeleton is bony, and the name applies to the diversity and perfection of the bones of the head. Gymnotus. —The Gymno- tus electricus (Fig. 211) is The batteries are four in number, and situated, in pairs, on each side of the body, occupying together nearly all the lower portion. ae ’ THE TRUE FISHES. 71 Carps (Cyprinide).—The carps comprise many spe- cies, and abound in nearly all streams throughout the Old World and North America. They have weak, tooth- less jaws. The stone-toters (Zx- oglossum) build nests by carrying stones, which they pileinheaps. The dace (Fig. 212), common minnows, and shiners, are SS all related. Fic. 212.—Black-nosed dace. Note.—-The dace (2Ainichthys atronasus) is one of the most inter- esting of the nest-building fishes. During the breeding-season males and females clear away a spot, perhaps under the water-lilies, and in the oval depression the eggs are deposited, the pair covering them with a layer of stones; then another layer of eggs is deposited, and another of stones, until a mound of eight or ten inches in height is the result, and here the young are hatched. Blind, Cave-Fishes (A mblyopide).—These comprise three genera and four species of ghostly, sightless fishes (Fig. 213) living in the limestone caves of the Middle and Fic. 213.—Blind-fish (Azzb/yopszs), Mammoth Cave. Southern States. Though blind, they are supplied with sense-organs so delicate that they are enabled to capture fishes with eyes that have strayed into their domain. 172 BACKBONED ANIMALS. - Wyandotte and Mammoth Caves are noted localities for them. The Amblyopsis is viviparous. 0 avawh 244 Cran? Herring-Pikes (Z/opide).—This family includes the tarpon (Wegalops thrissoides) and the big-eyed herring. The former attains a length of over eight feet, and is the most beautiful of all fishes, ranging from Cape Cod to Florida. An allied form, the Skudis or Piraruca, of South America, attains a length of fifteen feet, and a\weight of four hun- dred pounds. .They have skeletons of most massive build. The young, according to Schomburgh, enter the mother’s mouth in time of danger. Allied are the herrings (C/uper- de), shad, menhaden, and the gizzard-shad. They are nearly all important food-fishes. Menhaden oil and guano are valued. The scales of the tarpon are used in orna- mental work. Salmon (Sa/monide).—Salmon are found in Europe and America, in the latter country from the polar regions to Cape Cod. They live in both fresh and salt water. In the breeding-season they ascend the rivers, leaping the falls with great skill, and at this time are-often caught. The eggs are about the size of a pea, and are deposited in depressions or nests. When very young, they are banded and known as parr (Fig. 214). Ata year old they are sil- very, and previous to descending the rivers Fic. 214.—Young salmon ( garr). are known as_ smold. When they return from their first visit to the sea they are called gri/se, only after their second return being known as salmon. Allied is the common trout, that lives permanently in fresh water, - breeding in the autumn and early winter. NoTe.—Salmon are found in the Yukon River, Alaska, 3,000 miles from the sea. In 1882 the Columbia River salmon-fisheries alone real- ized in first hands $2,782,000, giving employment to 7,000 persons. x WHE. TROE. FISHES. 173 Lamp-Fishes (Stomzatide).—In these and allied fishes the skin is naked, or the scales extremely minute, and nearly all have organs that look like pearl or glass buttons imbedded in the skin. According to Leydig, they are of. three kinds : first, eye-like organs ; second, pearly, glass- like organs ; and, third, luminous organs. According to different authors, they are eyes, electric or light-giving organs. Gunther considers them all luminous, and that their function is to light the dark recesses of the submarine world. In the Stomias the pearly spots are along the ventral surface, a veritable row of glowing lights. Allied to the Stomias is the lamp- fish (Scopfelus) ; upon its head is a soft prominence that glows like a head-light. Willemoes-Suhm says, ‘One of them hung in the net like a shining star.” Other phosphores- cent spots are scattered along the lower surface of Scopelus Humboldti and Be- noitit (Fig. 216). Another allied form is the Bombay duck or Hargodon (Fig. 216), that is luminous over its entire sur- face. The eyes of /fmopfs are adapted for receiving and perhaps emitting phos- phorescent light, and a curious phos- phorescent organ is found upon the head. Fic. 215.—Luminous organ Several species of the genus Echiostoma from side of Scopelus live in Australian seas at a depth of two (Fig. 216, 8). and a half miles. They are black, with long, fringed barbels, and below the eyes and in other places are several luminous spots. The Bathyophis ferox lives at a depth of nearly three miles, the greatest depth attained by any fish. It has long barbels or feelers, and rows of gleaming lights on its various parts. Allied is the Chauliodus (Fig. 216, 1).. The tips of the fins are luminous, while a row of luminous spots extends the entire length of the body. The little fishes Argyropelecus (Fig. 217) and Sver- noptyx are found in the Mediterranean. The body is extremely deep, rising suddenly and narrowing off to the tail. The luminous spots are in groups from the head to the tail. Perhaps allied to this group is a strange fish (Fig. 218) about twenty inches in length, with a pouch-like mouth and no fins, found in water over a mile deep in the Mediter- ranean, and also dredged off the American coast. It differs from all = Se Fee, "yOo} uo ‘snzagors ‘g | jrey e ree JO0j uo HhAOT 9 * YORUIO}S Sj Ul suzagorg YM ‘yoo} BuO ‘supousviy7 ‘b * J99J XIS ‘suporsojg ‘€ $sayout xIs “yonp Aequiog 10 ‘wopogunzy ‘11 ‘o1 ‘6 ‘z + BUOT JOO} aUO ‘supornvyD ‘1—"eas daap ay} jo saysy snouruny—‘orz ‘or a 9 "hid £ 4 17 vy} N) S = x Q Ry = Ss : RQ ee TROE FISHES. 175 other known bony fishes in having six pairs of internal brachial clefts, and consequently five pairs of gills. It has no swimming-bladder. Fic. 217.—Argyropelecus hemigymnus, twice natural size, saowing groups of luminous organs. Fic. 218.—The Pelican fish (Eusypharynx pelecanoides). Nin Oe RE Ss oe eee ete 176 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Pikes (Zsocide).—The pikes (Fig. 219) have long, depressed snouts, and with a single exception ( Zsox luctus) belong to the United States. The Mwuskallonge of the Great Lakes attains a length of four feet. FIG. 219.—Pike (Zsox). NoTeE.—All the family are voracious, often attacking ducks and even larger birds. They have been known to live over a hundred years. The pickerel is common in the various rivers and lakes of North America. A pike has been observed by an English naturalist to leap a foot out of water, and take a young bird from an overhanging limb. Flying-Fishes (Zxocetus).—The flying-fishes range from Cape Cod to Florida, and in many seas. The pec- toral fins are developed in a remarkable manner, so that they resemble wings. When the fish rises from the sea, the tail is worked vigorously, the wing-like pectorals vi- brate rapidly, and once clear of the water the fish soars away, with or without the movement of the fins, either in a straight line, or curving by a motion of the tail, often clearing a distance of a quarter of a mile (Fig. 223). Gar-Fishes (e/onide2).—The gar-fishes have long, slender bodies, the jaws narrow, pointed, and armed with extremely sharp teeth. They almost invariably lie at the surface. They are green above and silvery beneath. NotTe.—They attain a length of two feet and over. In the Pacific they are of large size, and when alarmed leap away ina series of bounds out of water, and very often, according to Moseley, occasion the death of natives wading about by accidentally striking them, the bill piercing the flesh like an arrow. The Hemirhamphus has only the lower jaw elongated, and is a light-bearer, having a gleaming, phosphorescent pustule at the tip of its tail. Tae. TRUE FISHES. 177 UAH UMA AAU | Fic. 220.—Sticklebacks and their nest (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Sticklebacks (Gasterosteidz).—Sticklebacks are com- mon in North American streams, and other species in ———— 178 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Europe (Fig. 220). The cheeks are mailed, and the single dorsal fin is preceded by spines, the number of which vary in different species. They live in salt or fresh water, are quite small, and noted for their care of young, and as nest-builders. Ribbon-Fishes ( Z7vachypteride).—In these fishes the body is long and ribbon-shaped, the dorsal fin extending nearly the entire length of the body, the caudal fins being placed obliquely. NoTe.—They are probably the origin of many of the sea-serpent stories. According to Professor Wilson, of the University of Glasgow, Lord Norbury’s smack Sovereign captured an allied form off the Scotch coast that was sixty feet in length, and from nine to ten inches in depth, the dorsal fin being six or seven inches deep. Remora ( Zcheneidide).—These fishes (Fig. 221), found in many seas, have upon the top of the head a flattened, oval disk, formed of pairs of transverse ridges or plates, == 0 SS SSS SS SS ———S —— FIG. 221.—Remora, showing the sucking-disk by which it clings to sharks. that are movable and directed obliquely backward, and form vacuum-chambers, the whole constituting a sucker, by which they attach themselves to sharks, turtles, and various large fishes. Note.—In Mozambique and other countries the remora is used to capture turtles. A ring and string are attached to the tail, by which the owner holds it, and when a turtle is sighted the fish is tossed over and attaches itself to the victim, that is soon hauled on board. THE TRUE FISHES. 179 Perches (fercidz)—The perches are carnivorous fishes of great variety, about one fifth inhabiting the fresh- water streams of various countries, while the others are marine. Perca fluviatilis is a common form in the United. States. They spawn during the winter, forming nests or hollows in the gravel near the shore, in which they deposit their eggs. Allied are the pond-fishes (Zxpomotis aureus), _ that are often richly colored. They are famous nest- makers, both male and female aiding in clearing away the refuse of the bottom where the nest is to be made. A de- pression is then formed and the eggs deposited and care- fully guarded. The spotted sunfish hibernates in the win- ter, burying itself in the mud. Bass (Zadracide).—The bass are mostly marine fishes. The striped-bass attains a length of five feet, and ranges from Nova Scotia to Florida. The white perch, yellow pike-perch, and striped lake-bass, are allied forms. The hard-scaled bass of Californian waters attains a length of six feet and a weight of four hundred pounds. Allied are the black sea-bass, groupers, etc. The Chromis (Fig. 222) of Lake Tiberias, that carries its eggs and young in its mouth, belongs to this group. Nearly all are important food-fishes. Big Drum-Fish (Pogoniis).—The drum-fish is a large, deep fish, attaining a weight of eighty pounds, and remarkable as a sound-producer.* * Sir John Richardson states that when aboard ship he has been kept awake by their drumming. The noises are made, according to some authorities, by beating their tails against the vessel, clapping to- gether their pharyngeal teeth, or due to the action of the pneumatic duct and swimming-bladder. The maigre is said to produce a flute- like note, audible in twenty fathoms. Many fishes utter sounds, but perhaps the grunt (7emulon), on the outer Florida reef, is most re- markable for the variation of the sounds, that are so loud and striking as to have caused the author, on more than one occasion, to toss the fish back for its pains. The dog-fish utters a croak or bark. The gizzard-shad, hippocampus, eels, cat-fish, porcupine-fish, sunfish, carp, gurnards, etc., utter sounds, either accidental or intentional. {80 BACKBONED ANIMALS. anal a] showing f fol a ch ii the mouth forced open by the brood within, and the young swimming in. i lf HN r i WA ii ee i Ha i. i oii FIG, 222.—Chromis of Lake Tiberias, the male of which carries the eggs and fully-developed young in its mouth: fhe “TRUE PISHES: 181 Dolphins (Coryphenide).—The dolphins (Fig. 223) are large-headed pelagic fishes, tapering to the tail; the dorsal fin high, and extending nearly the entire length of the body. NotEe.—They are justly celebrated for their wondrous colors, that .defy description, especially when dying, the various changes being due to the pressure of the convulsively contracted muscles on the chromato- phores or pigment-cells. Allied to them are the pompino and pilot-fishes (Vaz- crates). The latter are little fishes that resemble the blue- fish in shape, and accompany large fishes, several always being found with large sharks. Mackerel (Scomber).—The mackerel is one of the most valuable of the food-fishes. They are from ten to eighteen inches in length, and richly ornamented with steel-blue and pearly tints. They run in schools, ranging 182 BACKBONED ANIMALS. from Greenland to Cape Hatteras. During the winter they run in deep water, coming in-shore in May and June to spawn, each female depositing from 500,000 to 600,000 eggs, that rise to the surface and float about. After spawn- ing the fishes keep on up the coast until they meet cold — water, and at this time are taken all along the shore in vast numbers, entire fleets of vessels being engaged in the trade. Allied is the Spanish mackerel, the bonito, and the horse- mackerel, that attains a length of twelve feet and a weight of 1,200 pounds. NotTEe.—The mackerel’ is a light-giver (phosphorescent), and so bright is the light of great schools that the fishermen see it at night from aloft, and, by surrounding it with a seine, capture the school. The large allied Jacks (Cavanx), of the extreme outer Florida reef, in feeding, rush in thousands upon the beach of the keys, driving schools of small fish before them, leaping upon the sand, and striking the water, creating a sound that can be heard amile. The occurrence is called a “Jack-beat.” The fishes are utterly oblivious to their sur- roundings, and fishermen stand knee-deep in the almost solid mass, and spear or hurl them ashore with their hands. Pelicans, gulls, man- of-war birds, and human fishermen, all know the sound, and gather from far and near. Sword-Fishes (X7p/iide).— The sword-fishes (Fig. 224) have the upper jaw developed into a long, sword-like projection ; they attain a length of from eleven to twenty- five feet, and the different genera are found in yva- rious seas; they feed upon mack- erel and _ other Fic. 224.—Sword-fish (X7zphras). fishes, dashin gin- to the schools, cutting their victims down, and picking the dismembered parts up at leisure. The sail-fish (//zstophorus), of vari- ous seas, has an enormous dorsal fin, that appears like a sail when the fish is at the surface. The sword-fishes do OO, i a ee THE TRUE FISHES. 183 not breed on the North American shores, and a young one has never been seen here. The latter are often very unlike the adults. The young Aéstophorus (Fig. 225) has jaws almost equal, armed with teeth, and a long, tall dor-. sal fin. They are all valued as food-fishes. Fic. 225.—Young sword-fish ({/7s¢zo¢/orus), nine millimetres long. NoTEe.—The pugnacity of the sword-fish and its wonderful strength have been shown on many occasions. The yacht Red-Hot, of New Bed- ford, used by the United States Fish Commission, was sunk by a sword- fish in 1871. A sword-fish also penetrated the ship Queensbury in the _ same year, and the cargo had to be discharged in consequence. The ship Fortune was pierced in 1827, the sword penetrating copper, an inch board under-sheathing, a three-inch plank of hard wood, twelve inches of solid white-oak timber, and, lastly, the head of an oil-cask. (p= jae — —FDhSHS]SSS= Fic. 226.—Chetodon rostratus, shooting a drop of water at an insect. é 184 BACKBONED ANIMALS. For other accounts, and very complete history of the family, see ‘* Re- port of Fish Commission,” 1880. Angel-Fishes (Chetodontide).—The Chetodon rostra- tus of Java has elongated jaws, through which, according to Cobbold and others, it can shoot drops of water at in- sects on overhanging bushes (Fig. 226). The archer-fish ( Zoxotes) has a prolonged under jaw, and by the same au- thorities is also accredited with shooting powers. Surgeon-Fishes (Acanthuride)—The doctor-fish- es are common on the Florida reef, and are at times found farther north. They are from six to eight inches long, and have at the side of the narrow, keel-like por- tion of the tail a lance-like blade that can be thrown out at will, and proves a dangerous weapon.* . Climbing- Fishes (Ladyrin- thict)—These fish- es, mostly from the East Indies, are noted for their pow- ers of living out of water. To this end they have accesso- ry gill-cavities, or labyrinthine organs FIG. 227.—Anabas scandens : head, with 2, the (Fig. 227) that con- gill-cavity, laid open, and /, cavity contain- tain air and not wa- ing the foliated 1 inthi ; ing the foliated labyrinthine structure ter, as often stated. NoTE.—The Axaéas (see frontispiece) has been known to live out of water fcr five or six days, and makes long trips overland when the pools dry up. In certain parts of India they have been seen leav- ing the water in schools and crossing the country, using their pectoral * In specimens kept in an aquarium on the Florida reef they were found to be extremely pugnacious, striking their knives against all new-comers, lacerating and cutting them severely. PAE TRUE FISHES. 185 fins as feet. Daldorf, the Danish naturalist, captured an anabas climb- ing a palm—the dorvassus. This latter pertormance, however, is not a habit of the fish. Allied to the Anabas is the Gourami, a valued food- - fish, that, though originally from the fresh waters of Cochin- China, has been introduced into many other countries. Note.—They are famous nest-builders, forming a nest out of grass (fanzcum) and mud, about six days being required to erect it. From eight hundred to one thousand eggs are then deposited, the young ap- pearing in about two weeks, and remaining in the nest, only venturing out with the parents, who guard them with great vigilance. The Ophz- ocephalus, an allied Indian fish, also builds a nest for its young by biting off grass and weeds. It also burrows in the mud when streams dry up, but does not migrate overland. Tautogs (Ladride).—The nipper, or cunner, is the most familiar form of this family. The blackfish (Fig. 228), or tautog, is common in Long Island Sound, attaining Fic. 228.—Blackfish, or tautog. a large size. They spawn in May and June, depositing their eggs in the eel-grass and other weeds. Allied are the parrot-fishes of Florida, that have bony teeth fused into a parrot-like bill, with which they attack the branch coral. Note.—The related Acara of South America builds a nest in the sand, in which the eggs are deposited, while some species, after the eggs are laid, take them in their mouths. This is continued from time 186 BACKBONED ANIMALS. _ to time, and either eggs or newly-hatched young may be found in the cavity of the gills or the space inclosed by the branchiostegal mem- brane. The unhatched eggs, according to Agassiz, are always found in the same position in the curious nursery—namely, in the upper part ~ of the branchial arches, protected or held together by a special lobe or valve formed of the upper pharyngeals. Here they are held until the young are able to care for themselves. Sculpins (Cottide).—These are marine fishes of fan- tastic shape, each individual often varying in color. The head: and opercular bones are armed with sharp spines, and the fishes resemble the mossy rocks amid which they lie. The sea-raven, or yellow sculpin, is an allied form, attaining a length of two feet, and is remarkable for its grotesque coloring. The males of some species erect nests for their young. Allied are the sea-robins (Z7igida). The flying-robin (Dactylopterus) has enormous pectoral fins by which it soars over the water like the flying-fish. Sailors have been knocked over by them, and they are frequently blown aboard vessels. Gobies (Goliide).—The gobies are se) fishes, in which the thoracic ventrals are united, forming a hollow disk. They have no air-bladders, and are remarkable for their habit of leaving the water. The scaleless and black gobies and several other species are found on the western coast of North America. NoteE.—In the Periopthalmus (frontispiece), common at the Feejee Islands, Ceylon, and other localities, the pectoral fins are greatly devel- oped, the head blunt, and the eyes staring and prominent. They leave the water and hop along the shore so fast that it is difficult to catch them, resembling frogs more than fishes. They feed out of water, pre- ferring a shell-less mollusk, the Onchzdium (Fig. 72), and insects. The Boleopthalmus has similar habits. The blenny (P4o/is) also leaves the water at times. The black goby is said to build a nest for its eggs. Lump-Fish ((Cyclopteride).—The lump-fishes range from the polar regions to Cape Hatteras, and are clumsy and shapeless, covered with tubercles. Their pectoral THE FRUE FISHES. 187 and ventral fins unite in forming a disk or sucker by which they attach themselves to rocks. The Leavis is an allied form in which the ventral and pectoral fins also form a sucking disk. The Legidogaster has two sucking-disks. NoteE.—According to Gunther, the male lump-fish forms a nest, the female laying 150,000 eggs, and the former guarding them with jealous care. The young follow the male, or, according to Duncan, cling to it at first by their suckers ; later they are often seen at the surface of the water off shore on the New England coast. Star-Gazers ( Uranoscopide).—In these fishes the eyes are placed upon the top of the head. They are armed with spines capable of inflicting dangerous wounds, Al- lied are the toad-fishes (Batrachide) (Fig. 229). The fe- male toad-fish ex- cavates a hollow among the rocks, where the eggs are deposited, and in which the male takes its place, de- fending the nurs- FIG. 229.—Toad-fish Sarna tau). ery with great pugnacity. The young when hitched cling to the rocks by their yolk-bags. One of this family, from Panama, has a perfect poison-gland, the spine calling to mind the venom-fang of a snake. Cod (Gadidz).—The cod is one of the most valuable of all fishes. They attain a length of five feet and a weight of one hundred pounds. They have three distinct dorsal fins, and a barbel projects from the under jaw. Their range is from Cape Hatteras north on both sides of the Atlantic. In November they spawn in-shore along the New England coast ; each female depositing about 9,300,- 000 eggs that rise to the surface and float, the young ap- pearing twenty days later. In summer the fish seek the oT Sr i i i| 188 BACKBONED ANIMALS. cold waters from ten to fifteen miles off shore. The had- dock belongs to this family, and closely resembles the cod in habits and appearance. The tom-cod, ling, cusk, and pollock, are all allied forms. NotE.—The Chiasmodus (Fig. 216) is a deep-sea ally ; the top of the head, the under jaws, and the fins, all gleam with vivid phos- phorescence ; but, more remarkable yet, their jaws work independently and alternately as in the snakes, and the stomach is capable of such distention that they can swallow fishes twice their own size. Fic. 230.—Fierasfer and young, a fish that lives in holothurians and star- fishes. 4, adult; 2, young. The Fierasfer (Fig. 230, 4) is a silvery, eel-like form, rarely found out of the digestive canal of holothurians (see page 39). One species inhabits a star-fish (Cwcita). The young (Fig. 230, 2) pass through several changes be- fore assuming the adult form. Fic. 231.—Young flounder (P. Americanus), showing different positions of the eye as it moves over. (After Agassiz.) Flounders (P/euronectida).—When young, the floun- der is somewhat cylindrical ; has an eye upon each side, and swims vertically like other fishes. Later it sinks to meee TROL FISHES. 189 the bottom, lying upon its left side, the eye moving over, the successive stages of the movement being shown in Fig. 231, until both eyes are upon the right side, which is now the upper portion. The mouth is generally twist- ed to conform with the new position. On the lower side the pigment-cells are not developed, and the skin is white, but the upper surface is colored and susceptible to change and adaptation to the prevailing color of the bottom. NoTe.—This protection, afforded many animals, is due to the con- traction and expansion of the different colored pigment-cells that are contained principally in the cutis. They contract or expand according to the light reflected ; the impression is received by the eye and trans- mitted by the sympathetic nerves. A blind flounder does not adapt its color to the surroundings. By severing some of the nerves Pou- chet produced, at pleasure, a fish striped on one side and spotted on the other, etc. The experiment may easily be tried by placing floun- ders on white, brown, and black. bottoms, and changing them about ; so also with the octopus, anolis, and many others. Order VI. Pediculati. Walking-Fishes (4xzen- nariide).—These are pelagic fishes, floating about upon the surface of the sea among the vast fields of sargassum. The body is compressed, and three or four inches long ; the fins ornamented with barbels, so that they can be scarcely distinguished from the weed, which they also mimic in color. They are interesting nest-builders (Fig. 232), collecting the floating weed into balls as large as a cheese, connecting it by bands of a glutinous secretion probably taken from a special gland, as in the stickle- backs (Fig. 206). The eggs are attached on the sides and within. Allied are the anglers (Zophiide) (Fig. 233), so called from several spines on the head that have upon their ends barbels of flesh. The spines move up and down over the enormous mouth like a fishing-rod ; the waving bait attracting the smaller fishes, that often fall victims to the curious fisherman. Some of this fam- = area - 190 BACKBONED ANIMALS. ily, discovered by the “ Challenger,” are bedecked on all parts with fringes that exactly mimic sea-weed. The FIG. 232.—The Antfennarius marmoratus and its floating nest, formed of gulf-weed. Fish natural size, the nest reduced. young pass through many changes before assuming the adult form. 7HE TRUE FISHES. IQI FIG. 233.—The angler (Lophzus piscatorzus). Order VII. Lophobranchii. Sea-Horses (/7//0- campide).—These curious fishes have a fibro-cartilaginous skeleton. The gills take the form of tufted lobes on each side of the branchial arches. The snout and lower jaw are developed into a tube, at the end of which is the mouth. The tail is prehensile, hke an opossum’s, and by it they cling to plants, or swim upright by the dorsal fin alone, their movements being slow and deliberate. Notre.—They are wonderful mimics. The leaf-finned sea-horse, or Phyllopteryx eques (Fig. 234), from Australian waters, is provided with numbers of reddish streaming filaments that resemble plants, forming a perfect protection tothe fish as they float about. The male sea-horse receives the eggs into a pouch on its ventral surface. When they hatch, it presses the pouch against a stone or shell, and forces themout. The pipe-fish belongs to this group, and is also a mimic of the weed. The male receive the eggs from the female and carries them in a pouch, In the genera Werophis and Protocampus the pouch is wanting, the eggs being attached to the abdomen of the female. In the So/eno- 192 BACKBONED ANIMALS. stoma, an allied form of the Indian Ocean, the mother carries her eggs in a pouch formed by the ventral fins, they being held in place by long filaments extending from its sides. FIG. 234.—Sea-horse (Phyllopteryx egues), that is protected by its resem- blance to sea-weed. Order VIII. Plectognathi. General Characteristics. —In these fishes the scales are often modified into spines or plates. The ventral fins are generally absent. File-Fishes (Aal/istide).—The file-fishes are remark- ably deep and thin, and are often protected by plates or spines re- sembling those of the Ganoids. Allied are the trunk- fishes (Fig. 235) (Os- Fic. 235.—Trunk-fish (Ostracion Yale7). tracionid@), that are inclosed in a box or armor composed of bony plates or scales ; the tail, mouth, and fins being the only parts movable. hoe TRUE FISHES. 193 Porcupine-Fishes (7Z¢e¢radontidz).—These fishes are often covered with sharp spines, and when removed from the water they inflate themselves with air, resembling an oval, spiny balloon.* Each jaw is divided in the middle, . so that they appear to have four teeth. The diodons are allied forms. Sunfishes + (Orthagoriscide).—These are oval or ob- long in shape (Fig. 236). The dorsal and anal fins are Fic. 236.—Sunfish (Orthagoriscus mola). * They are often figured in this shape, but it is unnatural, and only attained when the fish is forcibly taken from the water. The Diodon antennatus has undivided, teeth-like mandibles, so power- ful that when swallowed by a shark they have been known, accord- ing to Darwin, to eat their way out through the stomach and skin of the fish. + They are sluggish fishes, rolling along at the surface, and are quite common on the eastern coast of the United States and in other seas. The body is covered with a thick mucus and infested by parasites, goose-barnacles even living in its mouth. Semper and Cobbold refer to its luminous qualities. They attain a height of six feet, and weigh five or six hundred pounds. The liver alone is valuable. 194 BACKBONED ANIMALS. alike and opposite each other, the caudal fin seemingly a mere projective rim of the entire hinder part of the body. Powerful muscles lead into it, but it is probably of little use in locomotion. : Specimens for Study.—The habits and exterior parts of fishes can be studied from minnows, sunfish, stickle- backs, etc., kept’in an aquarium or a glass vessel of any kind provided with aquatic plants to aérate the water. Dissections of small specimens are best made in a dish under water, when each part shown in Fig. 194 should be determined. With a delicate knife, the various organs can be exposed, as the brain, nostrils, ears, etc. In preparing a first skeleton, boil the fish, and reconstruct the skeleton as well as possible by (Fig. 193) marking all the parts and observing their relations one to another. In studying the circulation, inject into the veins some colored fluid, as ver- milion. It is extremely important to make a drawing of the fish or its parts. Works on Fishes for further reference. ‘‘Challenger Reports”; ‘Game-Fishes of the United States,” Killbourne text, by G. Brown Goode; “American Fauna,” by J. B. Holder, M.D.; “ Fishes of Massachusetts,” Storer ; Goode and Bean, “ List of Fishes of Massachusetts Bay and Adjacent Waters,” in ‘Bulletin of the Essex Institute,” vol. ii; ‘Reports of the United States Commissioner of Fisheries and Various State Commissioners ” ; ““Skates’ Eggs and Young,” F. W. Putnam, “ American Naturalist,” vol. iii, p.617 ; ‘‘ Gar-Pikes, Old and Young,” B. G. Wilder, “ Popular Science Monthly,” vol. ii; “ Respiration of Amia,” B. G. Wilder, “Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,” 1877, also in “ Popular Science Monthly” ; “‘ Blind Fishes of the Mammoth Cave,” ‘‘ American Naturalist,” vol. vi, p. 6, and “Report of Peabody Academy of Science,” 1871; ‘‘ List of Fresh- Water Fishes of North America,” D. S. Jordan, ‘‘ Bulletin of the Buf- falo Academy of Natural Science,” vol. iii ; ‘‘ Introduction to the Study of Fishes,’ Gunther; ‘ Development of Osseous Fishes,” Agassiz, “ Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,” vol. xiv ; and the works of Brehm, Wood, and Cassell. AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 195 Class I[V.—AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. SALAMAN- DERS, TOADS, etc. (Batrachia). General Characteristics——The Batrachians are amphibi- ous Vertebrates that breathe air by perfect lungs, though some adult forms have gills. They pass through a distinct metamorphosis. The higher forms have paired limbs, the toes not being clawed as in the reptiles. They are gen- erally oviparous. Skeleton.—In the frog the skull is closely connected . with the body, and differs from that of higher Vertebrates in being partly cartilaginous (Fig. 237). The bones of the limbs, when present, resemble those of higher Vertebrates. Fic. 237.—Skull of the frog (Rana esculenta), from below, showing teeth and the cartilaginous gir- en, ‘9 Fic. 238.—Bones of the right leg of a young toad, greatly This is shown in Fig. 238, BiecpEi oS ee s ; shown; the tibia and fibula which should be compared eeeeeot eee ae with the limb of the cat. ter Morse. ) Digestion——The mouth is generally large, and in the frog (Fig. 237) the upper jaws are armed with delicate, saw-like teeth. Tadpoles have Lt OE AE I ATE a OEE TT ES LYNE oe 196 _ . BACKBONED ANIMALS. the jaws enveloped in horny beaks. The liver is two- lobed, and the intestine short and straight, not enlarging into a stomach proper. Frogs and toads feed upon in- sects as a rule. Respiration.—At first Batrachians with few exceptions breathe by means of gills, as the fishes, the breathing- organs being external, as in the young of the curious fish Polypterus (Fig. 207). Frogs, toads, and newts have at first two sets of gills, an external and an internal pair. The former disappear first. As growth progress- es, they lose the latter also, then breathing by perfect lungs. . Circulation.—When young and possessing the red gills, blood is pumped to them as in the fishes, the heart then possessing two chambers, an auricle and a ventricle. Later, when the lungs appear, the auricle divides and the heart becomes three-chambered ; the blood, on account of its incomplete aération, is cold. Development.—The Batrachians pass through a distinct metamorphosis. The eggs are generally placed in or near the water, enveloped in some cases in a jelly-like mass, the young first being water-animals, breathing by external gills (Fig. 243), finally changing to the adult form. Order I. Trachystomata. Sirens (.Scvenide).—The sirens are long, slender creatures, with permanent gills. They have no hind-limbs; even the fore pair, which are either three- or four-toed, are weak and almost useless. The great siren (.S. /acertina) attains a length of three feet, is nearly black in color, dotted with light spots, the abdo- men pink or purple. It has four toes on each fore-limb, and is found in the muddy ditches and swamps of the Southern States. A small siren (Pseudobranchus striatus), with three toes, is found in the rice-field streams of Georgia. Order II. Proteida.—The Proteus (Fig. 239) is a AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 197 blind * Batrachian found in the subterranean caves of Adelsberg in Carniola, Austria. FIG. 239.—/frofeus of Carniola caverns, showing the external gills. Note.—They are pure white, have bristling gills and gill-openings, and small teeth. The limbs are four in number, the fore pair having three toes and the hinder pair two. They breathe under water by the gills and above by lungs, while experiment has shown that the former can be removed without injuring them. The mud-puppy (WVecturus) of the United States is a familiar form in the Mississippi country and upper New York. The body is broad and flat; each foot has four toes; they attain a length of two feet. They are extremely sluggish, living in muddy water. The eggs are about the size of peas. Order III. Tailed Amphibians (U7vode/a).—In this order the gills are generally only present in the early stages ; the body is slender and eel-like. The Congo snake (Fig. 240) has extremely delicate limbs, and inhabits the muddy waters of the Southern States. The hell- bender, or Wenotoma, found in the Mississippi Valley, pos- sesses permanent gills, is flat, with weak limbs and a prom- * The eyes of the Proteus are destitute of a crystalline lens, although they have a retina. 198 BACKBONED ANIMALS. inent tail. The gigantic Japanese salamander, over three feet in length, belongs to this order ; they are incorrectly FIG. 240.—Congo snake (Amphtuma means). supposed to pass through fire without harm. The largest sala- mander in the United States is the Amblystoma (Fig. 241). The history of Amblystoma mavortium is extremely remarkable. The young for a long time were con- sidered separate and distinct ani- mals. They lived in the elevated lakes, 8,000 to g,o00 feet above the sea, from Montana to Mexico, and were well known as axolotls, having external gills and true Fic. 241.—Axolotl, a creature living and breeding for generations in the water. Amblystoma coming out of the water—an axolotl which has lost its gills and breathes by lungs alone. AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 199 4 lungs, yet living in the water. Finally some of them were taken to Paris, where their gills shriveled, and they finally left the water, becoming true lung-breathing animals, the Amblystoma ; so the axolotl was only the larval form, that - owing to the extreme dryness of the atmosphere in Mex- ico never developed, but lived, multiplied, and died in the water. -” NoTe.—It is now known that in the lakes of Utah and Wyoming other species attain the adult form. The eggs are deposited in masses, the young appearing in July. They reproduce lost parts, legs and tail if removed appearing a few weeks later. They are useful scavengers, and are eaten by the Mexicans. If the lungs and gills of the axo- lot] are removed, it still can breathe by absorption through the skin, Frogs can breathe in a similar way. UW / yy SN eZ, Zz x ut Fic. 242.—The newt (Lzssotriton punctatus). Male and young in the water, female on the bank. The tritons, or newts (Fig. 242), are common in vari- ous parts of the world, and are often brilliantly colored. A spotted newt in England bends up the side of a leaf, gluing it together and forming a nest for a single egg, all aoe SS Se ee ee a 200 BACKBONED ANIMALS. the others being placed with equal care. Our common triton lays its eggs singly on submerged plants; others are connected by a thread, whether on land or in the water. . Order IV. Blind Snakes (Gymunophiona).—The ani- mals of this order are only snake-like in external appear- ance and in name, having elongated cylindrical bodies destitute of legs. The skin is smooth, containing imbed- ded scales, and some species secrete in small pores a vis- cous secretion similar to that of snails. The eyes are small and beneath the skin. The Cecilia of the tropics attains a length of several feet, and lives underground like the earth-worm, feeding upon insects. A Surinam species is viviparous ; the young are born in the water and have external, leaf-shaped gills, that are absorbed as they leave it. Order V. Tailless Amphibians (4zura)—We now come to the frogs and toads, in which the body is short, thick, and tailless in the adults, with four limbs, the hind- er pair adapted for leaping. The skin covers the body loosely, the muscles not adhering to it. The tongue is fastened to the front of the jaw, the tip pointing down the throat; as a rule, the lower jaw is without teeth. The eggs (Fig. 243, ¢) are deposited in jelly-like masses in some pool ; in two weeks, more or less, the young ap- pear, those of American toads being darker than those of frogs. They now cling to the weed by little suckers near the mouth parts, 1; branching tufts now appear on each side of the head—these are the gills, 2; the mouth soon appears, the tufted gills are absorbed, and we have the tadpole with six fish-like gill-slits. The legs are now seen, 4, first appearing as little bumps under the skin, and finally we have an animal resembling a lizard, with four legs and a long tail, 5; the latter is gradually ab- sorbed, 6; and the toad or frog crawls upon the shore in perfect form, 7. = 9 ( ‘ : ‘ ; ‘ AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 201 Fic. 243.—Metamorphosis of the frog. e, eggs; 1, tadpoles just out of the egg; 2, with outside gills; 3, with gills hidden, and beak-like mouth; 4, hind-legs appearing; 5, all legs grown, but fish-tail remaining; 6, put- ting on frog appearance, tail being absorbed ; 7, young perfect frog. Toads (4fonide).—The toads in the adult form are terrestrial, the toes are webbed, and the skin generally covered with warty protuberances. The eggs of Pelobates are deposited in the water in a loop. The male of the Alytes of Europe winds the eggs about its body in strings, and goes into the water, remaining until the young appear. The spade-foot is noted for its sudden appearance in cer- ‘tain localities. It remains but a day or so in the water, 202 BACKBONED ANIMALS. where the eggs are hatched in about six days, the young leaving the water in three weeks. The toads hibernate during the winter in burrows, and often have special nests for retreat during the day. j NotTe.—The tales concerning their poisonous properties, and power of living in solid rock, are fabulous. A South American species mews like a cat, while the European fire-bellied toad utters an extraordinary moan. ‘Toads are extremely valuable as destroyers of noxious insects, and are in turn preyed upon by snakes. Fic. 244.-—Flying tree-toad of Borneo (Rhacophorus). Tree-Toads (/ylidz).—The tree-toads are the most interesting of the order. They are all of small size, and have the tips of the fingers and toes provided with a disk al power e AMPHIBIOUS VERTEBRATES. 203 with which they cling to trees and any surface. Their habits are very singular. In tropical Africa, a species (Polypedates) deposit their eggs on leaves by the side of streams into which they are washed by the rain. In the Island of Guadeloupe there are no marshes, and the young tree-toads appear directly in the adult shape: this is called a suppressed metamorphosis. A tree-toad in Martinique carries its young tadpoles clinging to its back, presenting a strange sight. In the Andes, a toad (Wototrema) has a sac on its back in which the young are carried. The most remarkable tree-toad is a flier (A/acophorus, Fig. 244) from ~ New Guinea. Its toes and fingers are completely webbed so that they form parachutes, the little creature springing from limb to limb like a flying-squirrel. They are four inches in length, the web of the hind-feet expanding four square inches. Nearly all tree-toads are green or brown in color, adapted to the leaves or limbs of trees, thus escap- ing their enemies. /Zy/a micans exudes a luminous secre- tion that may serve to frighten its enemies, while a French species exudes when attacked a strong, pungent odor. VALUE. — The tree-toads protect the trees from noxious insects. fHyla arborea is used as a barome- ter, placed in a bottle, with a small ladder upon which they ascend in pleasant weather, remaining at the bottom if it prom- ises to be inclem- ent. In the Su- rinam toad (Fig. 245), allied to the Fic, 245.—Surinam toad, showing young escaping family, the male from the cells in the mother’s back. 204. BACKBONED ANIMALS. places the eggs on the female’s back, where they become imbedded, cells growing up around them, the mother lying in the mud until they appear, when a strange spectacle is seen, the young leaping from their prisons in all directions. ‘Frogs (anidz).—The frogs are the highest forms of the order. The upper jaw and palate have fine, sharp teeth (Fig. 237), and the throats of the males are provided with vocal sacs. The bull, marsh, and pickerel frogs are our common species. Their eggs are laid in masses in the water in April, May, and June. They hibernate in the mud during the winter. The bull-frog has been known to attain a length of two feet, and its noise can be heard for overa mile. They mimic the color of the rushes of the river-side in which they live. Their geographical dis- tribution is wide. One species is found living in the hot springs of Pisa where the temperature is 115° Fahr. They live upon insects, but the great Indian tiger-frog has been observed to capture sparrows. The American leopard- frog is one of the most active, leaping ten or twelve feet at a single bound, In the paradoxical frog of South America, the larva, instead of growing, decreases in size to attain the adult shape. VALUE.—The capture of edible frogs forms a valuable industry in France. : Works on Amphibians for further reference. “Smithsonian Reports”; Holbrook’s ‘‘ Herpetology of North America”; Allen’s “ List of Reptiles and Batrachians near Spring- field, Massachusetts ” ; Huxley’s “ Invertebrates.” Class V.-TRUE REPTILES. SNAKES, LIZARDS, ete. (Reptilia). General Characteristics—The true reptiles, snakes, lizards, and turtles, are distinguished from the Amphibians by having scaled bodies, clawed limbs, and by not passing through a metamorphosis or tadpole stage, developing an 4 PRUE: REPTILES. 205 directly from the egg. They have many features in com- mon with the birds, as true nostrils and a long windpipe. About three thousand living reptiles are known. The Skeletonn—The skeleton varies much in different orders. The vertebre in many of the snakes consist of three hundred different bones working on a ball-and-socket plan. The limbs in the various forms are adapted for walk- ing or swimming, as the case may be. Digestion.—With the exception of the turtles, that have a horny mandible, the reptiles all possess sharp teeth, ar- ranged either in rows or separate cavities, that are adapted for crushing, cutting, or holding prey. The stomach of snakes is but little removed from an ordinary intestine. In the crocodiles it resembles the gizzard of birds. Circulation—tIn the crocodile the heart is four-cham- _ bered as in the birds, while in other forms there is, besides the two auricles that are always present, but one ventricle. The blood is imperfectly aérated, consequently the reptiles are cold-blooded. Respiration.—The reptiles breathe by lungs alone; and here we first find a true nostril, as in the birds and higher forms. In the snakes the lung is single. Development.—The reptiles are oviparous, the egg-shell generally being soft and crisp. Some are ovoviviparous, or the young are developed before the egg is laid. Order I. Snakes (Ophidia). General Characteristics. —The snakes are distinguished by their long, cylindrical, footless bodies. The bones of the backbone or verte- bree join each other on a ball-and-socket plan (Fig. 246, 6, c), and often number 4oo. The bones of the lower jaw are merely connected by ligaments, e¢, allowing great ex- tensibility. The teeth are not set in sockets, and point backward, being only used in holding prey. The tongue is extensile, and held within asheath. The eyes are with- out movable lids, hence the staring expression of all snakes. The gliding motion is effected by the successive advancing 206 BACKBONED ANIMALS. of the large ventral or lower scales. The skin is moulted once a year, the process being assisted by the growth of casting-hairs (Fig. 247) beneath the skin, that push it Cae A il aa AN rr if IAT RIAN \ Fic. 246.—Skeleton of a snake. s/, spinous processes of the joints ; 7, ribs ; g, quadrate bones, joining upper and lower jaws; é, front of the lower jaw, where there is an elastic band in the place of bone; 4, ball end of joint, facing the tail; c, cup end of joint, facing the head. oO = 2 a 9 9 Ban Seow a Oo Sj FIG. 247.—Casting process in the skin of the adder. / 4, the casting hairs; the portion of skin above them is pushed away, and the hairs themselves form the ridges on the new skin. upward. In the North they hibernate in win- ter, and in the South pass through a summer sleep. Over one thou- sand species are known, one hundred and thirty species being found in North America. The Vipers (M%- peride).— About twenty- two species of these snakes are known. In the puff-adder, of the Cape of Good Hope, the mmr REP TILES. poison-fangs are extremely large, and the snake is much dreaded. They are confined to the Old World. Rattlesnakes (Crotalide). — In this family are the rattlesnakes (Fig. 248), moccasins, and copperheads, forty species in all, and extremely poisonous. The upper jaws con- 207 Hee SSaas tain few teeth, but f soso have needle-like, ; recurved, grooved pes fangs, that are Fic. 248.—Rattlesnake (Crotalus). raised at the slightest alarm. The poison-glands (Fig. 249) are at their base, and when the mouth closes upon an enemy the Fic. 249.—Jaw of a rattlesnake. /*/, poison-fangs ; g, gland secreting poison ; ¢, canal leading from gland to base of fang; Z, harmless tongue ; 5s, saliva-glands. muscles that ef- fect it press the gland, forcing the poison into the wound. They have a pit or de- pression between” thenostrils. The true rattlesnakes farely. excecd four feet in length, and have the tail terminat- 208 BACKBONED ANIMALS. ing in horny, button-like rattles (Fig. 248), incorrectly supposed to indicate the age of the snake. The rattle is sounded at the approach of danger. The bite of the rattlesnake is often fatal if no remedy is at hand. They hibernate in the winter, and the young have been seen passing into the mouth of the mother for protection. The fer-de-lance of the West Indies is deadly. It is dark-yellow or brown, and attains a length of six feet. It is viviparous, giving birth to fifty or sixty young. Moccasins.—Water-moccasins are common in the South- ern States, and are much dreaded. They are about two feet in length, dark brown in color, with transverse bars of black, and are extremely vindictive. The copperhead is also dreaded. Both have been observed to receive their young into their mouths, and so protect them. VALUE.—Rattlesnake-oil is valued, and crvofalin is obtained from — the snake. Oil of the copperhead is also used in medicine. Rattle- snake leather is used in bags, cases, etc. Sea-Snakes (/ydrophide).—These snakes, fifty spe- cies of which are known, are found in the Indian, China, Fic. 250.—Platurus vulcanicus, a sea-snake living in the fresh-water lake of Taal (Luzon), and having a paddle-like tail. (After Semper.) and Australian seas, and have been seen near Panama. They only approach the shore to breed, and, with one ex- ception (Fig. 250), are marine. They are extremely poison- PRO REPTILES. 7. 2GG ous. The tail is laterally compressed, forming a paddle, with which they swim. They attain a length of five or six feet, and are viviparous. Pro- fessor Semper found one at Mindanao in the rocks, cov- ered by twenty young, that were all two feet long. Allied are the Z/apide, among the most deadly of all snakes. The fangs are erect and fixed. The S£iaps, of Central America, is richly col- ored. The Vaza haje, of Af- rica, has a hood that is erect- ed when it is excited. To the early Egyptians it was an emblem of divinity. The co- bra,* or hooded snake (Fig. 251), is much feared in In- : z . . FIG. 251.—Cobra, showing the dia. When enraged, it raises head. a curious hood about the head by drawing forward its anterior ribs. NoTE.—Over 19,000 persons were killed by cobras in India in 1880, and 2,000 head of cattle. During this time, 212,776 cobras were killed by snake-killers, paid by the Government. Since 1870, 200,000 persons have been killed by these reptiles alone. According to the Emperor of Brazil, permanganate of potash is one of the most successful anti- dotes to the venom of snakes. Large doses of whisky or brandy, enough to intoxicate, are generally an antidote to the bite of the rattle- snake. Pythons (Pythonide).—This family comprises the largest and most powerful of all the snakes ; forty-six spe- * Snake-charming in India is supposed by many to be a trick, but this is not so in all cases. A missionary in Burmah found that he could exert the curious influence over the cobra, and handle it without fear ; he performed the same feats as the native jugglers. 210 BACKBONED ANIMALS. cies are known, mostly inhabiting tropical regions. The Python is found in Africa and the East Indies. The rock python is a yellowish-brown color above, and inhabits the rice-fields. It attains a length of twenty-six feet, and de- vours large animals. The female lays about fifteen eggs, coiling about them,* her body increasing in temperature, and in this inclosure the young hatch in about fifty-six days. They frequently find their way into native houses. The natives seize them by the tail and rush off, dashing them against the trees. The boa-constrictor is a native, of tropical America, and ranges from ten to forty feet Fic. 252.—Anaconda, or water-boa. in length. According to Wallace, Dr. Gardner measured one of the latter length that had swallowed a horse, and that they devour cattle is, he conceives, not improbable. Some of them have rudimentary hind-limbs, or spur-like hooks, that are used when the snake hangs from trees. The boas burrow in the ground. The anaconda (Fig. 252), or water-boa, is common in tropical South America, attaining a length of twenty feet, and preys upon large animals. They enter the water freely, and when hang- ing from the trees so resemble vines, their colors being sombre, that they are perfectly protected. Numbers of * This habit was observed at the London Zodlogical Garden. 7 TRUE, REPTILES. 25k authentic cases are known of boas having attacked human beings. VALUE.—The oil of the large boas is much used for various pur- poses ; the skin is tanned, and made into boots, saddle-cloths, bags, etc. — Allied are the ground fanged snakes. The Tree- Snakes (Dendrophide) have long, slender bodies, adapted for movement in the trees, and in many their rich green coloring affords them complete protection. They are tropical, and often found coiled up in birds’ nests, About thirty-five species are known. The whip-snakes are allied forms. Fresh-Water Snakes (omalopside).—In this family of fifty species are snakes that live more or less in fresh-water streams, and are found in all parts of the world, but especially in the East. The desert snakes are allied forms, and the curious Dasypeltis, that lives upon eggs, swallowing them entire. In the Columbrida, represented by two hundred and sey- enty species, which include many of our American snakes, there are no rudimentary limbs. Both jaws are armed with teeth. The striped snakes, Zutenia, a common form in the Middle States, attain a length of two feet ; hiber- nating in holes or burrows during the winter, appearing in great numbers in early spring. They prey upon toads, frogs, and other small animals. The garter-snake is vivipa- rous, and often protects its young by receiving them into its mouth. They are extremely prolific, bearing at times seventy-eight young. The viviparous spotted spreading adder is even more remarkable in this respect, producing eighty-seven young at times. The hog-nosed snakes of North America have a short, thick body, with a large head. The black-snakes are a lustrous, metallic black, and attain a length of five feet. They are harmless, preying upon animals either in the trees or on the ground. The crack- whip snakes are incorrectly supposed by some to seize their tails in their mouths and roll along. 212 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Order II. Lizards (Zacertilia). General Character- istics —The lizards (Fig. 253) are scaly reptiles with cy- Pr if VK? ve Sp sige ees NE Sey j= VU FEIN: ‘3 IB Sa) AB ea) Ge is PIE é¢ Q ft\ ex » FIG. 253.—Skeleton of a lizard. 5s, spinous processes, which in the tortoise are flattened into plates; 7, ribs; s, shoulder-bone; @, upper arm; é, elbow ; /a, forearm; 4, hip-bone; ¢%, thigh-bone; 4, knee; /, bones of the leg ; 7, quadrate bone between upper and lower jaw. lindrical bodies, long, slender tails, and have usually two pairs of feet. The jaws are not extensible, as in the snakes, and are armed with sharp, conical teeth. The tongue is free, long, and sometimes forked. All lizards are ovipa- rous. Their eggs are deposited either in the ground or in hollow trees. About seventeen hundred living species are known ; eighty-two species are found in North America, north of Mexico. Chameleons (Chameleonide).—These strange lizards (Fig. 254) are found in Africa and Asia, thirty species being — known. The body is com- ), pressed, the ‘ skin rough, the ‘ny tail round and Ni Ay ie i re fs a ‘) prehensile ; the SEE | | 2 y tongue is cylin- FIG. 254.—The Ses showing tongue. drical, and ca- POL REPTILES. 213 pable of projecting five or six inches, and covered with a sticky secretion for the capture of insects. The eyes are large, with a circular eyelid, and are independent of each other. ‘Their five toes are arranged in two oppo-— site groups of pincers. Their movements are slow and deliberate, and their power of adapting their color to that of their surroundings is remarkable. The eggs are round, white, and deposited in the ground. In the Flying-Liz- ards (Agamidz) of the East Indies (Fig. 255) the tail is long and snake-like, while between the limbs extends a membrane supported by the much-prolonged fifth or sixth hind-ribs. The female depos- its three or four eggs at a time. The frilled lizard of Queens- land has hind-legs adapted for leaping. The Moloch horridus of Australia is a sluggish form, completely covered with large and small spine-bearing tuber- cles. The Iguana* is found in the tropical portions of North and South America. It attains a length of five feet, and is ex- tremely powerful, inflicting ter- . ee ed Aunts rible blows with its tail. They dragon (Draco), showing live among the trees, subsisting membrane supported by ribs. upon the fruit, and are sought after as an article of food. The Anolis (Fig. 256) of the Southern States belongs to this family, and is noted for its changes of color. The horned lizard (Fig. 257) of Mexico and the Western States is covered with spines, * John G. Bell, the naturalist and companion of Audubon in many of his expeditions, saw an iguana rush across the surface of a river in Central America, keeping fox the surface by the lightning-like rapidity of its movements. A very few minutes sufficed to cross. 214 BACKBONED ANIMALS, and the head ornamented with spikes. They run with great rapidity, and so resemble the dry ground that they are indistinguishable a few feet away. They live upon insects, and are easily domesticated. Allied to the iguanas is the great sea-lizard of the Galapagos Islands. They attain a length of four SES feet. Their tails are flattened Se and their feet partly webbed. They A take to the water readily, living upon © sea-weed. A land species lives in burrows. The Wall-Lizards (Geckoti- de)* are short, flattened, and slow i * The middle of each caudal vertebra FIG, 236.—The Ameri- has a thin cartilaginous partition. At this can chameleon (d4zo- point the tail is often broken, and eventu- — lis principalis), ally renewed, sometimes two tails growing. According to Gunther, they are enabled to throw off their tails spontaneously when pursued, the wriggling offcast attracting the attention of the pursuer, while the gecko escapes. They 200 REPTILES. 24% of motion (Fig. 258). The toes are provided with cling- ing ridges of bristles, by which they walk upon the walls in search of insects, though in the forest species this ar- rangement is sometimes absent. The jaws have small teeth, and the tongue is not extensible. He nang “Wel i \j t ntl Ld i : a Bate ld Fic. 257.—Horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum). Fic. 258.—Gecko. Dorsal view and side view of head. The Scinks (Scnkide) are spindle-shaped (Fig. 259) and covered with smooth scales. The five-lined and red- headed scinks are common in the Southern States. The Glass Snakes (Chalcide) have no feet, the body being serpent-like (Fig. 260). The glass snake Fic. 259.—€cink (Sczncus officinalis), showing structure of the feet. have also been seen devouring their own cast-off skin and wriggling tail. The geckos of the East Indies uttera shrill cry. The leaf-tailed gecko is one of the most curious. One species is said to be luminous. _ They are all insect-eaters. Two hundred species are known. 216 BACKBONED ANIMALS. of the Southern and Western States attains a length of three feet, and is so fragile that the slightest blow severs it in sections. The upper surface is yellowish green spotted with black. Heloderma ( Helodermide). — The “Gila mon- ster,” or [eloder- ma (Fig. 261), is the largest lizard of North America, attaining a length of three feet, and enjoying the distinction of being the only poisonous member of the order. In appearance they are repulsive, being covered with scales, the whole resembling a flinty, faceted armor. The general color is black, marked with yellowish-orange or white interspaces. The tail is Fic. 260.—Glass snake (Ophisaurus ventralis). cylindrical and clumsy. Their movements are slow and uncertain, resembling those of a young alligator. The teeth are fissured, and at the bases of the grooves are the ducts from which the poisonous saliva passes into the wound.* After biting, the heloderma appears sluggish, * According to Mitchell and Reichert, the physiological action of the poison is quite different from that of snake-poison. The latter kills by paralyzing the respiratory center, while the poison of the helo- derma paralyzes the heart. When injected subcutaneously it causes no local injury, the effect being to arrest the motion of the heart, which slowly becomes contracted, and the spinal cord paralyzed. It is not necessarily fatal to human beings, though an American scientist, after being bitten, was barely able to call assistance. In experiments tried _ by Sir John Lubbock, a live frog when bitten died almost immediately in convulsions. A Guinea-pig, bitten in the hind-leg, died in three minutes, and young rats succumbed even more quickly. The specimen kept in the New York Zoélogical Garden thrived upon hard-boiled eggs. ii eh i i ee ee eee a — eeeeEeEeeeeeeeeerl lee TRUE REPTILES. 217 like many of the poisonous snakes. They occur in Mex- ico, Arizona, and Lower California. Allied are the water- Fic. 261.—Heloderma, the only known poisonous lizard. lizards ( Varanide), the huge monitors, seven feet in length, the gigantic lace-lizard, and others. 10 218 BACKBONED ANIMALS. The Double- Walkers (Amphisbenide) (Fig. 262) are found in tropical America, often in the nests of ants. They move in either direction with equal ease. Thirteen species are known in Asia, Africa, and South America. ‘ 71 LHI i S Fic. 262.—Amphisbena Suliginosa. Order III. Turtles (Chelonia). General Characteris- ttcs).—The turtles (Fig. 263) are distinguished by the shell or box-like covering that envelops them. The upper part forms the carapace, 7, the lower the plastron, A/, the two constituting a covering into which the head, tail, and limbs can be more or less withdrawn. The generally arched carapace is formed by the greatly expanding ribs, these and the vertebre being fixed and immovable. The plas- tron is generally considered a greatly expanded sternum.* The outer surface of the shell is made up of scales or plates, or a leathery substance, as in the case of the soft- shell tortoise. The jaws are toothless, being armed with a horny beak, as in the birds. The eyes have three lids; * Some naturalists consider it a dermic growth. tle, or Sphargis PROE REPTILES. 219 Fic. 263.—Skeleton of the tortoise, from below. 7, joints of the backbone grown together; 7, ribs formed into a solid cover ; s4, shoulder-bones ; h, hip-bones covered by carapace, which has grown over them ; J/, plas- tron, or under cover. the limbs are adapted to aquatic or terrestrial life, as the case may be. About forty species are known in North America, north of Mexico. Marine Turtles (Cteloniide).— This family has a wide distribution in warm and tropical seas; five spe- cies are known. ; The leather tur- (Fig. 264), is the rarest and largest known. The shell is a thick, leathery skin, composed of six longitudi- nal plates, form- in g raised rid ges. Fic. 264.—Leather turtle (Spiargzs). 220 BACKBONED ANIMALS. The eye-openings are placed vertically. They attain a length of eight feet, and a weight of twelve hundred pounds.* The loggerhead + is nearly as large. Its shell is made up of i x scales. They & rh) fi! suf if fp <= =sS breed upon Loggerhead Key, Florida, and other lo- calities, bury- ing their eggs in the sand, leaving the sun —= to hatch them. Fic. 265.—Green turtle. The digging | and covering is done by the hind-flippers. The green turtle (Fig. 265) is somewhat similar, though more delicate, the head and flippers smaller. They feed upon alge, particularly Zos- tera marina. The hawkbill{ (Fig. 266) is distinguished * The gigantic extinct Protostega gigas was allied to the Sphargzs. It measured seventeen feet between the fore-arms or flippers, and was remarkable for the rudimentary character of the bones in the adult. + The loggerhead is extremely powerful, and I have found it diffi- cult to turn one with the help of two men. By seizing them by the shell just over the head I have been carried a long distance in the water at a rapid rate. The steeds thus experimented upon were kept in an inclosure half a mile long and eight feet deep, and when asleep on the bottom could generally be caught by diving. Owing to their sluggish natures they often fall a prey to sharks to the extent of their flippers. I have caught them in the Gulf Stream with these organs entirely bitten off. } Though the hawkbill is a vegetable feeder as a rule, they some- times attack the Physalia (Fig. 19). One, two feet long, was found by the author floating on the surface, insensible, its head covered by the blue tentacles. By scraping them off with a knife the turtle recovered, and was kept as a pet for a long time. FROE REPTILES. Z2aK by its more elegant shape, hooked bill, and large scales, having, like all the others, long, fin-like flippers. . VALUE.—Thescales of the hawkbill are greatly valued in com- merce. Oil from the green turtle’s eggs is used in dressing leath- er, and in the manufac- ture of soap. The eggs are not the luxuries gen- erally supposed, and are best when immature, and dried in the sun. Fic. 266.—Hawkbill turtle. In the soft-sheiled turtles (Zrionychide) the body is flat and circular, the shell being supple, like rubber or leather. They are carnivorous, and one species is common in the St. John’s and other rivers of Florida and the South- ern States. The American species are generally one foot in length, but East Indian specimens have been caught weigh- ing two hundred and forty pounds. Allied are the snap- ping-turtles (Chelydide), forty-four species of which are known. The shell is elevated in front and low behind ; the head large, and jaws strongly hooked, the neck long and snake-like. They attain a length of five feet, and are the most ferocious of their kind. The three American species range from Florida to Canada. The eggs are ‘spherical, and deposited in the ground. The land turtles (Zestudinide) have high, arched shells, a broad sternum, and elevate the body in walking, instead of dragging it along. One hundred and twenty-six species are known. The terrapin, painted, spotted, and box turtles are familiar American forms. The latter are remarkable in that the plastron is composed of two parts, movable upon a single axis, so that the soft parts of the animal can be completely boxed in. They are found in dry woods, and attain a great age. 222 BACKBONED ANIMALS. NoTE.—The most remarkable land tortoise is the Testudo nigra, or elephant turtle, of the Galapagos Islands. They attain a length of six feet, and eight men can barely lift the largest. They feed upon the cactus, and their paths from the springs can be seen all over the islands. Though large and clumsy, they can travel eight miles in three days. The eggs are spherical, and larger than a hen’s egg. They are either buried in the sand or dropped among the rocks. During the breeding- season the male utters a hoarse roar or bellow. They are valued for their flesh and oil. The Colossochelys is an extinct land tortoise of the Tertiary period, found in India. They were twenty feet in length, the shell being twelve feet long and six feet high, and would serve as a covering for six or seven men. Order IV (Rhynchocephalia).—This order is represented by a single animal—the Sphenodon punctatus, or Hatteria, of New Zealand. Its general appearance is like the iguana, having a similar row of dorsal spines. It attains a length of three feet, and forms a burrow, lining it with grass, that is also occupied by three species of birds—petrels, etc. The lizard occupies one side of the nest and the birds the other. It is nocturnal in its habits, and lives to some extent upon the food the birds bring in to their young. Order V. Crocodiles (Crocodilia). General Charac- teristics—The crocodiles and alligators form the highest order of existing reptiles. The brain and heart closely resemble those of the birds. Their skin is covered with bony plates, and the teeth are lodged in separate sockets ; the nostrils can be closed, and the feet are partly webbed.: They lay twenty or thirty eggs, that are buried in the sand- and hatched by the sun. Alligators (Alligatoride).—The alligators,* of which ten species are known, are distinguished by having both * Their nests are sometimes in the sand or in mounds of decayed vegetation. In the colder months they hibernate in the mud. In Nicaragua they have been known to seize human beings, pigs, and even horses, often drifting down upon their prey, their bodies resem- bling submerged logs. Their voice is a loud bellow like that of a bull. EROE KEP TILES. 223 large front teeth as well as the canines fit into pits in the upper jaw. They are common in the Southern Unit- ed States and tropical America, attaining a length of eighteen feet. VALUE.—Skin as leather, oil, and musk. Crocodiles (Cvocodilide)—These reptiles are found in the rivers and marshes of nearly all tropical countries. The lower canine teeth fit into notches in the upper jaw, instead of pits. The muzzie is sharp and narrow. The hind-legs have a fringe of compressed scales behind, and the toes are webbed nearly to the tip. Twelve species are known. A crocodile (Crocodilus acutus) (Fig. 267) is, Fic. 267.—Head of Florida crocodile (Crocodclus acutus), from life. though not generally known, quite common in the vicinity of Biscayne Bay, Florida, and differs much from the alli- gator in appearance and habits, living in salt marshes as well as fresh, and being more or less marine.* * The crocodile shown if Fig. 267 was fourteen and a half feet in length, and was shot after being followed three successive winters. The specimen is now in the Museum of Natural History, Central Park. When shot and speared it towed the boat for some distance, and made a desperate resistance, finally diving into a hole in the bottom. Its tail protruding, a rope was fastened to it, and tied to a bent tree, and the following morning the monster was found swinging partly in the air, 224 BACKBONED ANIMALS. In the breeding-season the female utters a bark like a dog. The eggs, somewhat resembling those of a goose, are deposited among leaves in heaps, and when hatched the young are led away by the mother and fed upon masticated food. The India crocodiles in the dry sea- son hibernate in the mud, which hardens about them. A tent pitched unwittingly over such a case was once overthrown by the awakening hibernator. Allied are the long-nosed crocodiles (Gavialide), three species of which are known, inhabiting the Ganges and rivers of Borneo and North Africa. They attain a length of thirty feet. VALUE.—The teeth, flesh, hide, and oil, are all valued. Specimens for Study.—In the spring months the eggs of frogs and toads can be found in pools, and should be placed in an aquarium or some vessel, and the changes watched from day to day. In this way the history of the animal can be followed from the egg to the adult, and the habits, etc., observed. Eggs hardened in alcohol can be cut into sections and examined. The simple skeleton of ‘the frog or toad affords an excellent object for study, and should be prepared, the bones labeled and compared with those of allied and higher forms, and the points of differ- ence noted. Collections of the fauna of a neighborhood or country are always valuable, and should comprise the eggs, tadpoles in all stages up to the adult, preserved in alcohol, and marked with locality, name, sex, etc. A book of reference should also be kept, in which notes, observa- tions, and sketches should be entered. and dispatched. A smaller specimen, that was taken into the boat and supposed to be dead, suddenly recovered, upsetting it, and throwing the occupants into the water. The animals are extremely wily, and capture birds by jerking them under water by the legs ; and, to show their marine habits, specimens have been seen on the reef four miles from land. BIRDS. 225 Works on Reptiles for further reference. “Smithsonian Reports” ; “‘ Tropical Nature,” Wallace ; ‘‘ List of Reptiles and Batrachians near Springfield, Massachusetts,” Allen ; Holbrook’s “‘ Herpetology of North America”; Agassiz, “Embryology | of Turtles,” in ‘‘ Contributions to Natural History of the United States”; “‘ Check List of North American Reptiles and Batrachians,” E. D. Cope ; “ Serpents,” ‘“‘ Popular Science Monthly,” vol. iv. Class VI.—BiRpDs (Aves). General Characteristics.—From the reptiles we pass to the birds, that may be characterized as warm-blooded feathered Vertebrates, having the fore-limbs adapted for flight, the jaws inclosed in horny beaks, and the bones hollow. Skeleton.—In examining the skeleton of a bird (Fig. 268), we first notice its extreme lightness. This is due to the fact that many of the bones that are filled with mar- row in other animals are in the birds hollow air-chambers. The skull-bones in the adult bird form a single piece, and except in certain extinct forms (Fig. 274) the jaws are toothless and inclosed in horny cases called beaks. The lower jaw is not joined directly to the skull as in man, but to » a quadrate bone (Fig. 268, 7), as in the reptiles and batra- chians. The neck, consisting of from nine to twenty-four vertebrz, is extremely long and flexible, so that the bird can trim its feathers on any part of the body; a knot can almost be tied in the neck of the flamingo. The (dorsal) vertebrz, from six to ten in number, are firmly joined (anchylosed) in the flying birds; but in the non-fliers, as the emu and ostrich, they are movable one upon another. The vertebree between the dorsal and those constituting the tail (caudal) are joined, forming a single bone called the sacrum, which, joined with the innominate bones, forms the pelvic arch to which is attached the first bone of the leg or thigh (Fig. 268, #2). To the thigh or fernur is at- tached the tibia, to which a small fibula is joined. The 226 BACKBONED ANIMALS. position of the knee is seen at & ; then follows the foot, 7, or tarso-metatarsus, that in wading birds is very long, and in powerful fliers, as the man-of-war hawk (Fig. 283), very short. The heel, 4, is far from the ground, and to the foot-bone are attached the two, four, or five toes, as the Fic. 268.—Skeleton of a sparrow. g, quadrate bone, peculiar to reptiles and birds and some amphzbia; 6, breast-bone; #, merry-thought or collar-bone ; c, coracoid bone, over which the tendon works to pull up the wing; Z, plowshare-bone, on which the tail grows. Wing-bones: a, upperarm; e, elbow; /a, fore-arm; w, wrist; 7, thumb; 4a, hand. Leg-bones: ¢#, thigh-bone; 4, knee; /, lower part of leg; %, heel; 74 foot. case may be, that are armed with scratching or clinging claws that extend in different directions. Generally there are three before and one behind, as in Fig. 268; others have two before and two behind, or, as in the swifts, all four extend to the front. To prevent birds from falling while asleep on a perch, there is a wonderful arrangement BIRDS. 227 of the muscles, a number extending down the leg from the pelvis to the outside of the knee, then winding around and blending with the principal muscles of the toes. When the bird settles in roosting, the leg is bent upon the thigh, — the weight of the bird acting as a lever that tautens the muscles and draws the toes and claws tightly about the limb or roost ; thus the bird can sleep while standing upon one leg without fear of falling, being held fast by the weight of its body. ‘The tail or caudal vertebrz are mov- able to some extent and end in the plowshare-bone, Af, ‘that supports the large quill-feathers of the tail. On the under portion of the skeleton we note the sternum, 4, or breast-bone, to which the wing-moving muscles are at- tached. In the flying birds, as Fig. 268, it is keeled and has a sharp edge, thus offering a greater surface of attach- ment, but in birds like the ostrich the keel is absent. — Above the sternum are the ribs, that vary in number from seven toeleven pairs. In front of the sternum the clavicles join and form a V-shaped bone called the lucky or collar bone (Fig. 268, m). The coracoid bone over which the tendon works to pull up the wing, is seen at ¢, and this and the scapula and clavicle constitute the “ pectoral arch” to which the humerus, a, or first bone of the wing, is at- tached. The position of the elbow is seen at e ; then fol- lows the fore-arm (ulna and radius), fa. The position of the wrist is shown at w ; then follow the carpal and meta- carpal bones, which are joined at the extremities. At the upper end of the metacarpal bones there is a rudimentary thumb (Fig. 268, 7). It has a single joint and supports what is called the false wing. The end of the wing (Fig. 268, ia) corresponds to the hand, and three rudimentary fingers are generally observed, that correspond to the first and third fingers of the human hand. The fingers only in rare cases are clawed, and the arm, that in other animals is used for digging, clinging, or crawling, is now only used to propel the bird through the air or water as the case may be. 228 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Digestion—As the birds have no teeth, they either swallow their food entire or tear it with the bill or claws. The digestive organs are shown in Fig. 269, 1. The food passes down the gullet and lodges in the crop, ¢, that is easily felt in chickens that have gorged themselves with corn. From here it passes to the true stomach just be- low, and is brought in contact with a secretion called gastric juice. From here it passes to the gizzard, g, that to all intents and purposes is an internal set of teeth or grinders, being a muscular sac with a hard, horny lining in which the grain or other food is completely ground to a pulp. To assist in this operation chickens and other grain-eating birds swallow gravel and pebbles. In the flesh-eaters, as the eagles, the coat of the gizzard is not so thick. The experiment has been tried of feeding gulls on grain,* and it was found that the gizzard assumed the ap- pearance and functions of that of true grain-eaters. When the food is thoroughly ground, that which is not absorbed as fuel for the system enters the small intestine and is finally rejected. , Circulation.—In the birds we meet for the first time a warm-blooded animal, the mean temperature of the blood, which is red, being 110° or 112°. This is due to the fact that the birds are extremely active, and that the blood is not only aérated in the lungs, but in the air-sacs of the various parts of the body. Again, the feathers are poor conductors of heat, and tend to keep up the body tempera- ture. The heart is now four-chambered, composed of two auricles and two ventricles. In circulating, the venous blood enters the right auricle, flowing from here to the right ventricle, from which it passes through the pul- monic artery to the lungs. Here it changes into arterial © blood, passes to the left auricle, then to the left ventricle, * A gull, Larus, at the Shetland Islands, lives on grain in the sum- mer and fish in the winter, a habit that must cause a yearly physical change. BIRDS. 229 that sends it through the great aorta in- to numerous branches that lead all over the body. Respiration. —The breath- ing organs are shown in Fig. 206.0700.) The lungs, 4,2, are two in number, spongy in con- sistency, and are attached to Fic. 269.—Parts of a bird. 1, digestive apparatus ; the walls of the ¢, crop; g, gizzard; 7¢, trachea; 4, 4, bronchial cavity in which tubes ; /, 7, lungs; 2, bones of the wings. they are placed. The large air-passages of the lungs end in air-sacs, that in turn connect with the cavities of the bones, so that air taken in passes down the trachea, ¢, enters the lungs, /, /, aérating the blood there, also passing into the air-sacs and penetrating the hol- low bones in every part of the body ; thus the bird can alter its specific gravity at will. The air-sacs are nine in number ; two are placed in - the abdomen, four in the thorax, FIG. 270.—1, Brain of a : bird ; 2, eye, showingnic- 20d three near the wish-bone. titating membrane. Nervous System.— The brain (Fig. 270, 1) is larger than in the reptiles, and has no convolutions. Covering.—The birds differ from all other animals in being covered with feathers (Fig. 271), that are modified 230 BACKBONED ANIMALS. scales or hairs, developed, like them, in sacs in the skin. They afford protection to the bird, determine its contour or shape, and are the means of enabling it to soar in the air, the long pinions being arranged to offer the greatest ? = CDN <= Fic. 271.—Sparrow, showing the skeleton (Fig. 268) clothed in flesh, and the graceful outline produced by the coat of feathers. resistance. Taking a goose-feather (Fig. 272) as an ex- ample, we find that it is composed of several parts. The hollow, horny quill, 1, rests in a sac; this leads to the shaft, 2, which is horny, grooved, and filled with a sub- stance resembling wood-pith. From the sides of the shaft spring the barbs, 3, that are so delicate that it would nat- BIRDS. 231 urally be assumed that under the vigorous beating of the wing they would form little, if any, resistance. There is, however, a special arrangement, shown in Fig. 273, by _ which each barb is locked with its fellow by little second- ary branches called barbules, that are generally serrated and provided with hooks, and in this way a strong surface is presented to the wind. Plumes, as those of the ostrich, are feathers without barbules. Down iseoveathers.. im which the barbs are extremely soft and free. Phe feathers shed water by being oiled with a secretion the birds take from an oil-gland near tie ytaile); After the reproductive FIG. 272.—Parts FIG. 273.—Barb from a of a feather. season, birds gen- goose-quill, showing 1, quill; 2, erally moult or the hooklets highly shaft; 3, 3, shed their feath- magnified. vane or barbs; S Bed eee, «S- Some birds, plume. as the ptarmigan, do this two or three times a year. Senses.—The eyes of some birds are remarkably pierc- ing, and their vision extremely acute. All possess a third eyelid or nictitating membrane (Fig. 270, 2) that covers and protects the ball-of the eye, so that eagles can gaze directly at the sun without blinking. The eyes of these birds and their allies are also provided with a ring of hard plates that forms an apparatus by which the bird can adjust its sight to objects near at hand or at a distance. The penguin, 232 : BACKBONED ANIMALS. that passes so much of its time under water, has a similar arrangement by which it is enabled to see equally well in either element. There is, as a rule, no external ear. The nostrils are slits situated in the upper portion of the man- dibles, and are protected with bristles or scales. The songs of birds constitute their language, this being par- ticularly evident in the common fowl. The sounds made when a hawk approaches, when an egg has been laid, when calling their young, and the “song” on warm days when in search of food, are all different expressions of totally different emotions. The songs of birds have been set to music by Mr. X. Clarke (see “ American Natu- ralist,” vol. xiii, page 12). a Development.—All birds are oviparous. The eggs are either hatched by the male or female, or both, or by the sun (gulls), or artificial heat (brush-turkey). The young are generally provided with a calcareous knob upon their soft bill, as in some reptiles, with which they break the egg and escape. Some are at first helpless, and have to be fed, while others run (chickens) or fly (maleo) imme- diately upon their escape. About seven hundred species of birds are found in North America north of Mexico, and in all about eight thousand distinct species are known — throughout the world, of which the following are some of the most typical and interesting examples: Sub-Class I.—Lizarp-TaILeD Birps (Saurure). The first and lowest forms of birds were extremely reptilian in their characteristics. The Archaopterix is a remarkable fossil form found in the Jurassic slates at Sohenhofen, Germany. It attained the size of a crow; the beaks were armed with conical teeth; the tail was formed by a long extension of the vertebrz, the feathers growing out upon the sides, and the wings were bird-like. They are all extinct. : | TOOTHED BIRDS. 233 Sub-Class II.—TootTHep Birps (Odontornithes). These strange fossil birds were discovered in the creta- ceous beds of this country by Professor Marsh. Their rep- tilian and fish-like characteris- tics are seen in the vertebree, which are biconcave. The jaws, long and slender, were armed with teeth (Fig. 274) placed in sockets as are those of the croc- odile. Some were fliers and oth- ers had rudimentary wings. The Hesperornis was a large aquatic bird about six feet in height. Its jaws were supplied with teeth set in grooves, the wings were useless and rudimentary, while the feet were like those Fic. 274.—Bird with teeth, showing jaw with teeth, the sockets, a tooth enlarged, and section of the backbone. (After Marsh.) 234 5 BACKBONED ANIMALS. of modern divers, so that the bird has been termed a carnivorous, swimming ostrich. They are all extinct. Sub-Class III.—FLatT-BREASTED Brrps (Raftite). General Characteristics.—Birds with rudimentary, use- less wings ; the sternum, or breast-bone, not keeled; legs powerful, and adapted for running. The Apterix (Afterygide), or “ kiwi-kiwi” (Fig. 275), is confined to New Zealand. It attains a height of two \\ SY SS \ \ WR . AN WA \ . SN NVR \\ WY tn, Sian wn ‘ Ae i Ae BPN a felt TQ tea a wn \ vi \\, Ae) eit Ati : ia, AL phi ay ue vet .. ; (i ee Wail | AN x 4 i hi: ran ‘ bs Hi ea il il ih AAW EN ue \y sy at ih gi sth nar an WO on oh B20 2 eee i ; = y eo es, io aa : ee oe FIG. 275.—The Apteryx, a nocturnal ground-bird. feet, is tailless, and the wings are rudimentary. The bill is long, the nostrils placed at its tip. The feathers are brown and hair-like. It is nocturnal; the nest or burrow is generally placed in the ground at the root of a tree; FLAT-BREASTED BIRDS. 235 a single egg being deposited, that equals one fourth the weight of the bird. The feet are powerful and adapted for scratching.* A remarkable extinct form of this class is the gigantic moa, of New Zealand (Fig. 276), that lived during the time of the Maoris. The largest (Dinornis gigan- teus) attained a height of nearly ten feet. The limbs and bones were larger than those of an ox. The pyornis, an extinct bird of Mada- gascar, was an_ allied form, and supposed by many to be the roc of the Arabian tales. Re- mains of its eggs show one to have been equal to one hundred and fifty hen’s eggs. . . Fic. 276.—Wingless birds of New Zea- Ostrich (Struthio- land. The giant moa (falapteryx) nid@e).— This family is and the tiny apteryx. The moa is no represented in South longer to be found alive. America by the Rhea (hea Americana). It is about three and a half feet in height, and differs from the ostrich in the possession of three toes. The head and neck are covered with downy _ gray feathers, those of the taii being absent. They live in flocks on the pampas. The male excavates the nest, and afterward sits upon the eggs, and, according to some au- thorities, collects them when they are left scattered about * It is a curious fact that when sleeping these birds endeavor to put the head under the wing, though the latter is entirely useless as such a protection. 236 BACKBONED ANIMALS. by the hen. During this time they are extremely fierce. They readily take to the water and swim well. The young differ in color from the parents. The Emeu (Dromaius Nove Hollandie) is an allied form from Australia, its feathers resembling a mat of long black hair. The wings are rudimentary, the nos- trils are not far from the tip of the upper mandible, and the three toes are of equal length. They attain a height of seven feet. As with the rhea, the male attends to the eggs. The young at first have a protective marking of black stripes upon a white ground. The Cassowary (Casuarius galeatus), found in the Island of Ceram and in the Indian Archipelago, also has three toes, but of unequal length, and attains a height of five feet or more. The body is covered with long, black, hair-like feathers, the wings being represented by five stiff, cylindrical shafts, that are often used as a de- fense. The nostrils are placed near the middle of the upper mandible, and the head is ornamented by a large, horny helmet. The eggs are protected by their grayish- green color. : The Ostrich (Struthio camelus)* is the largest living bird, attaining a height of eight feet. It is found in the deserts of Africa and Arabia. The legs are extremely * The general color is black and gray, the tail and wing feath- ers being of great size and beauty. The nest is a mere hollow in the sand, in which the eggs, about thirty, are laid, each one equaling about two dozen hen’s eggs, and weighing about three pounds each; in the day-time being kept warm by the sun, and at night covered by the male. The eggs upon the outer row are often eaten by the old and young birds. Their speed is greater than that of the fleetest horse. In running, the wings are spread out (Fig. 277), and per- haps used as sails. Their legs are also their protection in close quar- ters. Edward Verreaux, the French naturalist, saw a native instantly killed by a kick from one. Their food consists of herbage of all kinds, while stones and various strange articles are swallowed to aid digestion. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 237 powerful, and provided with only two toes, the inner one being twice as long as the outer. VALUE.—The oil, skin (leather), and feathers are all used. Os- triches are now farmed in this country for their feathers. FIG. 277.—Ostrich (Struthio camelus) running at full speed. Sub-Class IV.—K EEL-BREASTED Birps (Carinate). General Characteristics.—All the rest of the birds are included in this class. They are distinguished by a keeled sternum or breastbone, the fore-limbs in the higher forms being developed as organs of flight. Order I. Penguins (Sphenisci).—The Penguins (Fig. 278) are confined to the Antarctic region, and are remark- ably fish-like in their habits. The wings are small, and cov- ered with scale-like feathers, and are used, as well as their webbed feet, as paddles. The king-penguin (AAtenodytes Jongtrostris) is one of the largest, attaining a height of three 238 BACKBONED ANIMALS. and a half feet, colored dark above, the breast white, a black patch in front being surrounded by two narrow bands of bright orange-yellow. They congregate in bands, and from a distance appear like soldiers marching upon the sands. On Marion and other islands they breed in vast numbers, living in well-organized communities.* Fic. 278.—Albatrosses and penguins. * The cities or rookeries of the king-penguin are extremely inter- esting. They are generally upon flat ground, and divided by mound- like ridges into two irregular portions. In the larger stand the old birds, their beaks pointing upward, not outward, as generally figured in books. ‘The smaller area is the nursery, and in it, crowded together, are the young, and breeding pairs, that are exceedingly ferocious, fiercely attacking young intruding males, and sometimes killing them. The young are curious-looking creatures, covered partly with down and feathers, giving them a grotesque appearance. The breeders carry the _ single egg about with them in a pouch between the legs for seven KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 239 They deposit one egg, that, instead of being placed upon the rocks, is held in a pouch until hatched. During this time they hop along, the feet being close together to hold the egg in ; at other times, when not holding the egg, they | walk like other birds. Allied is the jackass - penguin (Spheniscus Magellanicus) of the Cape of Good Hope and Falkland Islands. The former makes nests for its eggs in the rocks, of stones and shells of da/anus that are washed ashore. The rock-hopper penguin * (Zudyftes saltator) is found in vast rookeries at Inaccessible Island. From the sides of the head projects backward, like a quill-pen, a tuft of sulphur-yellow plumes. In the water the wings are used as fins. The nests are shallow depressions, containing two greenish-white eggs, that are incubated by both male and female. VALUE.—Oil, and the skin as fur. At Heard Island the skins are used as fuel in the winter. Order II. Pygopodes. General Characteristics—The birds of this order are aquatic, some with rudimentary wings, that are used almost as fins, and covered with scale- weeks, when the young appear, and during this time are probably fed by the males. The egg is greenish-white and pointed at the end. * The rookeries of the rock-hoppers at Inaccessible Island are of ‘vast extent, covering one quarter of the island, and giving shelter to perhaps five hundred thousand birds, and formed in the vast fields of tussock-grass, that is worn out into streets, alleys, and lanes, from three to five feet in width. Along these streets the nests of the pen- guins are placed; and so fierce are they, and so vast their numbers, that a passage through the bird-city is attended by the greatest danger. From the sea to the rookery a roadway has been worn smooth by the feet of the birds, and up this highway they are seen passing in compa- nies and bands. In the water, their motions are similar to those of a porpoise, leaping from it in a like manner. They are remarkable for their migrations. They leave Inaccessible Island April r5th; the males return the last of July, the females August 12th. Where they go is not known, and, as there are no landmarks, their return is a won- derful example of instinct, and only comparable to that of the seals. 240 BACKBONED ANIMALS. like feathers. The bill is flattened and knife-like, the feet webbed, and placed so far back that upon shore the birds stand erect. The bones of this and the preceding order are solid. Auk (Alcide).—The great auk* (Alca impennis) (Fig. 279) is remarkable as having become extinct since 1870, and hardly seventy perfect specimens are known in the world. Its length was about three feet, that of the wings four inches. The bill was powerful, wings small, the back black and breast white. They laid a single egg, about as large as that of a swan, spotted with small, irregu- lar blotches. The little auk (.Simorhynchus pusillus), common in the Arctic re- gions, is the smallest spe- cies known, being only sev- en inches in length. They lay on the ice or rocks a small, bluish- white egg. Their cry is Pott-det-tet-tet- tet, continually repeated. They are found in large numbers in northern Nor- Fic. 279.—Great auk, a bird that has way. The Guillemots ( Uria) become extinct within fourteen (Fig. 280, By. SiX species of sg which are known in the Arctic waters, have long, straight, pointed, conical bills. The general color is dirty black. They breed in vast quantities on inaccessible cliffs, always facing the sea. A single egg is laid, and, according to Sir John Richardson, * Three hundred years ago they were caught by the boat-load by _the early fishermen, and now the preserved specimens are so rare that $650 was paid for one in the Museum of Natural History, New York. It formerly ranged the coast of Maine, where its bones are now some- times found in the shell-heaps. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 241 the mother of the British guillemot takes the young on its back and carries it to sea on the first voyage. Under water the wings are used as in flying. Allied are the Puffins (Fratercula) (Fig. 280, 4), that have short, deep, Fic. 285.—A group of sea-birds. 1, cormorant; 2, biack-winged tern; 3, gulls; 4, puffins; 5, guillemots. wedge-shaped bills. The common puffin, or sea-parrot (4. Arctica), is common on the North Atlantic coast, at- taining a length of thirteen and a half inches. Their nests are tunnels in the ground, at the extremity of which 11 242 BACKBONED ANIMALS. the single egg is placed. The nest is often occupied by a family of rabbits. VALUE.—Auk and puffin leather, oil, and fur. Loons (Colymbide).—The great northern diver or loon (C. torquatus) is a familiar example, ranging throughout the whole of North America. They dive with great skill, and swim under water a quarter of a mile, faster than a man can row; are good fliers, but move slowly on land. The Grebes (/odicipitide) are abundant in northern America, and common in many countries ; they are dis- tinguished by the structure of their feet ; the membrane, instead of uniting the toes, being cleft nearly to the base of the lat- ter, forming membranous margins (Fig. 281). The bill is long and slender. The crested grebe (7. cristatus) attains the length of about twenty-four inches, and extent of wings thirty-four. The head is or- namented with a large double crest of brown feathers. They frequent the fresh-water lakes and streams, Fic. 281.—Foot of grebe and are powerful swimmers, often (Podiceps), showing remaining under water with the tip swimming membrane : Ae io of the bill exposed when pursued. The nest is formed of rushes in the water, and often floats about. The eggs number from two to seven, and the young follow the mother as soon as hatched, often taking refuge upon her back. Note.—The nest of the Castanean grebe (P. cornutus), according to Fouray, is a perfect raft, and is paddled about by the mother. The eared, horned, Western, and red-necked grebes are American species. VALUE.—Skin as fur, mufis, etc. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 243 Order III. Longipennes (Long-winged). General Characteristics—This order includes the birds with ex- tremely long, slender, and pointed wings, generally aquatic but not submarine swimmers. They have wondrous pow- ers of flight, and long, slender, and compressed bills; the anterior toes webbed. The Petrels (Procellariide) are aquatic swimming birds rarely approaching the shore, except to breed. The bill is complicated, seemingly composed of several parts, the nostrils opening from distinct tubes. The stormy petrel,* or Mother Carey’s chicken (P. Ac/agica), is a typi- cal form. The Giant Petrel (Ossif/raga gigantea), of the South- ern Ocean, is the largest. They and their large allies prey upon young gulls. Among the Antarctic ice is found the snow-white petrel (Pagodroma nivea). Notre.—About Kerguelen’s Land the petrels invariably burrow in the ground, those of the genus Oestre/ata forming burrows six inches in diameter, ending in a round chamber in which is placed the nest. The solitary petrel forms a burrow ten feet long. The diving petrels (Pelecanoides) also burrow and are wonderful divers, unlike others of the tribe. The Prions are small, gray, petrel-like birds, with boat-shaped bills, that honey-comb the ground at Kergue- len’s Land with their nests. The Shear-Waters (Pufinus) somewhat resemble the petrels. The wandering shear-water is common on the Atlantic coast, and attains the length of twenty inches, the wing fourteen inches. The Antarctic species burrow, the peat-beds at Tristan da Cunha being entirely honey- combed by them. The European species breed on the rocks and in rabbit-burrows. ‘The largest member of the family is the albatross (Fig. 278), common in the * Petrels when placed upon the deck of a vessel have great difficulty in rising. 244 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Seuthern Ocean. They are powerful fliers, rarely ap- proaching the shore except to breed. The wings spread often twelve or fifteen feet ; the bill is extremely power- ful, curved, and acute ; the nostrils form two tubes at the base of the upper qaadible The Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans), The male is snow-white, except the tail, which is dark; the females are sprinkled with gray, and the young are dark gray. At Marion Island they breed in great numbers, seeming to lose the power of flight during the breeding- season. The nest is made up of tufts of grass and moss, forming a mound one foot and a half in diameter at the top. The one egg is about five inches long, with red specks at the large end, and does not rest in the nest, but is held in a pouch in the skin. The Mollymauk (D. cudminata) is about the size of a goose. The nest is a cylindrical pile of grass and clay, about fourteen inches in diameter and twelve in height, hollow on top, the edges overhanging so that they form good seats when deserted. The single egg is also held in a pouch. These pillar-like nests are also found in the streets of the penguin cities, the ground beneath them in turn being burrowed by the holes of prions and puffins. At Tristan da Cunha, the albatross-nests are found in a dead crater 8,000 feet above the sea. Their food is gen- erally fish. VALUE.—The feathers are used for various purposes, the bones of the great albatross as pipe-stems, the skin of the feet as purses and pouches. The oil of the petrel is used for illumination in the Azores. Guano is obtained from their resorts. The Gulls (Svercoraritde) are found in northern and southern seas. The general color is various shades of white and black ; the bill is shorter than the head, com- pressed, the nostrils not forming tubes but slits ; the feet webbed, and adapted for swimming. They are large and buoyant and do not dive, though many plunge completely OO —. ae ee KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 245 under water after their prey (Fig. 280, 3). The common tern (Fig. 280, 2) (Sterna hirundo) is found in Europe and North America. The bill is long, slender, and pointed, the tail long and forked. The nest is a mere depression in. the sand, three spotted eggs being laid in each. During the day the sun warms them, the mother performing her office only at night. The roseate tern is a familiar form. The Noddy Terns (Azous stolidus) have a wide geo- graphical range. ‘They are mild and beautiful creatures. At Tortugas they erect rude nests composed of twigs of bay-cedar dropped together upon the bushes, upon the top of which is laid the single, nearly white egg. At St. Paul’s Rocks the noddies build a fanciful nest of sea-weed, cemented together and attached to the rock, a lace-like fringe hanging down all around. Upon this platform or bracket the single egg is placed. The Laughing Gull (Zarus atricilla)* is found upon the tropical and temperate coasts of North America. _ The Arctic Tern (Stern2 macrura) is the only suc- cessful enemy of the skua, pursuing it with extreme ferocity. Its eggs are deposited among the stones and mimic the lichen-covered pebbles, this protective mimicry being car- ried out in the downy young. The most powerful of the gull family is the skua (Sver- corarius). It has a wide geographical range, the various species being found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions of various countries. The Parasitic Jager, of the Arctic region of Europe and North America, follows terns and gulls, forcing them to disgorge their prey. The Antarctic Skua (.S. Axfarcticus) has all the qual- * At Tortugas they follow the brown pelican, systematically rob- bing it. When the latter tosses a fish preparatory to swallowing it, the laughing gull with its victorious “ Ha-ha !” alights on its back, leans forward and snatches the morsel and flies away, generally to be robbed in turn by the man-of-war bird (Fig. 283). . ~ 246 BACKBONED ANIMALS. ities of the eagle, being a bird of prey. The beak is sharp and curved, the claws at the tip of the webbed toes are sharp and talon-like. They prey upon the prions and other birds, dragging them from their holes, or hunting them after the fashion of the hawk. In general cclor they are brown. They are so ferocious as to even attack man.* In the penguin-streets of Tristan da Cunha the nests of skuas are seen on mounds, surrounded by well-picked skeletons of prions. The eggs are large and two in num- ber. The northern skua (Leséris parasitica) is equally pred- atory, attacking other birds, sucking the eggs of the eider and other ducks often to such an extent that they can not fly away. It breeds on the unsheltered rocks, forming no nest, the eggs, two in number, being per- fectly protected by their resemblance to the ground. If, however, an enemy ap- proaches, the skuas shuffle off as if wound- ed, and thus avert the danger. - Order IV. Steganopodes ( /vot-cov- ered). General Characteristics.— The birds of this order are aquatic and characterized by short, partly- hidden, completely webbed feet, and : 2 an unfeathered ; cae pouch beneath the Fic. 282.—Brown pelican (Pelecanus fuscus). bill capableinsome of extraordinary expansion. The tropic birds, gannets, darters, and cormorants, are representatives. * Professor Moseley states that at Kerguelen’s Land and other localities they had to beat them off with clubs, and that when a duck was shot the skuas would often pounce upon it, so that two shots were reauired to obtain a single bird. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 247 The Pelicans (Pelecanide), of which two species are known in the United States, are distinguished by their long beaks hooked at the end, and enormous pouch de- pending from the lower mandible. The brown pelican (Pelecanus fuscus) (Fig. 282) is common in the South. VALUE.—The oil of various gulls is used by the Esquimaux as lamp-oil. The breast-feathers of gulls are valuable in trade and used as ‘‘ roll-plumes.” The White Pelican (P. trachyrhynchus) ranges from north- ern Florida north- ward, and former- ly bred about the Great Salt Lake. They never dive for fish, but swim along, plunging their heads intothe Fic. 283.—Frigate-bird (Zachypetes agutia). water, relying upon their quickness. They shed their crest in a manner some- what similar to the casting of a deer’s horns. VALUE.—The brown pelican is eaten at St. Thomas, and the leather of the pouch and fur is utilized. The Frigate-Birds (7Zachypfetide), or man-of-war hawks (Fig. 283), are confined to the warmer regions. The membrane beneath the throat is a bright vermilion. The bill is long, sharp, and hooked at the end, the wings long and extremely powerful,* the tail forked. On Ascension * At Tortugas, Fla., it was the custom of a number of these birds to station themselves over the lighthouse about two thousand yards up, during the prevalence of the heaviest gales, and through the glass they seemed to rest on the wind, the wings being merely outstretched, and no movement being noticed except an occasional pitching down, 248 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Island they form nests in the guano-beds, and at Fernando do Norhona the nests are built on the edge of high preci- pices and contain a single egg. The Z. minor, at Raine Fic. 284.—Red-headed pochard (fw/zgu/a), showing position in alighting. Island, northeast Australia, builds as a nest a platform of twigs about eight inches in diameter, raised in the bushes. The American spe- cies has a strong, musky odor. They follow gulls on the Florida reef, forc- ing them to disgorge fish. Their oil is sometimes used in medicine. Order V." Dierks and Geese (Lamelliros- tres). Ducks (Anatide). —About fifty-nine spe- Fic. 285.—Swan swimming, showing cies of ducks (Fig. 284) the web expanded and closed. are known in North America, Theyeame swimming birds, and have a wide geographical range, all then up. They faced the wind, which tended to blow them up and away, but by pitching down slightly they seemed to ride on the gale— like a kite—gravity acting as the string. They would retain this posi- tion for hours, and it was never attempted except when the wind was blowing a gale. —— meee? - GREASTED BIRDS. 249 _the toes except the hind one being connected by a web (Fig. 285). They are distinguished by the bill, which is broad and flattened, covered with a tender, sensitive cov- ering. The edges of both mandibles are furnished with a: series of fine, tooth-like plates that interlock and form a strainer ; the upper mandible ends in a rounded nail. The hooded merganser, eider-duck (Somateria mollis- sima),and the Labrador duck (Camptolemus), are represent- atives; the latter is remarkable as having become extinct within a few years. It ranged as far south as New Jersey. The wood-ducks (Azx sponsa) are found all over the United States, and winter in the South. The nest is occasionally placed in hollow trees, in which case they bring the young down in their beaks. The Kerguelen’s Land teal (Q. Zazoni)* is peculiar to that country and the Crozet Islands. ; The Canada goose (Branta Canadensis) is the common wild goose of North America. They attain a length of. about three feet, and migrate south in the winter, flying in long lines or triangles, generally led by a drake. They nest in timber along streams. The brant, snow, ross, and black geese are allied forms. The swans are characterized by long, snake-like necks that add tothe grace and beauty of theirappearance. The trachea or windpipe is consequently extremely long, espe- cially in the trumpeter, in which it enters a cavity in the breast-bone, makes a turn, forming a large coil, finally lead- ing to the lungs. The whistling swan (Cygnus Americanus) ranges over North America. * In Three Isle Harbor, Kerguelen’s Land, Professor Moseley ap- proached a flock of these birds to shoot them ; having never seen man before, they ran at him in lines, seven in a row, each led by a drake, and gathered about him like farm-yard fowl, gazing with apparent aston- ishment. When the nests were approached, they fluttered away, as if injured, a trick common in many of our birds. BACKBONED ANIMALS. Fic. 286.—Black swan of Australia. The black swan (C. atratus) (Fig. 286) of Australia is a beautiful bird. They breed in the lake in Central Park, New York, the time of incuba- tion being about six weeks. When the female leaves the nest, the male always takes her place. VALUE.—The flesh, quills, and feathe:s, and as game. FIG. 287.—The flamingo, a wading bird. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 251 The Flamingo (Phenicopteride) (Fig. 287) is common in the warmer portions of America, also southern Europe, Asia, and Africa. They connect the. swimming with the wading birds. VALUE.—Feathers. Order VI. Wading Birds (Grallatores). General Characteristics —The birds of this order are characterized Fic. 288.—A group of wading birds. 1, stilt; 2, avocet; 3, peewit; 4, dunlins ; 5, curlew sandpiper ; 6, sanderling ; 7, oyster-catcher ; 8, curlew; 9, turnstone. by long legs and neck, bill generally long, body com- pressed, the wings short and rounded. The rails are run- ners, and the cranes essentially wading birds and slow fliers. The Cranes (Gruwide) are large birds, the head sometimes devoid of feathers, the legs long, the toes not webbed, the hinder one being highly elevated. The sand-hill crane (Grus Canadensis) is a common American form. They attain a length of four feet, and their 252 BACKBONED ANIMALS. nests are built on open plains in the West, often six thousand feet above the sea. Many winter in Cuba. The whooping crane (G. Americana) attains a length of four and a half feet, and is found in the interior from the Gulf of Mexico to Minnesota. The demoiselle crane (alearica) is a beautiful species from southern Europe and Africa. The head bears a curious, straw-colored brush. The South American trumpeter (Cariama) is an interesting form found on the elevated plateaus. Allied are the cry- ing birds (Aramid), rails, gallinules, coots, etc. The Gallinula gigantea in 1694 lived in the Mascarene Islands, but is now extinct. It was a rail six feet in height. Another allied form was the /Votoruis, supposed to be ex- tinct, and known up to 1850 only by its fossil bones; a specimen was discovered alive in New Zealand in 1860. It is now probably extinct. VALUE.—AIll are valued as game, and the rich feathers of the gal- linules for various ornamental purposes. Avocets (Recurvirostride) (Fig. 288, 2) are distin- guished by their long legs and bills, the latter turning up- ward. The American avocet (2. Americana) ranges the entire area of North America. Their general length is eighteen inches, the wings eight inches. The head and neck-are colored a reddish brown, the wing-coverts and back black, the lower portion white. The nest is formed of dry grasses and weeds in the high grass near the water, and generally contains four eggs. Phalaropes (Pialaropodide) have toes with narrow lobes or expansions as we have seen in the grebes and coots, enabling them to swim and walk over the sea-weed far out to sea. Only three species are known, and all found in America. In the Snipes (Scolopacide) the bill is elongated and soft-skinned. The sexes are generally alike. The Amer- ica woodcock (Philohela minor) is found in eastern United KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 253 States, and other species in Europe, Asia, and Africa. They go south in October, return in March, and lay in April. The nest is on the ground and formed of leaves. The eggs, generally four, are light reddish-yellow in color, with red and brown protective markings. The mother- i Wf Hyp, l Mp i ty | y Mi ms A yy "| Ns | Nin Fic. 289.—Ruff (Wachetes pugnax). birds are noted for their care of the young, and have been seen taking one between their legs and flying off at the approach of danger. The American or Wilson’s snipe (Gallinago Wilsoni) is a typical form inhabiting the en- tire continent. It attains a lengthof eleven inches. The 254 BACKBONED ANIMALS. bill is long and straight. Their flight is erratic. The nests are in the grass and formed of leaves. The eggs, usually four, simulate the color of the surroundings in their greenish-white, gray, and brown tints. They affect lameness and broken wings to attract attention from the nest. Allied are the spoon-billed sand-piper, sanderling (Fig. 288, 6), godwit, curlew sand-piper (Fig. 288, 5), and the ruff (Fig. 289), the plovers, turn-stones (Fig. 288, 9), -oyster-catchers (Fig. 288, 7), and the curious sheath-bill See d's Fic. 290.—The sheath-bill (Chzornzs minor) of Kerguelen Island. (Chiornis) (Fig. 290) of Kerguelen Island. They are con- fined to a few localities in the Antarctic regions, and are so tame that they follow visitors about like chickens, and are readily taken by hand. They are closely allied to the oyster-catchers (Wematopodide). - The Spoonbills (P/ataleidz) have the bills com- pressed and enlarged at the tip. The roseate spoonbill (Ajaja rosea) is common in the Southern States, attaining a length of thirty inches, the wing about fifteen, and the bill seven and a half. The general color is a pale rose-red. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 266 A white species is found in Europe and Asia. They nest in communities in trees, depositing from two to four thick- shelled, whitish eggs with reddish-gray and yellow spots. The ibis is an allied form. | The Storks (Ciconiide) have long, slender legs, the bill extremely stout and thick. The South American jabiru (Mycteria America- na) is the only repre- sentative in Ameri- ca. The Australian jabiru is one of the handsomest of the family, and has a wide range in that country. Thewhite stork (Ciconia alba) (Fig. 291) is a com- mon Europeanform, with strong, conical, 7% pointed bill. Inthe % winter they migrate southward. They frequent marshes. Allied is the pouched stork or adjutant of India (Fig. 292), that has 2 curious skinny pouch hanging un- Fic. 291.—The white stork. gee the throat: They attain a height of five feet. A tame one has been. known to swallow a whole boiled fowl, and to snap up a live cat. Allied to this group is the remarkable whale- headed stork (Baleniceps rex), in which the beak resembles a wooden shoe. They frequent the banks of the White Nile. The nest is a simple hole in the ground. The Se = aM yy he i uy F ey i} eErey 256 BACKBONED ANIMALS. marabou stork, from which the feathers of that name come, is the most valuable of the family. Ly WN D a L 1G GE Vig fag Fic. 292.—The adjutant-bird, showing the foot resting from heel to toe upon the ground. Herons (Ardeide).—The great blue heron (Ardea herodias) is a familiar example in the Eastern States, rang- ing as far south as Guatemala, Central America. They = FIG. 293.—European heron (Ardea cénerea) in full flight—a slow flier. attain a length of four feet, and are slow fliers (Fig. 293). The general color is grayish-blue, with black and white KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 257 markings. In the breeding-season the back of the head bears a crest. They breed in Carolina near the sea and in New Jersey in the cedar-swamps, returning to the same locality for successive years. They feed upon fish and various smali water-animals. The Florida great white and green herons are all familiar American forms. The cattle-heron (Bubulcus rbis), of Africa, follows herds of ele- phants and buffaloes for the purpose of obtaining the in- sects that infest them. The American bittern (Aotaurus minor) is found in all parts of temperate North America and as far south as Guatemala. They are nocturnal, feeding at night, and utter a strange, booming call or note. They are known to nest at Hudson’s Bay in June, the nests being formed in swamps, and containing four green eggs. VALUE.—Feathers, and as game. The Bustards (O#dde) of the Old World form, to some extent, a connecting link between the wading and scratching birds. Order VII. Scratching Birds (Galline). General Characteristics. — These land-birds are poor fliers, have short, stout bills, powerful feet for scratching, and the hind-toe generally elevated. The domestic fowl is a typi- cal form. ; Fic. 294.—Red-legged partridge (Perdzx rubra) in full flight—a rapid flier. The Partridges (Perdicide) (Fig. 294) are small birds of compact form, with short beak, the nostrils pro- 258 BACKBONED ANIMALS. tected by a scale. They have a world-wide distribution. The Bob White (Ortyx Virginiana) is a familiar form, about nine and a half inches in length, the general color chestnut-red, barred and streaked with lighter tints below, the head richly marked with black and white streaks. In the female the white markings of the head are brownish- yellow. They nest in the grass, laying from ten to fifteen white eggs. To divert attention from the young, the mother has been known to throw herself at the feet of a sportsman and pretend to be dying, suddenly recovering when the young had escaped. In Pennsylvania they are known as partridges, and in New York as quails. The plumed partridge (Oreortyx pictus) and the Cali- fornia quail (Zophortyx) are other forms. VALUE.—As game. The Chinese quail (Cotwrnix) is only four inches in length, and is kept in cages for its fighting propensities, and formerly for the singular purpose of warming the hands of its owner in winter. Grouse (7¢¢raonide).— About fifteen species are known. The prairie-hen (Cupidonia cupido) is a familiar ex- ample. Its length is about seventeen inches. From the sides of the neck extends a tuft of pointed feathers, be- neath which is a bare spot capable of inflation, and in- tensely red. They range from the prairies southward to Louisiana. In early spring they congregate, and are ex- tremely pugnacious, fighting for their mates, and uttering curious booming sounds that can be heardamile. The nest is formed, between April and May, of leaves of grass, and concealed in the grass. The eggs, eight to twelve in number, are light-colored, and are hatched in about nine- teen days. The mother shows great intelligence in trying to allure invaders from the nest. In most parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula is found the noblest ally of this family—the capercali ( Zetrao urogallus). The black cock (Zyrurus tetrix) of Europe is an equally rich form. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 259 The white ptarmigan (Lagopus albus) somewhat re- sembles the grouse ; the feet and toes, however, are cov- ered with feathers. The general hue is a cinnamon- brown, variegated with darker tints. The plumage changes with the seasons, and in winter is a dazzling white, the claws being shed also. They live in communities, and during the breeding-season unite in large flocks. The nests, of grass, earth, and feathers, are concealed with great skill, and contain from twelve to sixteen yellowish or reddish-brown, spotted eggs. VALUE.—As game. The Wild Turkey (J7eleagris gallopavo) of the Unit- _ ed States is an allied form, four feet in length, the general coloring a glossy, coppery black. The neck is unfeath- ered, the breast of the male bearing a tuft of long bristles. There are only two species, and from the Mexican vari- ety is descended the common turkey. They are strictly American birds. The Pheasants (Phasianide) form a large and beautiful group of birds confined to the Old World. The peacock (favo cristatus), that was first in- troduced into Europe by Alexander the Great, is a familiar type. The Argus pheasant (Argusianus giganteus), from Sumatra, is one of the most remarkable. The Chinese golden pheasant (Phasianus pictus) is a resplendent species. VALUE.—Peacock oil, fat, and feathers, are all valuable articles of trade. Pheasants as game, and their feathers in decoration. The Domestic Fowl (Gad/inz) came originally from the jungle-fowl of India. Allied are the Guinea-fowl. Mound-Builders (A/ccapodide).—This strange group of Old World birds are allies of the preceding family, and are confined to Australia and India. The wattled tale- gallus ( Zalegallus Lathami)* in general appearance resem- *In early spring the bird throws together a heap of decayed leaves, etc., amounting often to two or three cart-loads, arranged in a 260° < BACKBONED ANIMALS. ‘bles our common turkey, though smaller, being only two and a half feet long. It is found in New South Wales, and is remarkable for its method of hatching its eggs. The ocellated leipoa (Zezpoa ocellata) of western Aus- tralia forms a mound of fine iron-stone gravel, mixed with vegetable matter, forty-five feet in circumference and near- ly five feet high, the heat developed in the interior being FIG. 295.—Brush-turkeys and their egg-mounds. pyramidal form four feet in height, the leaves being grasped in the claws and hurled backward, as shown in Fig. 295. The mass soon fer- ments, producing heat, and in it the white eggs are buried, fifteen inches deep, in a circle, the large end upward, and from nine to twelve inches apart, an opening being left in the center to govern the tem- perature of the mound, the birds also exposing the eggs on warm days. The young are hatched in thirty days, remaining in the mound twelve hours after being hatched. On the second night they return to the mound, and are partly covered by the male, the next day being able to fly and remain with the parents. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. © 261 about 89°. The light-brown eggs are placed in a circle, the pointed ends downward, separated by about three inches of earth, and about them are often seen the gal- leries of the white ants, that form the first food for the young. The young, when hatched, scratch out alone, and are perfectly featherless. The mother, however, takes care of the brood after they come out. The megapodius (AZegapodius tumulus), of Australia, is about the size of a pheasant, of a reddish-brown color, and a wily mimic when alarmed, alighting on a limb and crouch- ing close, extending its neck so as easily to be mistaken for a dead branch. The mounds are generally near the water, and sometimes measure a hundred and fifty feet in circumference and fifteen or twenty feet in height ; in this case, probably, the work of generations. The white eggs are extremely large, and over three inches long, and are placed in the top of the mound at intervals near the sides, at a depth of six feet, the larger end being upward. The young, as soon as hatched, are able to care for themselves, though they undoubtedly follow the mother. The breeding habits of the Maleo (Megacephalon ma- Jeo),* of the Island of Celebes, are still more remarkable, and exactly like those of the turtle. They resemble the Guinea fowl, but have a hard, round excrescence on the head. Allied are the Curassows, the strange hoasin, in which the keel of the breast-bone is cut away in front. * In August and September they go to the shore, and male and fe- male excavate a hole in the volcanic sand four feet deep, just above high-water mark. A single pale brick-red egg is deposited and light- ly covered ; ten or twelve days later the female returns, and so on until six or eight have been laid, and several hens that have come ten or fifteen miles for the same purpose may lay in the same hole. The young birds are hatched by heat in the sand, and break the shell and struggle up through the ground like turtles, where they are ena- bled to immediately take wing—a wonderful and necessary provision —as they never see the parents, and are at once thrown upon their own resources. 262 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Order VIII. Pigeons (Columbe). General Charac- teristics—The pigeons (Fig. 296) and doves are charac- terized by heavy bodies and short legs. The bill is short, straight, and compressed, the nostrils protected by a fleshy scale. They live in communities, and are, strictly speak- ing, ground-birds. Therock dove is the progenitor of the common stock. The ground dove (Chamepelia passerina) ranges the United States from Washington to the South FIG. 296.—Wood-pigeon on her rude nest. Atlantic and Gulf coasts. They attain a length of six and ahalf inches. The general color is a grayish olive with a bluish gloss, the bill black with a yellow tip, and the iris of the eye orange-red. They congregate in flocks of four or five, and nest in low bushes. The Carolina and scaly doves are other American forms. The passenger pigeon* (Lctopistes migratorius) is a * These migrations are, as we shall see in the lemings, squirrels, rats, etc., nut confined to any special time, but are made to obtain a new food-supply. Wilson estimated that a flock contained 2,000,- 000,000,000 birds, and consumed per day 17,427,000 bushels of corn. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 263 typical form, found east of the central plains of North America. They migrate in communities of millions, cov- ering every limb and branch of forests twenty or thirty miles in extent, breaking down great trees and limbs, rising in the air like clouds, darkening the sun, and creat- ing a sound with their wings like the roaring of a hurri- cane, or of distant thunder; and so rapid is their flight that they attain a speed of more than a mile a minute. The nests are of twigs rudely placed together, often one hundred in a single tree, in which two eggs are laid, pro- ducing generally a male and female. ‘They are fed with a milky fluid from the stomach of the parents. Of all the pigeons of the Old World, the crowned pigeon (Goura victore) of New Guinea and the toothed pigeon (Didun- culus strigiros- tris),of the Nav- igator Islands, are most” re- markable. The famous ; dodo ( Didus in- FIG. 297.—Dodo, an extinct giant pigeon. eptus) (Fig. 297) lived upon the Island of Mauritius in 1598, but so com- plete is its extinction by man that it is now only known by a few pictures, bones, feathers, and other parts, in a few museums. It was a pigeon-like bird as large as a swan, with an enormous hooked bill and rudimentary feathers. The solitaire (D. solitarius) and. Nazarene (D. nazare- mus) are other allies that have disappeared within com- paratively a few years. 264 BACKBONED ANIMALS. VALUE.—As game. Pigeon-oil is used by Indians, and the birds do a great work in dispersing seeds. After the Dutch Government at the Moluccas destroyed all the nutmeg-trees on all the islands except Great Banda, they were obliged to send a yearly commission to destroy those that grew from nutmeg-seeds transported there in the crops of the fruit-pigeons (Carpophaga concinna). Coffee-seeds and many oth- ers are in this way carried from place to place. Note.—The Feejee pigeons (Chrysena) have remarkable feathers upon the breast and neck. The barbs are devoid of barbules, having instead small swellings arranged along at intervals, giving the plumage a remarkably loose appearance. Order IX. Birds of Prey (Raftores). General Char- acteristics.—The birds of this order correspond in their habits to the carnivorous mammals. They prey upon animals dead or alive, and for the purpose have hooked bills, and powerful claws. In the Vultures (Cathartide), the head and part of the neck is bare, and the wings pow- erful. The Califor- nia condor (Pseudo- gryphus Caltfornia- mus) rivals the great condor of the Andes in size, and four of to drag a young grizzly bear several hundred feet. Their total length is about fifty inches, and the spread of wings nine feet. They Fic. 298.—Turkey buzzard. soar high and sight their food, which consists of dead animals, from great distances. The nest, them have been seen ee eS le | KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 265 rudely constructed of sticks, is placed upon rocks and other eminences. Notre.—The author once made the acquaintance of a caged con- dor that soon learned to recognize him, stretching out its head to be scratched like a dog, delicately nibbling at his fingers, and showing every evidence of good-fellowship. Its dignified movements are in strange contrast to those of the shuffling, ungainly eagles. SS = FIG. 299.—Condor. The turkey buzzard (Fig. 298) (Cathartes aura), the condor (Fig. 299) of the Andes, and the king-vulture of Mexico and South America, are other familiar forms. 12 266 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Of the Old World vultures the Lammergyer (Gypaétus barbatus) is the largest. In Africa is found the long-legged secretary vulture (G. serpentarius). VALUE.—They are scavengers, and the quills are used in trade. aE FIG. 3co.—Eagle, nest, and young. The Falcons (/alconide) have strongly-hooked beaks and claws, and are adapted for securing living prey. The bald eagle (Haliaétus Jleucocephalus) is a typical KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 267 form, ranging throughout temperate North America, and attains a length of three feet and stretch of wing of seven feet. The general color is brown, the neck, head, and tail white after the third year. They are arrant cow- ards, driven about by the small king-bird, and stealing the hard-earned plunder of the osprey. The nest is generally in a tall tree, composed of sticks, sods, etc., and added to year by year, often assuming great pro- portions. In South America the harpy eagle ( Zhrasetus harpyia) is most formidable and preys upon the sloth, while the sea, golden* (Fig. 300), imperial and African screaming eagles are other typical forms. The hawks are much smaller than the eagles, and, including the latter, fifty-three species are known in North America. The sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter fus- cus) is common all over North America. The female, contrary to the rule among birds, is larger than the male. The swallow-tailed kite (Z/anoides forficatus) ¢ is pe- culiarly an American bird. In their habits and flight they resemble the swallows, and also feed upon insects, wasps, and grasshoppers, and have been seen darting about in a swarm of bees, catching them in their claws and eat- ing them. The prairie falcon, sparrow hawk, osprey, gos- hawks, harriers, etc., are other familiar forms. * These birds are extremely powerful, and have been known to carry off large animals and children, and in one instance a golden eagle attacked a pig and was carrying it off when the owner rushed out. The eagle then dropped the pig, and attacked the man with such fury that only the timely assistance of several villagers saved his life. + Prof. Moseley saw a kite of another genus (J/z/vus) at Cape Verd Islands that had the habits of a gull and flew about the ship, picking up with its feet bits of garbage, eating also on the wing. One of the birds was seized by a shark while it was fishing, and after a short struggle drawn under water. 268 BACKBONED ANIMALS. NoTE.—Over nine species of hawks and falcons were formerly used in hunting; as early as 4oo B.c. this sport was indulged in, and in the reign of Edward III to kill a falcon was punished with death. In 1290 Kublai Khan in Central Asia had no less than ten thousand fal- cons. Thekhan rode upon an elephant, and his army of ten thousand formed a great circle to catch the birds. The eight hundred falcons of the King of Persia in the seventeenth century were trained to hunt wiid boars, asses, antelopes, and foxes, and to blind them. The sport is carried on to this day near Abasheher, Persia. The Bedouins of the Sahara capture large numbers to sell. VALUE.—Hawk and eagle quills are valued in trade. The Owls (Stigidz) have large heads, the eyes direct- ed forward, the plumage soft, rendering the flight noise- less, ear-tufts in some conspicuous, claws long and sharp. They have a world-wide range, and are generally noctur- nal. About forty American species are known. The great horned owl (Bubo Virginianus) (Fig. 301), and the screech owls, are common American forms. The snowy owl (Vyctea nivea) is found in the northern portion of both continents, and is generally pure white, more or less barred with dark tints. It winters in New England and as far north as Spitzbergen, living in the ptarmigan fells, preying upon these birds and capturing them easily. From its remarkable resemblance to them, the ptarmigans often mistake it for one of their kind. They see readily in the day-time, and in northern Asia follow the lemmings and other small animals. The burrowing owl* (Spheotyto cunicularia, var. hypo- g@a) is peculiar to America. They live in the burrows of the prairie-dogs, often in company with rattlesnakes. Order X. Parrots (Psittact). General Characteris- tics—The birds of this order are characterized by heavy, * In South America the burrowing owl (A¢hene) lives in the burrow of the Zagostomus, the Agouti also making use of the den. That it is laziness on the part of the owl is shown by the fact that if the Zagos- tomus is not in its neighborhood, it digs its own burrow. Ee KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 3 ne Fic. 301.—A group of night-birds—owls. stout, often enormous bills, the base, as in the hawks, cov- ered by asoft skin. The tongue is short and fleshy, and the beak of the upper jaw is articulated to the skull so that it is free to an unusual extent. They are, as a rule, 270 BACKBONED ANIMALS. 4 poor fliers, and are remarkable for their gorgeous plumage : and their power of imitating the sounds of other animals. FIG. 302.—Carolina parrot. white, wings blue and yellow. ing upon nuts and seeds, and show the greatest affection for their mates or wounded companions. They are” undoubtedly doomed to extinction. Allied are the cockatoos, lories, etc. NoTE.—One of the most re- markable parrots is the kea (Nestor notabilis) of New Zea- land (Fig. 303). The general colors are brown and gray, the under portions red. The upper mandible is extremely long and sickle-shaped. Since the introduction of sheep into FIG. 303.—A carnivorous parrot (/Ves- The Carolina parroquet (Conu- rus Carolinensts) (Fig. 302), and perhaps two oth- ers, that have been shot in Texas, are the only repre- sentatives in the United States. — The «former >is about thirteen inches in length, the general color green, neck and head yellow, the face red, snill : : They fly in flocks, feed- tor mirabilts). KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 278 that country, these birds have developed a taste for them, and in con- sequence are in a fair way of being exterminated. This habit was first noticed in 1868, and the wound was always on the back in front of the hips. In one station on the Matataapu, nineteen out of a flock of twenty rams were killed by these parrots in a month. In another — flock of three hundred and ten young, two hundred and five were killed in five months. Men are now employed to kill them. VALUE.—Parrot feathers are used in trade, and the nestor is eaten. Order XI. Woodpeckers, etc. (Picaviz). The Yellow-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus Americanus) is found throughout the whole extent of North America, from Canada to Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pa- cific. They are twelve inches in length. They pair in May, the rude nest* of twigs being often placed in an apple-tree. The eggs, generally three or four, are of a greenish blue. The female often feigns lameness in order to divert attention from the nest. The Ani, or tick-eater (Crotophaga ant), of Florida, and south to Brazil, is an allied form, and remarkable for its thin, arched, sharply-curved bill. They may with many others be termed guardian birds, as they are often seen clinging to the ears, tail, horns, and hair of cattle, carefully catching ticks and other parasites. The Trogens (7yvogonide) are found in North and South America, India, and Africa. The Mexican trogon * The Old World cuckoos are remarkable for their habit of slyly depositing their eggs in the nests of other birds, thus shirking the work of incubation. In Australia they are often placed in anest hardly large enough for one, and the knowledge of this seems to be instinctive in the young, for as soon as hatched it tumbles out the young and eggs that really belong there by pushing under them, and thus receives all the food-supply. The English, nearly all the Australian, and the Indian black cuckoos have this habit, the latter placing their eggs in the nests of crows. An allied bird of Africa, the honey-guide, preys upon the nests of honey-bees, and is protected by a remarkable cover- ing of skin and feathers, the former so thick that a pin can hardly be thrust through it. a 2 BACKBONED ANIMALS. < — WS ~. aS eS FIG, 304.—Trogon. (Zrogon Mexi- canus) is the only species found in North America. They have broad, ser- rated mandi- bles, are richly colored, green and carmine. The nest is gen- erally placed in a hollow tree, the eggs num- bering three or four, resembling those of a pigeon. The 7rogon resplendens, of South America, is one of the most mag- nificent of all birds. In the male (Fig. 304) the two middle tail- coverts are three times the length of the bird, composed of long, loose barbs of a rich metallic green. The Kingfishers (Aledin- ide) have large heads, a long, straight bill, powerful wings, and weak claws. The belted king- fisher (Ceryle aicyon) is the com- mon American form, a little over a foot in length, colored ashy blue above with a bluish band across the breast,and white below. Upon the head is a crest capable of being lowered or elevated. ‘They are found in the borders of streams a KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 297 and lakes, dashing into the water for their prey, return- ing to devour it upon some branch, and uttermg a harsh cry. The nest is a tunnel often six feet long, formed by the male and female in a cliff or bank adjoining the water. The eggs, gen- erally six, are pure white. The Australian and Indian kingfishers are re- markable for their beauty of colormg. The Aus- tralian laughing jackass is one of the largest, and noted for its demoniac laughter. The racket- tailed kingfisher, of the Malay Archipelago (Fig. 305), is one of the most beautiful of the group. Vatve.—The feathers are used im trade. The Toucans (Riam- phastidz) are remarkable for their enormous, ser- rated, highly colored bills. The tongue is long and fringed with barbs. They are confined to South America. The red-billed toucan Fic. 305.—Racket-tailed kingfisher. 274 BACKBONED ANIMALS. (R. erythrorhynchus) (Fig. 306) is one of the most beautiful species. They are fruit-feeders, but occasionally capture insects and small animals. The eggs are laid in hollow trees. The Hornbills (Bucerotide) are even more remark- able than the pre- ceding for the size of their bill, that in some seems almost a deformity ; but, unwieldy as it ap- pears, it is filled with air - cavities, and light in the ex- treme (Fig. 307). They are confined to Africa and the Eastern islands. The great two-horned hornbill* of India attains a length of four feet, the : beak ten inches, and has a second deck or ridge, thus appearing double. The Woodpeckers (Picide) have straight : ~ pills, adapted for ham- Fic. 307.—Section of skull of hornbill mering on wood to ob- (Buceros), showing air-cavities. Fic. 306.—Yellow toucan, showing enormous serrated bill. * Their nest-building is most remarkable and applies equally to African species. A hollow tree is selected, in which the female takes her place and forms a nest of feathers, the cavity being immediately walled up with mud by the male, leaving only a small orifice for her bill. The plaster soon hardens and she is a prisoner, fed by the male through the hole until the eggs are laid, hatched, and the young fully fledged. The young are perfectly naked at birth (Fig. 308). BEEI-BREASTED BIRDS. N 75 tain the insects that are the objects of search. The tongue is long, flattened, and barbed, and by a peculiar muscular arrangement can be forced out with great velocity. _—_ ; = —S= _——SSsSSs Fic. 308.—Hornbill and young, cemented in their nest by the male, who feeds them through a hole left for the purpose. ~The ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) is a typical American form, confined to the Southern States 276 BACKBONED ANIMALS. It is a large bird, twenty-one inches long, the general color black with white markings, the crest bright scarlet in the male. They cling upon trees, and bore and hammer out the grubs and insects there concealed, and are so powerful that in a few hours they have been known to tear off thirty feet of bark. The nest is pecked out of the trunk of a live tree, generally beneath a branch, first directly in and then downward for two or three feet, and here the six or eight white eggs are deposited. Their cries are exceed- ingly human, and like those of a hurt child. Notre.—The California woodpecker (JZelanerpes formicivorus) is remarkable for its habit of storing up acorns for winter food by boring a hole in a tree and driving in the acorn so tightly that no other animal can get it out. So frequent are these in some trees that they appear as if studded with nails. At Mount Pizarro, where such storehouses are found, the nearest oak-trees are in the Cordilleras, thirty miles dis- tant; thus each acorn required a flight of sixty miles besides the labor of boring the hole. The generic name of the Night Hawks (Cafrimulgi- de) refers to a curious super- stition that the birds milk goats and cows. They are generally nocturnal, have short, triangular bills, enor- mous mouths (Fig. 309) for the capture of insects, and soft plumage, that explains their noiseless, quiet flight. The whip-poor-will (Cagvz- mulgus vociferus) is a familiar Fic. 3c9.—Night hawk, feeding i on the wing. form. The general color is grayish, much variegated, the ends of the outer tail-feathers white. In all the family the color is protective, their crouching positions lending KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 277 still further security. They are solitary birds, only com- ing out at night, or late in the afternoon, then capturing insect-food upon the wing, the lonesome cry—wAzp-foor- will—being heard up to midnight. No nest is made, the - eggs having a protective coloring of greenish white, speck- led and blotched with bluish gray and hght brown, and placed in the grass or fallen leaves. Notr.—According to Audubon, some take the egg in the capacious mouth and flutter away. This has been doubted, but the careful ob- server, Dr. Brehm, has seen the male and female night-jar each take an egg in its mouth and fly away. Both parents assist in incubation. The family is exceedingly large, and found in many countries. The lyre-tailed night-jar, of Africa, is one of the most beautiful forms. VALUE.—The oil of steatornis is used for illuminating purposes in South America. The feathers of some are used. The Swifts (CypseZidz)* should not be confused with ‘the swallow, which they much resemble. The wings are long, thin, and pointed, the feet weak, and the salivary glands, used in nest-building, highly developed. _ The chimney swift t (Chetura pelasgica) is a typical example. The general color is a sooty brown, the throat lighter, the length five and a half inches. They are com- * To this family belongs the famous edible-nest swift (Collocalia nidifica) of India and adjacent countries. The nests are confined to certain localities, and generally placed in dangerous positions. The nest is a thin, gummy shelf or basket formed entirely of saliva. The bird hovers about the wall, presses its tongue to it, attaching a single thread of gluten, that coagulates on contact with the air. By repeating this for weeks the solid nest is finally formed, at first pure and clear, but becoming later discolored by the birds. Many persons lose their lives in collecting them, having to be lowered over precipices by rattan ropes. A Guatemalan swift forms a tube out of the down of plants, three or four feet in length, on the under side of a precipitous reck. The entrance is below, and the eggs laid on a shelf. A Brazilian species fastens a similar tube to a tree-limb and covers the outside with feathers. + Commonly called chimney swallow. 278 BACKBONED ANIMALS. mon in the United States, and seem to seek the company of human beings. The nest is formed of twigs glued with saliva to the chimney, forming a bracket and hardening to the consistency of stone. They drink, bathe, and eat on the wing, after the fashion of the humming-birds. VALUE.—The nests of the edible species are valued at fifteen or twenty dollars per pound in China. The Humming-Birds (77ochilide) are confined ex- clusively to America, and generally the tropical regions, several species being found as far west as Juan Fernandez, and afew species in North America. The bill is gener- ally long, straight or curved, the tongue capable of great protrusion, wings long and powerful, and claws minute and sharp. They are the smallest and most brilliantly colored of all birds. Our best-known form is the ruby- throat * ( Zrochilus colubris), which attains a length of three and a quarter inches. Order XII. Perching Birds (/asseres). General Characteristics—The birds of this large order have the feet adapted for grasping, one toe extending backward. The bill is sharp, horny, and generally conical. They com- prise the singers, and many are wonderfully musical, the notes corresponding to our vocal expressions. | * They nest in Massachusetts about the 8th of June. The nests, as are those of almost the entire family, are adapted. to the general surroundings in color, and so protected. They are often attached to an apple-tree, made up of matted layers of flying seed-wings, and lined | with the down of the mullein. The outside is covered with bits of lichen, glued on, so that the nest resembles a part of the limb. + It has been shown that young singing birds, as a rule, learn (as do children) the language or note of the parent that brings them up. The prolonged and convulsive laughter of man is equally as ridiculous, when seriously considered, as the chattering of a monkey, or the so- — called laughter of some birds. It is merely a relief from mental strain. (For experiments with young song-birds brought up by other parents, see “ Philosophical Transactions,” vol. lxiii, by Hon. Daines Barring- KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 279 The Flycatchers (.7yrannide) are a large family of strictly American, insectivorous birds, with broad, triangu- lar, abruptly-hooked bills, and small feet adapted for perch- ing and grasping. Their notes are simple. The king- © bird ( Zyrannus Carolinensis) may be selected out of a mul- titude of forms as atypical species. Their general color is a blackish ash, the tail black with white tip, the breast and lower portions white. They attain a length of nearly nine inches, and prey upon insects, securing them upon the wing. ‘The nest is placed in a tree, and formed of artificial objects, as tow, strings, wool, and lined with fibers of wood, horse-hair, etc. The eggs, six in number, are reddish white, marked with brown streaks. The male, during the breeding-season, and at all times, is extremely bold. It feeds its mate, and attacks crows, eagles, and hawks with the greatest fury, ultimately driving them from the vicinity. They migrate south earlier than other birds. The lyre-bird (Zenura superba), of New South Wales, is an ally of the flycatchers, and a giant among them. The male has a lyre-shaped development of the tail-feath- ers nearly two feet in length, composed of sixteen feathers. The female is a small, unattractive bird. The nest is com- posed of moss, twigs, and grasses, and covered by a dome- shaped roof. The two eggs are white, speckled with red. The Larks (Alaudide) are chiefly Old World birds, four species only being found in America. The bill is short, the nostrils concealed by the feathers, the hind claw long and straight, the singing apparatus well devel- oped, and all are remarkable singers. The skylark (Alauda arvensis) is an immigrant to this country, and common in Europe and Asia. While singing it rises in the air with seeming bounds till far out of sight, uttering a rich, melodious carol. The nest is formed in ton. For songs of birds set to music, see ‘“ American Naturalist,” vel. xill, p. 21.) 280 BACKBONED ANIMALS. May, and built by male and female upon the ground, generally in communities, being a simple hollow in the stubble, lined with horse-hair and grass. VALUE.—Game, and as insect-eaters. The Crows (Corvidz) are birds of large size, and possess powerful bills ; the voice is harsh and unmusical. The blue jay (Cyazocitta cristata) is the best known of the jays, and is widely distributed over America. The nest is placed in trees, formed of twigs lined with grass and deli- cate fibers, and contains four or five olive-brown, dark- spotted eggs. They are migratory in the Northern States. Note.—The Canada jay (7. Canadensis) is a guardian bird that alights on the moose, hanging from its horns and fur in eager search for parasites, an act of friendship the moose does not object to. Other species in Europe perform the same office for the reindeer. . The common crow (Corvus frugivorus) is a familiar form, with a purplish-violet plumage, attaining a length of twenty inches. They are remarkably intelligent, and form vast rookeries, starting off each day and flying for miles, returning at night. They build in trees, the nest being composed of twigs and roots, and about two feet across. The eggs, from three to six, are laid in April, and are bluish green with olive- green or dark streaks. The male feeds his mate during the period of incubation, seeds or animal diet being equally to their taste. They have been seen to drop clams from a height to break their shells, and the rocks about Ocean Point, Maine, are covered with Echini (Fig. 35) killed in the same way. The raven is remarkable for its vocal powers, equaling the parrot. The jackdaw, rook, and black-headed crow are other interesting allies. The Birds of Paradise (Paradise) are allies of the crows, and confined to New Guinea and the adjacent country. In their elaboration of plumage they are the most: remarkable of all birds. One of the most superb forms is the ruby bird of paradise (Paradisea rubra) that is found on the Island of Waigiou. They fly in flocks, uttering a hoarse and harsh Whack-whack-whack! that can be heard for a long distance. They breed in May in the North. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 281 Other remarkable forms are the resplendent epima- chus, the rifle-bird, and the king bird of paradise (Fig. 310), their gor- geous colorings defying ade- quate descrip- tion. The Plan- tain-Eaters (Mus ophagt- de)* are pecul- iar to the Afri- can continent. They are about the size of the raven, and are exclusively fruit-eaters. Fic. 310.—King bird of paradise. The eggs are white, and deposited in hollow trees. The Mouse-Birds (Codd) + are so singular that they deserve particular mention. They are found exclusively in Africa, and are allies of the preceding. They resemble * M. Jules Verreaux is authority for the statement that the coloring- matter of the red feathers of one of this family (Zwra- cus albocristatus) is soluble in water. Their red feathers may be washed white twice in the same day, the color invariably returning when dry. + The wiriwa (Cofius Senzgalensis) is invariably found upon the thickly-vined trees, darting in and out of the holes like a mouse. They have been seen to roost in a most curious manner like bats, clinging or hanging by their feet head downward, or in groups, cling- ing to each other in clumps upon the branches ; the first bird grasping the branch with one claw, supporting a second bird by entwining one of its legs with its own, this bird in a like manner supporting a third, and so on until they form a chain of living bird-links. They are fruit- eaters. The nest is conical and placed in trees, and contains six or seven eggs. 282 BACKBONED ANIMALS. swallows, with high crests, and have tails longer than the body. The general color is a mouse-gray, the back-feath- ers being so fine as to resemble hair. The striking char- acteristic of the bird is the foot, that is bright red, and exceedingly powerful. All four toes point forward, and those at the exterior can be turned either way. Starlings (Stvrnide).—The only member of this fam- ily found in America is the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), that is an occasional visitor in Greenland. Oxpeckers (Suphagine).—These African birds (Fig. 311) are allied to the starlings, and have strong, hooked Fic, 311.—Oxpecker (Buphaga Africana). claws, and a generally brownish-gray color. They come under the head of what we have termed guardian birds, following camels, cattle, elephants, and rhinoceroses, cling- ing to their ears, limbs, and fur, running over them like woodpeckers over a tree, and often warning them unin- tentionally of danger by rising with loud cries. The Orioles (/cteridz) have generally melodious voices and rich, lustrous plumage. The crow blackbirds (Quiscalus purpureus) are familiar members of the family, arriving in New England in April. They are social birds, moving about in vast flocks. The OO EEE KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 283 nest is generally built in a high tree, and resembles that of the robin. Some, however, develop a curious friendship for the fish hawk, and form their nests in among the in- terstices of its large abode, living there in the greatest har- | mony. The Baltimore oriole (/cterus galoula) is a familiar form throughout North America. The length is about seven and three quarter inches. They have singularly melodious voices, and are remarkable for their architectural abilities. Fic, 312.—Bobolink, or reed-bird. The nest is the combined work of male and female, and is hammock-shaped, swung from the branches, and made of threads of flax, silk-weed or cloth, horse-hair, and other material, the leaves of the trees forming a canopy over all. 284 BACKBONED ANIMALS. The eggs, from four to six, are pale green, with dark spots or streaks. The young are fully fledged in three weeks. Allied is the bobolink (Dolichonyx oryztvorus) (Fig. 312), or reed-bird of the Southern States, so famous for its rich notes. © Allied to this family are the several Australian bower - birds, remarkable for erecting play-houses (Fig. 313) distinct from — the nest. Fic. 313.—Bower-bird, showing the NoTE.—In the satin bower- bower and the ornaments collected. | bird the bower or play-house is the work of the male or males, and formed on the ground. The sides are made of twigs and small branches, planted by the birds in the ground, joined at the top and forming a tunnel, on the floor of which is placed bird b7ic-d-brac— highly-colored shells, pebbles, white bones, parrot-feathers, and glit- tering dbjects of all kinds. Here the male and female dance about, changing the ornaments, and showing their delight in various ways. It is, in fact, a bird ball-room. The nest is generally placed in the near vicinity. The Gardener-Bird * (Amélyornis tnornata) is about the size of the robin, of a rufous-brown hue, and is only found on the Island of Papua. * Instead of a bower, it erects a complete cabin (Fig. 314), and plants a garden about it. A small tree is selected, and one foot and a half from the ground a cone of moss is fastened to form a support for the roof, the latter being built of slender branches of an orchid se- lected for its vitality, the twigs resting against the moss, the other ends entering the ground one foot and a half from the center-post, and ar- ranged about until a perfect roof is the result, an opening on one side being left as a door, as shown in Fig. 314. The roof is thatched and interwoven with other pieces until weather-tight, the orchids continu- ing their growth and forming a perfect roof. About the entrance or KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 285 EE Sa a Fic. 314.—The gardener-bird ; its house, garden, flowers, etc. The Finches (/7ingiliide) have the bill shorter and more robust than in the preceding family, the corners of the mouth drawn down. They have a wide range in every country except Australia. The cardinal grosbeak (Cardinalis Virginianus) is one of our familiar birds. The general color is red, ashy on the back, the chin and forehead black, the crest conspicu- ous, and the beak a bright red. Their notes are extremely melodious, especially in the breeding-season. The nests are placed in trees, and contain from four to six grayish- white eggs, with olive-brown markings. door rich green mosses are planted and kept clean, and upon this miniature meadow bright flowers and insects are scattered, which are taken away and replenished as soon as they fade. In this curious habitation the birds meet in social and esthetic enjoyment, the nest being entirely different and distinct. 286 BACKBONED ANIMALS. NoTEe.—The English sparrow (Fig. 271), an importation, is a grain-eater when grown, but as it breeds six and even seven times a year, and the young are invariably fed upon insects, it is of value. Public opinion is against the pugnacious immigrant, but some naturalists who have made the subject a special study think that the bird is a benefit to the country on the above grounds. In the Central Park Zodlogical Garden they have taken possession of the rafters of the eagle-house, while year after year a pair rear their young on the back of the iron eagle over the door of the Arsenal. (See “ Report of American Ornithological Union,” 1884.) The Tanagers ( Zanagride) include three hundred or more species, confined to the warmer portions of America. Their colors are brilliant, legs short, claws long, the bill conical, and sometimes serrated or notched. The scarlet tanager (Pyranga rubra) is a familiar form in the New England States. The general color of the male is scarlet, the wings and tail black. Their note is Chip-churr, repeated at short intervals, and at other times exactly like that of a robin. They are more or less ven- triloquists—a protective provision—their note sounding far away when the bird is near at hand. The nests are rudely made, the eggs marked with purple spots. The Swallows ( Airundinide) have a world-wide distri- bution. The bill is broad, short, and triangular, the gape wide, adapted for capturing insects on the wing, the wings long and pointed, tail forked, and feet extremely weak. The bank swallows (Fig. 315) are remarkable for their digging powers, excavating holes in the face of banks, and there forming the nest. The tunnels are often six feet deep. The barn swallow forms its nest of mud, brought in its mouth and plastered against the wall, often assuming the shape of that of some of the weavers. An entire nest is frequently built in three days. The Chatterers (Ampelide) have a short, broad, de- pressed bill, opening to the eyes, the mandibles notched with a tooth behind the notch, the head generally crested. - KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 287 BAZ SSS ——S Hives, Fic. 315.—Bank swallow, showing cave-nest and young. ‘The cedar-bird (Ampelis cedrorum) is abundant in east- ern United States. The nest is made in low trees or bushes, and from three to four purplish-white and black spotted eggs are laid. Allied to this family is the cock of the rock * (2uficola) * They are remarkable for their “entertainments,” or courtships. Twenty or more of these birds have been seen standing in a circle, some seated upon rocks, while in the center a solitary male hopped 288 BACKBONED ANIMALS. of South America (Fig. 316). It is. about twelve inches long, red or yellowish in color, with a prominent crest. The female and young are brown. The umbrel- la-bird (Cepha- lopterus orna- tus) (Fig. 317) resembles a crow, having, however, a cu- rious umbrella- like crest that ~ = Ny ae completely cov- = Ns S ; ers the head. Se soa on at Among the Fic. 316.—Cock of the rock. remarkable al- lies of the fam- ily are the African Weaver-Birds, distinguished for the intelligence displayed in their nest-building. : NotTe.—The social weaver-birds breed in regular cities, a joint nest being formed generally in the aloe-tree. A thatched roof of grass is erected, the entrances beneath leading into a corridor or street, from both sides of which branch the nests, thus secure from snakes, and containing three or four bluish-white eggs, with small brown spots at the largest end. Year after year the nest is added to, often fairly breaking down the tree. Another peculiar allied South American form is the bell-bird. and leaped about, going through strange antics, spreading its wings and waving its tail until exhausted, then walking around as if to re- ceive applause, retiring to give place to another, who went through similar antics, followed by all the rest inturn. They nest in the trees. Their skin is in great demand. One of the state mantles of the Em- peror of Brazil was made of them. SEE eee KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 289 The Shrikes (Zazde) have hawk-like bills, abruptly hooked, the upper mandible toothed, and both notched. They have a world-wide distribution. The great northern shrikes, or butcher-birds (Lanzus borealis), are about nine inches in length. They prey upon insects, mice, and other birds, and are called butchers FIG. 317.—Umbrella-bird. from the fact that their surplus game, birds, etc., are im- paled,* while yet living, on thorns, briers, or bushes. They are great mimics, and extremely adept at learning notes. The nest is placed in trees, the greenish-gray, brown-spot- ted eggs being from four to seven in number. In the wagtails (A/ofacillide) the bill is shorter than the head, slender, straight, and notched at the tips. ‘The feet are strong, and adapted for walking. They are mostly confined to the Eastern Hemisphere ; the name refers to the habit of moving the tail up and down. * A tame butcher-bird has been known to impale animals given it on a sharp stick supplied for the purpose. 13 290 BACKBONED ANIMALS. The titlark (Anthus Ludovicianus) (Fig. 318) is a fa- miliar American form, The nest is formed in the grass. Allied is the tailor-bird, that, with its bill as a needle and ~ grass for thread, sews leaves together to form its nest (Fig. 319). The wrens (7Z7voglodytide) are chiefly denizens of tropical Amer- ica, though a number of species are Fic. 318.—American titlark. familiar visitors about Northern homes. The common house wren ( Troglodytes edon) is about five inch- es long, and of a brown hue. The nest is generally found near the : habitation of man, in holes or crey- Ke. 3 ae ’ tailor-bird of India or ices, in which five or six pale red- China. dish eggs are laid. Allied are the nuthatches, European hanging tit (Fig. 320), stone-chat, bluebird, and others. The water-ousel (C7zclide) is essentially aquatic in its habits, not only wading in the water, but flying into and under it, using its wings as fins to reach the bottom and obtain food. It is common about brooks. The nest is placed near a cascade, and is a great globe of living KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 291 moss ever kept green from the spray of the falls. The entrance is a doorway formed in the moss, leading to the interior, which is lined with soft grasses, and con- tains four or five pure white eggs. Thelarge fam- ily of- thrushes ( Turdide) is rep- resented by the robin, mocking- bird, cat-bird, and others. The wood thrush is the highest of the ciass of birds. The pervading color is cinna- mon-brown, grad- ing into olive on the rump, the breast blocked or marked with dis- tinct spots. They attain a length of eight inches, and are noted for their glorious powers of song, resembling the tinkling of a bell or the soft notes of a flute. The nest is found in low hollows, and contains four or five blue eggs. Specimens for Study.—For purposes of study, the skele- ton of a common fowl or other bird offers good material. The flesh can be boiled away, and the bones arranged as Fic. 320.—Bird architecture: Hanging tit and nest. - in Fig. 268; the limbs and skull should be compared with the corresponding parts of reptiles and mammals, and the difference noted. If the skeleton is to be mounted, the bird should be skinned and macerated. The tools neces- sary for work are a hook for suspending large specimens, 292 BACKBONED ANIMALS. forceps, scissors, scalpels, and a syringe for injecting the veins, etc. The student should be able to skin a bird, but mounting can only be learned by practice. Several works are published on the subject, as Maynard’s “ Taxidermy.” To skin a bird, first measure its girth over the wings. Make an incision low on the breast ; skin carefully around the wings, cutting the bone at the elbow (Fig. 268 e), and the legs at the knee - joint, pushing the skin with the handle of the knife in preference to cutting. Care should be taken with the neck, and, if the head is not too large, turn the skin over it to the bills. Scrape away all the flesh, being careful at the eyes and ears. Sever the neck close to the skull, take out the brain, and powder thoroughly all the parts—beak, wings, legs, and tail—with powdered arsenic. Fill up the body in all parts with cot- ton and sew up the incision. The feathers may be cleaned by boiling in warm water. Ojil-stains can be removed with a solution of soda or potash, and colored feathers are cleansed by using equal parts of warm water and ox-gall. Finally, inclose the skin in a paper band the size of your measurement, number and enter it in a blank book with the common and scientific name, sex, locality, measure- ments, and all the facts concerning its habits that you can. In collecting eggs, divide fairly with the birds, and if pos- sible do not take the nest until the brood is reared. Eggs can be blown by making a single hole in the shell with a tooth-drill or some such instrument, and with a glass tube or straw the contents can be blown out. If the young bird has formed and can not be removed, break the shell and use it as an alcoholic specimen. Works on birds for further reference. “ Key to Birds of North America,” Elliott Coues ; “‘ Birds of North America,” S. F. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway; Huxley’s ‘“‘ Manual of Vertebrates’ ; Owen’s ‘‘ Anatomy of Vertebrates”; Audubon’s ‘‘ Birds of North America”; ‘‘ Animal Locomotion,” Pettigrew ; ‘ Elements KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. 293 of Embryology,” Foster and Balfour ; ‘‘Comparative Embryology,” F. M. Balfour; Yarrill’s ‘‘ British Birds” ; Samuels’s ‘‘ Birds of New Eng- land,” etc. ‘‘ The Auk” is the official publication (Cambridge) of the American Ornithologists’ Union. Other magazines are ‘ Nature,” “Science,” “ American Naturalist,” ‘‘ Popular Science Monthly,” etc. Good popular works are those of Brehm, Cassell, and Wood. Note.— Zhe Migration of Birds—The majority of the birds that breed in the northern and middle sections of the United States migrate to the South at the approach of cold weather, and return in the spring, thus making two long journeys every year. These flights are made by night and day, and small birds have been seen at night through a tele- scope at an estimated height of three miles. The great valleys, river- courses, and coast lines are generally followed, but numbers of our birds stop at Bermuda, showing that they either venture to sea, or are blown out. Flocks of birds alight at Tortugas, Florida, during the prevalence of northers, that must have flown across the Gulf of Mexico. Many of the European birds spend the winter in Africa, while those in the United States go as far south as Central America, the West Indies, and even South America. During these flights they often congregate at certain spots in vast numbers; thus, on the Island of Heligoland, that lies in one of these paths, hundreds of different species are often seen resting, or at night whirling about the light- house, dashing against the glass, so that their dead bodies are found piled in heaps in the morning. The primary cause of migration is probably lack of food as cold weather comes on, while many other reasons are given. Tropical birds that breed at home do not migrate, and many of our birds, as the crow, English sparrow, and others, remain with us the entire season. Many of the birds of the Rocky Mountain country have a limited mi- gration, and some of the smallest birds make the longest journeys. Thus, the warblers (Dendroeca) and others, that breed as far north as Hudson Bay, winter in Mexico. Asa rule, birds return to their sum- mer homes with great regularity, many varying season after season only a few hours. For further information on this subject see report of the American Ornithologists’ Union ; ‘‘ Distribution and Migration of North Ameri- can Birds,” Baird ; the works of Wallace, Von Middeldorff, Hodgson, Giebel, Palmén, and Parker, and Newton’s article on birds in “ Ency- clopzedia Britannica,” ninth edition, vol. iii. 294 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Class VII.—MamMatia (/ilk-givers). General Characteristics—We now come to the highest and most perfect animal forms. They are covered with hair instead of scales. The young are born alive,* and nourished by a fluid called milk, secreted in the mammary glands. About twenty-one hundred species of living mammals are known, three hundred and ten inhabiting North America. Skeleton.—The skeleton, that in the majority of birds is extremely light, is in the mammals solid, and the limb- cavities filled with marrow. Taking the cat (Fig. 321) as an example, we first notethecranium,cra, or skull, thatis united to the backbone or vertebral column by two occipital con- dyles. Thelowerjaw is composed of two FIG, 321.—Cat, with bones of right side drawn. pieces, and is j oined Cra, cranium; sc, scapula or shoulder- : blade ; 1, humerus; 2, radius and ulna; directly to the skull, 3, carpus; 4, phalanges; 5, femur; 6, tibia and not to the quad- and fibula; 7, tarsus; 8, metatarsus; 9, rate bone, as we have phalanges ; 2, ianominate bone, a nner seen in the birds and of bones combined, forming the pelvic arch ; v, vertebral column. (After Morse.) 1 eptiles. The back- bone is divided into five divisions: First, the cervical or neck region, where the vertebrz generally number seven. In the cat they are smali, in the whale they are pressed together, while in the long-necked giraffe each bone is lengthened out. Sec- ond, the dorsal or back region, the vertebre of which generally number from ten to fifteen; they support the * See note on page 297. MAMMALIA. 295 ribs, that in turn inclose and protect the chest. Third, the lumbar or loin vertebre, numbering from four to seven. Fourth, the sacral bones, that are anchylosed and form the sacrum; these generally number from one to. nine. Fifth, the caudal or tail vertebre, that are more movable one upon another than the others, and number from four to forty-six. The tail is a very useful member. In some of the monkeys it serves as a fifth hand; in the dog it is used to express emotion, and in the horse, ant- eater, and many animals, as a protection from insects. Limbs.—The mammals generally have four limbs, and from this are termed quadrupeds, though in the whale the hinder pair are not present, or are rudimentary. In Fig. 321 we see the fore-limb joined to the body by the shoul- der-blade or scapula, sc, and the clavicle or collar-bone. The first bone of the leg is the humerus, 1; then follow two bones joined together, the radius and ulna, 2, followed in turn by the carpus, 3, or wrist-bone, the metacarpals, that form the upper portion of the hand, and the phalan- ges, 4, or finger and toe bones. The hind-hmbs in their parts resemble the fore ones, and are connected to the body by a number of bones that are joined together and known as the innominate bone, z, and constitute the pelvic arch. The upper bone of the leg is the femur or thigh, 5; then follow the leg-bones, similar to the ulna and radius, but called the tibia and fibula, 6 ; then the tarsus or ankle-bones, 7, the metatarsus or bones of the foot, 8, and the bones of the toes or phalanges, 9. There are gen- erally five toes, but there are many exceptions, as the ‘horse that walks on the toe-nail of its single toe, the ox on two toes, etc. The limbs are adapted to the habits of the animal. The sloths have long claws for clinging, and the moles powerful digging-claws. In the whales and seals they are paddles. Digestion.— The jaws of all mammals, except the whale- bone whales and a few others, are provided with teeth 296 BACKBONED ANIMALS. set in separate sockets. The first set, or milk teeth, are finally discarded and a permanent set attained, general- ly of four distinct kinds, adapted for various purposes: incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. With these, which differ much in different animals, the food is ground up or torn, and rudely prepared, mixed with saliva and swallowed, passing down the cesophagus into the stomach. Here it is mixed with a secretion known as gastric juice, and converted into chyme, finally passing into the smaller intestine, where it is brought in contact with various secre- tions, as bile, pancreatic juice, etc., and is known as chyle, then passing to the blood-vessels through the lacteal tubes ; thus a part of everything eaten is so much fuel for the system. From the small intestine follows a larger one through which all rejected matter passes. | Circulation.—The heart of mammals is four-chambered, comprising two auricles and two ventricles. The blood is hot, red, and contains two kinds of corpuscles, red and colorless. The latter have a nucleus, are spherical, and ex- hibit movements similar to those of the Amebe (Fig. 2). The red corpuscles are the most abundant, and are nearly circular. The impure blood from the body pours into the right auricle, from where it passes to the right ventricle, and thence to the lungs. Here it is changed into arterial blood by the oxygen of the air and passes back to the left auricle, then to the left ventricle, and finally is driven through the great aorta and sent flowing through innumer- able branches all over the body. Respiration.—The mammals breathe by lungs, two elastic, spongy bodies permeated with air-cells, each in-— closed in a membranous sac called the pleura. They hang free in the cavity of the thorax. Air is taken in at the mouth and nostrils, and passes down the windpipe into the branches or bronchi, that do not connect with air-sacs in the body as in the birds. In this way the oxygen is brought in contact with the blood and aérates it. MAMMALIA. 297 Nervous System.— The brain of mammals is larger than that of any of the preceding or lower forms, and extending from it is the long, protected cerebro-spinal cord with its innumerable nerve-branches. All the impulses of animals arise in the brain, that seems to send messages along the nerves to the limbs and various organs, and in this way action is produced. ‘That the nerves are the mediums of communication can be shown by severing them, the part so disconnected becoming powerless. Organs of Sight, Hearing, etc—The mammals all pos- sess eyes, though in the mole they are almost useless. - With the exception of some seals, the whales, and a few others, they have external ears. Development.—All mammals are born alive,* and differ from all preceding forms in nourishing their young with the secretion called milk. In some Carnivora the young are at first blind and helpless ; in others, as the herbivo- rous animals, the young immediately follow the parent. The young of marsupials are extremely minute and help- less when born. General Divisions—The mammais are divided into three sub-classes: 1. Ornithodelphia, represented by the Monotremes ; 2. Dide/phia, or the pouched animals ; 3. Monodelphia, or the placental mammals. Sub-Class I.—OrNITHODELPHIA. Order I. The Monotremes (Jonotremata). General Characteristics—These strange animals, the lowest of the mammalia, are noted for their bird-like characteristics. They have long, flattened, or narrow beaks, and webbed feet ; they are confined to Australia and Tasmania. * As this work goes to press, a Sydney, Australia, scientist cables to the biological section of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, now in session at Montreal, that Prof. Caldwell has made the remarkable discovery that the Australian monotremes lay eggs, or are oviparous. 298 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Spiny Ant-eater (Zchidnidz).—These animals (Fig. 322, A) are covered with spines like the hedgehog ; the bill is long, horny, and toothless, resembling that of a bird. The tongue is long, like that of the ant-eater, and the pal- ate armed with rows of sharp, tooth-like spines. Their claws are powerful and adapted for digging into the ant- hills where their food is obtained. They are valuable in destroying noxious ants. Three species are known. FIG. 322.—Group of egg-laying mammals. A, Echidna; #&, Ornithorhyn- chus swimming and rolled up; C, nest of duck-bill in section. Duck-bill (Orazthorhynchide).—The water mole (Fig. 322, B), as it is sometimes called, has a broad, duck-like, horny bill (Fig. 323, 4), containing eight broad, flat, horny teeth. They have no external ear. The body is covered with short, brown hair with an under-pelt ; the fore-feet are webbed (Fig. 323, C) beyond the claws, the hinder only to their base, the males possessing a bird-like spur MAMMALIA. 209 (Fig. 323, 4). They live upon worms and vegetable mat- ter. Their nests are long burrows in the banks of streams, FIG. 323.—A, head of Ornithorhynchus, showing serrated bill; 2, hind-foot _ with spur, @, found on the males only ; C, webbed fore-foot. having an opening underwater. At the farther end, twenty or thirty feet from the water, leaves and grass are deposited and the young reared. Sub-Class I1.—DIDELPHIA. Order I. Pouched Animals (W/arsupialia). Gen- eral Characteristics.—In these animals the young are born in an immature state, in the great kangaroo being not over an inch in length, and immediately placed in a pouch or marsupium, where they re- main attached to the teats at the bottom of the pouch, the milk being forced down the throat by the muscular action of the mother. The young are prevented from suffocating by a peculiar modification of the breathing-organs. The pouch is sup- . = | ported by two long, slender bones project- A ing forward from and attached to the front Fic. 324.—Opos- of the pelvis. sum at birth. Opossum (Didelphide).—In this fam- ily is the common opossum (Fig. 331), the only marsupial of the United States. It is about twenty inches in length, 300 BACKBONED ANIMALS. with a long, prehensile tail. The hair is white, tipped with brown. They live in the trees, eating fruit, eggs, and even small animals. When attacked, they feign death, thus often escaping. The young (Fig. 324) are placed in the pouch when extremely small, and nourished as other marsupials, and when older are frequently seen clinging to the mother, their tails curled about hers. The Yapock is a water-opossum from South America. ‘The feet are webbed; the tail is prehensile and scaly. They feed partly upon aquatic animals. VALUE.—In the United States about two hundred and fifty thou- sand skins are used yearly. The hair is used in felting, hats, etc. isco “it TANS aa ie Seer 2g Vee Uy “' : pa ly 4 NGG E a i (Me ~ f AN SD aM § ; ie AN! i S YY wy i) «( ARS -F x ( Gj ‘ Wi ae 3.) Lees Sater ih Fic. 325.—Chezropus. : Native Cats (Dasyuride).— These are carnivorous and insectivorous marsupials, ranging in size from a rat to a wolf. The Tasmanian wolf (Fig. 328) is the largest form. The marsupial bones are cartilaginous ; the pouch absent MAMMALIA. 301 or rudimentary; the tail is long, powerful, and not pre- hensile. The thumbs of the hind-feet are either wanting or rudimentary ; the back is strongly marked with parallel bars of black. They are nocturnal in their habits, and confined to Australia and Tasmania. The Tasmanian devil (Fig. 328) has similar habits. The Bandicoots (/eramelide).—The bandicoots of Australia and Van Diemen’s Land are small, insectivorous marsupials, somewhat resembling kangaroos. The Che- ropus is a remarkable little creature, resembling a pygmy deer (Fig. 325). All the toes but the fore ones are ex- tremely minute, and it is the only animal that walks upon two toes of each foot. It burrows. Allied to these forms is the AZyrmecobius, a beautiful animal with a long, bushy tail and no pouch, the immature young clinging to the teats, only protected by hair. It preys upon ants, and only one species is known. Kangaroos (Macropodide).-- The kangaroos are re- markable for the development of the hind-limbs, by which they take enormous leaps of twenty-five feet or more. When resting, the hind-legs (Fig. 326) and tail form a Lisle LE = FIG. 326.—A hind-foot of kangaroo. tripod. The tail is not used in leaping, as is generally supposed. The fore-legs are short. They attain a height of six feet, and are extremely fleet and powerful. The young are carried in the pouch, and often feed on grass from it as the mother moves. along (Fig. 327), presenting a curious appearance. In the tree-kangaroo the limbs are 302 BACKBONED ANIMALS. nearly of the same length; the claws are long and powerful, to assist in climbing. In strange contrast to the great kan- garoo is the Pandemeleon wallaby, twenty inches in length. The hare kangaroo is a powerful leaper. Mr. Gould re- cords one as leaping over his head when chased by dogs. Fossil kangaroos are found in Australian cave-deposits. The Dirotedon was a kangaroo as large as an elephant. —— VALUE.—Kangaroo fur and leather are somewhat used. Fic. 327.—Australian marsupials. Kangaroos: 1, leaping; 2, showing young in the pouch; 3, flying phalanger; 4, koala or native bear, with a young one on its back. Wombats (Piascolomyidz).— The animals of this family are confined to Australia. They are tailless, about the size of the badger, with flat heads, and short legs, adapted for digging. They feed upon vegetation, and bur- MAMMALIA. 303 row in the ground (Fig. 328). An extinct wombat as large as a tapir has been found in Australia. The wom- bats are valued as food. Allied are the phalangers, the koala that carries its young on its back (Fig. 327), and many others. Fic. 328.—Tasmanian marsupials. 1, wombats; 2, Tasmanian devil; 3, . Tasmanian wolf. _ Sub-Class III.—Monopetpuia (Placental Mammais). General Characteristics —In this sub-class are included all the rest of the mammals. They are called placental because the young, which are larger when born than the preceding forms, and generally perfect, are nourished up to the time of birth by a vascular membrane, pene- trated by veins and arteries, known as the placenta. Order I. Edentata (toothless). General Character- tstics—The animals of this family have no incisor teeth, some being entirely toothless. In some, scales take the place of hair. 304. BACKBONED ANIMALS. Sloths (4radypodide).— The sloths are confined to South America, east of the Andes. Their bodies are cov- ered with long gray and black hair, that, in its resemblance to moss and the bark of trees, affords them protection. The three-toed sloth is called 4z, from the plaintive sound it utters. Their limbs are long and slender, the hinder pair the shortest, and armed with powerful claws, by which they cling to limbs, passing their entire time in hanging positions (Fig. 331), being helpless on the ground. The two-toed sloth is similar in general appearance. The MZe- gatherium, a gigantic extinct sloth, was eighteen feet long and eight feet high. The Megalonyx was as large as a FIG. 329.— African imperfect-toothed animals. Aard-vark or Cape ant-eater in the background, and scaly manis or pangolin in the foreground. rhinoceros—huge creatures, that pulled down large trees with their powerful limbs and claws. Sloths are eaten to some extent. Ant-Eaters (AZjyrmecophagide).— These remarkable a a Te MAMMALIA. 305 animals (Fig. 331) are found in South America. The muz- zle is extremely long, the mouth toothless, the tongue of great length and used to gather up ants, the capture being helped by a viscid saliva that covers it. The body is cov- ered with thick, coarse hairs, that are so developed upon the tail that it completely covers the body, affording pro- tection to the young that cling to the mother’s back, the family resembling a bush of dried herbage. The claws are extremely powerful, and used in tearing open the nests of ants, and persons have been killed by them. The little ant-eaters have two toes, a prehensile tail, and live in trees, finding protection in the resemblance to the bark and moss. Allied to these is the aard-vark, or South African ant-eater (Fig. 329), that has long ears, a pig-like snout, and burrows in the ground, coming out at night to prey upon ants. Armadillos (Dasypodid2).—These are the most won- derful of all mammals, being covered with horny plates or scales. The armor is arranged in different regions: one shield covers the head, another the shoulders, and another the rump, while be- tween the two latter are several bands allowing free movement. FIG. 330.—Glyptodon, a gigantic extinct armadillo. The tail is pro- tected by rings, and the legs by horny tubercles. The muzzle is pointed, as in the aard-vark, the ears are long, and claws powerful, adapted for digging (Fig. 331). The giant armadillo attains a length of four feet. In the Chia- mydophorus the back only is protected by an armor made up of square, cubical plates, connected by a leathery de- velopment. The fore-claws are very powerful. A fossil armadillo, found near the La Plata, was as large as a 306 BACKBONED ANIMALS. rhinoceros. The Glyptodon (Fig. 330) had a solid armor and was eight feet long. VALUE.—The native Botocudos use the armor of the tail’as a trumpet, and the flesh is eaten, FIG. 331.—1, opossum. Imperfect-toothed animals: 2,sloth; 3, ant-bear; 4, armadillo. Pangolins (JZanidz).—These (Fig. 329) are the only Edentates found out of America, living in Africa and Asia. They are covered with scales arranged like tiles. The tail is extremely long, the claws powerful and. long, so that they walk upon the sides of their feet. When mo- lested they roll up into balls like the armadillo. Order II. Sea-Cows (Svrenia). General Character- istics. —The sea-cows are amphibious, milk-giving animais, somewhat resembling the fishes in form. ‘The teeth are well developed, the molars having flattened or ridged MAMMALIA. 307 crowns, adapted for grinding food. ‘The nostrils are upon the upper part of the snout; the fore-limbs are fin-like, and they have five fingers; the hind-limbs are absent, their place seemingly taken by a horizontal, whale- like tail. Manatee (J/anatidz)—The Florida manatee (Fig. 332), that is now extremely rare, ranges from the Amazon FIG. 332.—-The manatee, or sea-cow, grazing. to southern Florida, and attains a length of nine feet. The tail is horizontal, and semi-oval in shape. Another species is found in Africa. They occasionally come upon the shore. The young, in nursing, are sometimes sup- ported by the flippers of the mother. Nore.—Steller’s manatee (ARhytina Stelleri) was an Arctic form of gigantic proportions, attaining a length of thirty-five feet, and a weight ef nearly four tons. The skin was leathery, the fore-limbs without fingers, but overgrown with coarse hairs; the tail resembled that of the whale. They had no teeth, but two horny masticating plates, one in the gum and the other in the lower jaw. Herds of these animals were discovered by Steller at Behring Island in 1741, and twenty-eight years later they were extinct, having been destroyed by man. (Fora list of animals that have become extinct within a few hundred years, see article by the author in “ Lippincott’s Magazine,” June, 1883.) 308 BACKBONED ANIMALS. The dugong is peculiar to the countries adjacent to the Indian Ocean. The tail is shaped like that of the whale ; the fore-limbs are short ; the muzzle protected by numer- ous stiff bristles. They attain a length of twenty-five feet, = FIG. 333.—A, skull of female dugong; the colossal tusks in the upper jaw never pierce the thick, fleshy lip, although they continue to grow with the jaw. a, the root of the tusk; 3, the point. 2, adult dugong, show- ing whale-like tail. and congregate in herds near the mouths of rivers, brows- ing upon the aquatic vegetation. The tusks of the female are completely incased in the upper jaw (Fig. 333). VALUE.—Hide, oil, and bones. MAMMALIA. 309 Order III. Whales (Cetacea). General Characteris- tics—We now come to the largest living animals, milk- givers, that live entirely in the water, and are in form fish- like.. The fore-limbs are paddles, having bones similar to © those of the arm and hand of man; the hind-limbs absent or rudimentary, the caudal extremity being provided with a horizontal, fish-like tail that is the principal locomotive organ. They are often confused with fishes, but are vivip- arous, suckling their young (Fig. 334), giving rich, creamy FIG. 334.—The humpback-whale suckling her young. (After Scammon.) milk. They breathe air by means of lungs, having a pro- vision that enables them to remain under water for over an hour without breathing. This consists of a large num- ber of reserve blood-vessels that line the interior of the chest and spaces between the ribs, only a portion of this blood passing into circulation from time to time. The nostrils are upon the top of the head, and form blow-holes through which vapor, wot water,* is forced. The jaws of * This error is found in many works, but the whale no more spouts water through its nostrils than can a human being. The so-called spouting is vapor, the moisture of the breath and mucus from the nostrils. 310 BACKBONED ANIMALS. whales are either armed with conical teeth or plates of fibrous matter called whalebone. The amount of blood in the whale is enormous ; the aorta or great artery from the heart being alone one foot across, and probably at every pulsation of the great heart ten or fifteen gallons of blood are thrown out. The cetaceans range in size from FIG. 335.—White whale (Beluga catodon), a cetacean that has been carried alive from America to England by steamer, covered with sea-weed and dashed frequently with water. the porpoise, three to five feet long, to the rorqual, one hundred and three feet in length. Toothed Whales (Delphincidea).—This group in- cludes the dolphins, porpoises, white whales, etc. The common dolphin has long, extended jaws armed with from forty to forty-seven conical teeth, and a prominent dorsal tidge- or fin, The porpoises,* the orca,} or Killers blackfish, or round-headed grampus, the white whale, Be- luga (Fig. 335), sperm-whale, and narwhal are allies. * A friend of the author, in attempting to capture a herd of por- poises, drove them into a creek, and the capture was about to commence, when the porpoises rushed toward the boats, several leaping completely over them, and thus reaching the sea. + The orca also preys upon the young of the walrus. In the stomach of one have been found the remains of thirteen porpoises and fourteen seals, ae MAMMALIA. aT Whalebone- egy Fl whales (Balenoi- ae _dea).—In the em- aA a, bryo whales of this Ni & ( - group minute teeth i Se e are present. They i Se = are absorbed before i eae é birth, and after it | ep cm their place is taken : Re ‘ by baleen, or plates ; a of whalebone, that | ee \ grow out and hang i a \ 5 =" ‘}! Wy down upon each side in from three to four hundred plates, like saws on arack, often attaining a length of ten feet, weighing in all one ton (Fig. 336). The outer edges are smooth, the inner frayed into numerous bristles, that form a rude strainer. Ordinari- ly, the lips of the lower jaw cover them, but, when feeding, the enor- mous lips flatten out, presenting the appearance of a scoop with whale- bone sides. Into this trap myriads of jelly-fishes are swept, becoming en- tangled in the strainer ; when a mouthful is obtained, the fa, fore-arm; h, hand; #, ¢#, 7, small remains of pelvis or hip-bone, thigh, and leg; 7, roof of the palate ; w, w, plates of whalebone ; /, whalebone-fringe. Fic. 336.—Skeleton of a whalebone-whale, and section of the mouth, with whalebone : 312 BACKBONED ANIMALS. sides of the lips are raised, the tongue presses the water out through the strainer, the jellies passimg down the ex- tremely small throat, that is only adapted for this kind of © food. The Greenland whale (alena mysticetus), Balena cis- arctica, and australis, are familiar forms. ‘ VALUE.—A single whale, captured by a New London vessel in 1884, realized for whalebone, $12,230; oil, $3,490; total, $15,720. Spermaceti and ivory are other productions, Order IV. Insect-eating Mammals (/zsectivora). General Charactertstics—The animals of this order prey upon insects almost entirely. The teeth are well developed, the molars being prism-shaped, with acute cusps or points (Fig. 337). The feet are provided with claws, often enormously de- FIG. 337.—Skull of an insect- yeloped. cing mammal shoving Shrews (Sorieide)—In ape ; pearance the shrews (Fig. 339) resemble the rats. They have a wide distribution, but are not found in Australia or South America. The broad- nosed shrew (Sorex) is a common American form. The nose is long, canine teeth absent, the ears large, tail con- spicuous and scantily supplied with hair. This shrew is one of the smallest quadrupeds on the continent, weigh- ing only forty-seven grains. They secrete a protective odor, contained in two glands at the base of the tail. They burrow in the ground, and are mainly nocturnal in their habits. Moles ( Za/pidz2).—The moles are confined to the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. In America, the star-nosed mole (Condylura) (Fig. 338) ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Its length is about four inches to the tail, which is of nearly the same length. The nose terminates in numerous star-like fringes, that aid it in MAMMALIA. 313 obtaining food. They are found near streams and moist spots. The common mole (Sca/ops aguaticus, Linn.) (Fig. 339) leaves its traces in up- turned ridges in every field of the Eastern states. Fhey attain a length of five inches. rhe. fore-feet are greatly de- veloped for digging ;_ their eyes are com- paratively use- Fic. 338.—Star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) : less, being ex- a, jaws ; 0, end of nose. tremely small,* giving rise to the impression that they are eyeless. Their nests are underground, and their principal food earth- worms. Allied are the Solenodon of Hayti and the Tanrec of Madagascar. VALUE.—F ur, and as insect-destroyers. A single mole is estimated to eat 20,000 insects in a year. One has been known to devour 432 maggots and 250 grubs in four days ; another ate 872 maggots and 540 grubs in twelve days. In another instance two moles in nine days de- voured 341 grubs, 193 earth-worms, 25 caterpillars, and a mouse, its bones and skin. * The eyes are deeply imbedded, but are perfect, the lens consist- ing of a very small number of minute and little altered embryonic cells. The retina is more simple than generally seen in other ver- tebrates. In the embryo mole both eyes are connected with the brain by optic nerves, but in adults the optic nerve has degenerated, sometimes one and again both, so that, though the image may be possibly formed in the eye, it is with difficulty communicated to the brain. 14 ———s 314 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Hedgehog (Zrinaceide).*—We now come to the true hedgehogs (Fig. 339), that are not found im the .western hemisphere, and are characterized by a thick FIG. 339.—A group of insect-eaters: 1, common shrew; 2, hedgehog; 3, Mole; 4, bat. growth of sharp, spinous bristles upon the back, that, when the animal rolls itself into a ball, form a perfect protection. VALUE.—Skin and spines. * The nest is generally underground, and carefully made, and here the adults, as a rule, pass the cold months in a state of hiber- nation—a sleep so deep that no outward sign of breathing can be de- tected. In Dr. Hall’s experiments with a hibernating animal suddenly decapitated, the heart continued to beat for a long time, as if possessed with an independent life. In another, where the brain and entire spinal cord were removed, the heart continued to beat for two hours, as if nothing had happened, and twelve hours after would contract when touched. MAMMALIA. 315 Flying Colugo (Galeopithecide).—The animals of this family, found in Molucca, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philip- pine Islands, are the highest forms of the /usectvora, and - are provided with a membrane similar to that of the flying squirrel, except that it also connects the tail (Fig. 340) Fic. 340.—A group of flying mammals: 1, taguan, or fiying squirrel, a rodent ; 2, colugo, an insectivorous animal. and the hind-legs, forming a complete parachute. When climbing, the membrane is folded closely, but as they spring into the air with limbs out it spreads out, support- ing them in leaps of three or four hundred feet. In this way they pass from tree to tree, carrying their young. Order V. Bats (Chiroptera— Wing-handed). General Characteristics—From the Colugo we pass to the bats (Figs. 339 and 341), which are characterized by a remark- able modification of the fore-limbs for purposes of flight. The fingers of the fore-arm are greatly elongated, and sup- 316 BACKBONED ANIMALS. port a thin, leathery membrane, that commences at the side of the neck and extends to the hind-legs, partly or wholly encompassing the tail, and is used with all the freedom of a bird’s wing. The sternum is slightly keeled, as in the birds, and the teeth resemble in gen- eral those of the Jnsectivora. _ They are noc- —— turnal, and hang by their hind- FIG. 341.—Skeleton of a bat (lettered to compare 1 A with bird’s skeleton, p. 226). fa, fore-arm; w, egs tee Boe wrist; ¢, thumb; 4a, hand; 4%, heel; / foot. resting. The , thumb is free, and forms a hook for holding and walking; the first finger is also generally provided with a claw, and in moy- ing on the ground the bat uses its thumb, while its other fingers point backward. Some species have } peculiar disk-like clinging organs (Fig. 342). The eyes are extremely minute, es- pecially in the long-eared bats, yet, even when deprived of these organs, they show marvelous skill in avoiding obstructions. NoTE.—At the approach of cold weather the bats Fyg, 342,—Suc- are deprived of food, and, being unable to migrate torial disk on as the birds, retire to caves and secluded spots and the thumb of sleep away the cold months in a state of hibernation. Thyroptera So perfect is this sleep, that the animals have been tricolor. placed in illuminating gas without perceptible effect ; and in other experiments the air about them, upon being analyzed, did net show evidences of having been breathed. They and other hibernators are supposed during this period to obtain nourishment by absorbing the fat that has accumulated on the under side of the neck, in the so-called hibernation-glands. MAMMALIA. 317 Order VI. Gnawing Animals (Rodentiz). General Characteristics —The animals of this order have no canine teeth, but in each jaw are two powerful, chisel-like incisors (Fig. 343), that are renewed as fast as they wear away. The molar teeth are flat, and seldom exceed four in each jaw. The lower jaw is so articulated with the skull that the motion is forward and back instead : , Fic. 343.—Skull of a gnawing animal of horizontal. The limbs (Rodent), showing the large chisel- are adapted for walking, teeth in front, and the gap between climbing, flying, or bur- rowing. these and the hind teeth, Hares and Rabbits (Leforidz)—The hares (Fig. 344) and rabbits have a wide geographical distinguished by long ears, the presence of Fic. 344.—European hare (Lepus timidus). and gray rabbit are well-known species. ranges from Virginia to Labrador. The range, and are small teeth be- hind each of the incisors, powerfully de- veloped hind- legs, and short, bushy tails. The fore-feet are five-toed, the hinder ones having four. Many have the feet lined with hair beneath. Phe white hare (Lepus Americanus) The former water-rabbit of 318 BACKBONED ANIMALS. the Mississippi region takes to the water when pursued, and swims and dives equally well. The jackass-rabbit (Z. callotis) is remarkable for its long ears, while in the Alpine hare of the Rocky Mountains they are extremely short. Hares generally nest on the surface, while rabbits burrow. VALUE.—Five million rabbit-skins are used annually in the fur- trade, and four and a half million hare-skins. NoTE.—The domestic varieties of rabbits have all sprung from the English variety. They live in bands, burrow, and are so prolific that it has been estimated that, under the most favorable circumstances, the progeny of a single pair in four years would amount to a million! * ~ Allied are the Cavies (Cazvitde), found in South Amer- ica and the adjoining islands, seemingly taking the place of hares, the Agoutis, Guinea- pigs, the Capybara, the largest rodent, and the Paca, that forms burrows in the ground. Porcupines (/ystricid2).—These rodents (Fig. 345) have the body and tail covered with stiff, rigid, barbed quills, from three to twelve inches in length. The molar teeth are sixteen in number, and the tongue is rough and armed with horny scales. ‘They inhabit the temperate re- gions of the eastern and western hemispheres, living in burrows, and in the winter passing through a partial hiber- nation. The white-haired or Canada porcupine is nearly three feet long, including the tail. The spines are white, with darkened tips, the long hairs growing among them being similarly colored, and the fur a dark brown. They live upon bark and twigs, and also upon corn and various grains. The yellow-haired porcupine is much larger. The crested porcupine of Europe and Asia has spines a foot long; those upon the tail being hollow, open, and attached by slender pedicles. When not in use the spines lie flat, but are raised suddenly with a loud, crackling * Rabbits have increased so in certain parts of Australia that a famine is threatened. One colony has lost two thousand sheep from starvation, the rabbits having eaten up the grass. MAMMALIA. 319 noise. The accounts of their spines being thrown are fabulous.* The Brazilian porcupine climbs trees and clings to them by its prehensile tail. The young, general- ly two, are produced in the latter part of spring. VALUE.—Quills are used in commerce, as pen-holders, etc. Fic. 345.—A group of rodents: 1, harvest-mouse; 2, porcupine; 3, mole- rat. Allied are the Chinchillas (Chinchillide), that live upon the Andes of Chili and Peru, at an elevation of twelve thousand feet. Their fur is exceedingly valuable. Note.—The allied Viscachas inhabit the lofty plateaus of the Andes, sixteen thousand feet above the sea. They burrow, and have a remarkable habit of collecting about their holes every curious object, so * In experiments witnessed by the author, a rabbit was pierced by quills so quickly that it was easy to see how the illusion of their being ' thrown first originated. The blows were struck entirely by the tail, and so rapidly that the eye at first could not follow the movement. 320 BACKBONED ANIMALS. that quantities of material are found there. A watch lost bya traveler was afterward found in front of a hole. Squirrels (Sciuride).—The squirrels have a wide geographical range. They have powerful, compressed in- cisor teeth, prominent ears, the snout and upper lip di- vided, and long tails with hairs generally arranged along the sides. The gray and black squirrels attain a length of two feet, including the tail. They vary much in color, from black to all shades of gray. The gray squirrels make wonderful migrations, passing over the country in vast num- Fic. 346.—American chipmunk. bers, swimming streams, and divesting the land as they pass. The tufted-eared squirrel, of the San Francisco Hills, is one of the finest American species. The striped squirrels (chipmunks) (Fig. 346) have enormous cheek-pouches, used in carrying food to their nests. The flying squir- rels (Fig. 340) have a fur-covered membrane, extending MAMMALIA. 321 from the sides and connecting the fore and hind limbs, which enables them to leap great distances, the membrane acting as a parachute, held out by the limbs, and bony, boom-like appendages attached to them. The marmots are represented in this country by the prairie-dog (Fig. 347). They in- habit the plains cf the West. The fur is reddish brown, and lighter be- neath. They live in burrows in com- munities, and utter a sharp chirp re- == WIAA sembling a bark. Fic. 347.—Prairie-dog, and the owl and snake The burrowing- that live in its burrow. owls and sattle- snakes live with them, the latter probably preying upon the young of both. The woodchuck is common in North America, attain- ing a large size. ‘Their fur is a grizzly color. VALUE.—Six million squirrel-skins are used yearly by the trade. The hairs of the tail are made into delicate paint-brushes. Beavers (Castoridz).—The beavers are represented in America by one species. They are characterized by a broad, flattened, scaled tail, that is used as a scull in locomotion. They have five toes upon each foot, those upon the hinder ones being webbed. ‘They are aquatic in their habits, living upon the bark of trees and other vege- tation, or meat, when domesticated. They are famed for their industry and intelligence in the construction of their homes.* The young, from two to eight, are produced in * The beavers show great intelligence in making their habitations. As it is necessary that the house should be under water, a small stream 22 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Fic. 348.—The beaver (Castor fiber), a gnawing water-animal, showing its dam and method of felling trees. is selected and dammed. Large trees, eighteen inches in diameter, are gnawed down (Fig. 348) and placed in position, and, if distant from the stream, a canal is built, often five hundred feet long, by which logs and food are floated to their homes. The logs are arranged against the current, curving up-stream, the interstices being filled with mud and other material. In working, the small matter is carried in the fore-paws, the webbed hinder ones and the tail being the organs of locomotion, and the latter perhaps used in moving logs and stones. The dam completed, the house is built under water, while burrows are made in the neighboring banks to be used as a last resort. The houses MAMMALIA. 323 — the month of May, attaining their growth in eighteen months, and living for nearly twenty years. They were formerly common in the New England States, where the remains of their dams can still be seen; they are gradu- ally becoming extinct. Allied to the beaver is the curious Sewellel (ap/odon rufus) of the mountains of Oregon and Washington Territory. It is nocturnal, burrows in the ground, and is about the size of a muskrat. VALUE.—Twenty thousand beavers are taken yearly in Asia, and two hundred thousand in America. The incisors are used by the In- dians as chisels, knives, and ornaments. Beaver-leather is used, and castoreum in the manufacture of perfumery. Fic. 349.—The Myopotamus coypu, a valuable fur-bearing animal, at home in either salt or fresh water in South America. Rats (J/uride).—In this family are the rats, mice, and their allies that are very generally distributed over are made of mud, and two-storied, the upper being out of water, in which the families live, while below are stored the provisions for the winter. The doors or openings connect with the water. The dams and home are repaired year after year, wood for the purpose being collected in the autumn, and when frozen the work is extremely solid. 324 BACKBONED ANIMALS. the globe. The upper lips are divided, the snout acute, and the ears generally naked. The Bandicoot rat is the largest, attaining in India a length of fourteen inches. The Norway rat attains a length of eight or ten inches, and is of a rusty brown color. They are very intelligent and prolific. They came originally from Central Asia, appearing first in Russia in 1737, crossing in vessels to America in 1775. This is the ordinary wharf rat. The black rat emigrated to this country in 1544. The musk- rat is an aquatic form, with a flattened tail and webbed hind-feet, and erects houses under water similar to those of the beaver. The coypu (Fig. 349), of the Chonos archipelago, is an allied form, also common in the streams ae PA ol we \ GA, LEN NGF Fic. 350.—The lemming (J/yodes lemmus). of South America. The house mouse is an importation from Europe and Asia. The European harvest mice (Fig. 345) are noted as nest-builders, forming them by weaving spears of grass about stalks of grain. The American field mouse (Arvicola) nests under ground in spring, on the surface in midsummer, and on the surface beneath the snow in winter. It does not hibernate. The lemmings MAMMALIA. 325 (Modes) of northern Europe (Fig. 350), famous for their migrations,* are allied forms. The Lophiomys Imhausi belongs to this family, and is one of the most remarkable examples of defensive mimicry in the animal kingdom. They inhabit the fissures of the rocks in Nubia and Arabia. Allied are the pouched rats, hamsters, and the jerboas, or jumping-mice, etc. VALUE.—Three million American muskrat-skins are used as furs annually ; also used as felting, and the musk in perfumery. The skins of common rats are used as thumbs for kid gloves. Order VII. Hoofed Animals (Uxgwlata). General Characteristics —The animals of this comprehensive order are the most useful to man, as the camel, horse, pig, etc. Some appear to walk upon their toes, which are incased in horny hoofs, as the horse, while others are provided with blunt, broad nails. Hyrax (Ayracoidea).—These curious animals (Fig. 351) resemble somewhat the rabbit, and have feet that recall the rhinoceros. They have long, curved incisors, and feet provided with pads; the toes being incased in hoofs, four in front and three behind. They are confined to Africa and adjacent countries, and conceal themselves in holes and crevices, living in communities. When feed- ing, one acts as a sentinel, giving a shrill, prolonged cry as awarning. ‘The Syrian Hyrax is supposed to be the shofp- * These migrations are caused by a naturally restless instinct and often by a lack of food. The lemmings on the lower plateau move first, and the numbers are gradually swelled, being added to by births on the march. They swim rivers, and in coming to the sea are lost in it, thinking it a river. Inthe Brazilian province of Parana a rat-plague, that devastates the country, occurs about every thirty years, and is simul- taneous with the dying out of the ¢aguara or bamboo, upon the seeds of which the rats feed. In Ceylon the dying down of Strodilanthes every seven years causes a similar plague, and in Chili the rat-swarms are coincident with the destruction of a species of bamboo (codigue) every fifteen or twenty years. 326 BACKBONED ANIMALS. han of the Bible, and, as Solomon has said, they are “ feeble folk,” although they have “their dwelling in the rock.” VALUE.—The Hyraceum in the manufacture of perfumery. Fic. 351.—AHyrax Capensis. Elephants (Proboscidea).—The elephants are distin- guished by their large size, often weighing three tons, and the presence of a trunk or proboscis (Fig. 352), that is N " yp G ‘ Zi. Z. if | lf ‘ io Y 5 JAZ Ez 2 EN fi S Ay \ FIG. 352.—Various uses of the trunk of the ele- phant: 1, drinking; 2, pulling grass; 3, wash- ing. process endowed with an exquisite sense of touch. a prolongation of the nose and up- per lip six or eight: feet tan length, made up of forty thousand or more muscles, so arranged as to give the greatest diversity of mo- tion. The ex- tremity bears the two openings of the nostrils, and is produced on its upper surfaces into a finger-like The upper incisor teeth are greatly developed into tusks, that MAMMALIA. 327 attain a length sometimes of nine feet, a girth of twenty- two inches, and a weight of two hundred pounds each, with which they can toss a tiger thirty feet ormore. There are no incisors in the lower jaw; the canines are absent, and the molars are large, ridged transversely, and filled with cement or crusta petrosa. The head is extremely mas- sive, but not indicative of the size of the brain, the upper portion containing numbers of air-cells. The limbs are powerful and five-toed, the feet resting on broad pads. The Asiatic species has small ears and an oblong head, FIG. 353.—Asiatic elephant, showing how used by man. while in the African the ears are immense, the head round, and the forehead convex. ‘They roam in herds. ‘The young in the Indian species weigh about two hundred and thirteen pounds at birth, and are thirty-four and a half inches in height. Individuals have been known to live one hundred and thirty years. The mastodon and mammoth are extinct elephants of this country, Europe, and Asia. The latter was hairy, and 328 BACKBONED ANIMALS. had tusks fifteen feet long. Several specimens have been found in the ice in Siberia, and, though untold ages old, were perfectly preserved. They were contemporaneous with early man. An extinct pygmy Maltese elephant was only three feet high. So-called white elephants are merely albinos, and never pure white. VALUE.—In 1880 nearly seven hundred tons of elephant-ivory was imported into Great Britain alone, and to supply the yearly demand one hundred thousand elephants are destroyed. They are also used as beasts of burden and laborers (Fig. 353). Uneven-toed Ungulates (erissodactyla). Tapir ( Zapiride).—The animals of this family are distinguished by their short, fleshy, proboscis-like nose (Fig. 354). They have four toes on each front foot, and three on each hind one. The skin is dark and nearly hairless, the neck bear- ing a fleshy crest. The South American tapir has a wide range, and in the Andes is found twelve thousand feet above the sea. Their habits are partly aquatic and noc- turnal. The Malay tapir is black, with the exception of a prominent white spot upon the rump. The young are spotted and striped in a beautiful manner. Rhinoceros (2hinocerontide).—The animals of this family rank next to the elephant in point of size, and are peculiar to Africa, India, and adjacent islands. They are extremely bulky, with bodies covered with a naked, armor- like skin deposited in folds. They have incisors in both jaws; upon the muzzle grow one or two horns two or three feet long, composed of agglutinated, hair-like fibers, having no connection with the bone, and in some species being movable. The Indian rhinoceros (2. Zudicus) is one of the most powerful, being nearly ten feet long, and attaining a weight of three tons. They have a single horn, sometimes three feet long, that forms a formidable weapon. The Sumatran species has two horns. MAMMALIA. 329 ee ; i} fe iC FIG. 354.—Head of swimming tapir, showing proboscis-like nose. NAA wn oN NoTE.—Remains of extinct rhinoceroses are found in England, France, and Germany, that were contemporary with early man. In1771 a complete hairy rhinoceros melted out of the ice in the river Wilni, Sibe- ria, where it had been thousands of years. The horn was four feet long. VALUE.—Horns, hide, etc. Horse (£Zguide).—This family comprises the horse, ass, zebra, and quagga, animals that have a single perfect toe upon each foot. There are two undeveloped splints, 330 BACKBONED ANIMALS. however, under the skin, that tell an interesting story in the ancestry of the family.* The domestic horse (£. caballus) came originally from the Old World, and is not found now in the wild state except where it has been re- leased by man, as the mustang of South America and the muzir of Tartary. é Ponies are dwarf horses, produced in cool countries, as Shetland. The wild ass (Z. onager) ranges in herds from the Indies to Mesopotamia. They are distinguished by long ears, the tail ending in a tuft. The hinny and mule are hybrids of the ass (Z. asézus) and a horse. Four species of zebra are known in Asia and Africa. They are striped transversely with dark and white bands. The voice of the quagga of Africa resembles the bark of a dog. The onagga of Africa is smaller than the ass. They are dark bay with black stripes, the tail and legs being white. The peculiar marking is protective. VALUE.—Horses, mules, asses, etc., are the most valuable of do- mestic animals ; almost every part of the animal is valued in trade. * Professors Marsh and Huxley, especially the former, have made interesting discoveries concerning the fossil horse, and -its ancestry is more complete than that of any other animal. The remains are found in the Tertiary beds of North America, The earliest horse was the eohippus (Eocene time), as large as a fox. The following is the gene- alogy of the horse: Period In Front Hind No. of In ere America. Toes. Toes. Teeth. Europe RECCK: 5 ieee ) I I Equus. a and lint ii 40 Upper Pliocene . Equus i SUE SS Pe Equus. ee I I 6. Upper Pliocene. . Pliohippus epkresalae 42 —- ’ 1large 1 large 5 eis 5. Lower Pliocene. . Protohippus 3 Sialic ee Hipparion. 4. Upper Miocene. . Miohippus 3 3 44 Anchitherium. i E 3 3. Lower Miocene. . Mesohippus Teale Z 44 2. Upper Eocene . . Orohippus 4 3 44 — 1. Lower Eocene . . Eohippus = 3 44 — 1 splint MAMMALIA. 331 Even-toed Ungulates (4rtiodactyla). Hippopota- mus (Aippopotamide), two species.—These huge creatures inhabit many of the great rivers of Africa. The body is extremely large, the legs short, the feet having four toes, each one being hoofed. The head is large, and the gape enormous. The teeth are of large size, and often number forty, and are used in cutting the bark from trees, which forms a prominent feature of their food. They are noc- turnal animals, and are aquatic in their habits. They formerly lived as far north as England. VALUE.—Hide, and ivory from the teeth. Swine (Swdz2).—The swine are characterized by four toes upon each foot, the anterior digits being furnished with strong hoofs. The head is pointed, the snout blunt, terminating in an organ adapted for rooting, the ears large, and theskin covered with bris- mes. The com- mon hog is a de- scendant of the wild boar, an in- habitant of the forests of Europe and Asia. The FIG. 355.—Babirousza. latter is extreme- ly fierce. The masked boar of southeastern Africa, the Babiroussa, an inhabitant of the islands of the Indian Archipelago (Fig. 355), and the wart-hog, are allies. The peccaries (Dicotyles) are American representatives oF the family, inhabiting Mexico and South America. VALUE.—Flesh, hide, hair, hoofs, etc. Deer (Cervidz).—These and the following hoofed ani- mals are generally called ruminants, from the fact that the 332 BACKBONED ANIMALS. food or cud is chewed twice before it is finally digested.* The molar teeth have two double, crescent-shaped folds, and, in biting, the incisors of the lower jaw are pressed Fic. 356.—Stomach of a ruminant (sheep): @, cesophagus; Az, paunch; vet, honey-comb ; Ps, manyplies; a@, true digestive stomach or rennet ; du, beginning of intestine. against the opposite and toothless gum of the upper. The stomach (Fig. 356), with few exceptions, is divided into four compartments: i. The paunch, vz; 2. The honey- * "The grass, partly chewed and mixed with saliva, is swallowed, and passes into the cesophagus ; the latter is continued into a tube with a long slit on its under side, whose lips fit closely, and are water-tight. The tube thus formed leads naturally to the third stom- ach, and here ve see a wonderful provision. The coarse food as it is swallowed at first, from its size presses open the slit, and drops into stomach No. I, or paunch, where it is mixed with water. From here it » goes into stomach No. 2, or the honeycomb, where the polygona! spaces may serve to fashion it into pellets or cuds. Now, by a simultaneous contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, a cud is forced against the cardiac aperture of the stomach into the cesophagus, and so into the mouth, where it is chewed by the molar teeth, and again swal- lowed at last ready for digestion. As it passes down for the second time, we would perhaps expect it to press open the slit and drop into the first stomach again ; the second chewing, however, has reduced it to a pulp, so that it is now not large enough, and it passes along the tube over the slit and into the third stomach or manyplies, where it is strained ; then passing into the true stomach, where it is mixed with the gastric juice and absorbed. MAMMALIA. 333 comb, 7e¢ (so called from the presence of polygonal spaces) ; 3. The manyplies, Zs; and, lastly, the stomach or rennet, a. The deer are characterized by solid, branching antlers - or horns that are cast yearly.* They generally have sacks beneath the eye, that can be opened or shut at will, con- taining a waxy secretion, having a pungent odor, and are called “tear-pits.” The females, with the exception of the reindeer, are hornless. The Virginia deer (Cariacus Virginianus) is a typical American species, and one of the most beautiful of the family. They attain a weight of two hundred and fifty pounds, and vary in color with the seasons ; being a light brown in summer and a reddish gray in winter, the under part of the throat and tail being a white at all times. The Wafzt (Fig. 357) is one of the noblest American deer, and is closely allied to the Eng- lish red deer or stag. They attain a length of nearly eight feet, and a height of five feet at the shoulders. The horns or antlers are shapely, with twelve points or more, and are six to seven feet long, weighing at times nearly eighty pounds. The tips or branches increase with years, and forty-five have been seen on the antlers of an Eng- lish stag. In the summer the wapiti are reddish brown, and in the winter gray. They range the northern coun- try east of the Missouri. The caribou is allied to the European reindeer ; two species range our Northern for- * Toward the end of spring there is an increased flow of blood to the head, the blood-vessels being temporarily enlarged. Budding horns now appear; they are highly sensitive and delicate, covered with a downy skin, called and resembling velvet, and permeated with blood- vessels. They grow with marvelous rapidity, the antlers of a full-grown stag being completely formed in ten weeks. When full growth has been attained, a burr or ring forms at the base of each, that presses and cuts off the blood-vessels; the velvet then shrivels and peels off, assisted by rubbing, the marks of the blood-vessels being now seen as grooves. In the Indian deer, and perhaps some other tropical spe- cies, the casting does not occur annually. 334 BACKBONED ANIMALS. ests. The antlers are thick and stubby, and vary greatly in individuals. SS (Ze SSW ‘ion YEP Fic. 357-—Wapiti (Cervus Canadensis). The reindeer of Arctic Europe are about four feet long and three high, and the females also have horns. In the summer their fur is brown and in winter lighter—a protective measure. : The moose (Alce Americanus) (Fig. 358) is the jp: of the family, having immense broad antlers, that alone weigh nearly eighty pounds, and resemble in shape the pine- branches of the northern forests. Their muzzle is broad and long, the legs long, the shoulders and neck covered by a thick growth of coarse hair. Their color is a grayish brown. They are extremely fleet, and step so high in running that they pass over a five-foot wall or fence with- MAMMALIA, — 335 | ~ out effort. They range from northern Maine to the Arctic | regions. In the winter the herds of moose often form W yards in the snow, trampling it down for several miles, 5 ie iN R NAN DN 4 AN) SEW 5 CSS FIG. 358.—Moose (Alce Americanus). banding together for protection against the wolves, to whom they often fall victims in the soft, deep snow. The great extinct Irish elk was an allied form, and theigy re- mains are now frequently found in the Irish bogs. Breit horns often measured twelve feet from tip to tip, and were so broad that three or four men could rest on them. They were ten feet high, including the horns. The axis deer is an Indian species, and is spotted with white, similar to the fallow deer. In Java is found the Muntjac (Cervus vaginalis) ; its horns are on bony pedestals, and the male is remarkable for its long, protruding canine teeth in the upper jaw. ‘The musk-deer of Asia has similar teeth. VALUE.— Fur, hides, horns, teeth, hoofs, sinews, musk, etc. Hollow-Horned Ruminants (Bovide). General Characteristics-—This large family includes the buffaloes, oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, distinguished from the deer by the peculiar structure of the horns, that are hol- low, and, as a rule, not shed. Two processes of the fore- 336 BACKBONED ANIMALS. head (frontal) bone of the skull form the cores that are coy- ered by the horns, that are special de- velopments of the outer skin or epi- dermis. Goats and Sheep.—In the Rocky~ Mountain sheep, or big-horn (Fig. 359), the horns are extremely pow- erful... In) the =a male, the horns are straight, and similar to those of a goat. Their height at the shoulder is about three feet, and their weight three hundred and fifty pounds. They are now confined to the country west of the Missouri, and are fast becoming extinct. bout forty varieties of the domestic sheep are known. Its origin is obscure, but it is possibly a descendant of an Asiatic sheep (Ovzes argalt). The Bar- bary sheep, or J/ou- fion, has soft hair of a reddish tinge. From it and the Si- berian Argali spring the merino sheep of the East ; their tails attain a weight of one hundred pounds, and have to be sup- Fic. 360.—Musk-sheep montana). ie WS WX aw Ovibos moschatus),. MAMMALIA. 237 ported on racks harnessed to the animal. The musk- sheep (Ovzbos) (Fig. 360), or ox, as it is incorrectly called, is confined to the Arctic region of North America. It is a comparatively small animal, about the size of a cow, but its long, brownish-black hair gives it a much larger appear- ance. The horns are broad at the base, and bent down upon the cheek, turning up again. They secrete a strong musk, the flesh even being impregnated with the odor. Fic. 361.—Chamois and ibex. They assemble in herds, and are becoming exceedingly rare. At the end of the glacial period an allied form roamed the Middle States. The Angora goat, Cashmere goat, and ibex (Capra ibex) (Fig. 361), are allies. VALUE.—Sheep’s wool. One hundred thousand Persian lamb-skins are used annually by the trade ; six hundred thousand Astrakhan, and two million European. From the goats come mohairs, cashmeres, etc. Fifteen million pounds of Angora wool alone is used annually in the trade. The horns, hides, and hoofs are all valued. Antelopes.—The antelopes are remarkable for their speed and elegant forms. The goat-antelopes are repre- sented in America by the mountain goat (Afploceros mon- 15 338 BACKBONED ANIMALS. tanus). Its horns are jet black, slender, and slightly curved, resembling those of the Alpine chamois (Fig. 361). Its hair is long and white. The prong-horn is a characteristic American antelope, and remarkably fleet. They are larger than the domestic sheep, and covered with coarse, brush-like hair, that is yel- lowish brown above, the under portion and a square patch on the rump being pure white, while the horns, hoofs, and parts of the nose are black. The horns bend slightly, and midway to the tip is a small prong, from which they take their name. The horns, though hollow, and having a persistent core, as in the ox, are shed in the autumn. Among the gazelles, the Si- berian antelope,. or Saiga (Fig. 362), is the most striking. The muzzle is bent downward, and the horns beau- tifully shaped. They are found in Poland and Russia, and are the most north- ern of the fam- : ily. Fic. 362:—Siberian antelope, remarkable for its Allied are curved muzzle. the chamois of Europe (Fig. 361), the gnu, the pygmy antelope, oryx, eland of Af- rica, ete. Oxen (Aovine).—The domestic oxen do not present a genuine species, but represent many races that have de- scended from several extinct species. They are character- MAMMALIA. 339 ized by horns curving outward and downward, short tails, and broad hoofs. The American bison (Bison America- nus), or buffalo, formeriy ranged from Virginia and Lake Fic. 363—Skeleton of an ox (Bos), Champlain to Florida, but are now confined to the far West, and fast becoming extinct. They are of large size, the head powerful and carried low. The forehead is 340 BACKBONED ANIMALS. broad, the horns small, tapering, and set far apart. Be- tween the shoulders is a prominent hump which, with the neck, head, and chest, is covered by long, shaggy hair, the remainder of the fur being short and brownish in color. They herd in vast numbers. Allied to them are the Eu- ropean bison, or auroch,* the Cape buffalo (B. caffer) of South Africa, the Indian buffalo (2. dubalus), the yak, or grunting ox—a native of Thibet—and the zebu of India. VALUE.—Every part of these animals has its value. Giraffes (Camelopardalide).— The giraffe is repre- sented by a single species inhabiting the plains of Central Africa. Its neck is of remarkable length, so that its head is often eighteen feet from the ground ; the number of vertebre, however, is seven, as in other mammals, each bone being lengthened out. The back slopes rapidly to the tail, giving the impression that the fore-legs are the longest, but they are of equal length. They have no horns, but two long, solid appendages, attached partly to the frontal and partly to the parietal bones ; these are covered by the skin, and terminate in a tuft of bristles. In front of them is a prominence caused by a thickening of the bone that has been incorrectly described as a third horn. The tongue is nearly seventeen inches long, and in its use is not incomparable to the trunk of the elephant. VALUE.—Skins, and the bones are made into buttons. Camel (Camelidz).—The camels have two incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and six incisors below, canine teeth in each jaw, and from eighteen to twenty molars. They * The extinct Bos primigenius lived in Germany and England during the time of Cesar, and is the wus of the Nibelungen song. They are the ancestors of the half-wild cattle in English parks, and the Holstein and Friesland breed. The European bison has only been saved from extinction by the Emperors of Russia, who have preserved eight hundred in the forests of Bialowicza, Lithuania, and have pre- vented the destruction of those running wild in the Caucasus. MAMMALIA. 341 have either one or two humps upon the back, composed of fatty matter; in the paunch are several cells (Fig. 364, a) LS NH Fic. 364.—@, Water-ceils in the paunch of the camel; 4, foot, showing the pad. that contain a supply of water to last them in the dry coun- try in which they live. Their feet (Fig. 364, 4) are equally adapted to the dry sand, the two toes uniting nearly to Fic. 365.—The true camel (Camelus dromedarius). 342 BACKBONED ANIMALS. the point, forming a cailous, elastic cushion. The drome- dary, or single-humped camel* (Fig. 365), is found in Arabia, Syria, Persia, and Africa, and is remarkable for its speed, carrying a rider nearly one hundred miles a day. -In the caravan they carry a load weighing from six hun- dred to onethousand pounds. The young are about three feet high when born, and do not attain their full growth for seventeen years. Their average age is fifty years. The Bactrian camel, or two-humped variety, is eight feet high between the humps, and about ten feet long. It came originally from Central Asia. Allied are the llama of Peru and Chili, the guanaco, and the alpaca. VALUE.—Hide and hair, and as beasts of burden. In the Falkland Islands, guanaco-bones are used as fire-wood. Order VIII. Flesh-eating Mammals (Carnivora). General Characteristics. —'This order includes the cats, bears, seals, etc.—animals that feed mainly upon flesh—to obtain which they have sharp claws (Fig. 373), fangs, and cutting teeth (Fig. 375). The head is generally massive and powerful, each jaw containing six incisors, behind which is placed a long, stout canine. The number of mo- lar teeth varies with the species, and they have trenchant edges for cutting. Sub-order I. Pinnipedia. Sealst+ (P/ocide)—The common seal (Callocephalus vitulinus) has no external ears; the arms and legs are short, the latter being large and fan-shaped ; the inner and outer toes are large and long, the three middle ones shorter ; the palms and soles are hairy, and the claws distinct and sharp. They are ex- tremely intelligent, and susceptible of domestication. The * These animals have been introduced into the deserts of Nevada, and are rapidly increasing in numbers. + Members of this family have been seen in the Caspian Sea, in Lake Baikal, and lately the harbor seal has been observed in Lake Champlain, and other streams in central New York. The common seal has been caught in Chesapeake Bay. MAMMALIA. 343 general color is a dark, slaty gray, and their maximum length about five feet. The young, generally two at a birth, are white or a light yellow, a provision that renders them inconspicuous on the ice. cee - Fic, 366.—Harp seal. The harp seal (Pagophilus) (Fig. 366), the ringed seal, the hooded seal (Cystophora) of Greenland and northern Fic. 367.—Skeleton of a sea-lion, showing how the whole foot rests on the ground, as in the bear family: zz, thigh; /, leg; h, heel; 7,. foot; a, upper arm ; 7a, fore-arm ; 4a, hand. 344 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Europe, and the sea-elephant (Morunga), of Antarctic waters, are others of the family. ‘hen follows the walrus (eG ichachede) (Fig. 368). Eared Seals (Osaritde).—The sea-lion (Ozaria) (Fig. 367) is a familiar example. The sea-bear (Cadlorhinus), common in Behring Strait and Kamchatka, is one of the famous fur- seals of commerce. VALUE. “Siders ivory, viscera, etc. One million Atlantic hair-seals are killed annually, and two hundred thousand Pacific fur-seals, and many more from the South Atlantic. Sub-order II. The True Carnivora (/isszpedia).— The Raccoons (Procyonide) are bear-like animals with sharp, pointed muzzles, ranging from Canada to Paraguay. The common raccoon (Procyon) is found - throughout the United States. They are nocturnal, vegetable or flesh- eating animals, about a foot long, exclusive of the tail, which is nearly ten inches in length. Their color is a rusty gray with many black-tipped hairs, the tail barred with five black rings. They bear from five to six young in May, the nest generally being in a hollow-tree. The black-footed, crab-eating, and Californian raccoons are different species, similar in their habits. The coatimundi (JVasua) is found from Mexico to Paraguay. The kinka- jou and Sassaris are allies. VALUE.—Five hundred thousand coon-skins are annually used as fur. Bears (Urscdz).—This family has a wide geographical range, being represented in all countries except Australia. The white or polar bear (Fig. 368) (Ursus maritimus) is found in the Arctic regions. The body is large, and cov- ered with white hair, the tail rudimentary, the foot enor- mous, measuring one sixth of the length of the entire body, and armed with powerful claws. They are particularly dis- tinguished from other bears by having the soles of the feet covered with close-set hairs—a provision that prevents MAMMALIA. — 348 their slipping on the ice, while their white fur renders them invisible at any great distance. Fic. 368.—Polar bear and walrus, showing how the bear walks with the heel fiat on the ground, and the walrus also, NotTe.—Many animals that can not migrate and are deprived of food by cold weather are enabled to enter into a state of torpor called winter sleep or hibernation, and thus bridge over the foodless season. In the extreme south certain animals during the dry period enter into a summer sleep called estivation. In complete hibernation all the functions of life are almost at a stand still ; the respiration is reduced and irritability of muscular fibre increased. Hibernation is favored by cold but not produced directly by it, and the hibernator is not insen- sible to extremes. In entering the sleep the temperature of the body sinks to nearly that of the surrounding atmosphere. If, now, the cold is intense, they are awakened and then are frozen. According to Sem- per, the zizel, or Spermophilus, attains the lowest temperature in this condition of any known animal, namely, 2” (centigrade), the exact tem- perature of the outside air in one experiment, so that the animal may be 346 BACKBONED ANIMALS. said to have become cold-blooded. The normal temperature of the zizel is 32° (centigrade). As the cause of the sleep is not directly the result of cold, neither is the awakening caused by a rise in temperature. In experiments with the same-mentioned animal it awoke without any change in the outside temperature, being two hours and forty-five minutes in awakening. In the first hour and forty-five minutes the body temperature rose 6.6° (centigrade), and in the following fifty minutes 17°. It was accompanied by no vigorous movements or quicker respiration. During hibernation animals can be placed under water without ill effect, though it would be fatal in a few moments if awake. According to Kirby, joint author of “ Introduction to Ento- mology,” an authentic case is recorded of an instance of human hiber- nation in India. The man was buried alive in the presence of Sir Claude Wade, the grave guarded and watched for several months, and the hibernator finally taken out, gradually awakening. The black bear (Ursus Americanus) is quite common in northern New York. They attain a weight of four hundred and fifty pounds and a length of eight feet, and are of a dark-brown or black color. In extreme weather the fe- males prepare a den, and as a rule pass into a state of hibernation, during which the intestines are clogged with vegetable substance, generally taken from the pine. In January or February, generally every third year, the young (three or four) are born, remaining under the mother’s protection for five or six months. They prey upon sheep, calves, etc., and also eat berries, honey, ants, etc. The grizzly bear (Ursus ferox) of the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, the Syrian bear of Mount Lebanon, the Malayan bear, and the sloth or honey bear (M/elursus) of India, are others of the family. VALUE.—Oil, fat, skin, teeth, hair, and viscera. Badgers, Otters, etc. (7/ustelide).—The true badg- ers (Zaxidea) are found in central and western North and South America, and are thick-set animals about two feet long, not including the tail, which attains a length of six inches. The skunk (Mep/itis), twelve different species, ranges from Canada to the Straits of Magelian. The com- MAMMALIA. 347 mon skunk is almost entirely nocturnal, feeding upon mice, insects, and various kinds of food. They hibernate in midwinter. Otters.—The otter (Zura) (Fig. 371) has representa- tives in nearly every part of the globe. The North Amer- ican species is generally found upon the banks of streams, in which its burrow or nest is built. The sea-otter (Zuhy- dra) (Fig. 369) is twice as large as the above, attaining a SEX a Fic. 369.—Sea-otter (Exhydra marina), showing the front paws and the hind webbed feet. weight of eighty pounds, and is found on the Pacific coast of America and Asia. Its habits are almost identical with those of the seal. In warm weather they proceed up the rivers, returning to the sea in winter, passing nearly their entire time in the water, eating and even rearing and nursing their young in the kelp-beds. ‘The front feet are short with small claws, the hind ones being perfect swim- ming-flippers with long toes and stout claws. Their teeth are rounded and adapted for crushing crustaceans, mol- lusks, or fish.* Their fur is an extremely rich brown. * The sea-otters are remarkable for their playfulness. When ap- proached, they place one paw over the eyes, as if shielding them from 348 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Notre.—The adaptation of the limbs in the sea-otter is extremely interesting and worthy of special attention, and an advantageous study would be a comparison of the limbs (Fig. 370) of different animals. £E fie FIG. 370.—Feet of variousanimalscompared. A, deer ; 2, ornithorhynchus ; C, otter ; D, frog ; 4, seal. - The common mink of this country (Fig. 371) attains a length of seventeen inches to the tail, which is eight inches longer. The body-color is a dark chestnut-brown, the tail black, and tip of the chin white. The marten or American sable (J/ustela) ranges from northern New York northward, and is much valued. It attaims the same length as the common mink, the tail being about two inches longer. Its color is a rich, glistening, golden red, clouded with black ; the legs and tail are dark, a light patch appearing upon the throat; the feet are thickly furred. They burrow, and nest in old trees, and bring out a litter of from two to seven young in April. The fisher, or pekan, weasels, etc., are allies. The most fero- cious of the group is the glutton, or wolverine (Guo). It is confined to the cold regions of Europe, Asia, and North America, coming as far south as the Great Lakes. In the latter country it attains a length of three feet and a half to the tail, which is about one foot in length and extremely the sun, then scratch themselves on the limbs, twisting about in vari- ous ways, and when just out of the water they are so absorbed in their toilet that they can frequently be taken. The males and females show the greatest devotion, kissing and patting each other like human beings. The mother’s antics with the young are equally amusing ; she tosses it in the air, fondles it in herarms, catches it with her fore-feet like a ball, and swims about with it clasped to her breast. The Chinese train the sea-otter to fish, and many are used for the purpose. MAMMALIA. 349 bushy. The paws are large and heavy, the soles densely - . haired, and furnished with six small, naked pads. They feed upon small animals, and the young, generally from two to four, appear in May. ‘They are to some extent ar- boreal in their habits. The grison (Gadzctzs) of northern and central South America is a fierce member of the group. VALUE.—Fur and hide of all are valuable. FIG. 371.—A group of valuable fur-bearers. 1, Arctic fox; 2, silver fox; 32, sable ; 4, otter; 5, mink; 6, ermine. Dog (Cande).—This family comprises the dogs, wolves, and foxes, and has a wide geographical range. Nearly all possess the mechanism for retraction of the claws, but the action is not sufficient to protect them from wear; thus they are modified for purposes of digging. The American red fox (Vudpes) has a slender, pointed muzzle, and is of a reddish-yellow hue. It preys upon domestic fowls and small game of all kinds. The young are reared in burrows in the ground. The Arctic fox (Fig. 371) is white in the winter and brown in summer. They live in 350 BACKBONED ANIMALS. burrows in communities of twenty or thirty.* The holes are connected underground and generally found stored . with sea-birds. The prairie, swift, gray, coast, silver, and cross foxes are familiar American members of the family. The wolf (Fig. 372) (Canis) somewhat resembles the fox, but is larger and much more powerful. The coyote, or prairie-wolf, is a typical American species. They attain a length of thirty-eight inches to the base of the tail, which is fifteen inches longer. They live more or less in com- munities, and the young, often ten, are reared in burrows, appearing in April. The gray, black, dusky, red, and Mexican wolves are other species. The Asiatic wolves are noted for their ferocity. The jackal is a wolf-like creature of Asia and Africa. .The dog (Canis familiaris) is probably a descendant of the wolf. VALUE.—Skin, hide, oil, bones, teeth, and for domestic use. r \ — wae — i . ae < , Se ag ps a eg = Sige 4S ig _— eclass <7 . =< FIG. 372.—The wolf (Canzs lupus), showing the dog-like form. * These animals formerly existed in incredible numbers on Behr- ing Island, and were so tame that they overran the camps, carrying off hats, mittens, and clothing, nosing the sleepers in the night, and having actually to be driven away with clubs. MAMMALIA. 38] Civets (Viverridz).—This large family has no repre~ sentatives in America—the civets, genets, and ichneumons being characteristic of Africa and the Oriental region. Allied are the hyenas (Hyenide), found in India and Asia Minor and Africa. Cat (Felide).—The cats, of all the Carnivora, are the most beautiful and active. Their bodies are shapely, many presenting a noble appearance, the type of grace and power. The head is short and broad, the feet armed with powerful, retractile, sheathed claws (Fig. 373), five on the FiG. 373.—Claws of the cat or tiger: A, claw held back by the strong liga- ment 7; 2, claw pulled forward by the tendon ¢ being drawn back, so that 7 is stretched out. fore-feet and four behind, the soles hairy, and provided with soft, elastic pads that aid in their stealthy approach upon prey. The tongue is provided with a rasping surface, composed of sharp recurved prickles ; the limbs are power- ful and adapted for prodigious leaps, for which nearly al! the family are noted. The hunting leopard (els jubaia), of southern India and Africa, is an interesting form, and a rapid runner, being employed in hunting by the natives. The claws are retractile,* but in their action more like those of the dog. The lynxes (Zyzx), of which four species are known in North America, are characterized by thick-set bodies, the tail short and truncated, and ears ornamented with tips. The American wild cat attains a length of about twenty-eight and three quarter inches, the tail seven inches, * Claws are retractile when they are held back naturally by the muscles, and thus prevented from wearing away, only being extended when wanted to secure prey or assist in climbing. 382 BACKBONED ANIMALS. height at shoulder fifteen and a half inches. The fur is soft and thick, the color upon the sides a light red, over- cast with grizzly gray ; below they are white and spotted, the inner surface of the ear and the tip of the tail black. They are powerful animals, and prey upon small game of various kinds. They nest in hollow trees and logs. The Canada lynxes (Fig. 374) are the largest, attaining a length of three and a half feet. They are extremely pow- erful, attack- ing large ani- mals, sheep, etc. ; are good swimmers, and easily recog- nized by their gallop. They produce their young, general- ly two, in dens or hollow trees. The “red “eat and Texas wild cat are other FIG. 374.—Canada lynx (Lynx Canadensis). Species. The domes- tic cat (Fe/7s) has been domesticated for over a thousand years, and was probably first used in Egypt. The ya- guarundi ranges from southern Texas to central South America. The tail is nearly as long as the body, the pre- vailing color a grayish brown. ‘The ocelot and tiger-cats range from Texas southward. The puma or panther is the largest and most powerful true North American cat, equaling in size a large hound, weighing one hundred and seventy-five pounds, and com- mon throughout the less frequented parts of the country. They are extremely powerful, leaping forty or fifty feet MAMMALIA. 383 or more from an elevation, and taking to trees and climb- ing generally only when pressed. They prey upon various animals, and have been known, though rarely, to attack man. In southern Florida they swim from key to key with perfect ease. The general color of the puma in best .condition is arich mouse-gray with light beneath. The jaguar is the American tiger, and differs from the puma in being essentially arboreal. It ranges from Texas to southern South America, and is the largest and hand- somest cat in the Western Continent, attaining a total length of over five feet, and is so powerful that it has been known to kill a mustang, swim with it across a river, dragging it into the bush beyond. The general color is brownish yellow above, white beneath, with numerous dark- er spots. The sides of the body are marked with a series of irregular figures. ‘They are accredited with wonderful powers by Humboldt and other writers, in opening turtles and catching fish with their powerful claws. The leopard is perhaps the most beautifully marked of the family, and ranges the jungles of Asia, Africa, and the Indian Archi- pelago. The skin is richly marked with oval spots. The black leopard* is singularly treacherous and utterly un- tamable. The tigert of India (Fig. 375), next to the lion, is the most powerful of the cat tribe, majestic in appear- ance, the type of agility, cunning, and ferocity. They are as large as the lion, with a longer body and rounder head. The color of the fur is a rich fawn above, striped and barred irregularly with black, the under portion being * Albinos are found among all animals, a condition generally the result of a lack of pigment. Its absence in the eye produces the so- called ‘‘ pink” eyes. Albinism, then, is not properly a disease, and in no wise affects physical or mental vigor. The black leopard is a sub- ject of melanism, owing to an over-supply of coloring-matter in the cells. + The marks of the tiger, leopard, ocelot, and the color of the puma, are all protective, and when crouching upon a limb or on the ground help to render them inconspicuous. 354 BACKBONED ANIMALS. pure white. They are extremely ferocious, attacking the largest animals. In 1881 eight hundred and eighty-nine persons were killed by them alone in southern India, while the leopards killed two hundred and thirty-nine. Wallace records that, in one of the localities he was in (Singapore), the tigers, on an average, killed one native a day through- out the year. The young, generally two at a birth, are Fic. 375.—The tiger, showing slim body, muscular thighs, strong front-legs and paws, and short face with large teeth, all with sharp edges, especially one (the carzassza/) near the back in both jaws. carried about in the mouth, after the manner of the do- mestic cat. The ounce is an allied cat. The lion (Felis Zeo) is the royal member of the cat family, and justly so from its magnificent bearing. It is found in Africa and Asia, the two probably being merely varieties. The Afri- can lion is much more dreaded and displays greater cunning than its ally. The largest of these attain a length of nine feet, exclusive of the tail. The neekuae the male is protected by a thick mane, giving them a MAMMALIA. 386 ferocious appearance. The general color of the hide is tawny ; the feet and paws are immense, the animal being adapted for leaping and overpowering the largest game. The females are somewhat smaller than the males, and have no manes. About twenty extinct species of this family have been found, resembling lhons, tigers, etc. The remains of a ferocious tiger (Jlacherodus) have been discovered in England and other countries. It lived contemporaneously with man, and had serrated teeth, and fangs eight inches long, more like sabers than teeth. VALUE.—Five hundred lion-skins are used annually by the trade ; one hundred thousand wild-cat, and over one million skins of the com- mon cat are made into cheap furs. Order X. Primates. General Characteristics—We now come to the last and highest order of mammals, represented by the lemurs, monkeys, and man. In the higher forms of apes and monkeys a vast improvement or advance is noticed. The body is now carried more erect, claws are replaced by finger-nails, the fingers are long and more perfectly adapted to a greater number of uses than in the preceding forms, and the great toe of the hind-feet is much enlarged and opposable to the oth- ers ; the legs are exserted quite free from the trunk, the brain is large, the ears rounded, having a distinct lobe; the body is hairy, the tail long or short, and the face in many extremely human in its detail. The primates are divided into two sub-orders: 1. Pros¢mie, comprising the lemurs ; and 2. Anthropoidea, including all the rest that are | divided provisionally into five divisions or families as fol- lows: 1. The marmosets (Hafalide). 2. The American monkeys, having three true molar teeth on each side of each jaw (Cedide). 3. The Old World monkeys, except the man-like apes (Cercopithectde). 4. The man-like apes (Stmitde) ; and, 5. Man (Hominide). 3506 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Sub-order I. Prosimiz. Lemurs (Lemurotdea).— The lemurs are the lowest of the primates, a group of beau- tiful animals ranging in size from a cat to a good-sized monkey (Fig. 376). The entire body is covered with hair, and even the face insome. The head is small and fox- like, the skull small, narrow in front, and flattened; the ears are conspicuous and often tufted. They are gregari- ous, and diurnal in their habits, rarely leaving the tree- tops, among which they leap with the greatest agility. They are found in Madagascar, southern and eastern Asia and Africa. Fossil remains of lemurs have been found in North America. FIG. 376.—1, the aye-aye ; 2, lemur in the forests of Madagascar. Aye-aye (Ciiromyide). — These interesting animals (Fig. 376) are found in Madagascar, and are remarkable for their enormous compressed, curved, incisor teeth, that have MAMMALIA. 357 persistent pulps and enamel in front only, as we have seen in the rodents. The toes have claws, except the great ones, which have a flat nail ; the digits are remarkably long and slender, especially the middle and third of the fore-arms. They are about the sizeof acat. The general color is dark brown, the long, loose, outer fur having a woolly under- coat. They feed upon the succulent juices of sugar-cane, also insects and grubs obtained from trees with their pow- erful teeth. They are truly nocturnal. Their nests are formed of balls of leaves lodged in the forks of large trees. Lemur (Zemurvidz).—The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catia) is one of the most striking of the family, and is of a beautiful gray color, its tail marked with alternate rings of black and white, the face and inner surface of the ears white, and the top of the head dark. It is the only ground member of the family, living among the rocks and bushes, walk- ing on all-fours. The upper canine teeth are extreme- ly large, the low- er canine extend- ing out horizon- tally from the jaw. The young, gen- erally two, are at first nearly naked, FIG. 377.—Loris, showing (1) skull and (2) op- and are carried — posable thumb. about in the arms of the mother, later clinging to her long hair. They utter loud cries, and feed upon eggs, young birds, insects, fruits, buds, or flowers (Fig. 376). The Propithecus is a com- mon form in Madagascar ; the Indris is the largest of the group. Allied is the lori (Fig. 377). 358 BACKBONED ANIMALS. Sub-order II. Man-shaped Animals (Anthropoidea). Marmosets (afalidz)—The marmosets are confined exclusively to South America, and are rarely larger than large squirrels. ‘They have long, non-prehensile tails, and walk upon all-fours, the feet and hands being similar, and the digits armed, with the exception of the great toes, with nail-like claws. As the thumbs are not opposable, they can not grasp with the facility of other monkeys. FIG. 378.—A woolly monkey and young (Lagothryx Humboldtiz), showing grasping tail. Weepers (Cedide).—In this large family we first meet the true monkeys, the family embracing all the South American forms. They are distinguished by the posses- sion of more molar teeth than those that follow, having in all thirty-six teeth, while the rest have only thirty-two. Many also possess a long, prehensile tail of so much use MAMMALIA. 389 in clinging that it serves the purpose of a fifth hand (Fig. 378). The red-faced spider-monkey (Aze/es) is one of the most remarkable for the attenuation of its form. The tail is extremely long and bare upon its under surface, and with it they swing from limb to limb with the greatest ease. In walking upright, the arms are often held high in air, and the long tail curled over the head. The horned monkeys (Cebus), the bearded saki (Pithecia), and the howling monkeys (A/ycetes), are familiar forms. The voice of the latter is so powerful that it can be heard a mile, the hyoid apparatus and windpipe (larynx) being wonderfully modified into a sound-producer, the body of the former assuming the functions of a large bony drum or air-sac connecting with the larynx. In the male these curious vocal organs are one third larger than in the female. Fol- lowing are the Cercopithecide, a group of monkeys peculiar to the Old World. The face of the dog-faced apes is pro- duced into a dog-like snout, more or less blunt or truncat- ed ; the eyes are small, deeply set, and placed close to- gether. The wanderoo (MJacacus), the Gibraltar monkey (Macacus inuus), the mandrill and chacma, and the bab- boon (Cynocephalus), are familiar forms. Allied are the Sleepers (Semnopithecide), of Africa and Asia. Apes (Simiidz).—The animals of this family in their physical development show a near approach to the human type. Their position is nearly erect, the tail absent, and the arms are much longer than the legs. The gibbons . (Fig. 379) (Ayobazes) attain a length of three feet. In the siamang, when standing erect, the fingers drag upon the ground, the limbs being used to swing them through the trees ; the thumbs and great toes only have nails. In color they are black, the hair being long, coarse, and glossy. They live in troops in the forests of Java, Borneo, etc., and are generally led by a chief, who gives warning at the approach of danger. The females show great solicitude for their young, and when in danger give vent to loud cries 360 BACKBONED ANIMALS. that, in this genus, are augmented by a large sac in the throat that communicates with the larynx, which when 1, gibbon ; 2, orang; 3, chimpanzee; 4, gorilla; 5, man. (After Huxley. ) Fic. 379.—Comparison of skeletons of primates : | filled with air is distended like a huge goitre in the neck. . The Aylobates agilis is remarkable for its leaps, clearing MAMMALIA. 361 spaces of forty or fifty feet, and, according to Darwin, they are the must musical mammals next to man, “singing a complete and correct octave of musical notes.” The orang- outang (Szmia) (Fig. 379) is found in the islands of Bor- neo and Sumatra. They attain a length of a little over four feet, and a weight of one hundred and fifty pounds. The number of ribs is the same as in man, and there is some resemblance in the form of the brain, yet the capacity _ of the brain of the orang is only twenty-five cubic inches, while in man it is from seventy-five to ninety-two cubic inches. ‘The arms are extremely long, the knuckles touching the ground in walking. The face is bare, the skin shiny black, and under the throat hangs in loose, flabby folds. The body is covered with reddish hair, twelve or fourteen inches lcng. Inthe male Szmia Wurmbit the face is widened to an extraordinary extent by a hard, gristly expansion of the cheeks, measuring across the face thirteen inches. The female is smaller, the hair a lighter brown. They are entirely arboreal, living always in the tree-tops, never jumping, but swinging their heavy bodies five or six feet at a time by collecting the branches. When at rest or wounded, they break off branches and twigs and form platforms or nests in the tree-tops. Their favorite food is the fruit of the durian-tree. The voice is loud and resonant, and can be heard for a long distance. The chimpanzee (A/imetes) (Fig. 379) is found upon the west coast of Africa, from the Gambia to the Benguela, and inland to 28° east longitude. They attain a height of nearly five feet, can stand or walk erect, but prefer to bend forward upon the knuckles (Fig. 380). The face is black and exceedingly human in its outline; they approach man, however, most closely in the character of the skull, their dentition, and the proportionate size of the arms; the brain capacity, however, is only twenty-six cubic inches. The canine teeth are powerful, though their food is en- tirely vegetable. They are arboreal, living in the trees, 16 Cea BACKBONED ANIMALS. and forming nests of branches in the crotches near the ground. They are very intelligent, easily domesticated, and often brought to this country and Europe. Fic. 380.—a, hand, 4, foot of chimpanzee. (After Vogt.) c, hand, @, foot of man. The gorilla (Zroglodytes) (Fig. 379) is the largest and most powerful of the order, though perhaps ranking with the chimpanzee as regards its position in the scale of life. They are also found in western Africa, and have a less ex- tended range, being found only between the rivers Came- roons and Congo, in the mountains of Guinea. Their hab- its are similar to those of the chimpanzee, though living in small communities, generally led by a single male. They erect uncovered platforms in the trees upon which to rest, deserting them during the day, and forming others at night. They attain a height of five feet six inches, and a weight of two hundred pounds. The color of the fur is a black- ish dun, turning gray with age. The skin is black, the ridges of the forehead (Fig. 381) prominent, the nose flat, lips and chin protruding, and the expression of the face demoniacal. The limbs are enormously powerful, and the first joints of all the fingers and three of the toes are con- nected bya strong web. While the chimpanzee resembles man in the characteristics given, the gorilla is more human in the proportions of the leg to the body and of the foot MAMMALIA. 363 to the hand, in the size of the heel, curvature of the spine, the form of the pelvis, and the capacity of the brain, which is from twenty-nine to thirty-five cubic inches. Fic. 381.—The gorilla (7voglodytes gorilla). Fossil monkeys have been found in the Selwalik hills of India, in France, Greece, Italy, Germany, and North and South America, none dating earlier than the Miocene time of geology. VALUE.— Skins, concretions, and as domestic animals. Works on Mammals for further reference. *“Manual of Vertebrates,” Huxley; ‘“ Anatomy of Vertebrates,” Owen ; “ Marine Mammalia,” Captain C. M. Scammon ; “ Osteology of Mammalia,” Flower; ‘‘ Antelopes and Deer of North America,” J. D. Caton ; “‘ North American Beaver,” Morgan; ‘“ Fur-bearing Ani- mals of North America,” Elliott Coues; ‘Standard Natural History,” 364 BACKBONED ANIMALS. edited by Elliott Coues, M.D.; ‘‘ Mammals of the Adirondacks,” C. Hart Merriam, M.D.; ‘A Naturalist’s Rambles about Home,” Dr. C. C.. Abbott. Man (Hominide). General Characteristics —Man (Homo sapiens) stands as the exponent of the highest perfection of animal life, unique and distinct from all preceding forms as regards his mental organization. In structure (Fig. 379) he differs but little from other primates. The gen- eral physical differences are his erect position, the span of the arms equaling the height. The forehead or cranial box in man overhangs the orbits; in the gorilla (Fig. 381) the forehead is hollowed out. The brain in man is nearly twice the size of that of the gorilla, its capacity being from seventy-five to ninety-two cubic inches, while in the latter it is only thirty-five cubic inches. The brain of the former shows a greater number of convolutions ; and, finally, man alone possesses a perfect vocal commu- nication, known as language. The present human population of the globe is 1,433,- _ 887,500. Man represents but a single genus and spe- cies. The different races are divided in accordance with certain external peculiarities ; thus, according to Huxley, two primary divisions are noticed: 1. The races with crisp or woolly hair, Ulotrichi, represented by the Afri- can negro (Fig. 382, 1, 2,3), the Bushmen of ultra-Saharal Africa, the Negritos of the Malay Peninsula and Archi- pelago, and those of the Papuan Islands. They are char- acterized by yellow, brown, or black skins; the lower part of the face protrudes, the waist is broader than in the white race, and the fore-arm, hand, foot, and leg are sometimes longer in proportion than Europeans. This is also true of the Australians. The legs are a little less than half the height, and the thigh-bone is flattened from side to side as in the gorilla. The heel of the negro, contrary to general opinion, is not longer in proportion to the foot than in white races, the projections seen being MAMMALIA. SN \ West Africa; 2, Baro- Gilyak, Northern Asia ; nese; 6, Colorado Indian, North America ; 7. European b] I, negro Fic. 382.—Comparison of different races : Japa- 5) ; 3, Hottentot; 4, long, South Africa ; 366 BACKBONED ANIMALS. fleshy, and an expansion cf soft parts due to not wearing shoes. 2. Those with smooth hair, Zezotrichz, are divided into four groups upon a similar plan: 1. The Australoid group, comprising the low Bushmen, in which the height averages four feet seven inches, and the legs less than half the height of the body. The hair, eyes, and skin are dark, the hair wavy. ‘The skull is long, and the brow-ridges extremely prominent. The inhabitants of the Deccan belong here, and from them have sprung, in the estimation of Pro- fessor Huxley, the ancient Egyptians. ‘The habits of the Bushmen are more like those of the lower primates than men. 2. The Mongoloid group. Herein are included the Chinese and Japanese (Fig. 382, 5), Mongols, people of Thibet, the Polynesians (Fig. 383), Esquimaux, and the American tribes (Fig. 382, 6). The Patagonians are the tallest people known, averaging six feet, the women five feet ten inches, while the Esquimaux and the Bushmen are the smallest, averaging four feet seven inches. Three hundred and ninety-one years ago nearly the entire conti- nent of America was peopled with powerful native Indian tribes, that have been gradually driven to the West, 944 individuals only being found now in the New England States, 303,217* in the United States, and to? gpo) m the British possessions, 407,217 in all, in North America, speaking about four hundred and thirty distinct lan- guages. Their ultimate extinction or loss of individual- ity is merely a matter of time. Among the typical tribes the Pueblos of the Southwest, the Thlinkeets+ of the Northwest, the Utes, or Colorado Indians (Fig. 383), are prominent. All of this group have straight hair. The North American Indians have a reddish skin, the Chinese yellow, while the Polynesians are dark brown. * Report of 1880. + In early days the process of flattening the head was common throughout North and South America. MAMMALIA. 367 3. The Xanthochroic group (Fig. 382, 7), comprising the Slavonians, Germans, Norwegians, Swedes, Anglo-Ameri- cans, English, French, Italians, etc. These are the most intelligent and advanced, and form the great and powerful nations of the earth. 4. The Melanochroi, or dark whites, including those with dark hair and eyes, and generally long skulls ; such are the Iberians, and the dark-complexioned though white people of western Asia, Persia, etc. Besides these differ- ences, that form the characteristics of races, there are oth- 368 BACKBONED ANIMALS. ers. Thus, the form of the skull differs greatly, even among individuals. The Australians and Africans are prognathous, or forward-jawed, while the Europeans are orthognathous, or upright-jawed. When the skull is high and narrow, they are said to be dolichocephalic, or “long- headed.” Others are termed brachycephalic, or “ short- headed,” while a medium is called mesocephalic, or middle- headed. Early Man.—Man was contemporaneous with the cave-bear, the mammoth, and other huge animals that lived during the Post-tertiary period. Fossil remains and implements have been found in Quaternary deposits. The oldest remains found in America, on the authority of Pro- fessor Whitney, is a human cranium taken from a shaft one hundred and fifty feet deep in Calaveras County, Cali- fornia. It was imbedded in the gold-drift, and covered with five successive overflows of lava. Another fragment of a human skull was found imbedded one hundred and eighty feet below Table Mountain, associated with bones of the mastodon. According to Professor Whitney, these finds date to the Pliocene time of geology, a time prior to the volcanic eruptions that spread their lava over a large portion of the State. Specimens for Study.—The suggestions for the prepara- tion of skeletons, on page 291, may be applied to mam- mals also. Works on Man for further reference. ‘‘ Hand-Book of Human and Comparative Histology,” S. Stricker ; “ Human Physiology,” J. C. Dalton ; ‘Elementary Lessons in Physi- ology,”” Huxley ; ‘‘ Natural History of Man,” Von J. F. Blumenbach ; Lyell’s “ Antiquity of Man”; F. Cushing, “ My Adventures in Zuiii,” in the “Century,” February, 1883 ; “ The Human Body,” Martin ; “ Anthropclogy,” Tylor; ‘“‘The Essentials of Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene,” R. S. Tracy. QUESTIONS. BRANCH I.—1. What is a cell? 2. Mention some differences be- tween animals and plants. 3. What are the characteristics of the sim- plest animals? 4. Describe a moner; its method of eating. 5. What isa nucleus? 6. Define a contracting vesicle. 7. Define an amceba. 8. Describe a shelled amceba. g. What isa radiolarian? tro, What great work do these forms accomplish? 11. Define a gregarine. 12. In what are they remarkable? 13. Define the infusorians. 14. How _ do they differ from the preceding forms? 15. What isacilium? 16. Define a monad. 17. What is a compound monad? 18, How does the acienta differ from the monad? 19. What are the characteristics of the suctorians? 20. Describe the bell animalcules. 21. What is meant by budding? BrancH II.—t1. Describe the structure of a sponge. 2. What are spicules? 3. How does a sponge eat? 4. Describe the different uses of the large and small pores. 5. Explain the development of the sponge. 6. Define a lime-sponge. 7. Give examples of other kinds. 8. How do they benefit man ? BrANCH III.—1. What are the general characteristics of ccelente- rates? 2. Define a hydra; show the use of its arms. 3. What is a lasso-cell? 4. Describe a lime-secreting hydroid. 5. What is meant by alternate generations? 6. Give an example. 7. How do the dis- cophores differ from hydroid medusze? 8. Where are the eyes in a jelly- fish? 9g. Describe the development of an aurelia. 10. Explain the use of the water vascular system. 11. Describe the physalia. 12. How does it secure prey? 13. Define asea-anemone. 14. What isasepta? I5. Describe the development of sea-anemones. 16. How docorals differ from anemones? 17. About how fast does coralgrow? 18. Are corals found out of the tropics? Give example. I9. What isa coral reef, and how formed? 20. What is an atoll? 21. Of what value is coral to man? Anemones? 22. What isa gorgonia? 23. Describe a sea-fan. 24. What are the general characteristics of the comb-bearers? 370 QUESTIONS. BRANCH IV.—1. What are the general characteristics of echino- derms? 2. What is a pedicellaria? How used? 3. Describe the - water vascular system, and its use. 4. What is a crinoid? 4. Define an echinus. 6. How does it differ from star-fishes? 7. What is a madreporic plate? 8. Define a holothurian. 9. How do they breathe? 10. What is the position of the madreporic | 11. Describe the development of holothurians. BRANCH V.—1. What are the general characteristics of worms? 2. Describe a planarian worm. 3. Give its life-history from the egg to adult. 4. What fable is there associated with the Gorgius aquaticus? 5. Define a rotifer. 6. Why are they termed wheeled? 7. What are the polyzoans? 8 In what do they differ from other worms? 9g. De- fine a brachiopod. 10. Give examples. 11. Describe a leech. f2. What peculiarity is there about their teeth? 13. Describe the eggs and habits of young. 14. Describe an earth-worm. 15. How does it crawl, eat, dig, etc.? 16. For what are they valued by man? 17. De- scribe a marine worm. 18. What do you conceive to be the use of the luminous property in worms? Ig. Give examples of luminous forms, BRANCH VI.—1. What are the general characteristics of mollusks ? 2. Describe the parts of a clam-shel!l. 3. Describe the internal organs. 4. How does the oyster breathe? 5. Describe the nervous system. 6. Where are the eyes, and ears? 7. How is the foot of clams used? §&. How does the pecten move? g. What are the habits of the pholas? 10. Define a univalve. 11. Mention a surface shell. 12. What is an oper- culum? 13. Define the heteropoda. 14. Define an air-breathing gas- teropod. 15. Describe the land-slugs. 16. What peculiar secretion have they? 17. Describe the eyes of the onchidium. 18. What are the highest forms of mollusks? 1g. Describe the nautilus. 20. Can it leave its shell? 21. Has it an ink-bag? 22. What peculiarity is there about its eye? 23. Describe a squid. 24. How does it differ from the preceding forms? 25. Howis the siphon used? Theink? 26. How is the body supported? 27. Describe the octopus. 28. How does the argonaut differ from the nautilus? What fable is there about them? 29. Where and how are the eggs placed ? BRANCH VII.--1. Define the arthropoda. 2. What are the dis- tinctive characteristics of crustaceans? 3. Describe the skeleton of the cray-fish. 4. How does it breathe? 5. How is molting accomplished ? 6. Describe the metamorphosis of a crab; mention an exception. 7. How are the eggs carried? 8. Describe the growth of a barnacle. g. What are cirri? 10, Mention some peculiarity about the brine-. shrimp. 11. What crustaceans secrete a bivalve shell? 12. Define the decapods. 13. How do the hermits differ from preceding forms ? QUESTIONS. a7 14. Describe the oyster, land, and king crabs. 15. What are the general characteristics of insects? 16. Describe the skeleton; of what is it composed? 17. Describe the internal organs. 18. How do insects breathe? 19. Describe the metamorphosis of an insect. 20. Give an example of an incomplete metamorphosis. 21. How does the peripa- tus defend itself? 22. Define the myriapoda; where are the poison- glands? 23. Describe the scorpions. Spiders. 24. How is the silk produced? 25. Define the hexapoda, and give examples. 26. Define the orthoptera. 27. Define the hermoptera, and give examples. 28. De- scribe the metamorphosis of the froth insect. 29. Mention some insects that are particularly valuable to man. 30. Define the coleoptera. 31. How does the diving-beetle cling? 32. Define the diptera. 33. De- scribe the metamorphosis of a fly. 34. What are the characteristics of the butterflies? 35. How do they differ from moths ? 36. Define the hymenoptera. 37. How would you preserve an insect for study? BrancH VIII.—1. What are the general characteristics of as- cidians? 2. How do they breathe, eat, move? 3. Give example of compound ascidian. 4. Describe the salpa and appendicularia. 5. How are they allied to vertebrates ? BrANcH IX.—1. Define a vertebrate? 2. Define the fishes. 3. Describe the parts of the skeleton. 4. How do the fins compare with the limbs of other forms? 5. Why are fishes cold-blooded? 6. What is the use of the air-bladder? 7. Describe the manner of breath- ing. 8. Describe the internal organs. 9. Do fishes ever leave the water? Give examples. 10. What is meant by interspinous bones? 11. What is meant by a cartilaginous fish? a bony one? 12. What is meant by a pouched-gilled fish? 13. Describe the manner of breath- ing in the lung-fishes. 14. In the amphibious fishes. BATRACHIANS.—I. Define the class batrachia? Give examples. 2. How does the skeleton differ from that of other vertebrates? 3. How do they breathe? 4 Describe the circulation. 5. Describe the de- velopment. 6. What peculiarity is there about the axolotl? 7. How does a siren differ from a frog ? REPTILES.—1. What are the general characteristics of true rep- tiles? 2. In what do they resemble the birds? 3. How do they dif- fer from the batrachians? 4. Is the blood cold? 5. Describe the manner of development. 6. Describe the moulting process of snakes. 7. Describe the color-changes of reptiles. 8. How do the teeth of crocodiles and snakes differ? 9. Are crocodiles found in this country ? Where? and what are their habits ? Birps.—t. Define the birds. 2. How do they differ from the reptiles ? 3. What modification of the limbs is observed? 4. Describe the head, 372 QUESTIONS. wings, legs. 5. How do they roost when asleep? 6. How does the circulation differ from that of reptiles? 7. Why are they warm- blooded? 8. How do they breathe? 9. How are birds covered? Io. Describe a feather. 11. Describe the development of birds. 12. What are the peculiarities of lizard-tailed birds? 13. Describe the toothed birds. 14. What is meant by flat-breasted birds? Give an example. 15. Define a keel-breasted bird, and give examples. MAMMALS.—I. What is meant by a mammal? 2. How is it distinguished from the birds? reptiles? 3. Describe the skull. 4, What is the use of the backbone? the ribs? tail? 5. Describe the limbs and their uses. 6. Describe the digestive process. 7. How does it differ from that of birds? 8. Describe the circulation of blood. Q. Is there anything about the blood-corpuscles that reminds you of the amoeba? 10. Describe the process of breathing. 11. How does it differ from that of birds? of reptiles, fishes, insects? 12. What are the uses of the nervous system? Designate them. 13. Define the develop- ment of a mammal. 14. What are the great groups of mammals? 15. Define the monotremes. 16. In what do they resemble the rep- tiles? 17. How does their development differ from that of other mammals? 48. What are the general characteristics of marsupials? tg. What is a placental mammal? 20. Define the sirenians. 21. What are the general characteristics of whales? 22. Do they spout water? 23. How is whalebone used? 24. Define the insectivora. 25. How do their teeth differ from those of other forms? 26. Define the bats. 27. How do they pass the winter? 28. How is the wing- membrane supported? 29. What organs for clinging have some bats besides claws? 30. Define a rodent. Give examples. 31. Does the porcupine throw its quills? 32. Define the ungulata. 33. Describe the hyrax. 34. What are the characteristics of elephants? 35. De- scribe the tapirs, rhinoceroses, horses. 36. How do the hippopota- mus, peccary, etc., differ from them? 37. Define a ruminant. 38. Describe the process of digestion. 39. How are the horns of deer reproduced? 40. Is there an exception to their casting? 41. What deer has long canine teeth? 42. How do the bovide differ from the deer family? Give examples. 43. Define the carnivora. 44. How do bears often pass the winter? 45. How do the seals differ from other carnivora? 46. Define the primates. 47. How may the monk- eys be grouped? 48. What are the characteristics of the higher apes? 49. Into what general groups is the human race divided? Give ex- amples. Gt.Ors: Sch. R- ¥.. Abdomen. (Latin, aédo, I conceal.) In mammals, that portion of the body-cavity which is separated from the thorax or chest by the diaphragm. Acalephz. (Greek, akalephe, a nettle.) Jelly-fishes or sea-nettles that sting. Acephalous. (Greek, a, without ; 2ephale, the head.) Without a dis- tinct head, as the Lamelibranchiata. Actinozoa. (Greek, a4tis, a ray; 206m, animal.) A class of Celen- terata. Albumen. (Latin, a/bus, white.) Resembling the white of an egg. Alveolus. A hollow cavity forming a socket for the teeth. Anchylosis. The growing together of two bones to prevent motion. Ameeba. (Greek, amotbe, a change.) One of the Rhizopods that is continually changing its shape. Amphibia. (Greek, amphi, both ; dos, life.) A class of vertebrates, breathing in water while young and in air when mature. The term amphibious is applied to fishes, mollusks, etc., that are capable of changing the nature of their respiration at will. Antenne. (Latin, azfenna, the yard of aship.) The jointed append- ages on the heads of insects, crabs, etc. Auricle. (Diminutive of auris, an ear.) The cavity of the heart that receives the blood and transmits it to the ventricle. Asexual. A term applied to animals, as Aphis, page 123, in which the reproductive organs are imperfect, and the young are produced by budding. Artiodactyla. (Greek, avtios, even ; daktulos, finger or toe.) Even- toed ungulates. Bivalve. (Latin, 4s, twice ; valve, folding-doors.) Shells with two valves. Branchiz. (Greek, dvanchie, gills.) Breathing-organs of fishes, ete. 374 GLOSSARY. Byssus. (Greek, dussos, flax.) Silk anchor-threads of the mussel, etc. Cilia. (Latin, cz/i«m,an eyelash.) Hair-like organs of Infusoria. Ceelenterata. (Greek, Zozlos, hollow ; ezteron, an intestine.) Didelphia. (Greek, dis, twice; delphus, the womb.) The marsupials. Echinodermata. (Greek, echizos, a hedgehog; derma, skin.) The star-fishes, etc. Elytra. (Greek, elytron, sheath.) Horny wing-covers of beetles. Fauna. (Latin, few, rural gods.) The native animals of a certain locality. Foraminifera. (Latin, foramen, a hole; fero, I bear.) Rhizopods with perforated shells. Gregarinida. (Latin, gvex, a flock.) A class of Protozoans, Monodelphia. (Greek, #onos, single ; delphus, womb.) The division including all the higher orders of mammalia. Myriapoda. (Greek, murtos, ten thousand ; fous, a foot.) Centi- pedes, etc. Monotremata. (Greek, monos, single ; trema, an opening.) An order of mammalia in which the intestinal, urinary, and genital organs open into a common cloaca. Oviparous. (Latin, ovum, an egg ; parto, I bring forth.) Applied to animals which produce eggs instead of living young. Ovipositor. (Latin, ovum, an egg; fono,I place.) In insects an organ by which eggs are deposited in wood, etc. Ovoviviparous. (Latin, ovum, an egg; vivo, I live; pazvo, I bring forth.) A term applied to animals which retain the eggs within their bodies until they are hatched. Pelagic. Living on the high seas in mid-ocean. Perissodactyla. (Greek, pervéssos, uneven ; dakiulos, finger.) Uneven- toed ungulates. Protoplasm. (Greek, frotos, first; plasma, I mold.) The primitive basis of organic tissue. Pseudopodia. (Greek, pseudos, false ; Zo%s, feet.) Temporary foot- like processes of Protozoans. Rotifer. (Latin, vofa, a wheel ; fevo, I bear.) A class of worms. Spiracle. (Latin, spiro, to breathe.) The breathing-pores of insects. Septa. (Latin, partitions.) Applied to the wails of the chambers of the Nautilus, etc. Spicula. (Latin, spiculum, a point.) Applied to the pointed bodies found in sponges. Trachea. (Greek, ¢vacheia, the windpipe.) The tube which con- nects the lungs with the mouth. Cra “hed er GLOSSARY. 275 Tunicata. (Latin, ¢uzzca,a cloak.) A branch of animals covered with a leathery coat or case. Ungulata. (Latin, wzgzla,a hoof.) The hoofed animals. Univalve. (Latin, wzzs, one; valve, folding-doors.) A shell com- posed of a single piece. Ventral. (Latin, verter, the stomach.) Belonging to the lower sur- face of the body. Ventricle. (Latin, venter.) One of the cavities of the heart that receives the blood from the auricle. Vacuole. (Latin, vacwzs, empty.) Cavities in the bedies of Proto- zoans. Viviparous. (Latin, v2vzs, alive ; and fario, I bring forth.) Applied to animals which produce their young alive. SSS ” ae . den DEX AARD-VARK, 305. Acara, 185. Acarina, 104. Acipenser, 166. Actinia, 21. Acienta, 9. Actinozoa, 21. Adder, 221. fEpiornis, 235. Ai, 304. Albatross, 244. Alca impennis, 240. Alligator, 222. Alytes, 201. Ambergris, 310. Amblyopsis spelzeus, 171. Amblyornis, 284. Amblyrhynckus, 214. Amblystoma, 198. Ameeba, 6. Ampelis, 287. Amphibia, 195. Amphioxus, I5I. Amphisbena, 218. Amphiuma, 108. Anabas, 184. Anableps, 184. Anas, 248. Angler, I9f. Anguilla, 168. Animalcule, bell, ro. Annulata, 47. Anolis, 214. Ant, 137. Ant-eater, 304. spiny, 298. Antedon, 35. Antelope, prong-horn, 338. | Antennarius, 18g. nest of, Igo. Anthropoidea, 358. Anura, 200. Ape, 359. Aphis, 124. Aphis-lion, 114. Aphodes, 168. Appendicularia, 14g. Apteryx, 234. Apus, 84. Arachnida, 104. Araneina, 106. Archzopteryx, 232. Architeuthis, 71. Ardea, 256. Argali, 336. Arges, 170. Argonauta argo, 73. Argyropelacus, 175. Arius, 169. Armadillo, 305. Arthropoda, 76. Artiodactyla, 331. Ascetta, I2. Ascidians, 145. Aspredo, 169. Ass, 330. Asterias, 33, 36. Asteroidea, 36. Ateles, 359. Atoll, 27. Attus, III. Auk, 240. Aurelia, 18. Australian lung-fish, 167. Axolotl, 198. Aye-aye, 356. 378 Baboon, 359. Badger, 346. Baleeniceps, 255. Bandicoot. 301. Barnacle, 81. Bass, 179. Bat, 316. Batrachia, 195. Bear, 344. Beaver, 322. Bee, 141. Beetles, 124. Big-horn, 336. Bird of Paradise 281. Birds, 225. eggs, 232. feathers, 230. migration of, 293 songs of, 232. Birgos, 92. Bison, 336. Bittern, 257. Blackbird, 282. Blenny, 186. Blind-fish, 171. Bluebird, 290. Boar, 331. Bobolink, 283. Bos, 339. Box-fish, 192. Brachiopoda, 46. Brarchiopoda, 82. Branchipus, 84. Branta, 249. Brush-turkey, 260 Bubo, 268. Bufo, 201. Bug, 120. Bulimus, 66. Bustard, 257. Butcher-bird, 289. Butterfly, 134. Buzzard, 264. Byssus, 58. Caddis-worm, 173. Callichthys, 169. Callorhynchus, 165. Camel, 340. Cancer pagurus, I. Canis, 350. Capybara, 318. Carcharias, 161: teenporn See INDEX. Caribou, 333. Carinate, 237. Carnivora, 342. Carp, I71. Cassowary, 236. Cat, 351- Catfish, 169. Cebus, 358. Cell, 3.- Centipede, 702. Cephalopoda, 69. Cephalopterus, 165. Ceradotus, 167. Cercaria, 43. Cervus, 331. Cetacea, 309. Chalk, 7. Chameleon, 212. Chelifer, 105. Chelonia, 218. Chiasmodus, 188. Chilognatha, 103. Chilopoda, 103. Chimera, 165. Chimpanzee, 361. Chinch-bug, 121. Chipmunk, 320. Chiromys, 356. Chiroptera, 315. Chromis, 179. Cicada, 122: _Cirripedia, 81 Clam, £2. Clepsine, 47. Clio, 69. Cleodora, 69. Clupea, 172. Coati, 344. Cobra de capello, 209. Cochineal insect, 123. Cod, 187. Ceecilia, 200. Ccelenterates, 15. Coleoptera, 124. Comb-bearers, 31. Condor, 264. | Condylura, 313. Congo snake, 198. Copperhead, 207. Corallium rubrum, 29. Coral polyps, 23. reefs, 26. Cormorant, 241. Coryphena, I8I. Cougar, 352. Cow, sea, 307. Cowry, 63. Coyoté, 350. Crabs, gI. Cray-fish, 89. Crane, 251. Cranchia, 71. Cricket, IIg. Crinoidea, 35. Crocodilia, 222. Crow, 280. Crustacea, 76. Ctenophora, 31. Cuckoo, 271. Curassow, 261. Curlew, 251. Cuttle-fish bone, 72. Cyclops, 82. Cyprzea moneta, 63. Cyprinus, I7I. ace, 171. Daphnia, 84. Dasypus, 305. Decapoda, 86. Deer, 331. Virginian, 333. Dendreeca, 293. Dentalium, 68. Devil-fish, 72. Dibranchiata, 70. - Dicotyles, 331. Didelphidz, 299. Didus, 263. Dinornis, 235. Diomedea, 244. Dipnoi, 167. Diptera, 126. Discophora, 17. Dodo, 263. Dog, 298. Dog-fish, 160. Dolphin, 181. Doris, 65. Dove, 262. Dragon-fly, 112. Dromia, 80. Drum-fish, 129. Duck-bill, 298. Duck, 248. Dugong, 308. — —— ey INDEX. 370 Eagle, 266. Earth-worm, 48. Echeneis, 178. Echidna, 298. Echinodermata, 33. Echinoidea, 38. Echinus, 38. Edentata, 303. Fel, 168. Elaps, 209. Elasmobranchii, 158. Bilater, 124. - Elephant, 327. Elk, 334. Emeu, 236. Entomostraca, &2. Eohippus, 330. Eolis, 65. Epeira, 110. Equus, 329. Ermine, 349. Esox, 176. Estheria, 91. Euplectella, 13. Eupomotis, 179. Eurypharynx, 175. Euteenia, 211. Falcon, 266. Feather, 231. Felis, 351. Fierasfer, 188. Finch, 285. _ Fisher, 348. Fishes, 154. bony, 168. viviparous, 158. luminous, 173. Fissipedia, 344. Flagellata, 8. Flamingo, 250. Flat-worms, 43. Flea, 128. Flounder, 188. Fluke-worms, 43. Fly-catcher, 279. Fly, 126. Flying-fish, 176. Foraminifera, 6. Fox, 349. Frigate-bird, 247. Frog, 204. Fungia, 24. 380 INDEX. Gadus, 187. Helocephali, 165. Galeopithecus, 315. Hemiptera, 120. Gall-fly, 136. | Hermit-crab, go, gI. Galline, 257. Heron, 256. Gallinule, 252. Hermiaster, 39. Gallus, 257. Herring, 172. Gannet, 246. Hexapoda. III. Ganoidei, 166. Hinney, 330. Gar, alligator, 168. Hibernation, 134, 167, 202, 222. Gar, silver, 166, 176. Hippocampus, IgI. Gardner-bird, 284. - Hippopotamus, 331. Gare-fowl, 240. Histiophorus, 182. Garpike, 168. Holothuroidea, 3g. Gasteropoda, 60. Homo, 364. Gasterosteus, 177. Hornbill, 274. Gecko, 214. Horns, 333. Genetta, 351. | Horn-tail, 136. Gibbon, 360. Horse, 330. Gila monster, 216, 217. Horse-shoe crab, 95. Giraffe, 340. House-fly, 126. Glass-snake, 216. Humming-bird, 108, 274. Glow-worm, I24. Hydra, 15. Glutton, 348. Hydrozoa, 15. Goat, mountain, 337. | Hyla, 202. Goose-barnacle, 82. Hylobates, 102. Gordius aquaticus, 44. Hymenoptera, 136. Gorgonia flabellum, 30. Hytax: 326: Gorilla, 360-2. | Gourami, 185. Ianthina, 62. Grapsus, 94. Ichneumon-fly, 137. Grasshopper, 118. Tdotza, 85. Grebe, 242. Idyia, 31. Gregarina gigantea, 7. Iguana, 213. Gregarinida, 7. Infusoria, 7. Grilse, 172. Insectivora, 312. Grouse, 258. Insects, 97. Guan, 252. Ipnops, 173. © Guillemot, 240. Guinea-hen, 259. Jager, 245. Gull, 228, 244. Gulo, 348. Kallima, 135. Gymnotus, 170. Kangaroo, 301. — Katydid, 119. Haddock, 188. Killer, 310. Heemulon, 179. Kincajou, 344. Hag-fish, 152. ~ King-crab, 95. Hake, 188. King-fisher, 272. Haliotis, 61. Kiwi-kiwi, 234. Harpodon, 173. Hare, 317. Labyrinthici, 184. Helix, 66. Lacertilia, 212. Hell-bender, 197. Lamellibranchiata, 51. Heloderma, 216, 217. Lamp-fish, 173. INDEX. 381 Lampreys, 153. Marsupialia, 299. Lamp-shells, 46. Marten, 348. Lancelet, 151. Marine-worm, 49. Lark, 279. Mastodon, 327. Lasso-cell, 22. May-fly, 112. Leech, 47. Megapodius, 261, land, 47. Menhaden, 172. Lemming, 324. Menopoma, 197. Lemur, 356. Mephitis, 346. Lepidoptera, 130. Mesohippus, 339. Lepidosiren, 167. Metazoa, 2. Lepidosteus, 168. Mias, 361. Leptocardii, 151. Millepedes, 103. Lepus, 317. Millepora, 16. Lernea, 83. Mimetes, 361. Limneius, 65. Mink, 349. Limulus moluccanus, 95. Minnow, 156. Lirgula, 46. Miohippus, 330. Lizards, 212. Mite, 104. horned, 213. Moa, 235. Llama, 342. Mocking-bird, 291. Lobster, 87, 88. Mola, 193. Locust, II9. Mole, 313. Loon, 242. Mollusca, 51. Lophius, tgI. Mollymauk, 244. Lori, 357 Monad, 8. Lump-fish, 186. Moner, 4. Lung-fish, 167. Monkey, 355. Lutra, 347. Monocaulus, 17. Lycosa, 106. Monodon, 3ITf. Lynx, 352. Monotremes, 297. Lyre-bird, 279. Moose, 334. Mosquito, 129. Macacus, 359. Mother Carey’s chickens, 243. Mackerel, 181. Moths, 130. Macrura, 86. . Mound-bird, 260, 261. Madreporic plate, 34. Mouse, 319. Madreporaria, 24. Mouse-birds, 281. Meeandrina, convexa, 25. Mud-dauber, 140, Malapterus, 170. Mule, 330. Malacopoda, 102. Mus, 319. Maleo, 261. Musk-rat, 324. Mammalia, 294. Musk-sheep, 337. Mammoth, 327. Mussel, 56. Man, 364. Mustela, 346. difference from apes, 364. Muzir, 330. races of, 364. Mygale, 1c7, 108. Manatee, 307. Myodes, 324. Steller’s, 307. Myriopeda, 102. Manis, 307. Myrmecobius, 301. Mantis, 116. Myrmeleon, 114. Marmoset, 358. Mytilus edulis, 56. ~ Marsipobranchii, 152. Myxine, 152. 382 Narwhal, 310. Nasua, 344. Nauplius, 80. Nautilus, 69. Nebalia, 84. Necturus, 197. Nematelminthes, 44. Nematognathi, 169. Nephila, 109. Nereis virens, 49. Neuroptera, 112. Newt, Ig9. Night-hawk, 296. Noctiluca, 8. Nototrema, 203. Nucleus, I. Nyctea, 268. Octopus, 72. Ocypoda, 94. Odontornithes, 233. Onchidium, 68. Ophiacantha, 36. Ophidia, 205. Opossum, 299. Orang, 360. Orca, 310. Oriole, 282. Ornithodelphia, 297. Ornithorhynchus, 298. Orohippus, 330. Orthoptera, I16. Osprey, 267. Ostrich, African, 235. South American, 235. Otter, 347. Ovibos, 336. Ovipositor, 98. Ovis, 339. Owl, 268. Ox, 339. Ox-biter, 282. Oyster, 54. Palapteryx, 235. Pangolin, 306. Panther, 352. Paper-nautilus, 70. Paradisea, 280. Paramecium, 9. Parr 272. Parrot, 268. Partridge, 257. INDEX. Pauropoda, 103. Peceary, 33% Pecten, 54. Pedicellaria, 38. Pediculati, 189. Pedipaipi, 105. Pekan, 348. Pelican, 246. Pennatula, 30. Pentacrinus caput-medusa, 35. Pentacta, 40. : Perca, 155. Perch, 179; nest of, 179. Peripatus, 102. Perissodactyla, 328. Periophthalmus, 68, 186, and front- ispiece. Petaurus, 246. ‘} Petrel 243: Petromyzon, 153. Phasma, II7. Philohela, 252. Phocidz, 342. Phcenicopterus, 250. Pholas, 58. Phosphorescence, 31, 92, 8, 124, 32, 147, 67. Phyllocarida, 84. Physalia, 20. Pig, 331. Pigeon, wild, 262. — Pilot-fish, 181. Pinnipedia, 342. Pinnotheres, 93. Pipe-fish, IgI. Pisces, 154. Plagiostomi, 159. Planarian worms, 43. Plant-louse, 123. Platyhelminthes, 43. Plectognathi, 192. Pleurobrachia, 31. Plover, 251. Podiceps, 242. Podocerus, 85. Podura, 112. Polyodon folium, 166. Polypterus, 167. Polyzoa, 45. Porcupine, 319. Porcupine-fish, 193. Porifera, II. Porites, 24. - Porpoise, 211. Porpita, 21. Portuguese man-of-war, 20. Prairie-dog, 321. Prawn, 86. Primates, 355. Pristis, 163. Proboscidea, 326. Prosimiz, 356. Proteus, 179, 196. Protozoa, 4. Ptarmigan, 259. Pterygotus, 96. Puffin, 241. Pulmonata, 65. Puma, 352. Pygopodes, 239. Pyrosoma, 147. Python, 209. Quail, 258. Rabbit, 317. ~ Raccoon, 344. Radiolaria, 6. Rail, 252. Rana, 204. Rangifer, 333. Rat, 323. Ratitz, 234. Rattlesnake, 207. Rays, 163. Redia, 44. Reindeer, 333. Remora, 178. Reptilia, 204. Rhea, 235. Rhinichthys, 171. Rhinoceros, 328. Rhinodon, 165. Rhizopoda, 5. Rhynchocephalia, 222. Rhytina, 307. Ribbon-fish, 178. Robin, 291. Rodentia, 317. Rotalia, 6. Rotifers, 45. Round-worms, 44. Ruff, 253. Ruminantia, 331. INDEX. 383 Sable, 347. Salamander, 198. Salmon, 172. Salpa, 148. Sandpiper, 254. Sand-wasp, I